IMPROVED INTELLIGENCE GATHERING FOR SATELLITE IMAGES

OF VARRYING RESOLUTIONS USING DEEP LEARNING

TECHNIQUES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Pages
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Approval iii
List of Figures vi
List of Tables vii
Table of Contents iv

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 3
1.3 Aim and Objectives of Study 3
1.4 Significance of Study 4
1.5 Scope of the Study 4
1.6 Research Questions 4
1.7 Expected Research Contributions 5
1.8 Research Gap 5
1.9 Proposal Organization 6
1.10 Definition of Terms 6

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 Conceptual Framework 8
2.2.1 Satellite Image and Remote Sensing 9
2.2.2 Deep Learning Techniques 11
2.2.3 Intelligent Gathering of Satellite Images 15
2.3 Theoretical Framework 17
2.3.1 Image Processing and Analysis 18
2.3.2 Deep Learning Model for Satellite Image Analysis 19
2.2.3 Data Fusion Techniques 20
2.4 Object Detection and Classification 21
2.5 Change Detection and Monitoring 22
2.6 Land Cover Classification and Mapping 23
2.7 Disaster Management and Response 24
2.8 Military and Security Application 25
2.9 Challenges and Future Direction 26
2.10 Review of Related Studies 28

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY, RESEARCH PROCESS AND PLANS

3.0 Introduction 42
3.1 Research Design 42
3.2 Methodology 42
3.3 Procedure for Data Collection 43
3.4 Tool(s) and Instrument(s) for Data Collection 43
3.5 Validity and Reliability of the Instrument for Data Collection 44
3.6 Population of the Study and Sampling Size 44
3.7 Sampling Techniques 45
3.8 Methods of Data Analysis 45
3.9 Performance Metrics 46
3.10 Evaluation of Model Performance 46
3.11 Ethical Consideration 47
3.12 Plan of Work and Time 48
3.13 Resources 49
Conclusion 26
References 27
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figures Pages

Figure 3.1 Diagrammatic Representation of the Methodology 42

Figure 3.2 Diagrammatic/flowchart Representation of the Research Design 44

Figure 3.3 Gantt Chart of the Research Work Plan and Time Schedule 48
 LIST OF TABLES

Tables Pages

Table 2.1 Summary of Reviewed Related Studies 29

 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

A satellite is a piece of equipment that has been sent into orbit in order to gather data or function
as a component of a communication system. It is a self-contained communication system that has
the capacity to utilize the transponder to receive signals from Earth and retransmit those
messages (a system component that functions as both a radio signal receiver and transmitter)
(Ijas, 2022). They are typically lunched into orbits using a rocket. There also exist natural
satellites like the star, sun and moon, or machine that orbits a planet.

The first satellites were launched in 1957 named Sputnik 1 Soviet Union-produced. Americans'
Explorer 1 was the first artificial satellite. National Aeronautics and Space Admistration (NASA)
started lunching satellite into the space with Explorer 1 in 1958.Satellite is made up of two most
important parts; the power supply, the antennae, etc. Data is often sent and received from and to
the earth via the antenna. The power source might be a solar panel or battery. By turning sunlight
into energy, solar panels produce (Jenifer, 2022).

Geostationary (GEO) satellite orbits, which move/travel from west to east above the equator, are
important components of satellites because they move in the same direction and at the same
speed as the planet is rotating. the medium earth orbit (MEO); in this orbit, polar earth orbiting
satellites go from pole to pole while scanning the whole planet one trip at a time while the world
rotates underneath them. The spacecraft may pass the equator at the same local earth time
throughout each orbit thanks to the low earth orbit (LEO), which is an orbit around the planet
with a period of 128 minutes or less and an eccentricity of less than 0.25 (Ijaz, 2022).
A satellite image is a visual depiction of the earth taken by imaging satellite that are run by
government and companies all over the world which are also known as earth observation
imagery and space borne photography band (Fang, 2022). Satellite images can be of two types;
the panchromatic (black and white), it combines data from a visible R channel with a single,
highly spatially resolved band of grayscale images (red), G (green) and B (blue), which produce
one consolidated band with no wavelength-specific data, and secondly, multispectral images,
which were used to detect and track multiple targets and were created by collecting images in
several broad visible, near-infrared, and short wave infrared wavelength ranges (Fang, 2022).

A very small aperture terminal (VSAT) which is used to send and receive voice, data, and a
satellite is a device used for transmitting voice, data, and video information, but not broadcast
television. VSAT provides communication support for a wide range of operations as high speed
internet access, virtual private network, telemetry and data collection (Karen & Tanialakepa,
2022). Computer algorithm is necessary in satellite communications because of the numerous
positive impacts it brought to the modern world (Jacek, 2020).

Using data and algorithms to simulate how individuals learn while continually improving its
accuracy, machine learning is a branch of artificial intelligence (AI) and computer science
(Sebastian, 2022). In machine learning, algorithms are taught to analyze enormous data sets for
patterns and correlations, and then use that information to determine the best course of action and
predictions. Machine learning algorithms build a model utilizing sample data, sometimes
referred to as training data, in order to provide predictions or decisions without being explicitly
trained to do so. Machine learning algorithms are used in a variety of industries, such as
medicine, email filtering, voice recognition, agriculture, and computer vision, to address issues
when conventional approaches are neither practicable or practical (Sebastian, 2022).

Artificial neural networks (ANN), often known as "deep learning" algorithms, are a subset of
machine learning that take their cues from how the brain functions and is organized. Deep
learning has advantages as well as disadvantages. Because it works well with unstructured data
like video clips, documents, sensor data, and webcams, among other types of unstructured data,
it has advantages over other learning methods that make it more preferable for successful results.
It is significantly more efficient than other methods of machine learning since it handles difficult
issues, as well as eliminates overheads through parallel computation (Mostafa, 2023).
This study, aims to fill the gap from the reviewed literatures especially as suggested and limited
by some related reviews which in turns forms the objectives of this study through using deep
learning techniques and algorithms in gathering knowledge and understanding of remote sensing
satellite image contents (Yuzhen, 2022), effectively applying the deep learning to enhance
intelligence gathering using satellite images of varying resolutions, while addressing the
challenges associated with data quality, scalability, and interpretability and improve image
classification in terms of effectiveness, especially speed and accuracy (Nidhi & Hojat, 2022).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The use of satellite images of varying resolutions for intelligence-gathering purposes has shown
potential, and the application of deep learning techniques to analyze these images has further
enhanced their values. However, there are still challenges that need to be addressed, such as data
quality, scalability, and interpretability. Therefore, the problem addressed in this study is to
explore how deep learning techniques can be effectively applied to enhance intelligence
gathering using satellite images of varying resolutions, while addressing the challenges
associated with data quality, scalability, and interpretability.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this study is to investigate how deep learning methods may improve intelligence
collection using satellite photos with various resolutions. The following objectives have been set
up to accomplish this goal.

i. To assess the effectiveness of deep learning approaches for object recognition and
classification in different resolutions of satellite pictures.
ii. To look at how well deep learning methods work for seeing and tracking changes in
various resolutions of satellite photos.
iii. To evaluate the precision of deep learning approaches for classifying and mapping land
cover using satellite pictures with different resolutions.
iv. To examine the potential of deep learning techniques for disaster management and
response using satellite images of varying resolutions.
v. To explore the feasibility of deep learning techniques for military and security
applications using satellite images of varying resolutions.
1.4 Significance of the Study

The study's importance can be attributed to its desire to the advancement of intelligence
gathering techniques through the use of deep learning and satellite imagery. The study is
particularly relevant in the current era where there is an increase in the availability of satellite
imagery, and the need for timely, accurate, and reliable intelligence is crucial for decision-
making in various sectors such as disaster management, security and defense, and land
management. The motivation behind this study is to classify high and low resolutions in satellite
imaging and predict all the points in the research questions to know the resolution it represent (as
most of the reviewed studies are on high resolutions). In other words to learning and creating
new things in satellite communications is also an intrest in this study, achieving the desired goal
within the budgeted scope and timeline.

1.5 Scope

The project will concentrate on utilizing deep learning methods to improve intelligence
collections using different resolution satellite photos. Object identification and classification,
change detection and monitoring, land cover classification and mapping, disaster management
and response, as well as military and security applications, are just a few of the deep learning
approaches that will be covered in the research. The study will also concentrate on the
difficulties in applying deep learning methods to the processing of satellite images and suggest
new lines of inquiry.

1.6 Research Questions:

The study's research questions are as follows:

i. How successful are deep learning algorithms for classifying and detecting objects in
satellite photos with different resolutions?
 ii. How successful are deep learning methods for spotting changes in satellite photos with
different resolutions?
iii. How accurate are deep learning algorithms for classifying and mapping land cover using
different-resolution satellite images?
iv. What is the potential of deep learning techniques for disaster management and response
using satellite images of varying resolutions?
v. Is it feasible to use deep learning techniques for military and security applications using
satellite images of varying resolutions?

1.7 Expected Research Contribution

Insights into the efficiency of deep learning approaches for satellite image processing will be
provided by the study, which is anticipated to make a contribution to the field of intelligence
collection. The study is also anticipated to offer useful advice for using deep learning methods in
a variety of fields, including disaster management, security and defense, and land management.

1.8 Research Gap/Limitation

Although deep learning approaches have been used in prior studies to analyze satellite photos,
further study is needed to determine how well these techniques can be used to improve
intelligence collection from satellite images with different resolutions which most of the
approach has been on high-resolution image, therefore the researcher is building on the existing
model to predict both high and low-resolution images. By offering empirical proof of the
efficiency of deep learning approaches for numerous applications in satellite image processing,
this paper intends to close this research gap.

To achieve the stated objectives, the following steps will be taken:

1. Collect satellite images of varying resolutions for the study area.

2. Preprocess the satellite images to remove noise, correct for geometric distortions and
radiometric errors, and resample the images to a common resolution if necessary.
3. Annotate the satellite images with ground truth data for object detection and
classification, land cover classification and mapping, and change detection and
monitoring.
 4. Divide the satellite images into training, validation, and testing datasets.
5. Train deep learning techniques like convolutional neural networks (CNNs), recurrent
neural networks (RNNs), and/or generative adversarial networks using the training
datasets for each objective (GANs).
6. Use metrics like accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score to evaluate the deep learning
algorithms' performance on the validation dataset.
7. Fine-tune deep learning models based on the evaluation results.
8. Test the final deep learning models on the testing dataset to assess their generalization
performance.
9. Where appropriate, contrast the performance of deep learning models with that of
conventional machine learning methods and/or human experts.
10. Analyze and interpret the results, draw conclusions, and make recommendations for
future research and practical applications.

1.8 Proposal Organization

This proposal work is organized into three parts. Chapter 1 covers the study's history, problem
description, goals and objectives, importance, scope, research questions, anticipated research
contributions, proposal structure, and definition of words. The review of relevant studies and the
research gaps from the previous study are covered in chapter two. Chapter three is the
methodology, research processes and plans, research design, population of the study, sampling
techniques and sampling sizes, methods of data collections, methods of data analysis, plan of
work and time schedule, resources with conclusion and references.

1.9 Definition of Terms

Artificial intelligence (AI):refers to a computer's or a robot's ability to do tasks that are

traditionally performed by intelligent individuals (Capeland, 2023).

Artificial Neural Networks:A computational model called an artificial neural network (ANN)
imitates how nerve cells function in the human brain. (Teclopedia, 2023).

Computer Algorithm: is a procedure or instruction input into a computer that enables it to solve
problems of the processes and delivering the intelligence (Eman, 2021).
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN):are feed-forward networks that are typically used to
evaluate visual pictures by processing data in a grid-like structure. CNNs are a subset of machine
learning (Talal, 2022).

Data:is the structured representation of a fact notion with instructions that should be appropriate
for human or electronic machine processing, interpretation, and communication (Totorial point
2023).

Deep Learning: Artificial neural networks, or "deep learning" algorithms, are an area of
machine learning that are inspired by the structure and operation of the brain. (Mostafa, 2022).

Intelligent Gathering: Is a step in the intelligent circle that involves gathering the information
to be used in other stages of process of delivering the intelligent products to the relevant decision
makers (Zhihao, 2021).

Machine Learning: Machine learning field focuses on using data and algorithms to simulate
how people learn, gradually increasing the accuracy of its predictions. (Sabestian, 2022).

Multispectral Images: Images acquired in various broad wavelength bands of the visible near-
infrared and short wave infrared spectrum are utilized to monitor several objects. (Fang, 2022).

Panchromatic Images: Integrates the information from a visible red (R), green (G), and blue
(B) to produce an integrated band with high spatial resolution that is black and white and does
not contain wavelength-specific information. (Fang, 2022).

Remote Sensing: The science of remote sensing involves gathering data about an item or region
from a distance, usually using airplanes or satellites. (Marciano, 2020).

Satellite: Is an object which has been sent to in other to collect information or to be part of a
communication system (Ijas, 2022).

Very Small Aperture Terminal: A very tiny earth station called a VSAT is used to send and
receive data, audio, and video signals through a satellite communication network, but not
broadcast television. (ICT report 2023).
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The use of deep learning algorithms to improve intelligence collection using satellite photos of
various resolutions is covered in this chapter's assessment of the literature. The conceptual
framework, theoretical framework, and empirical review are the three components that make up
this chapter.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

The field of improving intelligence gathering for satellite images of varying resolutions using

deep learning techniques is gaining significant attention from researchers. This conceptual

framework provides a brief overview of the fundamental concepts and terminologies associated

with this field. Satellite photos are captured by satellites circling the planet from space and can

be used for various purposes, including environmental monitoring, weather prediction, and

military intelligence (Khandelwal, 2021). The resolution of a satellite image determines the level

of detail that can be captured, with high-resolution photos providing more detailed information

compared to low-resolution photos (Shaw, et al., 2020). Deep learning algorithms are employed

in this field to learn from data and identify patterns in satellite images (Ji, 2020). Convolutional

neural networks (CNNs) are commonly used for image identification tasks, with the first layer of

a CNN consisting of filters that identify fundamental elements such as edges and corners, while

subsequent layers detect more intricate patterns (Long, et al., 2020). Transfer learning is another
important concept in this field, which involves starting a new task with a pre-trained deep

learning model to assist in cases where little training data is available (Yuan, et al., 2020).

Enhancing intelligence collection involves mining useful data from satellite photos of varying

resolutions using deep learning algorithms. This data can be used for various applications, such

as catastrophe management, environmental monitoring, and military intelligence (Khandelwal,

2021). For example, satellite images can be used to identify and monitor natural disasters such as

hurricanes and wildfires (Zhou et al., 2021). They can also be used to monitor environmental

factors such as deforestation, air pollution, and water quality (Wang, et al., 2021). Significant

progress has been made in this field in recent years, with notable authors contributing to the

development of new algorithms, tools, and techniques that can extract valuable insights from

satellite images. Xiaoyong, (2021) proposed a novel deep learning framework that combines

CNNs and graph convolutional networks for building detection from satellite images. Tengfei et

al., (2020) proposed a multi-scale fusion network for accurate classification of high-resolution

satellite images. Xiaohui et al., (2020) proposed a deep learning approach that uses both spatial

and spectral features for hyperspectral image classification.

Finally, improving intelligence gathering for satellite images of varying resolutions using deep

learning techniques has become an important area of research. This conceptual framework

provides a basic understanding of the key concepts and terminologies related to this field and

highlight the significant contributions made by notable authors in this area. As the field

continues to evolve, it is likely that new algorithms, tools, and techniques will be developed that

can further improve the accuracy and effectiveness of deep learning-based intelligence gathering

from satellite images. The contributions have helped to develop new algorithms, tools, and

techniques that can extract valuable insights from satellite images of these notable authors
include Xiaoyong et al., (2021); Wang et al., (2020); Zhang et al., (2021) & Chen et al., (2020),

among others.

2.2.1 Satellite Imaging and Remote Sensing

Satellite images are digital representations of the surface of the globe made from spectral data
collected by sensors on dedicated spacecraft. These images are easily accessible across the world
from both commercial and governmental sources (Fang et al., 2022). It is composed of
panchromatic and multispectral pictures, or high- and low-resolution images (Fang et al., 2022).
They keep an eye on the physical environment as well as the shifting human footprint throughout
the globe (water, air, land, and vegetation). Satellite photography may be used to quantify,
identify, and monitor human activities. For instance, just a few of the many industries that
employ satellite images include meteorology and weather forecasting, fishing, oceanography,
agriculture, conservation, forestry, landscape analysis, geology, mapping, regional planning,
environmental evaluation, intelligence, warfare, and education. Education textbooks include
satellite imagery.

Satellite imaging and remote sensing have become increasingly important tools for
understanding and managing the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and oceans. In recent years, several
notable authors have made significant contributions to this field, developing new algorithms for
processing and analyzing remote sensing data and applying these techniques to various
applications. Zhu et al., (2021), developed an algorithm for estimating biomass using synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) data; this contribution is very significant in remote sensing. The algorithm
was tested on data collected from the Amazon rainforest, and the results showed that it could
accurately estimate biomass with an error of less than 10%. They also developed algorithms for
monitoring urban areas using SAR data and has applied these techniques to various applications,
including monitoring land subsidence and detecting urban sprawl. In another study, Tuia et al.,
(2020) developed novel machine learning algorithms for analyzing remote sensing data, a deep
learning algorithm for classifying land use using high-resolution satellite images. The algorithm
was tested on data from several European countries and achieved an overall accuracy of over
90%. This study also saw to a development of algorithms for forest monitoring using remote
sensing data, and the work has applications in forest management and conservation.
Leila et al., (2022) in University of Maryland developed algorithms for processing and analyzing
spatial data. In their study, they developed a framework for analyzing flood risk using remote
sensing data. The framework integrates data from various sources, including satellite images and
digital elevation models, to generate flood hazard maps. They also developed algorithms for
urban planning, disaster management, and environmental monitoring using remote sensing data.
Daniele et al., (2020) developed a network-based approach for analyzing brain imaging data.
Their approach involves constructing a network of brain regions and analyzing the network
properties to identify patterns of brain activity. The work had implications for the diagnosis and
treatment of neurological disorders. In addition to these notable authors, several other researchers
have made significant contributions to the field of satellite imaging and remote sensing. For
example, Zhang & Qi, (2020) developed algorithms for analyzing multispectral remote sensing
data, with applications in crop monitoring and environmental monitoring. Moreover, satellite
imaging and remote sensing are important tools for understanding and managing the Earth's
surface, atmosphere, and oceans. Notable authors such as Zhu et al., (2021); Tuia et al., (2020);
De et al., (2020) & Marinazzo (2020) have made significant contributions to this field,
developing new algorithms for processing and analyzing remote sensing data and applying these
techniques to various applications. With the increasing importance of these technologies, it is
likely that we will continue to see significant contributions from researchers in this field when
the future comes.

2.2.2 Deep Learning Techniques

Deep learning techniques have revolutionized the field of machine learning in recent years.
These techniques involve the use of artificial neural networks with multiple layers to process and
analyze large amounts of data, often achieving state-of-the-art performance on various tasks. In
this article explores notable authors who have made significant contributions to deep learning
techniques from 2020 to the present day. Yann et al., (2020) developed an algorithm called
Contrastive Predictive Coding (CPC) for unsupervised representation learning. The algorithm
involves predicting future representations of data points from current representations,
encouraging the network to learn meaningful representations of the data. CPC achieved state-of-
the-art performance on several benchmarks, demonstrating the effectiveness of unsupervised
learning for representation learning.
Fei et al., (2022) developed an algorithm called Attention-based Object Discovery (AOD) for
object detection in images. AOD uses attention mechanisms to focus on important regions of an
image, allowing for more accurate and efficient object detection. They also developed algorithms
for image classification, scene understanding, and visual question answering.

Ian, (2020) in a study on field of deep learning, developed an algorithm called VQ-VAE (Vector
Quantized Variational AutoEncoder) for image compression. VQ-VAE uses a combination of
deep neural networks and vector quantization to achieve high-quality compression of images.
He also developed algorithms for image synthesis, natural language processing, and
reinforcement learning.

Karen et al., (2021), developed an algorithm called Co-Scale Convolutional Networks for
semantic segmentation. The algorithm used a combination of convolutional neural networks and
scale-space theory to achieve high-quality semantic segmentation of images. They also
developed algorithms for image classification and object detection, with applications in medical
imaging and autonomous driving.

Andrew et al., (2022) developed an algorithm called L-GAN (Latent Generative Adversarial
Networks) for image synthesis. L-GAN uses a combination of deep neural networks and latent
variables to generate high-quality images. They also developed algorithms for speech
recognition, natural language processing, and computer vision, with applications in healthcare,
education, and robotics. Besides these notable authors, several other researchers have made
significant contributions to the field of deep learning. Moreover, work done by Jia et al., (2021)
developed an algorithm called Routed Fusion for 3D reconstruction from multiple 2D views.

Deep learning techniques have been rapidly evolving in recent years and have become popular in
various domains, including computer vision, natural language processing, speech recognition,
and many others. We will explore some of the most popular deep learning techniques used in
various applications.

1. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs): The most popular deep learning method in
computer vision is CNNs. By applying non-linear activation functions to the picture and
convolving filters over it, they are made to learn spatial hierarchies of characteristics
 from images. In a variety of computer vision tasks, such as picture classification, object
identification, semantic segmentation, and many more, CNNs have demonstrated state-
of-the-art performance (Zhang, et al.,(2020); Wang, et al (2020) & Li, et al (2020).

2. Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs): By processing one input at a time and utilizing
the previous output as input for the next time step, RNNs are made to handle sequential
data, like text or voice. They have attained state-of-the-art performance on a variety of
natural language processing tasks, including machine translation, sentiment analysis, and
speech recognition. They are able to capture the temporal relationships in the data
(Hochreiter & Schmidhuber, 2020).

3. Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs): A subset of deep learning models called

GANs was developed with the goal of creating new data samples that mimic training
examples. A GAN is made up of two neural networks: a generator network that generates
fresh samples and a discriminator network that aims to distinguish betweenn real samples
and ones that have been created artificially. In the production of text, movies, and
graphics, GANs have achieved exceptional results (Karras et al., 2020).

4. Autoencoders: Autoencoders are neural networks designed for unsupervised learning of

representations by learning to encode the input into a compressed representation and then
decoding it back to the original input. They can learn meaningful representations of the
input data and have been used for various applications, including image denoising, image
inpainting, and anomaly detection (Zhang et al., 2020).

5. Transfer Learning: A deep learning approach called transfer learning involves applying
a model that has already been trained to a new problem. Pre-trained models are often
developed using big datasets, and they have acquired beneficial skills that may be applied
to new tasks using a smaller dataset. Speech recognition, natural language processing,
and computer vision are a few areas where transfer learning has been applied (Pan &
Yang, 2020).

6. Attention Mechanisms: Attention mechanisms are a class of deep learning techniques

that enable the model to selectively focus on important regions of the input data. They
have been used in various applications, including machine translation, image captioning,
 and object detection. Attention mechanisms have significantly improved the performance
of deep learning models and have become an essential component in many state-of-the-
art models (Chen, et al., 2020).

7. Reinforcement Learning: Reinforcement learning is a deep learning technique that

involves an agent interacting with an environment to learn how to make decisions that
maximize a reward signal. Reinforcement learning has been used in various applications,
including game playing, robotics, and autonomous vehicles (Kaelbling, et al., 2020).

According to Fei, (2022), there are different attribute and characteristics that deep learning is
made up of among which are;
i. Processing big workloads requires a significant number of resources (powerful graphics
processing unit). Big data processing is required to handle enormous amounts of
organized and unstructured data. Depending on how much data is being put in,
processing data may occasionally take longer.
ii. Cost/minimization functions: They determine how accurately and predictably the model
performs. The objective of a deep learning model is to reduce cost over prior iterations
for each libration. According to the various techniques employed, mean absolute error,
mean square error, Hinge loss, and cross entropy are distinct types.
iii. Improving hyper parameters: Hyper parameters, such as the number of epochs, batch
sizes, layers, and learning rates, need to be properly adjusted for successful model
accuracy since they link layer predictions to final output predictions. Hyper-parameters
can also effectively control overfitting and underfitting.
iv. A large number of layers in the model, such as input activation, will require the output.
Occasionally, the output of one layer can be used as the input of another layer by making
a few small discoveries, and these discoveries are then combined in the soft max layer to
determine a more comprehensive classification for the final output.

According to Valeryia, (2021), Deep learning has some merits over other learning and such
merits are;

i. It uses Keras and Tensor flow to extract features more quickly and addresses
complicated issues like audio processing in Amazon Echo, picture recognition, etc.
 ii. It is possible to do parallel computation, which lowers overheads.
iii. Models can be trained on enormous amounts of data, and they become better as more
data is added.
iv. Unstructured data such as video clips, documents, sensor data, webcam, etc., works
well.
v. High-quality output as compared to human through rigorous training.
vi. It might be linear or non-linear and develop into any system.
vii. It is significantly more efficient than other machine learning strategies. Independent in
carrying out next engineering.

According to Valeryia, (2021)Deep learning also has some demerit attached to it;

i. Lack of flexibility.
ii. Needs lots of data, thereby uses lots of resources.
iii. It is difficult to compare its result to those of handcraft techniques.
iv. The amount of time needed to ensure an effective training process is limited.
v. It is challenging to evaluate its performance in real – world application.
vi. It is difficult to comprehend.

Last but not least, deep learning techniques have transformed the machine learning sector and are
now crucial in many applications. A few of the numerous deep learning approaches utilized in
diverse disciplines include convolutional neural networks, recurrent neural networks, generative
adversarial networks, autoencoders, transfer learning, attention mechanisms, and reinforcement
learning (Valeryia, 2021). These methods are always changing, and new methods are being
created to address more challenging issues.

2.2.3 Intelligence Gathering

Intelligence gathering is the process of collecting, analyzing, and disseminating information

about potential threats or opportunities (Bertino & Paci, 2020). It is an essential part of national
security and law enforcement, as well as business intelligence and competitive analysis. With the
increasing availability of data and technological advancements, intelligence gathering has been
significantly enhanced in recent years. One of the significant developments in intelligence
gathering is the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning techniques. AI algorithms
can analyze large volumes of data from multiple sources, including social media, satellite
imagery, and open-source intelligence. AI can identify patterns and anomalies in the data, which
can provide valuable insights for intelligence gathering. For example, AI algorithms can analyze
social media data to identify potential threats or monitor public sentiment about a particular
issue. Bertino & Paci, (2020) discussed the uses of blockchain technology in intelligence
gathering. Blockchain can provide secure and decentralized storage of intelligence data, which
can enhance the sharing of information between agencies and countries. Blockchain can also
provide immutable records of the data, ensuring that the data is not tampered with or altered.

Another development in intelligence gathering is the use of open-source intelligence (OSINT).

OSINT refers to publicly available information that can be collected from various sources,
including social media, news articles, and government reports. OSINT can provide valuable
insights into potential threats or opportunities, and it can be collected at a lower cost than
traditional intelligence-gathering methods. Blei & Borello, (2021) discussed the use of OSINT
and highlight the importance of properly analyzing and verifying the data to ensure its accuracy.
The use of satellite imagery for intelligence gathering has also significantly enhanced in recent
years. High-resolution satellite imagery can provide valuable information about potential threats,
including military deployments, infrastructure development, and natural disasters. Zhang & Liu,
(2020) discussed the use of deep learning techniques for analyzing satellite imagery. The authors
demonstrate that deep learning techniques can accurately detect and classify various objects in
the satellite imagery, including vehicles, buildings, and roads. In addition to technological
advancements, collaboration and information sharing between agencies and countries are critical
for successful intelligence gathering. Kaplan & Holzbach, (2021) discussed the importance of
intelligence sharing, the authors highlight the challenges and benefits of intelligence sharing and
argue that effective intelligence sharing can enhance national security and prevent potential
threats.

Finally, ethical considerations in intelligence gathering have become increasingly important in

recent years. Milburn & Warren, (2020) discussed ethical considerations particularly in the
context of AI and machine learning. The authors argue that ethical considerations, including
privacy, transparency, and accountability, must be incorporated into the development and use of
AI in intelligence gathering. Intelligence gathering has significantly enhanced in recent years
with technological advancements, including AI and machine learning, blockchain, open-source
intelligence, and satellite imagery. Collaboration and information sharing between agencies and
countries, as well as ethical considerations, are also critical for successful intelligence gathering.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

A rapidly developing research area has the potential to significantly enhance both national
security and intelligently collecting the use of deep learning algorithms to improve intelligence
gathering utilizing satellite photos of various resolutions. Deep learning methodologies and
satellite images can be used to produce insightful data that improves intelligence gathering's
precision and effectiveness. As it may give comprehensive information on the activities of
possible threats, such as military deployments, infrastructure development, and natural disasters,
satellite imagery is a crucial source of information for intelligence gathering. Nevertheless, it
takes a lot of time and effort to manually analyze a lot of satellite imagery. Convolutional neural
networks (CNNs) and recurrent neural networks (RNNs) are examples of deep learning
approaches that may automate the analysis of satellite data and produce more accurate and
trustworthy findings. Since they can learn to detect patterns and characteristics in the pictures,
CNNs are particularly helpful for evaluating satellite photos (Zhang & Liu, 2020) which goes
through how deep learning methods, such as CNNs, may be used to analyze satellite images. The
authors show that deep learning methods can precisely locate and categorize a wide range of
satellite images items, including automobiles, structures, and roadways. Before using deep
learning algorithms, the authors stress the value of pre-processing satellite imagery to improve
the quality of the pictures.

RNNs can also be used for analyzing satellite imagery to identify temporal patterns and changes
over time as (Huang & Zhang, 2021) discuss the use of RNNs for analyzing satellite imagery to
identify changes in agricultural land use. The authors demonstrate that RNNs can effectively
capture the temporal patterns in the satellite imagery and provide accurate predictions of future
land use. The resolution of satellite imagery is also an important consideration for intelligence
gathering. Higher-resolution images can provide more detailed information, but they are often
more expensive and require more processing power. Zhang & Qi, (2020) discussed the use of
deep learning techniques for analyzing satellite imagery of varying resolutions. The authors
demonstrate that deep learning techniques can effectively analyze satellite imagery at different
resolutions and provide accurate results. One of the challenges of using deep learning techniques
for analyzing satellite imagery is the need for large amounts of labeled data. Labeling satellite
imagery data is a time-consuming and expensive task. Guo & Zhang, (2021) discussed the use of
semi-supervised deep learning techniques for analyzing satellite imagery. The authors
demonstrate that semi-supervised deep learning techniques can effectively learn from both
labeled and unlabeled data and provide accurate results.

2.3.1 Image Processing and Analysis

Image processing and analysis is a critical component of enhancing intelligence gathering

through deep learning techniques using satellite images of varying resolutions. Image processing
techniques can enhance the quality of satellite imagery, while image analysis techniques can
extract useful information from the imagery. Zhang & Qi, (2020) discussed the use of image
processing techniques for enhancing satellite imagery. They demonstrated that image processing
techniques, such as denoising and deblurring, can enhance the quality of satellite imagery and
improve the accuracy of subsequent analysis. The authors also highlighted the importance of pre-
processing satellite imagery before applying deep learning techniques to improve the quality of
the imagery. Image analysis techniques, such as feature extraction and object recognition, can
extract useful information from satellite imagery. Huang & Zhang, (2021) discussed the use of
image analysis techniques for identifying changes in agricultural land use. The authors
demonstrated that feature extraction techniques, such as principal component analysis (PCA) and
independent component analysis (ICA), can effectively identify changes in agricultural land use
over time.

Object recognition techniques, such as CNNs, can identify specific objects in satellite imagery,
such as vehicles, buildings, and roads. Zhang & Liu, (2020) explored the use of deep learning
techniques, including CNNs, for object recognition in satellite imagery. They demonstrated that
CNNs can accurately detect and classify various objects in satellite imagery, even in complex
and cluttered environments. Image segmentation techniques can also be used to identify specific
regions of interest in satellite imagery. Guo & Zhang, (2021) discussed the use of image
segmentation techniques for analyzing satellite imagery. Their study showed that image
segmentation techniques can effectively identify regions of interest, such as agricultural fields
and urban areas, in satellite imagery. One of the challenges of image processing and analysis for
satellite imagery is the need for high-performance computing resources. Deep learning
techniques, such as CNNs and RNNs, require significant processing power and can benefit from
parallel processing on high-performance computing systems. Zheng et al., (2020) discussed the
use of parallel computing techniques for analyzing large volumes of satellite imagery. They
justified that parallel computing techniques can significantly reduce the time required for deep
learning analysis of satellite imagery. Image processing and analysis are critical components of
enhancing intelligence gathering through deep learning techniques using satellite images of
varying resolutions. Image processing techniques, such as denoising and deblurring, can enhance
the quality of satellite imagery, while image analysis techniques, such as feature extraction and
object recognition, can extract useful information from the imagery

2.3.2 Deep Learning Models for Satellite Image Analysis

By making it possible to automatically extract information from massive amounts of satellite

images, deep learning models have revolutionized the area of satellite image analysis. Deep
learning techniques for processing satellite image data include convolutional neural networks
(CNNs), recurrent neural networks (RNNs), and generative adversarial networks (GANs). CNNs
are used in (Kaur & Singh, 2021) to classify land use on satellite images. Their study showed
that CNNs are very accurate in classifying various land use categories, including urban regions,
agricultural land, and aquatic features. Zhao, (2020) discussed the use of RNNs to the monitoring
and forecasting of Arctic sea ice concentration. They substantiated that RNNs are capable of
accurately forecasting sea ice concentration up to several weeks in advance, providing crucial
data for climatologists and decision-makers.

GANs have also been used for satellite image analysis, particularly for generating synthetic
satellite images that can be used for training deep learning models. Shen, (2021) explored on the
use of GANs for generating high-resolution synthetic satellite imagery. They demonstrated that
GANs can effectively generate synthetic satellite imagery that is visually similar to real satellite
imagery, using which deep learning models for satellite image interpretation may be trained. In
addition to these deep learning models, satellite image analysis has also used transfer learning.
Transfer learning is the process of modifying already-trained deep learning models for a new
purpose, such as the interpretation of satellite images. Xiaet al., (2020) demonstrated the
effectiveness of transfer learning for satellite image classification, where a pre-trained CNN
model was fine-tuned for classifying different types of land cover in satellite imagery. The
necessity for a lot of labeled training data is one of the difficulties with deep learning models for
satellite image interpretation. The use of active learning approaches was discussed (Dong et al.,
2021) as a means of lowering the volume of labeled data necessary for deep learning model
training for satellite image interpretation. The authors showed that the quantity of labeled data
needed to train deep learning models may be greatly decreased while keeping good accuracy by
using active learning approaches. Deep learning models have also demonstrated significant
promise for satellite image analysis, allowing the automatic information extraction from massive
amounts of satellite footage. The discipline still has problems, though, such the need for a lot of
labeled data and the need for resources for high-performance computation.

2.3.3 Data Fusion Techniques

Data fusion techniques refer to the integration of information from multiple sources to enhance
the quality and accuracy of the resulting data. In the context of satellite image analysis, data
fusion techniques can be used to combine information from different sensors or different types of
satellite imagery, such as optical and radar imagery. Katuri & Venkata, (2020) discussed on the
use of data fusion techniques for land cover mapping using satellite imagery. In their study, they
verified that combining information from optical and radar satellite imagery can improve the
accuracy of land cover mapping, particularly in regions with high cloud cover or vegetation
density. Kumar et al., (2021) discussed the use of data fusion techniques for monitoring crop
health using satellite imagery. They upholds that combining information from multiple sources,
including optical and thermal satellite imagery and ground-based sensors, can provide more
accurate and comprehensive information on crop health than using a single source of data.

The use of machine learning methods like support vector machines (SVMs) and random forests
to merge data from many sources is one of the other data fusion strategies for satellite image
analysis (Gill, 2021). Using optical and radar satellite photos showed the efficacy of SVM-based
data fusion algorithms for land cover categorization. The study of satellite image data may
potentially make use of deep learning models for data fusion by Zhang, et al., (2020) Used
optical and radar satellite photos to prove how to classify land use using a deep learning-based
data fusion model. They confirmed how their model of data fusion performs better than
conventional methods of data fusion, such principal component analysis and decision-level
fusion. Using data fusion techniques to analyze satellite images presents a number of obstacles,
including the requirement for precise registration and alignment of the many data sources. In
addition to outlining the need of precise registration for data fusion (Belgiu & Dragut, 2021),
they provided a technique for automatically registering optical and radar satellite images. Data
fusion techniques have showed great potential for enhancing the quality and accuracy of satellite
image analysis by combining information from multiple sources. However, the field still faces
challenges, such as the need for accurate registration of the different sources of data and the
development of effective data fusion models that can handle large volumes of satellite imagery.

2.4 Object Detection and Classification

Critical tasks in satellite image processing include object recognition and categorization.
Applications include everything from disaster response and national security to urban planning
and monitoring land usage. Deep learning algorithms have recently demonstrated considerable
potential for enhancing the precision and effectiveness of object recognition and categorization
in satellite photos. The use of deep learning models, such as convolutional neural networks
(CNNs), for object recognition and classification in satellite photos is covered by Gill et al.,
(2020). They justified how well their suggested CNN-based model works for identifying and
categorizing various land cover categories in optical satellite images (Vignesh, 2021) covered the
topic of using deep learning models to identify and categorize damage left behind by natural
catastrophes like landslides and floods in satellite data. They proved that their suggested
approach, which applies transfer learning and CNNs to identify damaged infrastructure and
buildings in satellite pictures, can do so with accuracy. A deep learning-based approach for
recognizing and tracking ships in satellite photos was proposed by Xiong & Zhang, (2020),
making them two other significant writers in the subject of object identification and classification
in satellite imaging. They established that both optical and synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
satellite pictures may be used to detect and track ships with accuracy. For object recognition and
classification in satellite images, various deep learning models including recurrent neural
networks (RNNs) and long short-term memory (LSTM) networks have also been applied. For the
purpose of identifying and categorizing road networks in high-resolution satellite pictures, (Oh,
2021) present a hybrid RNN-LSTM model. The lack of labeled training data, especially for
uncommon or rare items, is one of the difficulties in object recognition and classification in
satellite photography. In order to increase model accuracy, Liu et al., (2021) presented a semi-
supervised learning method for object recognition in satellite images that blends a smaller
quantity of labeled data with a greater number of unlabeled data. Deep learning models,
particularly CNNs, have shown great promise for object detection and classification in satellite
imagery.

2.5 Change Detection and Monitoring

With applications ranging from urban planning and environmental monitoring to disaster
response and national security, change detection and monitoring are crucial jobs in satellite
image analysis. Deep learning algorithms have recently demonstrated considerable promise for
enhancing the precision and effectiveness of change identification and monitoring in satellite
imagery. A deep learning-based technique for change detection in satellite images is provided by
the authors (Wei et al., 2020). The scientists used a convolutional neural network (CNN) to
extract features from pairs of satellite photographs taken at different times, and then a support
vector machine (SVM) to classify pixels as changed or unaffected. They justified in terms of
accuracy and processing efficiency that their proposed method outperforms well-established
change detection strategies. Kim et al., (2021) provided deep learning-based method for tracking
urban expansion using satellite photos in a paper from 2021. Based on previous satellite photos,
the authors use CNNs and recurrent neural networks (RNNs) to forecast future urban growth
trends. The authors verified how their suggested method may precisely forecast urban growth
patterns in various places across the globe.

Li & Chen, (2020) are two more prominent writers in the area of change detection and
monitoring in satellite images, they suggested a deep learning-based strategy for identifying and
monitoring forest disturbances. They used a combination of CNNs and a random forest classifier
to identify forest disturbances like logging and wildfires in satellite images. In addition to CNNs
and RNNs, other deep learning models like auto encoders and generative adversarial networks
(GANs) have also been used for change detection and monitoring in satellite photos. Cui et al.
suggested a GAN-based method for spotting and tracking crop development in satellite photos in
a paper from 2021. They exhibit how their suggested method may precisely identify crop growth
patterns and forecast upcoming crop yields. Accurate registration and alignment of satellite
pictures recorded at various times is one of the difficulties in change detection and monitoring in
satellite imaging. In order to register and align pictures, (Kim, et al 2020) offered a deep
learning-based method that makes use of a CNN to extract features from satellite photos and a
Siamese network to match related features across various images.

2.6 Land Cover Classification and Mapping

The classification and mapping of land cover using satellite data is a crucial job in many
applications, including land-use planning, resource management, and disaster response. In recent
years, deep learning algorithms have shown great promise for improving the accuracy and
efficiency of land cover categorization and mapping. Lashkari, (2020) presented a Sentinel-2
satellite-based deep learning approach for categorizing land cover. They first extracted
characteristics from satellite photos using a CNN before classifying the data with a fully
connected layer. They justified that their suggested method performs better than conventional
classification techniques in terms of precision and computing economy. Zhang, et al., (2021),
proposed a deep learning-based approach for land cover mapping using Landsat satellite
imagery. In their study, they used a combination of CNNs and RNNs to classify pixels into
different land cover classes, and then use a conditional random field model for post-processing.
The authors demonstrated that their proposed approach can accurately map land cover at a
regional scale.

Mohajerani et al., (2020) described a deep learning-based technique for mapping urban land
cover classification and mapping using satellite images. After extracting features from satellite
photos using a CNN, they classified the data with a random forest classifier and proved how their
suggested method may precisely and thoroughly map urban land cover at a high resolution.
Other deep learning models, such graph convolutional networks (GCNs), have also been
employed for land cover categorization and mapping in satellite data in addition to CNNs and
RNNs. The requirement for precise and representative training data is one of the difficulties
associated with the land cover classification and mapping using satellite photography. Using
Sentinel-2 satellite images, Li et al., (2020) suggested a deep learning-based method for
producing synthetic training data for land cover categorization. They created fake satellite
pictures with a generative adversarial network (GAN), which are then used to train a CNN to
classify land cover. When compared to using solely real training data, and they suggested
strategy can increase classification accuracy. Using satellite images, deep learning algorithms
have demonstrated considerable promise for land cover categorization and mapping.

2.7 Disaster Management and Response

Disaster management and response is a critical application of satellite imagery, as it allows for
timely and accurate assessment of the extent of damage and the distribution of resources. In
recent years, deep learning models have shown great potential in improving the accuracy and
efficiency of disaster management and response using satellite imagery. Li et al., (2020)
suggested a deep learning-based method for estimating earthquake damage using satellite data.
They first utilize a CNN to extract data from satellite photographs taken before and after the
earthquake, and then they employ a fully connected layer to classify damaged structures. They
showed that their suggested method outperforms conventional approaches and can properly
measure building damage. Huang, (2021) proposed a deep learning-based approach for flood
mapping using satellite imagery. They used a combination of CNNs and RNNs to classify pixels
into different flood categories, and then used a conditional random field model for post-
processing. They showed that their proposed approach can accurately map flood extent and
identify areas at risk. Other notable authors in the field of disaster management and response
using satellite imagery suggested deep learning-based approach for estimating hurricane-affected
areas' damage. They first utilized a CNN to extract characteristics from satellite photos, and then
they classified damaged regions using a support vector machine. The authors demonstrated how
their suggested method might improve disaster response efforts by precisely identifying damaged
regions.

In addition to damage assessment and mapping, deep learning models have also been used for
other applications in disaster management and response using satellite imagery. Huang et al.,
(2021) proposed a deep learning-based approach for early warning of wildfires using Sentinel-2
satellite imagery. They used a CNN to extract features from satellite images, and then used a
random forest classifier for the classification of fire risk areas and demonstrated that their
proposed approach can accurately identify areas at risk of wildfires and support early warning
systems. One of the challenges of using deep learning models for disaster management and
response using satellite imagery is the need for timely and accurate data acquisition. Zhang et al.,
(2020) also proposed a deep learning-based approach for real-time processing of satellite
imagery for disaster response. In their study, they used a lightweight CNN architecture and
propose a data-driven sampling strategy for efficient image processing and showed that their
proposed approach can significantly reduce processing time while maintaining high accuracy.

2.8 Military and Security Applications

Satellite imagery and deep learning techniques have numerous applications in military and
security operations, including target detection, surveillance, and reconnaissance. Deep learning
models have recently demonstrated considerable promise for enhancing the precision and
effectiveness of satellite imagery-based military and security operations. A deep learning-based
method for automated target recognition in satellite pictures is suggested by Zhang et al., (2020).
They first extracted information from satellite pictures using a CNN and categorize targets using
region proposal networks and classification networks. Their results showed that their suggested
strategy outperforms conventional ones and reliably detects targets with excellent accuracy and
recall. A deep learning-based method for object recognition and tracking in satellite movies for
surveillance and reconnaissance applications is proposed by (Liu, st al.,2021). They used a
combination of CNNs and RNNs to extract spatial and temporal features from satellite videos,
and then used an object tracking algorithm for object tracking. They also demonstrated that their
proposed approach can accurately detect and track objects in satellite videos, and support
surveillance and reconnaissance efforts.

Other notable authors in the field of military and security applications of satellite imagery and
deep learning include (Zhao, et al., 2020), who proposed a deep learning-based approach for ship
detection in satellite images. They used a CNN to extract features from satellite images, and then
used a segmentation network and a classification network for ship detection and also
demonstrated that the proposed approach can accurately detect ships and outperforms traditional
methods. In addition to target detection and surveillance, deep learning models have also been
used for other applications in military and security operations using satellite imagery. Li, et al.,
(2021) proposed a deep learning-based approach for automatic recognition of military vehicles in
satellite images. They used a CNN to extract features from satellite images, and then used a
region proposal network and a classification network for vehicle recognition. They also proved
that their proposed approach can accurately recognize military vehicles and support military
operations. One of the challenges of using deep learning models for military and security
applications of satellite imagery is the need for high accuracy and efficiency in real-time
processing. Gao et al., (2020) proposed a deep learning-based approach for real-time object
detection in satellite images. They used a lightweight CNN architecture and propose a region-
based object detector for efficient processing and demonstrated that their proposed approach can
achieve high accuracy and efficiency in real-time processing.

2.9 Challenges and Future Directions

Deep learning algorithms have recently made significant strides, which has prompted interest in
using them to improve intelligence collection through satellite image analysis. Deep learning has
in particular demonstrated promise in a number of applications, including object identification
and classification, change detection and monitoring, land cover classification and mapping,
disaster management and response, as well as military and security applications. A major area of
interest for researchers is the identification and categorization of objects in satellite photos with
various resolutions. An increased interest in using deep learning techniques to improve
intelligence collection through satellite image analysis has resulted from recent developments in
these techniques. Deep learning has particularly demonstrated promise in a number of
applications, including object identification and classification, change detection and monitoring,
land cover classification and mapping, disaster management and response, as well as military
and security applications. Researchers are particularly interested in object recognition and
categorization in satellite photos with various resolutions.

Change detection and monitoring in satellite images is another important application that can
benefit from deep learning techniques. Conventional change detection techniques rely on error-
prone and time-consuming pixel-level comparisons between pictures. Autoencoders and
generative adversarial networks (GANs), which are based on deep learning, have demonstrated
promising results in the detection of changes in satellite pictures. For instance, a deep learning-
based strategy for spotting changes in land cover in satellite pictures was presented in a paper by
(Bao, 2020). The methodology showed deep learning techniques' promise in this application by
achieving excellent accuracy rates in change detection tests. Another significant use of satellite
image analysis is the categorization and mapping of land cover. Recurrent neural networks
(RNNs) and CNNs are examples of deep learning approaches that have been used to accurately
map and classify land cover. Li et al., (2021) showed that a deep learning-based method for
classifying land cover from satellite pictures has been suggested. The approach achieved high
accuracy rates in land cover classification tasks, demonstrating the potential of deep learning
techniques in this application. Deep learning techniques also have potential applications in
disaster management and response using satellite images. For instance, in a study by (Chen, et
al., 2021), a deep learning-based method was proposed for identifying damaged buildings in
post-disaster satellite images. The method achieved high accuracy rates in identifying damaged
buildings, demonstrating the potential of deep learning techniques in this application. In military
and security applications, deep learning techniques can be used for various tasks such as target
detection, reconnaissance, and surveillance. For example, in a study by (Lu, et al., 2020), a deep
learning-based approach was proposed for target detection in satellite images. The approach
achieved high accuracy rates in target detection tasks, demonstrating the potential of deep
learning techniques in this application.

Deep learning approaches in satellite image processing have shown some encouraging results,
but there are still several issues that need to be resolved. The availability of labeled data for deep
learning model training is one of the major obstacles. Deep learning models may also be
computationally demanding and demand high-performance computer capabilities. It can be
challenging to grasp how deep learning models decide what to do; therefore interpretability is
still a big problem. Last but not least, deep learning methods have demonstrated great promise
for improving intelligence gathering through satellite image analysis in a variety of applications,
including object detection and classification, change detection and monitoring, land cover
classification and mapping, disaster management and response, as well as military and security
applications. Further investigation is required.

2.10 Review of Related Studies

The application of machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) in the analysis of remote
sensing satellite imagery has significantly increased in recent years. Developing and enhancing
machine learning algorithms to categorize and extract information from satellite data has
received a significant deal of attention in research. Kislov, (2020) in his study investigated the
use of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) that resemble U-Nets for locating wind throw
regions in South Boreal forests using extremely high resolution satellite images. The study
recommended the adoption of deep learning techniques for improved outcomes in automatic
wind throw detection, even as the results indicated the possibility for effective identification of
wind throw patches using CNNs.

In another similar study, Ayesha et al., (2022) conducted a survey of deep learning techniques
for change detection in remote sensing imagery using deep learning methods to identify changes
in remote sensing photos. They focused on supervised and unsupervised learning for various
change detection datasets, including SAR, multispectral, hyperspectral, VHR, and heterogeneous
images. However, this study ran into difficulties with change detection, particularly when it came
to heterogeneous data, multiple resolution photos, and worldwide data of high-resolution and
large-scale images.

Yintao, (2022) in another study on improved Cascade R-CNN for dike-pond detection based on
high-resolution satellite images applying enhanced Cascade R-CNN models with high-resolution
satellite photos to locate dike-ponds. The study showed that deep learning techniques and high-
resolution satellite data have the ability to detect integrated farm systems. It encountered
difficulties in developing a machine learning algorithm that was fast and efficient enough and
identified ways to get around these restrictions.

Machine learning techniques have been shown to be essential for swiftly and properly
categorizing data in satellite pictures. For lithological mapping using remote sensing data,
convolution neural networks and conventional machine learning models were tested (Hojat,
2022). The study recommended employing convolution neural networks for deep learning
together with support vector machines and multilayer perceptrons for mapping the lithological
units of a mineral-rich area in the southeast of Iran. The usefulness of three different
multispectral remote sensing data types—Sentinel-2, Landsat 8 operational land imager (OLI),
and advanced space borne thermal emission and reflection radiometer—was also investigated in
the study (ASTER). Further ML techniques, such as random forest, naive Bayes, k-nearest
neighbors, and minimum distance may be added to compare the framework's performance with
other ML approaches. SVM, MLP, and CNN hyperparameter optimization can improve the
framework. Moreover, (Nugroho, et al., 2022) discussed combining texture analysis and band
modification of multispectral images to map open-pit mines using machine learning. The study's
use of remote sensing data to map open mine sites was limited to machine learning classification
utilizing the Random Forest approach along with prior Gray-Level Co-occurrence Matrix
(GLCM) and principal component analysis (PCA). Further ML techniques, such as random
forest, naive Bayes, k-nearest neighbors, and minimum distance may be added to compare the
framework's performance with other ML approaches. SVM, MLP, and CNN hyperparameter
optimization can improve the framework.

Table 2.1: Summary of reviewed related, recent and relevant studies.

S/ Author & Title of Research Outcome of Research Limitations

N Year
1 Fang, et al., Application of Monitoring changes in land use The research did not
(2022) Multispectral and land cover, recognizing discuss the cost
Satellite Imagery in vegetation stress, and assessing implications of using
Earth Observation water quality may all be done multispectral satellite
with the use of multispectral imagery
satellite imaging.
2 Hojat, et al., Application of Machine learning algorithms can The research did not
(2022) Machine Learning accurately classify urban land explore the use of
Algorithms for Urban cover using high-resolution other classification
Land Cover satellite images techniques
Classification Using
High-Resolution
Satellite Images
3 Ijas. et al., Satellite The review provides an overview The research did not
(2022) Communication: A of the history and development of provide a detailed
Review satellite communication, the discussion of
various types of satellite emerging trends in
communication systems, and the satellite
challenges faced in satellite communication
communication
4 Jacek, (2020) Computer The research discusses the The research did not
Algorithms in opportunities and challenges of provide a detailed
Satellite using computer algorithms in discussion of the
 Communication: satellite communication, such as limitations of using
Opportunities and improving signal processing and computer algorithms
Challenges reducing power consumption in satellite
communication
5 Jenifer, Solar Energy The research presents a solar The research did not
(2022) Management System energy management system that discuss the scalability
for Satellite can be used to power satellites, of the system
reducing the reliance on non-
renewable energy sources
6 Karen, & A Survey of VSAT The survey provides an overview The research did not
Tanialakepa, Communication of the features, benefits, and explore the use of
(2022) System limitations of Very Small Aperture other satellite
Terminal (VSAT) communication communication
systems systems
7 Marcelo, et Object-Based Image Object-based image analysis can The research did not
al., (2021) Analysis of Satellite accurately detect changes in discuss the
Images to Detect urban land use and land cover limitations of object-
Urban Land using satellite images based image analysis
Use/Land Cover
Changes
8 Mostafa, et Deep Learning The research presents the benefits The research did not
al., (2023) Algorithms: Benefits and drawbacks of using deep discuss the
and Drawbacks learning algorithms, such as limitations of using
improving accuracy and reducing deep learning
the need for feature engineering algorithms in satellite
imagery analysis
9 Nidhi, et al., A Comparative Study The research compares the The research did not
(2022) of Machine Learning performance of different machine explore the use of
Algorithms for Land learning algorithms in classifying other classification
Use and Land Cover land use and land cover using techniques
Classification Using high-resolution satellite images
 High-Resolution
Satellite Images

10 Yuzhen, et A New Machine Proposed a new machine learning Limited sample size
al., (2022) Learning Approach approach that outperformed of the dataset used
to Remote Sensing traditional methods in remote in the study
Image Content sensing image classification
Understanding

11 Fang, et al., The applications of Provided a comprehensive review Limited to satellite

(2022) satellite images in of the applications of satellite imagery and does
environmental images in environmental studies, not consider other
studies: A review including disaster monitoring, types of data sources
climate change research, and
urban planning

12 Tuia et al., Deep learning in Provided a comprehensive review Limited to the use of
(2020) remote sensing: A of the applications of deep deep learning
review learning in remote sensing, techniques and does
including image classification, not consider other
object detection, and semantic machine learning
segmentation approaches

13 De, et al., A multi-layer Proposed a multi-layer framework Limited to flood risk

(2022) framework for flood for flood risk analysis that analysis and may not
risk analysis based integrates satellite and DEM data be applicable to
on satellite and DEM other environmental
data studies

14 Schmullius, SAR data for forest The study reviews the current The study is a review
 (2020) applications: a state of using synthetic aperture and does not provide
review of progress radar (SAR) data for forest new empirical
monitoring and management, research results.
including forest height and
biomass estimation, forest
structure characterization, and
forest disturbance detection. The
study also discusses the potential
of using SAR data in combination
with other remote sensing data
sources and machine learning
techniques to improve forest
monitoring and management.

15 Fei, (2022) Attention-based The research proposes a new The method may be
Object Discovery for method for object detection in computationally
Object Detection in images based on attention expensive and may
Images mechanisms. The method uses a require large
two-stage approach, where the amounts of training
first stage discovers potential data.
object regions using a saliency
detection network, and the
second stage classifies and refines
the object regions using an
attention-based network.
Experimental results show that
the method outperforms several
state-of-the-art object detection
methods on several benchmark
 datasets.

16 Ian, (2020) Generating Diverse The research proposes a new The model may
High-Fidelity Images generative model called Vector require a large
with VQ-VAE-2 Quantized amount of training
VariationalAutoencoder (VQ-VAE- data and may be
2) for synthesizing high-fidelity computationally
images with diverse styles. The expensive.
model uses a codebook of
discrete latent variables to
represent the image style and a
continuous latent space to
represent the image content.
Experimental results show that
the model can generate high-
quality images with diverse styles
and can be used for various
image synthesis tasks.

17 Karen, Co-Scale The research proposes a new The method may be

(2021) Convolutional architecture for semantic computationally
Networks for segmentation of images based on expensive and may
Semantic co-scale convolutional networks require a large
Segmentation (CoConv). CoConv uses a multi- amount of training
scale approach to combine the data.
features from different scales and
improve the segmentation
performance. Experimental results
show that CoConv outperforms
 several state-of-the-art semantic
segmentation methods on several
benchmark datasets.

18 Blei & "Open-Source OSINT provides valuable insights Challenges in OSINT

Borello, Intelligence (OSINT): for intelligence analysis, and the include the
(2021) A Review of use of advanced analytical overwhelming
Methods, techniques such as machine volume of
Challenges, and learning can enhance OSINT information, the lack
Opportunities." IEEE capabilities. of data quality
Transactions on control, and ethical
Intelligent Systems, concerns related to
vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 4- privacy and security.
15, Jan. 2021.

19 Zhang & Liu, Deep Learning for Deep learning techniques have Challenges in
(2020) Satellite Imagery shown promising results in satellite imagery
Analysis: A Review." satellite imagery analysis tasks analysis include the
IEEE Geoscience and such as object detection, land use high dimensionality
Remote Sensing classification, and change and variability of the
Magazine, vol. 8, no. detection. data, the lack of
4, pp. 60-76, Dec. labeled data for
2020. training, and the
need for domain-
specific knowledge.

20 Zhang & Liu, A Deep Learning A deep learning approach based The approach
 (2020) Approach to Object on convolutional neural networks requires large
Detection in Satellite can achieve high accuracy in amounts of labeled
Imagery." object detection in satellite data for training and
International Journal imagery. may suffer from
of Remote Sensing, limited
vol. 41, no. 6, 2020, generalizability to
pp. 2219-2239. different types of
objects and satellite
imagery data.

21 Huang & A Recurrent Neural Developed a model using Limited sample size
Zhang, Network Approach recurrent neural networks to and lack of
(2021) to Identifying identify changes in agricultural comparison with
Agricultural Land land use from satellite imagery other models
Use Change from with high accuracy
Satellite Imagery

22 Zhang & Qi, Deep Learning for Reviewed the applications of Lack of detailed
(2020) Satellite Imagery deep learning in satellite imagery technical analysis and
Analysis: A Review analysis and discussed current limited focus on
challenges and future research specific applications
directions

23 Guo & Semi-Supervised Reviewed the applications of Limited focus on

Zhang, Deep Learning for semi-supervised deep learning in specific applications
(2021) Satellite Imagery satellite imagery analysis and and lack of technical
Analysis: A Review discussed current challenges and details
future research directions
24 Zhang & Qi Enhancing satellite Developed a model for enhancing Limited discussion of
(2020) imagery using image satellite imagery using image potential applications
processing processing techniques with high and lack of
techniques accuracy comparison with
other models

25 Huang & Image analysis for Developed a model for identifying Limited sample size
Zhang, identifying changes changes in agricultural land use and lack of
(2021) in agricultural land from satellite imagery with high comparison with
use from satellite accuracy other models
imagery

26 Zhang, & Object recognition in Achieved high accuracy in object The study only
Liu, (2020) satellite imagery recognition using deep learning focused on a limited
using deep learning techniques number of object
techniques categories

27 Guo, & Image segmentation Developed a new image The study only tested
Zhang, for analyzing satellite segmentation method that the new method on
(2021) imagery outperforms existing methods limited datasets

28 Zheng, et Parallel computing Showed that parallel computing The study did not
al., (2020) for deep learning can significantly speed up deep compare the
analysis of satellite learning analysis of satellite performance of
imagery imagery different parallel
computing methods

29 Kaur, & Land use Achieved high accuracy in land The study only tested
Singh, classification in use classification using the proposed
 (2021) satellite imagery convolutional neural networks method on a limited
using convolutional dataset
neural networks

30 Shen, et al., Generative Developed a new method for The study did not
(2021) adversarial networks generating high-resolution compare the quality
for generating high- synthetic satellite imagery of the generated
resolution synthetic imagery with real
satellite imagery satellite imagery

31 Xia, et al., A deep transfer Achieved high accuracy in land The study only tested
(2020) learning approach cover classification using a deep the proposed
for land cover transfer learning approach approach on a
classification from limited dataset
multispectral
imagery

32 Dong, et al., Active learning for Highlighted the potential of The study did not
(2021) deep learning in active learning for improving the compare the
satellite image efficiency of deep learning in performance of
analysis: A review satellite image analysis different active
learning metho
33 Katuri, & Land cover mapping Data fusion techniques can Difficulty in selecting
Venkata, using data fusion improve land cover mapping the appropriate
(2020) techniques: a review. accuracy. fusion method for
specific applications.
34 Kumar, et Data fusion Data fusion techniques can Challenges in
al., (2021) techniques for improve crop health monitoring identifying the most
monitoring crop accuracy. suitable data sources
 health using satellite and fusion methods
imagery: a review. for specific crop
types and
environmental
conditions.
35 Gill., et al., A comparative SVM-based data fusion Difficulty in selecting
(2021) analysis of support techniques can achieve higher the optimal
vector machine- classification accuracy than combination of
based data fusion individual data sources. features and kernel
techniques for land functions for SVM.
cover classification
using optical and
radar satellite
imagery.
36 Zhang, et al., A deep learning- Deep learning-based data fusion The method may
(2020) based data fusion can significantly improve land use require large
model for land use classification accuracy. amounts of training
classification using data and
optical and radar computational
satellite imagery. resources.
37 Belgiu, & Automatic Automatic registration techniques Limited availability of
Dragut, registration of can improve data fusion accuracy high-quality ground
(2021) optical and radar and efficiency. control points and
satellite imagery for reference data may
data fusion: a review. affect registration
accuracy.
38 Gill, et al., Land cover CNNs can achieve higher The method may
(2020) classification in classification accuracy than require a large
optical satellite traditional machine learning amount of training
imagery using methods. data and
convolutional neural computational
 networks. resources, and its
performance may be
affected by factors
such as image
resolution and data
quality.

40 Vignesh, et Deep learning based The study demonstrates the The study was
al., (2021) damage assessment effectiveness of using transfer conducted on a
from satellite images learning for assessing damage limited dataset and
using transfer from satellite images, which can further evaluation is
learning help in disaster management and needed on larger
response. datasets to confirm
its effectiveness.

41 Xiong, & Ship detection and The study proposes a method for The proposed
Zhang, tracking in satellite detecting and tracking ships in method has some
(2020) images based on satellite images using a limitations in
optical and synthetic combination of optical and detecting small ships
aperture radar synthetic aperture radar data, and ships in crowded
which can be useful for maritime areas.
surveillance and security.

42 Oh, et al., Hybrid RNN-LSTM The study proposes a hybrid The proposed
(2021) model for road model for detecting and method requires a
network detection classifying road networks in high- large amount of
and classification in resolution satellite imagery, which labeled data for
high-resolution can be useful for urban planning training, which can
satellite imagery and transportation management. be time-consuming
and expensive to
 obtain.

43 Liu, et al., Semi-supervised The study proposes a semi- The proposed

(2021) learning for object supervised learning approach for method still requires
detection in satellite object detection in satellite a small amount of
imagery imagery, which can improve labeled data for
detection performance while training and may not
reducing the need for labeled be suitable for all
data. applications.

44 Wei et al., Change detection in The study proposes a method for The proposed
(2020) satellite images change detection in satellite method requires a
using deep learning images using a combination of large amount of
and support vector deep learning and support vector labeled data for
machine machine, which can be useful for training and may not
monitoring environmental perform well on
changes and urban development. certain types of
changes.
45 Vignesh, et Deep learning based Proposed a deep learning-based Limited evaluation of
al., (2021) damage assessment approach for damage assessment the model's
from satellite images using satellite imagery, achieving performance on real-
using transfer high accuracy. world scenarios.
learning.
46 Xiong & Ship detection and Developed a ship detection and Limited evaluation of
Zhang, tracking in satellite tracking method using optical the method's
(2020) images based on and synthetic aperture radar performance in
optical and synthetic images, with high accuracy and different
aperture radar. efficiency. environmental
conditions.
47 Oh, et al., Hybrid RNN-LSTM Proposed a hybrid RNN-LSTM Limited evaluation of
(2021) model for road model for road network detection the model's
network detection and classification, outperforming performance in
and classification in existing methods. different
high-resolution environmental
satellite imagery. conditions.
48 Liu, et al., Semi-supervised Proposed a semi-supervised Limited evaluation of
(2021) learning for object learning approach for object the model's
detection in satellite detection, achieving high performance in
imagery. accuracy with limited labeled detecting small
data. objects.
49 Wei et al., Change detection in Proposed a change detection Limited evaluation of
(2020) satellite images method using deep learning and the method's
using deep learning support vector machine, performance in
and support vector achieving high accuracy. detecting small
machine. changes.
50 Kim et al., Deep learning-based Developed a deep learning-based Limited evaluation of
(2021) urban expansion model for urban expansion the model's
forecasting using forecasting, outperforming performance in
satellite imagery. existing methods. different urban areas.
51 Li & Chen, A deep learning- Proposed a deep learning-based Limited evaluation of
(2020) based approach for approach for detecting and the method's
detecting and monitoring forest disturbances, performance in
monitoring forest achieving high accuracy. different forest types.
disturbances using
satellite images.
52 Cui et al., A GAN-based Developed a GAN-based Limited evaluation of
(2021) approach for crop approach for crop growth the model's
growth monitoring monitoring and prediction, performance in
and prediction using achieving high accuracy. different crop types.
satellite images.
53 Kim et al., Deep learning-based Proposed a deep learning-based Limited evaluation of
(2020) image registration method for image registration the method's
and alignment for and alignment, achieving high performance in
change detection in accuracy. different
satellite imagery. environmental
conditions.
54 Lashkari, et Deep learning-based Proposed a deep learning-based Limited evaluation of
al., (2020) classification of land approach for land cover the model's
cover using Sentinel- classification, outperforming performance in
2 satellite imagery. traditional methods. different land cover
types.

55 Liu, et al., A deep learning- Achieved high object detection Limited evaluation on
(2021) based approach for accuracy on benchmark datasets real-world satellite
object detection in images
satellite images

56 Vignesh, et Deep learning based Accurately identified damaged Limited to damage

al., (2021) damage assessment regions in satellite images assessment and
from satellite images transfer learning
using transfer approach
learning

57 Xiong, & Ship detection and Successfully detected and tracked Limited to ship
Zhang, tracking in satellite ships in satellite images using detection and
(2020) images based on multi-modal data tracking
optical and synthetic
aperture radar

58 Oh, et al., Hybrid RNN-LSTM Achieved high accuracy in Limited evaluation on

 (2021) model for road detecting and classifying road large-scale real-
network detection networks in satellite images world images
and classification in
high-resolution
satellite imagery

59 Liu, et al., Semi-supervised Achieved high object detection Limited evaluation on

(2021) learning for object accuracy using a small amount of real-world satellite
detection in satellite labeled data images
imagery

60 Wei et al., Change detection in Achieved high accuracy in Limited evaluation on

(2020) satellite images detecting land cover changes in real-world satellite
using deep learning satellite images images
and support vector
machine

61 Kim et al., Deep learning-based Accurately predicted urban Limited to urban

(2021) urban expansion expansion using satellite images expansion
forecasting using forecasting
satellite imagery

62 Li & Chen, A deep learning- Successfully detected and Limited to forest

(2020) based approach for monitored forest disturbances disturbances
detecting and using satellite images detection and
monitoring forest monitoring
disturbances using
satellite images
67 Cui et al., A GAN-based Achieved high accuracy in crop Limited to crop
(2021) approach for crop growth monitoring and prediction growth monitoring
growth monitoring using satellite images and prediction
and prediction using
satellite images

68 Kim et al., Deep learning-based Successfully registered and Limited to image

(2020) image registration aligned satellite images for registration and
and alignment for change detection change detection
change detection in
satellite imagery

69 Lashkari, et Deep learning-based Accurately classified land cover Limited to land cover
al., (2020) classification of land using Sentinel-2 satellite imagery classification and
cover using Sentinel- Sentinel-2 satellite
2 satellite imagery imagery

70 Zhang, et al., A deep learning- Achieved high accuracy in land Limited to land cover
(2021) based approach for cover mapping using Landsat mapping and
land cover mapping satellite imagery Landsat satellite
using Landsat imagery
satellite imagery

71 Zhang, et al., Deep learning-based Real-time processing of satellite Limited evaluation of

(2020) real-time processing imagery for disaster response the proposed
of satellite imagery using deep learning techniques method on only one
for disaster response dataset

72 Zhang, et al., Automated target Automated target recognition in Lack of comparison

 (2020) recognition in satellite images using deep with other methods
satellite images learning
using deep learning

73 Zhao, et al., Ship detection in Ship detection in satellite images Limited evaluation of
(2020) satellite images using deep learning techniques the proposed
based on deep method on only one
learning dataset

74 Li, et al., Automatic Automatic recognition of military Limited evaluation of

(2021) recognition of vehicles in satellite images using the proposed
military vehicles in deep learning method on only one
satellite images dataset
using deep learning

75 Gao, et al., Real-time object Real-time object detection in Limited evaluation of

(2020) detection in satellite satellite images using deep the proposed
images using deep learning method on only one
learning dataset

76 Cheng, et al., Ship detection in Ship detection in high-resolution Limited evaluation of

(2020) high-resolution remote sensing images using the proposed
remote sensing deep learning techniques method on only one
images via deep dataset
learning

77 Bao, et al., Deep learning-based Change detection in multi- Limited evaluation of

(2020) change detection in temporal remote sensing images the proposed
multi-temporal using deep learning techniques method on only one
 remote sensing dataset
images

78 Li, et al., An improved deep Improved land-cover classification Limited evaluation of

(2021) learning-based from Sentinel-2 imagery using the proposed
approach for land- deep learning techniques method on only one
cover classification dataset
from Sentinel-2
imagery

79 Chen, et al., Automatic Automatic identification of Limited evaluation of

(2021) identification of damaged buildings in post- the proposed
damaged buildings disaster remote sensing images method on only one
in post-disaster using deep learning techniques dataset
remote sensing
images via deep
learning

80 Lu, et al., Automatic target Automatic target detection in Limited evaluation of

(2020) detection in high- high-resolution remote sensing the proposed
resolution remote images using deep learning method on only one
sensing images dataset
using deep learning
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction
This is on research process, research design, population of the study, sapling techniques, and
sampling sizes, methods of data analysis, plan of work, time schedule and the resources to be
used in the study.
 Data collection

Testing and
validation of Methodology Data analysis
proposed model

Model development
using python
programming
language

Figure 3.1: Diagrammatic representation of the methods to be applied in the study

3.1 Research Design

The purpose of this research is to improve intelligence gathering for satellite images of varying
resolutions using deep learning techniques. In particular, this study aims to explore the potential
of deep learning techniques to extract valuable information from high-resolution satellite images
that can aid in intelligence gathering. The following will outline the steps to achieving our
proposed
i. Literature Review: Literature reviews of recent related and relevant literatures on satellite
images, deep learning, machine learning and remote sensing, to identify limitations to
solve.
ii. Data Collection & Analysis: Data collection & Analysis will be done from the data to be
collected from NARSDA using ResNet, ArcGIS software, and some other external
source like Kaggle dataset, NASA etc,
iii. Model Development using Deep Learning: Model development will be done using
python programming language architectures. Model will be implemented using deep
learning techniques such as convolutional neural networks; new machine learning
 techniques, in other to validate the performance of the data collected and will be tested
and validated for efficiency of the model to be proposed
iv. Evaluation of Deep Learning Techniques: The effectiveness of the selected deep learning
techniques will be evaluated by training the models on the collected satellite images and
evaluating their performance against a set of predefined metrics. The metrics will include
accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score.
v. Conclusion and Future Research: Conclusion and future research will be done from the
output of the study and suggest a future research on low and high resolution of satellite
images based on machine learning.

Figure 3.2 Diagrammatic representation of the research design

3.2 Methodology
The methodology for this study involves the use of deep learning techniques to develop models
for satellite image analysis. To begin, a dataset of labeled satellite images of varying resolutions
will be collected from reliable sources. The proposed methodology for improved intelligence
gathering using deep learning techniques from satellite images of varying resolutions can be
broken down into the following steps:

 Data Collection: The first step involves collecting a large and diverse dataset of satellite
images of different resolutions from various sources. The dataset should be
comprehensive and cover different types of terrains, environments, and weather
conditions.

 Data Preprocessing: The next step is to preprocess the collected dataset to remove any
noise, artifacts, and other unwanted elements. This includes adjusting brightness,
contrast, and sharpness, removing clouds, and geometrically correcting the images.

 Annotation: The annotated images are then prepared, which involves labeling each pixel
in the image with its corresponding class. This labeling can be done manually or using
automated techniques.

 Model Selection: The next step is to select an appropriate deep learning model that can
effectively learn the features of the annotated images. The model should be capable of
handling varying resolutions, and its architecture should be optimized for the specific
task at hand.

 Model Training: The selected model is then trained on the annotated dataset using
suitable optimization algorithms and loss functions. The training process involves
adjusting the model parameters to minimize the prediction errors and achieve high
accuracy.

 Model Evaluation: Once the model is trained, it is evaluated using a separate dataset that
was not used during training. This helps in assessing the generalization capabilities of the
model and its performance on unseen data.
  Fine-tuning: In case the model does not perform well on the evaluation dataset, it can be
fine-tuned by adjusting the hyperparameters, changing the architecture, or retraining the
model with more data.

 Deployment: Once the model is trained and evaluated, it can be deployed for intelligence
gathering using satellite images of varying resolutions. The model can be integrated with
a user-friendly interface to make it easier for analysts to interact with the system and
obtain the required information.

Figure 3.3 Research Methodology

3.3 Procedure for Data Collection
In this study, the data will be collected from the National Space Research and Development
Agency (NASRDA) and publicly available satellite image datasets. The datasets will be chosen
based on their suitability for the research questions and objectives of the study. The selected
datasets will be pre-processed to enhance their quality and prepare them for deep learning
analysis. The pre-processing will include tasks such as image registration, image normalization,
and data augmentation to increase the size and diversity of the dataset. The labeled satellite
images will be used to develop and train the deep-learning models. The labeling process will
involve the manual annotation of the satellite images to identify the features of interest such as
buildings, roads, and other infrastructure. This will enable the deep learning models to accurately
identify and classify the features in the satellite images.

3.4 Tool(s) and Instrument(s) used for Data Collection

ArcGIS software is a powerful tool for managing, analyzing, and visualizing geographic data. It
enables the user to process large datasets, perform complex spatial analyses, and create detailed
maps and visualizations. By utilizing this software, the researchers will be able to extract
valuable information from the satellite images collected from NASRDA. Python programming
language is a popular choice for data manipulation and analysis due to its versatility, ease of use,
and wide range of libraries and packages. In this study, Python will be used to preprocess the
data and images collected from NASRDA, including cleaning, filtering, and transforming the
data into a format that is suitable for analysis. Python's image processing libraries, such as
OpenCV and Pillow, will be utilized to manipulate and analyze the satellite images. These
libraries allow for tasks such as image filtering, edge detection, and feature extraction, providing
valuable insights into the characteristics of the environment captured by the images. The
combination of ArcGIS software and Python programming language provides a powerful set of
tools for analyzing and interpreting satellite images, allowing researchers to gain a deeper
understanding of the environment and how it is changing over time.

3.5 Validity and Reliability of the Instrument for Data Collection

To ensure the validity and reliability of the instrument for data collection, this study will rely on
established deep learning frameworks such as TensorFlow, Keras, and PyTorch, which are
widely used in the field of satellite image analysis. These frameworks have been validated by
previous studies and have demonstrated high levels of accuracy and reliability in deep learning
applications. Furthermore, rigorous testing procedures will be implemented to evaluate the
validity and reliability of the deep learning models developed in this study. These testing
procedures will include cross-validation, which involves partitioning the dataset into training and
testing sets, and evaluating the performance of the models on the testing set. Additionally, the
models will be evaluated using various performance metrics such as accuracy, precision, recall,
and F1 score.

Finally, the use of established deep learning frameworks and rigorous testing procedures will
ensure the validity and reliability of the instrument for data collection in this study, and the
results obtained from this study will be credible and applicable in the field of intelligence
gathering through satellite image analysis.

3.6 Population of the Study and Sampling Size

As the population for this study is satellite images of varying resolutions, the sample size will be
determined based on the availability of labeled satellite images. The study will aim to collect a
representative sample of labeled satellite images, covering a range of resolutions, to train and
evaluate the deep learning models. The sample size will be large enough to ensure the models are
adequately trained and evaluated, but also small enough to ensure computational feasibility.
The National Space Research and Development Agency (NASRDA) is an agency under the
Federal Ministry of Science and Technology in Nigeria. The agency is responsible for the
development and utilization of space science and technology for the socio-economic
development of the country. In order to achieve its goals, NASRDA collects various forms of
data, including satellite images with high and low resolutions. The collection and interpretation
of data from NASRDA will involve the use of various tools and software such as ArcGIS and
NASA. ArcGIS is a geographic information system (GIS) software that enables the user to
manage, analyze and visualize geographic data. NASA, on the other hand, is a United States
government agency that is responsible for the civilian space program, aeronautics, and aerospace
research.Kaggle Dataset is a platform that provides access to a wide range of datasets for
machine learning and data analysis. The use of Kaggle Dataset will allow for the integration of
NASRDA data with other relevant datasets from around the world.The focus of the data
collection will be on satellite images with high and low resolutions. High-resolution images will
provide detailed information on specific locations, while low-resolution images will provide a
broader view of larger areas. The interpretation of these images will provide insights into various
aspects of the environment, such as land use, vegetation cover, and water bodies.
Finally, the collection and interpretation of data from NASRDA, along with other relevant
datasets, will enable researchers to gain a deeper understanding of various aspects of the
environment and how they are changing over time.

3.7 Sampling Techniques

In order to effectively analyze and interpret the data collected from satellite images, it is
important to apply appropriate sampling techniques. Sampling involves selecting a subset of data
from a larger population to represent the characteristics of that population. The sampling
technique that will be applied in this project is based on the data collected from various sources
such as the National Space Research and Development Agency (NASRDA), NASA, Kaggle
Dataset, among others. A simple random sampling technique will be used to select 50000 images
from the available dataset. This involves randomly selecting images from the entire database,
with every image having an equal chance of being selected. The use of a random number
generator can simplify the selection process and help ensure that the sample is representative of
the population.

In addition to simple random sampling, a cluster sampling technique can also be employed. This
involves dividing the population into clusters or groups based on geographic or other
characteristics, and then selecting a random sample of clusters to analyze. This technique can be
useful when working with large datasets, as it can help to reduce the amount of data that needs to
be analyzed while still providing a representative sample. The sampling size is made up of both
low and high-resolution satellite images. The low-resolution images provide a broad overview of
larger areas, while the high-resolution images offer more detailed information on specific
locations. By including both types of images in the sample, a more comprehensive understanding
of the environment can be gained.The use of appropriate sampling techniques can help to ensure
that the data collected from satellite images is representative of the larger population, and that the
insights gained from this data can be applied to real-world scenarios.

3.8 Method of Data Analysis

In this study, ArcGIS software will be used to extract images from the data sources. The digital
images obtained will be subjected to quantitative analysis, using techniques such as image
processing and pattern recognition to extract data and information from the images. This
approach will enable researchers to measure image properties and make probabilistic statements
based on the extracted information (Jennifer, 2022). To classify the algorithms in terms of
efficiency, a Deep Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) will be used due to its high accuracy as
a supervised type of deep learning, and its effectiveness in image recognition and classification
of data. CNN is a type of neural network that uses kernels as building blocks to extract relevant
features from the input using convolution operations (Xiaoxiong, 2022). These extracted features
are then used for classification purposes.

CNNs have been successfully applied in various image-related applications, such as object
detection, image segmentation, and image classification. The use of CNN in this study will
enable researchers to achieve high accuracy in image classification, while maintaining the
efficiency of the algorithm in terms of speed. Other methods for image classification may also be
explored, depending on the availability of data and the research progress. For instance,
researchers may consider using machine learning algorithms such as Support Vector Machines
(SVMs), Random Forests, or K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN) for classification purposes (Aravind,
2021). The choice of method will depend on the specific requirements of the research project,
and the characteristics of the data being analyzed.

Finally, the combination of ArcGIS software, image processing techniques, and deep learning
algorithms such as CNN will provide a powerful set of tools for analyzing and interpreting
satellite images. The results obtained from this study will provide valuable insights into the
environment and how it is changing over time.

3.9 Performance Metrics

The performance evaluation of deep learning models is crucial to determine their effectiveness in
extracting information from satellite images. In this study, four performance metrics will be used
to evaluate the developed models: accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score. These metrics have
been widely used in similar studies and are considered reliable for model performance
evaluation.

Accuracy is a commonly used metric that measures the proportion of correctly classified samples
over the total number of samples. Precision is the fraction of relevant instances among the
retrieved instances, while recall is the fraction of relevant instances that are retrieved. The F1-
score is the harmonic mean of precision and recall and provides a more balanced assessment of
model performance. The use of these metrics in evaluating the performance of deep learning
models for satellite image analysis has been reported in several studies. For instance, Shaw et al.
(2020) evaluated the performance of their developed deep learning model for high-resolution
satellite image analysis using accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score. Similarly, Zhang et al.
(2021) used these metrics to evaluate the performance of their deep learning-based approach for
land cover mapping using Landsat satellite imagery. The selection of these metrics is based on
their ability to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the model's performance. They allow for
the identification of model weaknesses and strengths, which can guide improvements to enhance
model performance. Additionally, they enable comparability with previous studies that have used
similar metrics, providing a basis for benchmarking and advancing the state-of-the-art in deep
learning-based satellite image analysis.

In conclusion, the use of accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score as performance metrics in this
study will provide a comprehensive evaluation of the developed deep learning models'
effectiveness in extracting useful information from satellite images of varying resolutions.

3.10 Evaluation of Model Performance

The evaluation of model performance is a critical aspect of this study as it will help determine
the effectiveness of the deep learning models in analyzing satellite images of different
resolutions. By comparing the performance of the models trained on images of varying
resolutions, the study will provide insights into the impact of image resolution on the accuracy,
precision, recall, and F1-score of the models. This evaluation will not only help identify the best-
performing model but also provide valuable information for future studies in the field of satellite
image analysis using deep learning techniques.

3.11 Ethical Consideration

This study will adhere to ethical considerations such as the use of publicly available datasets and
the protection of individual privacy. The study will ensure that the use of satellite images for
intelligence gathering purposes is in line with established ethical standards.
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents a detailed analysis and discussion of the data collected for improved

intelligence gathering from satellite images using deep learning techniques. The analysis

involves examining the characteristics of the dataset, exploring the preprocessing and annotation

procedures, discussing the model-building process, applying transfer learning techniques, and

evaluating the performance of the developed models. The findings obtained from this analysis

provide insights into the effectiveness and potential of the proposed approach.

4.2 Dataset Description

To begin, we provide a comprehensive description of the satellite image dataset used in this

study. The dataset comprises a diverse collection of satellite images captured from various

sources and covering different geographical locations. The images exhibit a wide range of

resolutions, capturing both low-resolution scenes and high-resolution scenes with fine-grained

information. The dataset is carefully curated to include a variety of environments, such as urban

areas, rural regions, and natural landscapes, ensuring a representative sample for intelligence-

gathering tasks.
4.3 Data Preprocessing and Annotation

In this section, we discuss the preprocessing steps applied to the satellite images before model

training. The preprocessing techniques aim to enhance the quality of the images, remove noise,

and normalize the pixel values to facilitate effective model learning. Additionally, we describe

the annotation process employed to create a ground truth for training and evaluation purposes.

The annotation process involves labeling objects of interest, enabling the deep-learning models

to learn to recognize and classify these features accurately.

4.4 Model Building

The model-building process is a crucial step in developing an effective intelligence-gathering

system. In this section, we outline the architecture of the deep learning models employed for this

study. The models are based on convolutional neural networks (CNNs), which have proven to be

highly effective in image analysis tasks. We provide details about the layers, activations, and

parameters utilized in the models to extract relevant features from the satellite images. The

model-building process involves training the models using the annotated dataset and optimizing

the model's performance through iterative experimentation. Table 4.1 shows the summary of the

model

Table 4.1 Model Summary

Layer (type) Output Shape Param #

conv2d (None, 254, 254, 16) 448

max_pooling2d (None, 127, 127, 16) 0

conv2d_1 (None, 125, 125, 32) 4,640

max_pooling2d_1 (None, 62, 62, 32) 0

conv2d_2 (None, 60, 60, 16) 4,624

max_pooling2d_2 (None, 30, 30, 16) 0

flatten (None, 14,400) 0

dense (None, 256) 3,686,656

dense_1 (None, 1) 257

 Total params: 3,696,625

Trainable params: 3,696,625

Non-trainable params: 0

This table represents the layers of a neural network model along with their corresponding output

shapes and the number of parameters (Param #) associated with each layer. Here's an explanation

of each row:

 conv2d: This is a convolutional layer that takes an input of shape (None, 254, 254, 16)

(where None represents the batch size). It applies a convolution operation and produces

an output of shape (None, 254, 254, 16). It has 448 parameters.

 max_pooling2d: This is a max-pooling layer that takes the output from the previous

convolutional layer as input, which has a shape of (None, 254, 254, 16). It performs a

max-pooling operation and produces an output of shape (None, 127, 127, 16). This layer

has no trainable parameters (Param # is 0) since it performs a fixed operation.

 conv2d_1: This is another convolutional layer that takes the output from the previous

max-pooling layer as input, which has a shape of (None, 127, 127, 16). It applies a

convolution operation and produces an output of shape (None, 125, 125, 32). It has 4,640

parameters.
 max_pooling2d_1: This is another max-pooling layer that takes the output from the

previous convolutional layer as input, which has a shape of (None, 125, 125, 32). It

performs a max-pooling operation and produces an output of shape (None, 62, 62, 32).

Similar to the previous max-pooling layer, it has no trainable parameters.

 conv2d_2: This is yet another convolutional layer that takes the output from the previous

max-pooling layer as input, which has a shape of (None, 62, 62, 32). It applies a

convolution operation and produces an output of shape (None, 60, 60, 16). It has 4,624

parameters.

 max_pooling2d_2: This is another max-pooling layer that takes the output from the

previous convolutional layer as input, which has a shape of (None, 60, 60, 16). It

performs a max-pooling operation and produces an output of shape (None, 30, 30, 16).

Once again, it has no trainable parameters.

 flatten: This layer takes the output from the previous max-pooling layer, which has a

shape of (None, 30, 30, 16), and flattens it into a 1D tensor of shape (None, 14,400). It

has no parameters.

 dense: This is a fully connected (dense) layer that takes the flattened output from the

previous layer, which has a shape of (None, 14,400), and produces an output of shape

(None, 256). It has 3,686,656 parameters.

  dense_1: This is another fully connected layer that takes the output from the previous

dense layer, which has a shape of (None, 256), and produces a final output of shape

(None, 1). It has 257 parameters.

At the bottom of the table, the total number of parameters in the model is provided, which is

3,696,625. Both the total params and trainable params are the same in this case, indicating that

all

4.4.1 Model Training

The model training process involved training a neural network model over 20 epochs. The model

was trained using a dataset, and the training progress was monitored for loss and accuracy. The

outcome of the training process, including loss, accuracy, validation loss, and validation

accuracy for each epoch, is shown in Table 4.2 and Figure 4 1, 4.2.

Table 4.2 Training Process

Epoch Loss Accuracy Val Loss Val Accuracy

1 0.4391 0.7560 0.3649 0.8151

2 0.3485 0.8162 0.3134 0.8438

3 0.3151 0.8475 0.3238 0.8516

4 0.2625 0.8690 0.2753 0.8828

5 0.2193 0.9018 0.3455 0.8724

6 0.1827 0.9226 0.2697 0.8724

7 0.1656 0.9338 0.1998 0.9115

8 0.2600 0.8951 0.2582 0.8932

9 0.2150 0.9144 0.2723 0.9036

10 0.1661 0.9449 0.2206 0.9141

11 0.1330 0.9531 0.2201 0.9167

12 0.1137 0.9635 0.2114 0.9219

13 0.0997 0.9643 0.1654 0.9401

14 0.0587 0.9821 0.2110 0.9453

15 0.0425 0.9881 0.2322 0.9245

16 0.0273 0.9911 0.3021 0.9427

17 0.0254 0.9903 0.2718 0.9349

18 0.1187 0.9561 0.1934 0.9167

19 0.0755 0.9725 0.2625 0.9297

 20 0.0421 0.9859 0.1695 0.9479

The table shows the training progress of a model over 20 epochs. Each row corresponds to an

epoch and provides the following information:

 Epoch: The epoch number.

 Loss: The training loss, indicating the discrepancy between predicted and actual values.

 Accuracy: The training accuracy, representing the proportion of correctly classified

samples.

 Val Loss: The validation loss, indicating the performance on a separate validation dataset.

 Val Accuracy: The validation accuracy, representing the accuracy on the validation

dataset.

 These metrics allow us to assess the model's performance and its ability to generalize to

unseen data.

To determine the epoch that performs better, we look at the validation accuracy metric. In this

case, the highest validation accuracy achieved is 0.9479, which occurs at Epoch 20. Therefore,

Epoch 20 performs better in terms of validation accuracy compared to the other epochs. The

figure below shows the graphical representation of the above table.

Figure 4.1 Accuracy

Figure 4.2 Loss

4.4.2 Model Performance Evaluation

To evaluate the performance of the developed deep learning models, we employ rigorous

evaluation metrics and techniques. The evaluation metrics include accuracy, precision, and recall

which provide insights into the models' capability to detect and classify high and low-resolution

in satellite images accurately. Table 4.3 shows the outcome of the accuracy, precision, and recall

Table 4.3 Precision, Recall, And Accuracy

Precision 91%

Recall 97%

Accuracy 94%

The table shows the following:

 Precision: Precision measures the proportion of true positive predictions out of all

positive predictions. In this case, a precision of 91% indicates that 91% of the positive

predictions made by the model are correct.

 Recall: Recall, also known as sensitivity or true positive rate, measures the proportion of

true positive predictions out of all actual positive samples. A recall of 97% suggests that

the model correctly identifies 97% of the actual positive samples.

 Accuracy: Accuracy is the overall correctness of the model's predictions. It measures the

proportion of correct predictions (both true positives and true negatives) out of all
 predictions. An accuracy of 94% indicates that the model correctly classifies 94% of all

samples.

These metrics provide insights into different aspects of the model's performance. High precision

indicates a low rate of false positives, high recall suggests a low rate of false negatives, and high

accuracy indicates overall good performance in classification.

4.5 Pre-trained Model on Land Cover Datasets

The pre-trained model for high and low satellite image data was utilized to train and predict land

cover datasets. After 20 epochs of training, the model achieved an impressive accuracy of 90%.

This demonstrates the effectiveness of leveraging pre-existing knowledge from satellite imagery

to accurately classify and identify different land cover types. By leveraging the learned features

from the pre-trained model, the adapted model was able to generalize well and make accurate

predictions on the land cover data. This approach offers a valuable tool for land cover mapping

and monitoring, enabling efficient and accurate analysis of large-scale satellite imagery for

various environmental and geographical applications.

4.6 Pre-trained Model on Disaster Dataset

The pre-trained model for high and low satellite image data was utilized to train and predict the

Disaster dataset comprising different types of disasters. After 20 epochs of training, the model

achieved an impressive accuracy of 92%. This demonstrates the effectiveness of leveraging pre-

existing knowledge from satellite imagery to accurately classify and identify different disaster

types. By leveraging the learned features from the pre-trained model, the adapted model was able

to generalize well and make accurate predictions on the land cover data. This approach offers a
valuable way of detecting and monitoring, enabling efficient and accurate analysis of large-scale

satellite imagery for various disaster applications.

4.7 Pre-trained Model to Detect Military Spot

The pre-trained model for high and low satellite image data was utilized to train and predict

military datasets. After 20 epochs of training, the model achieved an impressive accuracy of

90%. This demonstrates the effectiveness of leveraging pre-existing knowledge from satellite

imagery to accurately classify and identify different military bases. By leveraging the learned

features from the pre-trained model, the adapted model was able to generalize well and make

accurate predictions on the military data. This approach offers a valuable tool for monitoring,

enabling efficient and accurate analysis of large-scale satellite imagery for various military

bases.

4.8 Discussion and Summary

The model-building process is a critical step in developing an effective intelligence-gathering

system. In this study, we focused on leveraging deep learning models based on convolutional

neural networks (CNNs) for analyzing satellite images. CNNs have demonstrated remarkable

performance in various image analysis tasks, making them well-suited for our purposes.Our

model architecture consisted of multiple layers designed to extract meaningful features from the

satellite images. These layers included convolutional layers with filters of different sizes,

activation functions such as ReLU, and pooling layers to reduce spatial dimensions. The

parameters of the model were carefully selected and optimized to ensure efficient feature

extraction and classification.

To train our models, we utilized a dataset that was annotated with land cover information. The

training process involved iteratively adjusting the model's weights based on the annotated data to

minimize the loss and improve accuracy. We monitored the progress of the training process by

observing the loss and accuracy metrics. After training the model for 20 epochs, we analyzed the

performance of the model using evaluation metrics such as accuracy, precision, and recall.

Accuracy measures the overall correctness of the model's predictions, while precision and recall

provide insights into the model's ability to detect and classify high and low-resolution features in

satellite images. The results of our experiments showed promising performance. The model

achieved an accuracy of 90%, indicating its ability to accurately classify different land cover

types. Furthermore, precision and recall metrics of 91% and 97% respectively demonstrated the

model's capability to correctly identify relevant features in satellite images.

The utilization of pre-trained models for high and low satellite image data proved to be

advantageous in training and predicting land cover datasets. By leveraging the pre-existing

knowledge captured in the pre-trained model, we were able to effectively classify and identify

different land cover types with high accuracy. This approach offers a valuable tool for land cover

mapping and monitoring, enabling efficient and accurate analysis of large-scale satellite imagery

for various environmental and geographical applications. In addition to land cover datasets, we

also applied the pre-trained model to disaster datasets and military datasets. In both cases, after

20 epochs of training, the model achieved impressive accuracies of 92% for disaster
classification and 90% for military base detection. These results highlight the versatility and

effectiveness of the pre-trained model in various intelligence-gathering scenarios.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, CONTRIBUTIONS, AND

FURTHER STUDIES

5.1 Summary

The aim of this study was to improve intelligence gathering for satellite images of varying

resolutions using deep learning techniques. Specifically, convolutional neural networks (CNNs)

were employed to extract meaningful features and classify the images. The study utilized pre-

trained models for high and low-resolution satellite images and further trained them on specific
datasets related to land cover, disasters, and military spots. The models were evaluated based on

accuracy, precision, and recall metrics. Results showed that the adapted models achieved

impressive accuracies, with the land cover model reaching 90%, the disaster model reaching

92%, and the military model achieving 90%. These findings demonstrate the effectiveness of

leveraging pre-existing knowledge from satellite imagery and adapting it to specific intelligence-

gathering tasks.

5.2 Conclusion

In conclusion, the area of intelligence collection for satellite photos of various resolutions has

significantly advanced thanks to the use of deep learning techniques, particularly convolutional

neural networks (CNNs). The study achieved precise classification and identification of land

cover, catastrophes, and military sites by leveraging the capabilities of pre-trained algorithms and

honing them on particular datasets. The acquired high accuracy shows that deep learning has the

ability to offer insightful information for a variety of fields, such as environmental monitoring,

disaster management, and military surveillance applications. The process of obtaining

intelligence was greatly aided by the use of pre-trained models. These complicated patterns and

traits associated to high and low resolution photos were caught by these models, which were

originally trained on big datasets with a variety of satellite imagery. They were able to adapt and

specialize in effectively categorizing the desired land cover, disaster categories, and military sites

by fine-tuning the pre-trained algorithms using domain-specific information. The study's findings

have broad ramifications for environmental monitoring. Understanding and managing natural

resources, urban growth, and ecological changes may all be aided by accurate land cover
categorization. For the purposes of preparing for, responding to, and recovering from

catastrophes, the capacity to recognize and categorize various types of disasters using satellite

images offers invaluable insights. Accurate surveillance and identification of military locations

can improve security and strategic planning.

The interpretability and explainability of deep learning models in the context of intelligence

gathering should also be continually improved. Investigating methods for sensitivity analysis and

uncertainty assessment can improve the predictability and transparency of the models, fostering

confidence among stakeholders and end users. The study's results show, in summary, that deep

learning methods, especially CNNs, have enormous promise for enhancing intelligence

collection from satellite photos of various resolutions. The high accuracy and insightful results

obtained pave the path for improvements in applications for environmental monitoring, disaster

management, and military surveillance. Accurate categorization and identification of diverse

traits and events may be accomplished by utilizing pre-trained models and refining them on

particular datasets, leading to better decision-making and effective resource management.

5.3 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed:
  Expand the dataset: To further improve the models' performance, it is recommended to

gather more diverse and extensive datasets for land cover, disasters, and military spots.

This will enhance the models' ability to generalize and make accurate predictions.

 Explore transfer learning: Investigate the use of transfer learning techniques to leverage

pre-trained models from related domains. This could potentially enhance the models'

performance by incorporating knowledge from other fields such as remote sensing or

computer vision.

 Enhance data augmentation: Experiment with more advanced data augmentation

techniques to augment the training dataset. This can help in addressing class imbalance

and improving the models' robustness to variations in satellite imagery.

 Collaborate with domain experts: Collaborate with experts in the fields of land cover

mapping, disaster management, and military surveillance to gain domain-specific insights

and further refine the models' architectures and training methodologies.

5.4 Contribution
This study makes several contributions to the field of intelligence gathering for satellite images:

 Architecture design: The study outlines the architecture of deep learning models based on

CNNs, providing insights into the layers, activations, and parameters used for feature

extraction from satellite images.

 Performance evaluation: Rigorous evaluation metrics such as accuracy, precision, and

recall were employed to assess the models' capabilities in accurately classifying and

identifying features in satellite imagery.

 Adaptation of pre-trained models: The study showcases the effectiveness of adapting pre-

trained models for high and low-resolution satellite images to specific intelligence-

gathering tasks, resulting in improved accuracy.

5.5 Further Studies

Further studies can build upon this research in the following directions:

 Multi-modal intelligence gathering: Investigate the integration of satellite imagery with

other data sources such as aerial images, weather data, or social media feeds. This can

enable a more comprehensive and holistic intelligence gathering approach.

 Real-time analysis: Explore techniques for real-time analysis of satellite images, allowing

for timely detection and response to dynamic events or changes in the environment.
  Uncertainty estimation: Investigate methods to quantify and communicate the uncertainty

associated with the model's predictions. This can enhance decision-making processes by

providing confidence intervals and probability distributions.

 Privacy and ethical considerations: Address the privacy and ethical concerns associated

with intelligence gathering from satellite imagery. Explore ways to balance the benefits

of intelligence gathering with the protection of individual privacy and the adherence to

ethical guidelines.

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