Bronze Age

Civilisations I 107

Butzer (1976) and Toby

On the other
hand,
scholarS such as Bruce Trigger (2003), Karl
G.
Trigger nas
Wilson (1999) nave empnasIsed on indigenous growth of civilisation in Egypt.
features were
independently and although
some

argued that ancient civllsations developed environment, economies and

architectural
common (such aS their
wn8), socio-political
cultural and ideo-
o areas and were a
product political,
of their own
styles unle nese
were
of external influence (WIn
Jogical needs. Althougn heTrEger does not rule out the possibility
into Egypt. Karl
to pottery), Dilt points out that there was no large-scale migrations
respect sides, nameiy,
the opinion that Nile Valley, being surrounded by deserts fron three
Butzer is ol West Asia. This
Eastermn,
Westem and Nuba deserts, prevented any regular interaction with
with greater cone-
closed natire ot the Nile Valley, according to Butzer, bestowed the region
sion facilitating unification of upper and lower Egypt. Toby Wilson refers to the pre-dyrmastic
manner that facill-
economie and poltical change in Egypt that took place in a gradual
social,
of civilisation in Egypt. The recent excavations at the pre-dynastic and dynasticc
tated growth
and that of Abydos have also dem-
sites, particularly the city and cemeteries of Hierakonpolis
onstrated concisively that beginning of dynastic Egypt was an indigenous Egyptian phenom
enon whose origins can be traced to the transitional cultures of Upper Egypt.

Urban Centres
of substan-
As mentioned earlier, the pre-dynastic Egypt (3,200-3,000) saw the growth
phase of
tial urban centres such a s Nekhen (Hierakonpolis in Greek), Abdju (Abydos), Naqada (Ombos)
the 'City of
and s o o1. Among these, the most prominent was Hierakonpolis (also known as

in 3800 BCE and inhab-

Falcon' or the 'City of Hawk) in Upper Egypt. Starting as a small village
ited by few hundred people, it became the largest and the most complex pre-dynastic urban
settlement by inhabited by an estimated 10,500 people. It is o n e of the earliest and the
3100 BCE,

most important archaeological sites in Egypt, which

has yielded several information and evi-
here lived in
dences to construct a history of the foundation of Egyptian civilisation. People
The
cluster of rectangular mudbrick and plaster houses spread in several neighbourhoods.
Artisans and traders lived in
varying sizes of the houses clearly reflect class differentiation.
houses. It has been that traders were considered a s important citizens a s they
suggested
larger
had become wealthy due to the profit that they earned from the trade of locally made fine qual-

ity Plum Red' pottery which were a part of tomb objects used in the entire valley. Michael A.
Hoffiman (1979), talking about reasons behind the growth of a wealthy trading class in Egypt
has pointed out that around 3500 BCE, the ecology of the Nile Valley was disturbed due to over-

grazing by sheep and goats pottery which caused large-scale defor

and also intensive firing of
estation. According to Hoffman, few local people, who had amassed wealth through trade in
pottery, used their wealth to reorganise irrigation agriculture around the Nile Valley. The large
surplus generated through this venture was used by them to bring about expansion of their
trade and wealth, thus acquired was invested in construction of public buildings such as tem-
ples. They were buried in elaborate graves as found in the cemeteries at Abu Sufian.
Hierakonpolis is also known for the famous Narmer Palette (to be discussed later) which pro-
vides crucial information about Egyptian polity in the Early Dynastic period. Hierakonpolis is
also considered as the capital of the powerful pre-dynastic state of Nekhen. Nekhen also pro-
vides evidence of the earliest temple in Egypt dated about 3450 BCE.
Naqada or Ombos was another significant urban centre of not only pre-dynastic but also
early-dynastic Egypt. Also known as Nubt, Naqada was located in Upper Fgypt on the west
 108 Ancient and Medieval World
Dank of the River Nile. The extensive survey of the Naqada region by Fekri HaSsan (1999)
ied to
discovery of several cemeteries (about 2000), including a royal tomb. The graves
aned goods such as ceramics, stone tools and personal ornaments made of bone and h on
atrenals along with figurines and beads. The graves also reveal growth of a class stratit
Society. The research done by Fekri Hassan (1981) also suggested that the farmers of Naua
had extended the area under cultivation by digging canals and the yield could sustain a Lar
pOpulation. By about 3600 ncE, it had developed as a town with rectangular mudbrick dwelin
Few of these palatial houses were owned
by the elite. On this basis, few scholars have
Sug
gested that Naqada may have been the capital of a major chiefdom. Inhabitants of Naqada We
Set Worshippers and a temple was dedicated to the deity which was later extended by severs
rulers of the dynastic period.
Abydos or Abdju was another significant town of ancient EEypt. Stretched over several mijle
on the westerm bank of the River Nile, it contained the burial place of Egypt's early-dynasi
rulers and was also the cult centre of Osiris (god of the dead). For a long time, Abydos wa
regarded as the most sacred place of ancient Egvpt and several rulers of the dynastic period
built their own temples at Abydos to associate themselves with Osiris as well as
with their
ancestors buried at the site. Throughout the history of ancient Egypt, Abydos
remained an
important town with several houses and workshops. Between the various temples are
several cemeteries of Pius Egyptians who wanted to be buried as close as located
of Osiris. Coptos or Qift was another
possible to the
temple
significant town of ancient Upper Egypt. Situated on the
eastern bank of the Nile, near modern Luxor,
Coptos was an important commercial and admin.
istrative centre. It is believed that it was the
starting point of trading expeditions to the Red Sea
region. This route continued to be used for trading purposes in the later
the Romans as well as the
period in Egypt under
Byzantine Enmpire. In the
dynastic period, was also the chief city
it
of theUpper Egyptian nome (province) of Harawi. Coptos was also the cult centre of
Min (the
deity of fertility) which gained prominence
(Lower Egypt), Sais and Buto, located in the
during the middle kingdom. In Northerm
Egypt
Northwest delta region, were the two
port towns. Egypt's maritime trade was carried significant
of timber, oil, wine, minerals and through these ports, over which large quantities
pottery and other commodities passed.

Writing
The growth of writing in Egypt is of supreme
provides crucial insights into severalimportance
alike as it
for archaeologists and historians
state formation, aspects of Egyptian civilisation, particular
power and authority of the
besides religion and rituals. The Egyptian rulers, and administrative
system
earliest writing system in
pre-dynastic period around 3200 BCE, has been termed as Egypt, which developed in tne
by the Greeks who ruled over Egypt in 332 BCE. 'Hieroglyphic' or 'sacred carvilng
graphic and Hieroglyphs
phonetic signs (Figure 3.2) carved in stone were a combination of
picu
larity with the Mesopotamian script (signs in both the on temple walls and tombs. Its Si
sound), which developed earlier than the scripts denoted either an object or
hieroglyphs,
Egyptian text was inspired by those of the Near East. Buthas led few to suggest that u
believe that the basic idea of pictographic others, including Egyptologs
writing may have
directly out of cuneiform method. Mesopotamia D
the actual signs may have evolved come from

logical discoveries made at Abydos in the 1990s have Moreover, archae

suggested that hieroglyphs may ha
 Bronze Age Civilisations 109

been in use m the pre-dynastic Egypt since 3500

FIGURE 3.2 Egyptian Hieroglyphs
BCE (period that precedes evolution of the with Corresponding8
Sumerian script) and also that the use of pho-
Phonetics and Meaning
netic sig1s in EgyPt may have appeared earlier

than previously thought. lan Shaw (2004) has

argued out that these hieroglyphs were not SAwhtue M
merely pictorial signs (ideograms) but many of B es Nware
them were representations of sounds in the
D hand P stoo

spoken language (phonograms) which devel-

oped at least 200 years before the first dynasty Fwipe AQ|ill
came into existence. Shaw further argues that G Sand
Rmouth
since the Writings often refer to Lower Egyptian
H ope S cloth
place names in the royal tomb of Upper Egypt it
suggests that northern and southern parts of
were already closely connected economi-
A
Egypt
cally and perhaps politically too.
serpent Wchi
Egptian hieroglyphs appear either in the form K basket||4 Y reeds
(a paper like writing mate
of writings on papyrus
rial made out of papyrus plant) written by the
Llan Z
bureaucrats for administrative convenience or
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they were carved on stones on temple walls or
tombs ostensibly as an expression of royal and 236x/1/26/19/1f2619eb485cbb46dad93861856
23f76jpg
religious ideology or as an instrument of manage-
ment and control. The bureaucrats, however, used
a modified form of hieroglvph called hieratic seript with a cursive writing (Figure 3.3) in which
the signs were simpler and more suited for writing lengthy doeuments on papyrus. It has been
presumed that other type of texts may have existed too but have vanished since they were writ-
ten on perishable materials. One of the earliest surviving and very significant examples of
hieroglyph script is the Narmer Palette, a stone slab carved on both sides with scenes com
memorating king Narmer of Hierakonpolis who ruled just before the beginning of the first
dynasty. The Palette contains both pictorial narrative and hieroglyphs depicting symbols of
kingship. The two sides of the Narmer Palette depict the king wearing white and red crown,
representing Upper and Lower Egypt and indicating possible political unification of Egypt. It
has been argued by Brian Fagan (2010) that the acquisition of writing with all its organisational
capabilities probably was one of the main catalysts of the unification of the whole of Egypt into
a single political entity.

Pharaoh and the State

The political developments in Egypt, including its political unification and origin of state, are
generally traced to the pre-dynastic period which is supposed to have begun in 3200 BCE
Manetho (Greek priest), who wrote his account History of Egupt, has mentioned31 dynasties
that ruled over Egypt fronm its unification to the invasion of Alexander in 332 BCE. The Dynastie
period of Egypt has been broadly divided into four periods-Archaic period or Early Dynastic
period (3100-2700 BCE), covering the time period of the first two dynasties; Old Kingdom
(2700-2180 BCE), covering the third to the sixth dynasty; Middle Kingdom (2133-1786 BcE),
 11
BronzeAge Civilisations

the eleventh and twelfth dynasties;, and New Kingdom (1567-1080 BCE), covenng
cerin h to the twentieth dynasty. In between these, there were First and Second Interneai
hteeferred to as periods of political change and uncertainty) which fill in for the rema
periods (
i n gd y n i a s t i e s .

ing dehaic period (3100-2700 BCE) was marked by unification of Upper and Lower EE
The by a ruler Narmer legendary Menes) by subjugating powerful local chieftains.ne
sPpOsr Palette provides visual evidence of the political developments and the nature ot i n
N n the Archaic EgYpt. Narmer is supposed to have wielded power over 22 nomes or admin

punits of Upper and 20 nomes of the Lower Egypt. These nomes may have bee
unification or
dunastic petty states ruled by smal chieftains o r kings before the political
p t was attempted by King Narmer. However, it is also pointed out that unification of UPper

took place before the merger of Upper and Lower Egypt into a single realm. Nekhen 1s

that the
nsidered as the capital of the unified Upper Egypt. Egyptologists are of a sopinion
the
well as violent
nolitical unification ot Egypt was a gradual process that involved peaceful unification
amalgamation. Kathryn A. Bard (2000) is of the opinion that peaceful o r voluntary
that violent means
needs and economic advantage, and it was only later
resulted from common units
force applied to bring under control rulers of larger political
involving use of military
was

of unification. In the Egyptian art forms (including the Narmer Palette), very a
for the purpose
the prominent depiction of kings smiting a foreigner with a mace which is
common site is
highly symbolic of the power of the ruler and his attempt to restore order by ritually subduing
the forces representing chaos. Another significant metaphor for unification was the depiction
worshipper of Horus (the falcon god) and the defeated as the Set
of the victorious ruler as
a symbol of unifica-
worshipper, thus establishing a link between Upper and Lower Egypt. As
tion and also to control the recently integrated regions, ruler of the first dynasty chose
Menphis as their capital which was located at the border of Upper and Lower Egypt at the
apex of the Nile Delta. The rulers of the first two dynasties of Egypt belonged to Thinnis
(Eesptian 7jewu) in Upper Egpt and therefore their 400 years reign in Egypt is also often
temed as Thinnite period. There are hardly any surviving records of the rulers of the first
dynasty, although some information related to their economic measures and their expeditions
ouside the Nile Valley towards Asia and Nubia is indeed available from the Palermo stone
(a
portion of the Royal Annal). The tombs of few of the rulers of the Thinnite dynasty, identified
information on the
asTulers ofoftheDjer,
that Den and Semerkhet, have also been found at
Abydos. Our
second dynasty is more inadequate except that of Nineter whose reign finds men-
ton in the Palermo stone and of Khasekhem (Khasekhemui) who had the largest tomb in the
eCropolis (Umm el-Qa'ab) at Abydos. By the beginning of the Archaic period, the authority of
oWerful Egyptian king or Pharaoh was fully recognised.
he state in Egypt revolved around a powerful terrestrial ruler, Pharaoh (from Egvptian per
c eaning the palace), who, according to some, symbolised the trumph of order over univer
I a s . Grahame Clark (1977) says that the River Nile provided the physical means for
unitingthe country, but it was the supremacy of Pharaoh that guaranteed that unity.
Pharaoh
was o
Eresdered the divine leader and symbolised the whole country, and his unchallenged sov
nuleprovided confidence and stability. In the early civilisations, power and legitimacy of a
dempended to a large extent on the skilful management of all kinds of resources, and it was
a marated by ruler's control over the agricultural surpluses and labour. Since irrigation was
as toeciding factor for a good agricultural produce, prime responsibility of the Pharaoh
Sure adequate irrigation facilities for the success of the harvest. In order to ensure an
 112 Ancient and Medieval World
etective administration, the Pharaoh govened by enforcing universal laws with the help t fa
large centralised bureaucracy. The Pharaoh was given a divine status and universal poy
through several symbols such as the falcon god, Horus, spreading its wings on the royal va
to double crown (pschent) indicating
suggest heirship of Horus to the Pharaoh and a sovereie.
rulership of Pharaoh over both Upper and Lower Egypt. eign
The Pharaonic state functioned through several economic and religious institutions looke,
after by a large bureaucracy. Govermors of the provinces (7omes) as well as officials of the
central government established their governance in the name of the Pharaoh through an auth
ity delegated by him. Several higher officials were organised into institutions and were assistes
by a countless number of seribes. Royal Counsellors such as Vizier and members of the royal
chancelleries of Upper and Lower Egypt enjoyed large power delegated to them by the Pharach
They looked after crucial aspects of governance such as irrigation system, census, tax colle.
tion and redistribution of surplus to both state and temple officials. Since agricultural surplus
depended to a large extent on irrigation, special officials called adj-mer ('canal digger) wera
appointed to look after irrigation works and a special branch of administration called permu
was created to record the water level of the river Nile. The tax officials were to ensure that a
sizeable proportion of the surplus went to the Pharaoh. The political unification of the Nüe
Valley facilitated this process and the river acted as the highway for transportation of surplus
for centralised storage and their distribution. Seribes were an important group of offcials as
the state set out to control the surplus and the labour. Writing was considered as an
important
accomplishment and therefore a scribe had the easy access to the position of the elite.
period of the Old Kingdom (2700-2180 BCE) is considered as the mature phase of
The
Egyptian civilisation during which, as claimed by Robert J. Wenke, many of the greatest pyra-
mids and palaces were built, an
integrated royal bureaucracy was formed and arts and crafts
were
brilliantly executed. The rulers of the Old Kingdom (covering third to sixth
over from those of the Thinnite
dynasty) took
dynasty and ruled Egypt from their capital at Memphis (near
Cairo). Since Memphis was situated at the junction of the delta, it
of the Pharaoh over a unified represented the govermance
territory by a divine ruler. Djoser, founder of the third dynasty,
ruled over a large territory and so did his
successors Cheops (Khufu),
Unas. The available evidence Chephren (Khafre) and
in the Pyramid
belonging to this period,
particularly the Pyramid texts (inscribed
chambers), provides us a clearer picture of the Pharaonic state. These
that under these rulers, the
authority of the Pharaoh was further consolidated with hissuggest status
being firmly established as that of a god. An attempt was made to
and he was provided a permanent position in the Egptian religiouspopularise the cult of Pharaoh
of the fifth dynasty, the Pharaoh was considered as pantheon. By the beginning8
the
the sun god 'Re' and was declared as the 'son of Re'. With'perfect god' and was associated with
the help of legends manufactured by
the priests, the sun god was made the heavenly monarch and Pharaoh
as his
earth. The Pharaoh was also immortalised
by propagating that the Pharaoh neverrepresentative on
death becomes Osiris (god of the dead) and takes his dies but after
place
the burial places of the Egyptian rulers, were used at a among the stars. The
great Pyramids
reached heaven by following the path of sunrays metaphor to suggest that Pharaon
fallingon the
Pyramid. On the basis of hs
extensive research on the
Pyramids, 1. E. S. Edwards (1987) argues that the
of the sun cult led to the development of a new concept of growing influence
afterlife wherein the deceased rule
following the rays, joined the sun god across the sky. The 52° angle of the
afternoonaccordine
to Edwards, parallels that of the slant of rays on the Pyramid on a winterPyramid, and the
 BronzeAge Civilisations 113
Pharaohs ascended to heaven by walking up the ray of light. Thus, according to Edwara
Pyranids were the first step to Pharaoh's union with god.

Monumental Architecture

The beginning of monumental architecture in Egypt can be traced back to the pre-dyrnastc
phase when mudbrick palaces with defensive towers were constructed. But construction of
real nonumental buildings, mostly in the form of royal tombs, in Egypt, beganunder the rulers
of the Archaic period. Christiane Ziegler (1996) has commented that 'at the beginning of the
third millennium mE, as often in Egypt, we know more about the realm of the dead than that of
the living. At Abydos, archaeologists found a series of tombs bearing the names of the rulers
of the irst dynasty. Significant among them was the tomb at Saqqara (near Memphis), with a
dimension of 50 and 20 metres of length and width. However, it was during the reign of the third
dynasty that substantial royal tombs made of stone began to appear in the form ofpyramids
with accompanying building to assist the king in the afterlife. Djoser was the first ruler who is
eredited with the construction of the earliest Pyramid at Sagqara, which was built in the form
ofa siep-pyramid (called mastaba meaning "bench' in Arabic) for his own burial. The step pyra
mid eomprised of six platforms (mastaba) one on top of the other. The tomb was surrounded
by a thick stone wall forming a huge courtyard (roughly a 15 hectare enclosure). The tomb
contains the remains of Djoser while other members of the royal family were buried in shafts
and tunnel of the pyramid. Built from linmestone rubble, the tomb of Djoser distinguishes itself
from earlier tombs by its sheer size with height rising to 60 metres and the base having dimen
sions of 109 by 102 metres. The tomb also contained, perhaps the first royal statue, a painted
linestone statue of Djoser built at the foot of the pyramid. Ziegler claims that the statue was
synbolie of the Pharaoh communicating with the world of the living through a statue.
Construction of monumental buildings assumed new dimensions under the rulers of the Old
Kingdom. The step-pyramids were transformed (through several stages) into more imposing
true pyramids such as the ones built by Cheops and Chephren and Mycerinus (Menkaure) at
Giza. Among these, the highest one was built by Cheops, which, according to the estimates of
I. E. S. Edwards, was 146.5 metre in height with a base of 235 square metre and had the inclina-
tion of 51°56'. The pyramid of Chepheren measured 143.5 metre in height with a base of 215.25
square metre and an inclination of 52°21. The interior design of the pyramid was simplistic with
a corridor or a shaft leading to the funeral chamber where the mummified body of the Pharaoh
lay in a sarcophagus. After the completion of the funeral ceremonies, the corridors were filled
with blocks of granite stone to prevent access to the tomb. From the time of the reign of
Menkaure, with the height of the pyramid being 62 metres and base with an inclination of 52,
the size of the pyramids started reducing. It has been suggestedthat the overall decline in pyra-
mid building are reflective of economic constraints facing the Egyptian state, particularly after
the fourth dynasty that did not permit the state to build such lavish monuments.
These gigantic monuments in the form ofpyramids were not only famous for their impres-
sive size but also for, as Robert J. Wenke (2009) has suggested, their complex engineering, the
deft execution of stone sculpture and the precise planning such projects would have required.
It has been suggested by the Egyptologists that the pyramids were all located towards the
westem banks of River Nile, the direction of the setting sun, a metaphor for death. Moreover,
all pyramids were situated near the lime reserve close to the river to facilitate transfer of Tura
 114 Anclent and Medieval World
in
mestone, granite and alabaster boulders. The Nile Moods
also helped transporting the..
required to costruct such massive buil
h e construction sites. A large labour force labour consisted oI the peasants who did
was

of the
ngs. It has been suggested that majority the foods. According to an estimate, constructi
undertake any agricultural activity during million stone blocks each weighing
O the largest among these pyramids used up 2.3 .

who employed for 80 days in a year

were

tonnes and required the labour of 80,000 people

Ar
for
20 years.
direction as well as feeding of such a
The administrative supervision, planning and large
labour force suggests a very high degree of political and bureaucratic centralisation enforce
by the Pharaoh. Cemeteries of the high-level functionaries of the state were situated around th
Pharaoh, suggesting the absolute control of the monarch even in the eternity. I. E. S. Edward
has suggested that these monuments were also an attempt to overawe the people and t
impress upon them that he was no ordinary man but divine person deserving to be buried in
such a manner. Kurt Mendelssohn (1974) is of the opinion that the construction of pyramids
was a practical administrative device aimed at organising and institutionalising the state bu
trading redistributed food for labour. As construction carried on from one generation to the
other, the villager became dependent on the central administration for food for the entire
period of the construction of the pyramid. This food was obtained from the surplus contributed
by the peasants themselves in the form of taxes (mezed). The state, argues Mendelssohn, thus
fostered as well as exploited the interdependence of the Egyptian village. Besides the construe
tion of the monuments, an elaborate ritual was also connected with the funeral of the Pharaoh
in order for him to be reborn. This involved the preservation of the body through mummifica
tion, keeping objects connected with the dead Pharaoh in the burial chamber and creation of
a myth to link him with Osiris (god of the 'blessed dead'). Thus, the ruling Pharaoh was identi
fied with Horus and the dead Pharaoh with Osiris.

Social Stratification
The Egyptian society was a highly stratified one with institutionalised inequality established by
the state. At the top level of the society, after the ruler, were the bureaucrats who themselves
were organised into a bureaucratic hierarchy functioning at various levels of the state as gOV
ernors, tax collectors, adjudicators of legal disputes, state officials, village headmen, and so
on
Such hierarchies were considered to be fundamental for a well-ordered state with the belier
that such hierarchies were ordained by gods to further that It goal. therefore, natural
there was an inequitable distribution of surplus produced by the peasants as well as thattha
was,
o
power and prestige. Moreover, as argued by Robert J. Wenke (2009), this
access to
disproportionae
wealth, power and prestige was inherited or dictated by the elite. There was no cor
cept of 'class', but, according to Wenke, the Egyptian society was sharply defined in
several inequalities, ranging from simple distinctions based on age and termis
gender to one's proX
ity to the ruling elite. Thus, the ruler and the nobles were at the apex of the society below
there were several groups, ranging from leisured elite to enslaved war wn
captives. Wenke na
estimated that 90 per cent or more of EgVptians existed at the bottom of the scale,
of farmers, fishermen, potters, bakers, masons, porters and minor officials. They, very mu
consisu
ike the
lowest classes in most ancient societies, accepted these inequalities as their fate ad
he will of gods. However, social mobility was possible in the Egyptian society, particularly o
 Bronze Age Civilisations 15

those who took

to
were several
wriung
and became
scribes. Barry Kemp (2005) and few others have
argueu
that there schools to train
writers for careers in army, treasury, irrigation and
professions. The traned scribes, oun
considering the inmportance of writing in the Pharaonic Egpl,
were treated as an ntegral part of the governnent.
As a natural corolary to such a stratified society, surplus was distributed in an
inequitabie
manner i t h the D1ggest chunk of it going to the Pharaoh, members of the royal family, the
priestly class, the bureaucracy and the army. The state organised the production and distribu-
tion of surplus as well as the exchange activities for procurement of metal, wood and exotic
items. Artisans and crattsmen were attached with the warehouses of the palace, temple and the
houses of the elite. Evidence of social stratification has been found in the graves excavated at
Hierakonpolis, Naqada and Abydos, which have been considered to be those of the Egyptian
elite. The Pharaohs were buried in large underground chambers (mastaba) and each royal tomb
was surrounded by that of the queens, followed by those of princes and courtiers who built
their own mastaba alongside the pyramid avenues. Christiane Ziegler (1996) has pointed out
that similar tombs were built in the provinces by the high officials and also that such tombs
have been found in distant areas such as the southem oases. Such large-scale construction of
cemeteries and pyramids also suggest, as argued by some, strong element of coercion in mobil-
ising a labour force for such large-scale construction.

Religion and Society

Religion in Egypt developed along the same patterm as the other contemporary civilisations. In
early civilisations, study of religion, society and polity cannot be separated as each had bearing
on the other Religion in the Bronze Age was dominated by mythopoeie thoughts and therefore
people experienced a sense of intimacy with the forces of nature. Plants, animals, rivers, the
sk.Sun and the planets were personified as anthropomorphic divinities. Thus, religion in early
civilisations was characterised by features such as worship of natural or cosmic forces, rituals,
myths, elaborate death rites and ancestor worship. At the level of the state, institutionalised
religion played a significant role in the perpetuation of state and society. Social order was har
monised, sanctified and expressed by religious ceremonies. As Bronze Age societies became
stratified, the social inequities could be regularised and explained only in religious terms.
Religion also became the chief means in the hands of the ruler or the state to secure and per
petuate power and authority. Through adoption and assimilation of new religious beliefs, spe-
cific cultural values and ideologies could be cultivated which lent justification and support to
State measures such as tax appropriation, irrigation and construction works, large-scale war
making enterprises to name a few. Religion also became a tool in the hands of the kings to
arrogate all powers unto himself. A belief was propagated that wellbeing of the community was
dependent on sacrifices and divination that came to be the monopoly of the king. Further, to
promote authoritarian character of kingship, power of the king was sought to be strengthened
either by deifying him or identifying him with the supreme deity. This was achieved with the
help of the priestly class who by inventing myths and legends succeeded in securing for the king
the position of overlord or potentate vis-a-vis the lesser deities in the existing religious pan-
theon. The notion of life after death' was directly associated with human endeavour to conquer
death, a phenomenon that had baffled humans since their evolution. Ideas of existence of spirit
tnat survives death were propagated and to preserve the spirit, elaborate funerary rituals were
 116 Ancient and Medieval World

performed which included preservation of the mortal remains of the dead through embalmi
and construction of massive tombs, the latter of course being reserved tor the rulers or t
the
wealthy members of the society.
t is in the aforementioned context that one has to study religion and society in EgyDt
Was the case with all ancient civilisations, there was no uniform rellgion in Egypt at t As
popular level and it reflected more heterogeneity than homogeneity. Several cults were fo
lowed in different nomes even though political unification of Egpt had taken place mul
earlier. Thus, Bat (the cow goddess) was the patroness of the seventh nome of Upper Egy
Wepwawet (wolf god) was associated with Asyut nome and Sobek (crocodile god) was w
shipped in Thebes. Similarly, Arsaphes (ram-headed god) was popular in Heracleopolis ah
Sokar (falcon-headed god) had followers in the Memphis region. But most of these minor
cults were ultimately absorbed in those that had larger following or were more favoured
the rulers of the time. In this context, Erik Hornung (1996) has argued that there was proh
ably a form of monotheism underlying a superficially polytheistic Egyptian religion. This is
based on his assumption that an emphasis on the role of the creator god seems to have tran.
scended and subsumed numerous Egyptian gods. Another important feature of Egyptian
religion was that with the growth of a patriarchal society in Egypt, just like Mesopotamia
female deities lost their significance. Their cult either disappeared or were made subord,
nate to the chief male deity or were made their consort. In this manner, Sekhmat (lion
headed goddess) was worshipped as the spouse of Ptah (the chief male deity of Memphis)
and Isis (goddess of love and wisdom) was made a consort of Osiris (god of the dead). But
with the growth of family as a social unit, these gods were worshipped as part of a single
family. Thus, Ptah-Sekhmet-Nefertun and Osiris-Isis-Horus were worshipped together as
father-mother-son of a family. According to an Egyptian myth, Set killed his brother Osiris
and Horus then avenged the death of his father by killing Set. W. B. Emery (1961) has inter
preted this myth in terms of a conflict between the indigenous and master race. He argues
that the worship of Horus was popularised by the master race as the Pharaohs had falcon
(representing Horus) on their crown. It has been argued by Emery that Osiris and Isis were
worshipped by the indigenous people, and, after the coming of the master race, a mytholog
was created to incorporate the three deities together. A large number of people of upper
Egypt continued to worship Set for a l ng time and the conflict between Horus and Set and
victory of the former became a metaphor for victory of the master race over the indigenous
people.
Despite the existence of several deities
at the popular level, the available
archaeological
evidences (in the form of sacred structures and texts on the temple walls) have leu
Egyptologists to suggest that all religious cults seems to have been designed to focus attentiou
onthe king. This has been derived from the texts which
invariably refers to any individuals
offerings to the deity as hetep-di-nesw ('an offering that the king gives'), suggesting that eac
individual's act of worship and offering to the deity were related to his/her the
links with
Since the Archaic
kin
period, as the Narmer Palette suggests, kings
identified with Horus,
were
the latter's image was most prominently depicted on the front of the palette. This,
accord
to lan Shaw (2004), is also a clear indication of the fact that the
king was already playing
central role in the celebration of religious cults and worship by the beginning of
the m
dynasty. He goes on to elaborate that one of the objectives of the Narmer Palette could be t
 Bronze Age Civilisations 117
#a kind of elaborate reference to the king's role in the act of
providing the gods with one
which might consist of
anything from fruit slaughtered enemy or prisoners
to
ot waof the
xher words. he is y n g to suggest that the king's role was to fight battles on behalf
isand then bring back the prisoners and the booty to dedicate to the gods in their
temples
A significant feature of the Egptian religion at the level of the state was the promotion of
the worship of sun god (Re) which began from third
dynasty onwards and assumed the status
of a state religion by the fourth dynasty. The pyramid texts, particularly from 2300 BCE onwards,
rovide us with details on the origin and development of the solar cult up until the Middle
Kingdom. It has been argued that although the actual manner in which Re was worshipped went
through several changes, the solar cult retained its preeminent position in the Egyptian pan-
theon for almost 2.500 years. Beginning with the third dynasty, with the help of a mythological
genealogy. Re, Osiris, Horus and the Pharaoh were made a part of the Egyptian pantheon. By
the fifth dyvnasty, as mentioned earlier, the Pharaoh was declared as the son of Re. With political
changes. Re was associated with differentdominant deities at different points of time. As new
dynasties rose to power, they endeavoured to popularise their cult by associating the cult deity
with thesun god. Thus Atum (also knownas Tem), who was the chief deity of Heliopolis (Lower
gp) during the Old Kingdom, was worshipped as Atum-Re by associating him with the sun
god (particularly the setting sun). After the end of the Old Kingdom, as the power of the central
govemment became weak, provincial governors (called as nomarchs) became powerful and
Arum was replaced by Arsaphes, the chief deity of Heracleopolis. After the reunification of
Egpt during the Middle Kingdom, however, Amon, the patron deity of Thebes (centre of the
political power of the Middle Kingdom), assumed importance and his cult was popularised by
worshipping him as Amon-Re. By twelfth dynasty, Amon worship became the chief cult of
tgpL The worship of Osiris also underwent modifications in due course of time. While in the
Old Kingdom only the Pharaoh was associated with Osiris, later this privilege was extended to
members of the royal family as well as nomarchs and members of the aristocracy. It has been
argued by some that since, by the fourth dynasty, the Pharaoh was already endowed with divin-
yIt was not felt necessary to associate him with Osiris for divinity and immortality
anyTnore.
Thus, from the presented analysis, it is clear that the Egyptian religion profoundly affected
the society and politics of Egypt and, in turm, was transformed by the existing social and politi-
al developments. With the growth of family, the totem (anthromorphic deity, symbol ofa tribe
r a clan) worship, generally associated with fertility, was replaced by the worship of Osiris-
SIS-Hons as constituents of a single family. Alexandre Moret (2001), in this context, has
pointed out that the origin of family can be seen from this period onwards. As families became
r e important than the clan, an attempt was made to lay claim to the produce of the soil. With
is developed the concept of inheritance and a patriarchal society was born. Growth of a patri
archal society reduced the importance of female deities. The insignificant ones disappeared and
pular ones were made the consorts of the chief male deities. Killing of Set by Horus has also
n interpreted as duties of the son towards the family. In the political sphere, religious myths
dlegends (such as the one connected with the immortality of Osirñs) were used to justify and
phold the authority of the Pharaoh. As pharaohs came to be associated with the solar cut,
Oship of Osiris became more important at the popular level, whereas worship of Re was
 118Ancient and Medieval World
promoted by the state. The Egyptian religious beliefs also promoted the developmo
BYptian mathematics,
geometry, science and astronom nent

Trade
EgVpt was surrounded by deserts from three sides, which, apart from providing protectione
extermal invasions, ensured a 'closed' nature of the Egyptian society facilitating cultural int
ion. It did not however mean isolation of Egypt from the outside world, and, as menti
earlier, these deserts also provided passages for interaction of Egyptians with people in the
and west. Apart from the local trade conducted along the Nile, Egypt was also engaged in
distance trade with their Asian and African neighbours. Archaeological evidence trace
origin of long-distance trade of Egvpt since pre-dynastic times. The volume of trade seems
have increased in the late pre-dynastic times. Sais and Buto in the northwest delta were Dos
bly two important ports on the maritime trade routes where large quantities of timber, oil, win
minerals, pottery and other commodities were either traded or passed. The chief exportsf
wine
Egypt were stone and pottery vases, gold vessels, papyrus, linen, grans and dried fish. Thes
from
trade items were sent through land and sea route (Mediterranean and Red Sea) to Lebanon
Arabian region, sub-Saharan Africa as well as the Aegean region. The chief imports of Eg
were cedar wood from Lebanon; ebony and ivory from Africa; lapis lazuli from Badakhshan
(Afghanistan); obsidian from Ethiopia; horses, small cattle, copper and other valuable minerak
from Syria and Palestine; incense and myrh from Punt (Somalia in East Africa); oil from the
Aegean region and gold from Nubia
The mentioned trade interaction is confirmed by several archaeological findings. Evidence
of ship building in Egypt has been found as early as 3000 BCE. The earliest ship, measuring
75 feet and dated 3000 BCE, has been said to belong to the Pharaoh Aha (Menes), second pha
raoh of the first dynasty. Egyptians were also kmown to have assembled planks of wood to make
it into a ship hull. We are also informed that Narmer established an Egyptian colony at Canaan
(Phoenicia) and had EgYptian pottery manufactured here with his name stamped on the vesels
and then had them exported back to Egypt. The Palermo stone (a stone slab known as the Roya
Annals, containing a list of Egyptian kings from the first to the fifth dymasty) mentions kinu
Sneferu of the fourth dynasty sending ships to obtain cedar from Lebanon. This is substantiate
by a painting in the pyramid of pharaoh Sahure of the fifth dynasty where Egyptians areshow
returming with huge cedar trees. The Palermo stones also provide evidence of Egyptian trad
links with Sinai. Thus, it would seem that trading operations were mainly a state enterprisem
motive behind this,apart from purely economic and centralising ones, could be to develo
friendly relationship with the neighbouring and far off states.

Mathematics and Science

Egyptians are said to have achieved a great deal in the field of science and mathematics, w
was mainly an outcome of their practical requirements rather than that of an elaboratetheo
rowth of writing went a long way in promoting the development of mathematics and ger
try. The need of stocktaking of raw materials, annual measurement of the Nile flood
 Bronze Age
Civilisations I 119
a

the enure agricultural production, construction of sucn

monuments
chdepended and taxanon
buildings and land survey for the purpose of irrigation
which
state
amids and other in the ancient EEYpt. 1n
ied to the development of or elementary mathematics and geometry towards the end or
beginning the use of figures and whole numbers started
mathematics, the art of mea
and by the time of the establishment of the Old Kingdom,
nre-dynastic period to Christiane
fully developed. From the Old Kingdom onwards, according
sarement was
cubit (52.3 cm long)
which was
the o i i c i a l unit of measurement w a s the royal
Ziegler (1996), in a palm of 4 digits,
each
subdivided into 28 parts of 1.86 cm each and grouped together of Nile, height
further the floodwaters
7.47 cm. This method was generally used to measure

measuring the perimeter of a garden.

and also to estimate
divine statue
and that of the pyramids and multiples
of a vertical lines whereas number 10
from I to 9 w e r e represented through of zero w a s
Figures signs as the concept
of 10 (100,1,000 t o I million) were represented by special and
on simple addition
The arithmetic calculations were based
unknown to the Egyptians. fractions
of addition where numbers or
subtraction.Multiplication was like an extended form were able to gauge
were added in
a repetitive manner. Despite these limitations, the Egyptians where even
of massive pyramids
which is reflected in the construction
measurement
correct difficult. Egyptians
its construction extremely
a minor error
in calculation could have made and
between the diameter of a circle
accurate in establishing the relationship
were also quite to its present true value, that is,
w a s near
its and their estimation of the value
area, of pi (m)
22/7 or 3.14. orientation of the
not achieve much in the field of astronomy but the
Although Egyptians did observed certain constellations in a pre-
pyramids and other monuments suggest that they had
of the pyramids of Giza a r e per-
cise manner. As Christiane Ziegler (1996) points out, the sides s e e n in the
of the compass with maximum precision being
fectly aligned with the four points based o n
the Egyptians in the pre-dynastic phase
was
pyramid of Cheops. The calendar used by flood cycle of the Nile.
of the moon but, subsequently,
it was based on the annual
the cycles s e a s o n s of 4 months
Each year was divided into 365 days of
12 months distributed into three
added at the
additional days (epagomenal days) being
with each month having 30 days with 5
of the Nile, the three seasons were
akhet (flood;
end of the year. Based on the annual flooding
November-February) and chemu (harvest;
July-October), peret (plantation or germination; of calendar in Egypt was that with the
features of the use
March-June). One of the important afresh. Therefore, the earlier e r r o r of leav-
of each Pharaoh, the chronology was set
accession in the long run. Presently, we add one day in the
ng one day from each month was reduced the discrepancy caused by
as leap year) to remove
nonth of February every 4 years (termedmonth.
ailference in the number of days in each
of the corpse, which became common from the
Egyptian practice of mummification
Ihe of human anatomy. Several pro-
period of the Old Kingdom, suggests
a good knowledge
of the dead that
the use of saline water and
esses preceded the final embalming involved
with several oils and aromatic herbs, which is an
w a s done
e r chemicals. Embalming of the principles of
chemistry associated with the
alcative of Egyptian understanding of the fact that the
not progress much mainiy because
a n body. But medical science did remained confined to the priestly class who had n o
Wledge of mummification technique science and kept using magic and incantations to cure
rest in the furtherance of medical
humans.