8.

Atom and atom nucleus structure

The atom is a basic unit of matter. The concept of an atom, as an integral component of matter was first
proposed by early Indian and Greek philosophers. The name “atom” (is a Greek word and means indivisible)
was proposed by Democritus, who suggested that any material is composed of small size, identical particles
being in constant movement. But this theory was ignored and forgotten for about 2000 years. By Aristotle,
Matter is made up of 4 main elements (earth, water, air, fire). The concept about the matter, as an integral
discrete unit, which dominated in the world for thousand years, was made up not on basis experimental
(empiric) observation, but on basis of abstract philosophical discussions.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, chemists provided a physical basis for this idea by showing that certain
substances could not be further broken down by chemical methods. In 1803 an English scientist Jon Dalton
proposed, that each element is composed of a single unique type of atoms and these atoms connect each other
by creating various chemical compounds. In 1887 J. Thompson discovered universal component of all atoms
– electron. Thomson postulated that the low mass, negatively-charged electrons were distributed throughout
the atom, possibly rotating in rings, with their charge balanced by the presence of a uniform sea of positive
charge. This later became known as the “plum pudding” model. During the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, physicists discovered subatomic components and structure inside the atom, thereby demonstrating
that the atom was divisible. The principles of quantum mechanics were used to successfully model the atom.
In 1909 Rutherford investigated the scattering of alpha particles from thin gold foils (2000 atoms thick).
Alpha particles are helium nuclei emitted from radioactive isotopes like radium, which was discovered by M.
Curie in 1898.
Rutherford showed that most of these alpha particles freely passed the foil and only a small fraction of
them (about 1 in 8000) particles bounded back from the foil by a larger angle than it was previously
predicted on basis of Thompson model.

According to the result of Rutherford’s experiment, positive charge of gold heavy atom and its main
mass are concentrated in a small volume (nucleus) at the center of an atom (Rutherford’s model of an atom).
Planetary model of Rutherford’s atom based on classical physics. a – atom mass and positive charge is
concentrated in small volume (nucleus); electrons located around atom nucleus; atomic electron, orbiting a
central positive nucleus, executes a roughly circular orbit. b – electron constantly being accelerated and,
because it is charged, it will emit electromagnetic radiation – will continue to lose energy until all the
electron orbits have collapsed into a very small nucleus (the classical prediction of atomic collapse to nuclear
dimensions is simply wrong).
The main postulates of Rutherford’s atom model are:
– Atom mass and positive charge is concentrated in small volume (nucleus).
– An atom is electrically neutral; positive charge of atomic nucleus is balanced by negative charge of
surrounding electrons; electric charge of a nucleus is discrete (is multiple of electron charge e =1.6 x 10 -19C).
– Electrons located around atom nucleus, the number of electrons in atom equals the amount of protons
in atomic nucleus; the mass of electrons is much smaller than the mass of atom nucleus.
According to Rutherford’s model, an atom is microscopic solar system with the nucleus as the sun and
the electrons as a planet (Fig. 216a, b). The key difference, however, is the “planetary” elements carry a
significant electrical charge in comparison with their mass, ( = 1,759 1017 ). From the classical vew we
would say the atomic electron, orbiting a central positive nucleus, executes a roughly circular orbit. It is
therefore constantly being accelerated and, because it is charged, it will emit electromagnetic radiation. Thus
classically all atoms will continue to lose energy until all the electron orbits have collapsed into a very small
nucleus. Since a typical atomic radius is ten million times larger than its nucleus, the classical prediction of
atomic collapse to nuclear dimensions is simply wrong.
The next stage of the development of entomic model is related to the name of Niles Bohr.
In 1913, Niles Bohr suggested that the electrons were confined into clearly defined discrete orbits, and
could jump between them only due to emission of portion of energy (quantum) (at moving into a lower orbit)
and absorption (at moving into a higher orbit) (Fig. 216). In 1922 Nils Bohr was awarded Nobel Prize for the
discovery of atom structure and its emission.
Fig. 216. Bohr’s atom model

Bohr presented the first quantum theory of the atom. The theory retained the classical ideas of force and
definite particle position but included a new assumption, that angular momentum of the orbiting atomic
electron could have only whole multiples of h, Planck’s constant (Fig. 216). According to Bohr’s theory, in
atomic planetary system an electron with a mass me and charge –e, executing a circular orbit with an orbital
speed V, around a small heavy positively charged nucleus having a charge +Ze.
Bohr’s postulates:
I. Electrons can only be in certain, permitted stationary condition. Each stationary condition has its
certain energy and an electron does not emit radiation when it is in a stationary condition.
II. An atom can lose or intake energy only by transition from one stationary state into another. This
requires the following:
- Emitted energy is equal to the difference of energy of two stationary states:

ΔE = En2- En1

where n1 and n2 are quantum numbers;

ΔE = hν

where ν – is frequency of emission, h is Plank’s constant (h = 6.625 10-34 ).

III. Electron angular momentum in a stationary orbit could be a multiple of
Plank’s constant:

me vr = nħ n =1, 2, 3...

where:
me – is mass of electron, v – is orbital motion velocity. R is orbit radius ħ = .
The great importance of Bohr’s atom model is in introduction of the concept of discreteness of the
energy of electrons. According to an electron emits or absorbs energy photon when transits from one stable
energetic level onto the other (Fig. 217). Bohr Photon energy is discrete. It means that when excited atom
returns to stationary state, energy quantum is emitted.
 Fig. 217. Orbital electrons frequencies according N. Bohr

According to Bohr’s theory, total energy of atom orbital electron is equal to sum of positive kinetic
energy and negative potential energy that is inversely proportional to the distance between electron and
atomic nucleus. This is the minimal energy that is required to knock out the electron from atom.

Photon energy Ephoton = E2 –E1 = hν (h is Plank’s constant, ν – frequency of emission)

Total energy of an electron in n – orbital equals:

En = Ek + Ep

Thus

En = –

where:
e is electron charge, Z is atomic number, r0 is orbiy radius. Accorfing to this formula total energy of am
electron is negative. In order to release an electron from orbital requires 13,6 eV. Whem electron’s energy
approaches zero (n ) the energy transition (ΔE) between energetic levels is sharply decreased.
According to Bohr’s theory, along with an increase in atomic number (Z) (Li, C, O, He etc.) electron
energy becomes more negative. Thus electrons binding to a heavy atomic nucleus become more strength.
The main purpose of the Bohr model was to account frequencies of emission specters of various atoms.
When continuous electromagnetic energy specter (white light) passes the air (hydrogen air) or plasma,
photons are absorbed by electrons, making the photons change their energetic level. An excited electron
spontaneously emits energy (certain-frequency photon) and returns to a low energetic level. Thus, an atom
executes a role of a filter and creates the series of dark absorbed lines (and/or various colors – frequency
emission lines).
Each element is characterized by its own electromagnetic spectrum of emission. Emission spectrum
depends on nucleus charge, structure of electrons’ energetic levels and other factors that create combination
of certain spectral lines in emission spectrum. Electromagnetic spectrum of the given atom is composed of
certain discrete frequency lines. It reflects the electronic structure of an atom and is strongly different each
element. On basis of Bohr’s atomic model firs was calculated quantum frequency of the energy emitted by
hydrogen atom.
Despite its progressive importance, Bohr’s atomic model has its advantages. In this model Bohr used
rules of classical mechanics in order to calculate radius of electron’s orbitals and energies and did not take
into account interaction between orbital electrons themselves, having the great role in the structure of multi
electron atoms. Thus, Bohr’s atomic theory was justified for hydrogen but not for other multielectron atoms.
 8.1 Modern quantum-mechanical model of the atom
The important role on the theoty of the structure of atoms belongs to quantum mechanics. Quantum
mechanics is based on the theory of discrete nature of an atom and dual wave-corpuscular nature of electrons
and light photons.
The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. The
forces provide stabilization of electrons in range of electrostatic potential in case of small size nuclei, which
means that an external source of energy is needed for the release electron. The closer the electron is to the
nucleus the stronger is atractive force.
In 1924 Louis de Broglie, using Einstein and Plank’s equations showed, that small size elementary
particles have corpuscular as well as wave properties; Wave length:

λ= (104)

where mv is particle impulse moment, λ is wave length.

In 1926 Erwin Schrödinger, using Louis de Broglie's proposal that particles behave to an extent like
waves, suggested that electron, like other elementary particles, has dual - corpuscular and wave properties.
He described the electrons as three-dimensional wave forms (electron cloud), rather than point particles.
Electron cloud is a region inside the potential field, where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional
standing wave (standing wave – also known as a stationary wave – is a wave that remains in a constant
position).
This condition is determined by atomic orbital (mathematical function, defining the probability of
electron location at a certain point).
De Broglie's and Schrödinger’s hypothesis of the electrons dual properties was confirmed in
experiments with crystals, where during the passage of electrons revealed effects similar to the wave
diffraction. Wave properties of electrons are used in electron microscopy.
Discrete set of orbitals around the atomic nucleus forms a very stable structure. Orbitals differ from each
other by size, form and orientation.
Due to wave nature of electron, it is impossible to define with absolute precision, at the same time, both
the position and the momentum of an electron. This principle is known as uncertainty principle
(Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle).
According to this principle it is impossible to simultaneously know both the position and momentum of
electrons mv; we know the energy of electrons but we do not know their exact position (electron cloud does
not have precise ranges):

Δx Δ(mv) 2

tΔE h (105)

where x is electron position, mv – momentum of motion, E energy, t is time, h is Plank’s constant.

On basis of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, it become possible to explain the processes carried out in
large size atoms.
According to quantum theory, energy and position (that is orbital) of an electron is considered as wave
function ψ. wave function ψ2 represents the probability of electron position (as electron cloud does not have
ranges).
Electronic orbital is characterized by quantum numbers.
Each orbital is characterized by 3 quantum numbers: main quantum number (n), orbital quantum number
(l) and magnetic quantum number (m) (Table 27, 28).

Table 27. Quantum numbers

 Quantum Symbol Value Determines
Number

Main N 1,2,3,4,… Level size and energy

Angular L 0,1,2,…(n-1) Orbital form

momentum

Magnetic M l …,0,…+ l Orientation of the orbitals

n – main with the same L
quantum number
defines size Spin S +1/2 ; –1/2 Spin orientation and
energy of
energetic level (n = 1,2,3, 4,…,7). As Mendeleev periodic table includes 7 periods, the corresponding
electronic domains are: L, M, N, O, P, Q (Fig. 220).

l – orbital quantum number determines the form of orbitals (the distribution of charge density in space).
Its value depends on n (l = 0, 1, 2, 3 … (n – 1)), there are s, p, d, f etc. orbitals (Fig. 221). It means, that If n
= 1, l = 0, the orbital is called s-orbital, the angular orbital momentum of S-electrons equals zero, s –
spherical orbital: n = 2, l = 0, 1, the orbital is called a p-orbital, n = 3, l = 0, 1, 2, the orbital is called a d
orbital, and finally, if n = 3, l = 0, 1, 2, 3, the orbital is called a f orbital etc.. p orbitals are non-spherical,
have two nodes divided by a nucleus. p orbitals are oriented along a xyz coordinate system axis. d orbital has
2 different main forms.
m - the magnetic quantum number determines space orientation of the orbital (3D) (Fig. 222). (m = – l,
…. 0, ….., + l ( - l < ml < + l). E.g. if n = 2 and l = 0 , 1, m = –2, –1, 0, +1, +2.

Fig. 221. l –orbital quantum number determines the form of orbitals (the distribution of charge density in
space)

The spin quantum number (s) of the electron describes its direction of rotation around its own axis.
There are only two conditions possible clockwise or anti-clockwise rotations. These situations are denoted by
s = +1/2 and s = –1/2. The quantum number has no effect on electron energy, unless outer magnetic field is
involved.
 Orbital energy is defined by main quantum number n. Wave function describing stationary state of an
electron is called an orbital function. If orbitals n values are equal, they have the same energy.
For spherical orbital of hydrogen l = 0, m = 0. This type of electron is known as s-orbital. It should be
noted, that spinal quantum number does not effect on the form and size of an orbital. One single electron of
hydrogen atom is located in the lowest (main) energy level. If we provide the system with energy, the
electron will remove to the higher excited energetic orbital .
Let’s discuss two more rules, defining an arrangement of electrons in an atom. This is Paul’s principle
and Hund’s rule.

Paul’s exclusion principle:

Two electrons cannot occupy the same quantum state in an atom. Or: Two electrons cannot have
identical quantum numbers in an atom (n, l, m, s).
It means that if two electrons at the same time occupy the same position (at the same energy level,
sublevel and orbital); they are repelled (spin quantum number is different). That is, one orbital contains
maximum two electrons with anti-parallel (coupled) spins (Fig. 225).
Hand’s Rule:
An atom in its ground state adopts a configuration with the greatest number of unpaired electrons.
Two electrons with different spin (antiparallel) have a certain probability to be at the same position. In
the Fig. 225 we have stationary electronic configurations for different atoms by Paul’s and Hund’s principles.
Hund’s rule could be explained as follows:
An atom in a main state contains the maximum number of unpaired electrons.
The arrangement of electrons paired in anti-parallel spins (paired electrons) in main (stationary) or
excited energetic level is called a main or excited singlet state. If electrons do not have parallel spins, they
according to Paul’s principle, cannot arrange in the same energy level. In this case, one will be for example
in a main, and another one in the other excited level. This state is called a triplet state. If an atom is one
unpaired electron, this is called a duplet state.
In every stable atom electron are in the stable (ground) singlet state. In excitation they can be elevated to
excited singlet or triplet state. It is clear, that triplet state of an electron is more stable, than singlet state of
the same one (repulsive force between anti-parallel spins provides the stability of this state).

8.2 Structure of atomic nucleus

According to the modern model, the atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense, central
nucleus surrounded by electrons moving on specific orbits. Nucleus size is extremely tiny compared to the
size of the atom.
Nucleus consists of two types of particles (nucleons) – neutrons and protons. Neutrons and protons have
the same size, but differ by charge: neutrons do not have electric charge and they have only mass in the
structure of a nucleus. Each proton has positive charge, which is equal to electron charge by its absolute
value.
Physical-chemical properties of a matter (atom, electron) depend on neutron-proton content. Proton
number identifies the chemical element and suggests chemical properties of atoms. Today we know 118
chemical elements which means, that their nuclei contain 1–118 protons.
The mass of atomic nucleus and subnucleus particles is given in specific units – atomic mass units
(amu), it is defined so that the mass of 1 mole of carbon atoms is exactly 12.000000000 amu.

1 amu = 1.66 10-27 kg

The difference between the masses of neutron and proton is very little (approximately 0.1%). The mass
of electron is 1800–fold less than the mass of proton (or neutron), (the mass of proton – 1.0073 amu, the
mass of neutron 1.0087 amu, the mass of electron 0.000546 amu).
The total amount of neutrons and protons is mass number (A). The total mass of atomic nucleus (or
weight) is not exactly equal to mass number; mass of neutron and mass of proton differ from each other and
the part of their mass converts into the energy in the process of creation of a nucleus. Nucleus mass is less
the total mass of its containing protons and neutrons. This fact is called nucleic “mass defect”. Dependence
between mass and energy will be discussed below.
Any atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. In light elements (low atomic number ( Z)) their
quantity equals each other. With the increase of neutrons number size of atomic nucleus is also increased.
Today we know 1300 different combinations of neutron-protons.
Chemical elements – atoms having different atomic number.
Nuclides – atoms having different atomic number and neutron number.
There is a chart of various nuclides (Fig. 230). Each square defines a specific nuclide. A lot of
combinations of neutron-protons are not stable and do not exist as nucleu. The nuclides in the nature are
allocated in a diagram according comparatively narrow strip diagonally.
As we have already mentioned, atomic nucleus of a chemical element could consist of different amount
of neutrons. Nuclides, that belong to the same chemical elements (have the same atomic number (Z)), but
differ by the amount of neutrons, are known as isotopes. Isotope defines the ratio between nuclides but not
between specific properties of nuclides. In the chart isotopes of the same element are allocated in the same
vertical plane (the number of their protons is equal).
Plenty of elements have several isotopes. Mostly they are stabile (non-radioactive) some of them are
radioactive. E.g. we know 37 isotope of Iodine (53I) with mass number between 117–139; two of them
Iodine-129 (129I) and Iodine-131 (129I) are widely used in medicine.

Fig. 230. Allocation by nuclide constituent neutron-proton in nuclei (there are given for 16 elements of
Mendeleev’s periodical table)

The nuclides, having the same mass number (A), (the sum of protons and neutrons), but differ from each
other by atomic number (Z), are known as isobars.
Stability of the nucleus is determined by the balance of nuclear forces. As protons have a positive charge,
they tend to repel each other. In the nucleus, between particles the very strong nuclear forces are also acting
between particles (attraction forces), that balance electrostatic repulsive forces .
The action of nuclear force may be introduced by interaction of virtual particles quarks. Quarks interact
with each other by the exchange of gluons. Individual quarks are not in isolation, but have a constant
relationship with nuclons .
The most important factor, identifying the balance between intranuclear forces and therefore the stability
of the nucleus – is the number of protons and neutrons. The ration of stability (neutrons/protons) is increased
(from 1 to 1.3) with the increase in atomic number. For a stable nucleus the ratio neutron-proton is
approximately 1 ( ≈ 1), and they are allocated in the middle dark strip of a diagram . If the ratio of
neutron/proton is different (is high or low) at the border of stability, nucleus, as a rule, are radioactive. In
unstable composition of a nucleus repulsive forces prevail nuclear attractive forces defining non-stability of a
nucleus. Radioactive nuclei are allocated on both sides of this strip (grey strops), for the ration depicted by
the rest area of a diagram the existence of nucleus is non-real.

When a nucleus is transformed into the more stable condition, it emits energy. This process is carried out
in nuclear reactors when nuclear reactions are maintained (released energy is usually used for the conversion
into electric energy). When two small size nuclei produce one large nucleus, the energy, defined by the
difference of mass of initial and produced nuclei (mass defect Δm) is also released. In this kind of
transformation relationship between the amount of energy ( E) and mass (Δm) is defined by Einstein
formula:
E = Δmc2

where c is speed of light propagation.

The greatest significance of this equation is that the enormous amount of energy might be produced by
relatively small mass. 1g mass in nuclear transformation produces the energy 25.000.000 .
In nuclear reactions the energy is released as photons or particles. Photon (quantum) does not have mass
(it does not have weight), only the energy. This type of emission is called an electromagnetic emission.
Electromagnetic emission is specific by the energy (frequency) (see the chapter below “Scale of
electromagnetic emission”). The second type of emission (radiation) contains small mass particles, moving in
the space with a great speed, in the space of their motion these particles transfer energy
When discussing nuclear particles, we should note that today up to 100 nuclear particles are known.
They are classed according to their interaction forces, spin etc. The particles not having internal structure (do
not consist of other particles) and limited borders are called elementary particles. Elementary particles
include for example an electron. The property of particles to rotate around their axis is expressed by spin.
Spin could be used for classification of particles. All particles are divided into:
– Half integer spin particles ( ; ; ...) fermions, electrons, neutrons, protons.
– Integer spin particles (0,1,2, 3,..) (bosons) - photon, glion).
It is considered that elementary particles have their antiparticle, e.g. an electron has a positron
(generally, the concept “elementary particle” is conditional, since the particles, that before were considered
elementary particles (e.g. alpha-particle 2P+2N) today are not considered elementary). When these particles
interact with each other (particle with antiparticle), they annihilate each other and energy is released: masses
of individual electrons and positron completely transform into energy, resulting to the production of
characterizing photon with energy 511 keV .
The source of emission of electromagnetic waves and particles are radioactive agents, cosmos (nuclear
reactions on the sun), and hydrogen bomb or special devices - linear accelerators (cyclotrons and betatrons).
In medicine radiation energy is released in the process of spontaneous radioactive transformations by
creation of more stable nuclei. In clinical practice the fact that the energy is released from individual atom is
really interesting. In clinical medicine emission of large size particles (α-particles) usually are not used
because of their low permeability. Large alpha particles (α-particles) are emitted by radioactive substance
during nuclear reactions; α-particle consists of 2 protons and two neutrons, due to their charge and relatively
big size, α-particles are characterized by low ability of permeability. The energy of α-particles is much
higher than other forms of radiation, determining the strength of their radiation effects. The only exception is
radium, which is frequently used in radiotherapy. In this case radium is placed in capsules of human body,
where it absorbs α-emission and then emits γ- beams.
In nuclear medicine relatively small amounts of energy are used (100 keV and 500 keV). It means, that
defect mass varies in the range of 0.0001–0.0005 amu.
In nuclear medicine in some procedures high speed electrons (beta-particles) are used (PET). The
detection of energy quantum that is released due to annihilation of electron-positron pair is used in medical
visualization (positron emission tomography – PET).
γ- quanta propagation direction depicted by zigzag shaped lines, neutrons and electrons – the linear form of
the arrows; Ionization process - in the form of small circles.