Lecture 10

Marat Siddikov

December 6, 2019
Outline Today’s plan:
Finalize parametric oscillations:
? Parametric resonance* (advanced
topic, see Landau, Section 27)
Motion of the system of particles.
Collisions. Scattering. Cross-
section
Technical notes
Please feel free to interrupt/ask
questions if needed
In case of connection problems, please
use your email for comments
I’ve uploaded the .PDF- file of this
lecture to Aula Virtual

Bibliography:
Symon→Marion→Landau, Fetter-
Walecka
Announcement
I’ve put a short Sample Problem to Aula Virtual. The goal
of the problem below is to let You practice with nonlinear and
forced oscillations which we have seen this week (and for me
your solutions would provide important feedback if we can pro-
ceed to other topics or should revisit “oscillations”). It is op-
tional assignment, not a regular homework (we cannot have
evaluations in December according to the letter of Vice Rec-
tor). If You have questions, please feel free to ask
The mathematical pendulum of length `
oscillates with small amplitude θmax 
1 near its equlibrium. You need
to develop a perturbation theory with
4


. account of ∼ O θ term in the
lagrangian for the case of free oscilla-
tions near equilibrium and for forced os-
cillations (see the .pdf file in Aula Vir-
tual for more details)
Parametric resonance (example we know from childhood)
Up to now we’ve considered a system which If the child seats calmly, the amplitude de-
oscillates freely or under effects of known ex- creases due to dissipative forces (air resistance)
ternal force If the child moves in a certain way, the ampli-
There are systems where external force is not tude might increase despite dissipative forces.
given explicitly but instead the parameters of Formally, child’s motion changes parameters
the system change in a predetermined way of the system (center of mass position `eff (t),
air resistance)
Example from our childhood
 Formally, child’s motion changes parameters
Parametric resonance
of the system (center of mass position `eff (t),
Up to now we’ve considered a system which air resistance)
oscillates freely or under effects of known
external force  
There are systems where external force is d 
m `2 (t)φ̇ + β(t) `eff (t) φ̇ +

not given explicitly but instead changes eff
dt | {z }
 | {z }
parameters of the system Mz vφ

+ m g `eff (t) φ = 0

Without loss of generality can rewrite as

φ̈ + 2α(t)φ̇ + ω 2 (t) φ = 0

g β(t) `˙eff (t)

ω 2 (t) = , α(t) = +
`eff (t) 2m`eff (t) `eff (t)
. The term ∼ φ̇ might be eliminated by trans-
If the child seats calmly, the amplitude de- formation
creases due to dissipative forces
If the child moves in a certain way, the ampli-  Z t 
tude might increase despite dissipative forces. φ(t) → exp − dτ α(τ ) ξ(t)

ξ̈ + Ω2 (t) ξ = 0 (1)
2 2 2
Ω (t) = ω (t) − α (t) − α̇(t)
Parametric resonance
ξ̈ + Ω2 (t) ξ = 0 (1)
Up to now we’ve considered a system which
oscillates freely or under effects of known Ω2 (t) = ω 2 (t) − α2 (t) − α̇(t)
external force
For arbitrary Ω(t) can integrate only numer-
There are systems where external force is
ically.
not given explicitly but instead changes
In many applications the t-dependence is
parameters of the system
weak,

Ω2 (t) = Ω20 (1 + f (t)) , ∀t, f (t)  1.

Assuming that f (t) ∼ λ  1 is small, solve

the equation (1) perturbatively with account
of O(λ)-corrections. Analyze specially the
case when f (t) is a periodic function,
f (t) = f (t + T ) and analyze under what
conditions we may have resonance.

φ̈ + 2α(t)φ̇ + ω 2 (t) φ = 0
 Z t 
φ(t) → exp − dτ α(τ ) ξ(t)
Parametric resonance Z
Up to now we’ve considered a system which ξE (t) + dt G (t − τ )fE (τ ),
oscillates freely or under effects of known
external force  
There are systems where external force is fE (t) = −f (t)Ω20 Ae i Ω0 t + A∗ e −i Ω0 t
not given explicitly but instead changes
parameters of the system Case of periodic perturbation:

X
φ̈ + 2α(t)φ̇ + ω 2 (t) φ = 0 f (t) = f˜n e i ωn t ,
 Z t  n
φ(t) → exp − dτ α(τ ) ξ(t) 2πn
ωn = , fn∗ = f−n
T
ξ̈ + Ω2 (t) ξ = 0 (1) X iω t  iΩ t 
fE (t) = Ω20 f˜n e n Ae 0 + A∗ e −i Ω0 t ,
2 2 2
Ω (t) = ω (t) − α (t) − α̇(t) n

Perturbation theory for weak t-dependence:

(1)
X Ae i Ω0 t
ξF (t) = Ω20 f˜n e i ωn t
Ω2 (t) = Ω20 (1 + f (t)) , ∀t, f (t)  1. − (Ω0 + ωn )2 + Ω20
n
⇒ ξ̈ + Ω20 ξ = −Ω20 f (t)ξ(t) (10 ) !
A∗ e −i Ω0 t
ξ(t) ≈ ξ0 (t) + ξE (t), + .
− (Ω0 − ωn )2 + Ω20
i Ω0 t ∗ −i Ω0 t
ξ0 (t) = Ae +A e ,
hξE (t)i ∼ hf (t)i
Parametric resonance  
X
Up to now we’ve considered a system which fE (t) = Ω20 f˜n e i ωn t Ae i Ω0 t + A∗ e −i Ω0 t ,
oscillates freely or under effects of known n
external force
There are systems where external force is
not given explicitly but instead changes Ae i Ω0 t
(1)
X
parameters of the system ξF (t) = Ω20 f˜n e i ωn t
n − (Ω0 + ωn )2 + Ω20
!
 Z t  A∗ e −i Ω0 t
φ(t) → exp − dτ α(τ ) ξ(t) + .
− (Ω0 − ωn )2 + Ω20

ξ̈ + Ω2 (t) ξ = 0 (1) Can follow with perturbation theory and eval-

(2) (3)
2 2 2 uate ξF , ξF ...,
Ω (t) = ω (t) − α (t) − α̇(t)
Perturbative expansion applicable far from
Case of weak t-dependence: the resonance frequency
q
Ω2 (t) = Ω20 (1 + f (t)) , ∀t, f (t)  1. |ωn | = |2Ω0 | = 4ω02 − β02

(n)
Near resonance frequencies it fails (all ξF
ξ(t) = Ae i Ω0 t + A∗ e −i Ω0 t + ξE (t), are large). Need to consider in detail what hap-
pens close to resonance:

 := ω − 2Ω0 , ||  2Ω0

 Seek for periodic solutions:
Parametric resonance
Up to now we’ve considered a system
which oscillates freely or under effects of ξF (t) = a(t)e i ωt/2 +a∗ (t)e −i ωt/2 , ȧ  Ω a
known external force
There are systems where external force is Non-resonant combination harmonics
not given explicitly but instead changes e ±n ωt/2 are negligible and perturbatievly
parameters of the system
evaluable, omit now
Focus on resonance terms e ±i ωt/2 (equa-
t tions for functions a(t), a∗ (t)):
 Z 
φ(t) → exp − dτ α(τ ) ξ(t)
ω2
! !
2 2 ∗ i ωt/2
ä + i ω ȧ + Ω0 − a + Ω0 f0 a e = 0,
2
ξ̈ + Ω (t) ξ = 0 (1) 4
2
! !
2 ω 2 ∗
Ω2 (t) = ω 2 (t) − α2 (t) − α̇(t) ∗ ∗
ä − i ω ȧ + Ω0 −
∗
a + Ω0 f0 a e
−i ωt/2
= 0.
4
Case of weak t-dependence:
Since e ±i ωt/2 6= 0, we get
Ω2 (t) = Ω20 (1 + f (t)) , ∀t, f (t)  1.
ω2
   
ä + iω ȧ + Ω20 − a + Ω20 f0 a∗ = 0,
Need to consider in detail what happens 4
close to resonance: ω2
   
∗ ∗ 2 ∗ 2 ∗
ä − iω ȧ + Ω0 − a + Ω0 f0 a = 0.
4
 := ω − 2Ω0 , ||  2Ω0
What are the solutions of this system ?
 Seek for periodic solutions:
Parametric resonance
Up to now we’ve considered a system
which oscillates freely or under effects of ξF (t) = a(t)e i ωt/2 +a∗ (t)e −i ωt/2 , ȧ  Ω a
known external force
There are systems where external force is
ω2
   
not given explicitly but instead changes
parameters of the system ä + iω ȧ + Ω20 − a + Ω20 f0 a∗ = 0,
4
2
   
ω
 Z t  ä∗ − iω ȧ∗ + Ω20 − a∗ + Ω20 f0∗ a = 0.
φ(t) → exp − dτ α(τ ) ξ(t) 4

ξ̈ + Ω2 (t) ξ = 0 (1)
a = a0 e st , a∗ = a0∗ e st
2 2 2
Ω (t) = ω (t) − α (t) − α̇(t)
Nontrivial solutions only if
Case of weak t-dependence:
s 2 + isω − Ω0  f0 Ω20
 
2 det ∗ 2 2 = 0,
Ω (t) = Ω20 (1 + f (t)) , ∀t, f (t)  1. f 0 Ω0 s − isω − Ω0 
2
ω2

Need to consider in detail what happens s 2 + Ω20 − + s 2 ω 2 − |f0 |2 Ω40 = 0.
4
close to resonance:
ω2
q
2
 := ω − 2Ω0 , ||  2Ω0 s1,2 = −Ω20 − ± |f0 |2 Ω40 + ω 2 Ω20 .
4
Which sign should we take ?
 Seek for periodic solutions:
Parametric resonance
Up to now we’ve considered a system
which oscillates freely or under effects of ξF (t) = a(t)e i ωt/2 +a∗ (t)e −i ωt/2 , ȧ  Ω a
known external force
There are systems where external force is
not given explicitly but instead changes a = a0 e st , a∗ = a0∗ e st
parameters of the system
Nontrivial solutions only if
 Z t 
s 2 + isω − Ω0  f0 Ω20
 
φ(t) → exp − dτ α(τ ) ξ(t)
det = 0,
f0∗ Ω20 2
s − isω − Ω0 
ξ̈ + Ω2 (t) ξ = 0 (1)
ω2
q
2 2 2
Ω (t) = ω (t) − α (t) − α̇(t) s 2 = −Ω20 − + |f0 |2 Ω40 + ω 2 Ω20
4
Case of weak t-dependence:
|f0 |2 Ω20
≈ − 2 .
Ω2 (t) = Ω20 (1 + f (t)) , ∀t, f (t)  1.
4
Exponential increase of ξ(t) for || < |f0 |Ω0 /2
Need to consider in detail what happens Physical
 amplitude increases
 if e st grows faster
than exp − t dτ α(τ ) ;
R
close to resonance:
Fcase α = const:
 := ω − 2Ω0 , ||  2Ω0
|f0 |2 Ω20
− α2 >  2
4
 Seek for periodic solutions:
Parametric resonance
Up to now we’ve considered a system
which oscillates freely or under effects of ξF (t) = a(t)e i ωt/2 +a∗ (t)e −i ωt/2 , ȧ  Ω a
known external force
There are systems where external force is
not given explicitly but instead changes a = a0 e st , a∗ = a0∗ e st
parameters of the system
Exponential increase of ξ(t) for || < |f0 |Ω0 /2
t Physical
 amplitude increases if e st grows faster
 Z 
φ(t) → exp − dτ α(τ ) ξ(t) Rt 
than exp − dτ α(τ ) ;
Fcase α = const:
ξ̈ + Ω2 (t) ξ = 0 (1)
2 2 2 |f0 |2 Ω20
Ω (t) = ω (t) − α (t) − α̇(t) − α2 >  2
4
Case of weak t-dependence:

Ω2 (t) = Ω20 (1 + f (t)) , ∀t, f (t)  1. Some Qualitative conclusions

Parametric resonance is possible only if
Need to consider in detail what happens a0 , a0∗ 6= 0 (there is initial deviation).
close to resonance: In absence of absorption, for any amplitude
|f0 | there is a resonance band of width ||
 := ω − 2Ω0 , ||  2Ω0 Absorption squeezes the resonance band, and
if |f0 | is not sufficently large, parametric
resonance does not occur.
Outline Today’s plan
Finalize parametric oscillations:
? Parametric resonance* (advanced
topic, see Landau, Section 27)
Motion of the system of particles
(recap)
? Integrals of motion (conservation
laws)
? Reduced mass

Collisions. Scattering. Cross-

section
? Elastic vs. inelastic scattering
? Concept of cross-section: differential,
total
? Rutherford’s formula

Bibliography:
Symon→Marion→Landau, Fetter-
Walecka
 Case of closed two-particle system masses
System of N particles m1 and m2 interacting with each other.:
Center of mass
P Equations of motion in terms of the vari-
~ CM := Pmk~rk .
R
ables
k mk
~r12 = ~r1 − ~r2 , ~ = m1~r1 + m2~r2 :
R
m1 + m2

~
d 2R
Mtot ~ (ext) = 0,
=F
dt 2
d 2~r12 ~ 12
µ12 =F
dt 2

Reduced mass
~ CM
dP ~ (ext)
=F
 −1
dt m1 m2 1 1
µ12 = = +
m1 + m2 m1 m2
~ CM = P ~pk := Mtot R
P ~˙ CM is the total
k
momentum ofP the system Relative motion with reduced (“effective”)
~ (ext) =
F ~ (ext) is the total force mass
k Fk
acting on the system.
⇒If F ~ (ext) = 0 (the system is “closed”),
~
then P = const.
System of particles Angular momentum and the center of mass
~ CM (t) :
motion ~rk → ~rk − R
Angular momentum of the system
X X
~ →
M ~rk × ~pk + ~ CM × ~pk
R
X X
~ :=
M ~rk × ~pk = mk ~rk × ~vk k k
| {z } | {z }
k k ~ int ~ CM ×P
~ CM
M R

~ int is the angular momentum of the

M
dM~ X X d~pk system in the center of mass system
= mk ~vk × ~vk + ~rk × = M~ CM = R ~ CM × P
~ CM is the angular mo-
dt | {z } dt
k mentum of the center of mass
=0
X X X (int)
= ~ (ext) +
~rk ×F ~rk × ~
F
k i, k Energy of the system
k k i
| {z } | {z }
~ (ext)
K =1 (~rk −~ri )×F~i(int) X m ~v 2
P
2 k ,k
X X
k
E = + Uk (~rk ) + Uik (~ri − ~rk )
2
In closed system interacting via central k k i <k
~ ik ∼ ~ri −~rk ) the last term vanishes,
forces (F
so
dM~
=K ~ (ext)
dt
Scattering
If the system is closed (=particles interact Example: 2 → 2 scattering of particles
only with each other), then the following interacting via central potential:
quantities conserve:

Total momentum
~˙ CM
X
~ CM =
P ~pk := Mtot R
k
We will call such scatterings elastic.
Inelastic scattering
Total angular momentum
We’ll call process inelastic if:
X X There are changes in internal state
~ :=
M ~rk × ~pk = mk ~rk × ~vk (=masses) of particles, e.g.
k k ?Particles stick together in 2 → 1
process
Energy of the system ?One of the particles disintegrates
into n pieces in 1 → n process
X m ~v 2 X X Mechanical energy is not conserved (i.e.
k
E = + Uk (~rk )+ Uik (~ri − ~rk ) might partially convert into other forms)
2
k k i <k ?Interaction is not potential.
?Can use conservation of momen-
tum and angular momentum to
reconstruct kinematics
2 → 2 elastic scattering
Assume that scattering is elas- Asymptotically (r12 → ∞) particles are free,
tic, no change of internal properties move along straight lines
(masses), no new particle production We call scattering angles θ1 , θ2 the angle
Interaction is potential, U = between the asymptotes of the particle before
U (~r1 − ~r2 ) , and assume and after interaction. Note that angles θ1 6= θ2
in general:
lim U(r ) = 0, r = |~r1 − ~r2 |
r →∞

The particle of mass m1 and velocity v1

collides with a particle of mass m2 at rest.
The scattering angles are θ and φ
Example: UCoulomb (r ) = − αr
respectively. Find the relations between
variables v1f , v2f , θ, φ imposed by energy and
momenta conservations, and the possible
range of the scattering angle θm .
2 → 2 elastic scattering
.

p1I = p1F cos θ + p2F cos φ (1)

0 = p1F sin θ + p2F sin φ (2)
2
p1I p2 p2
= 1F + 2F
2m1 2m1 2m2
3 equations, 5 variables. If we know p1I and θ,
can restore all others:
The particle of mass m1 and velocity
v1 collides with a particle of mass m2 (~p1F − ~p1I )2 = p1f
2 2
+ p1I 2
− 2p1I p1F cos θ = p2F
at rest. The scattering angles are θ m2 2 2

= p1I − p1F (3)
and φ respectively. Find the relations m1
between variables v1f , v2f , θ, φ s 2
p1F m1 cos θ m1 cos θ m2 − m1
⇒ = + +
imposed by energy and momenta p1I m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2

conservations, and the possible range

Can use (3) to find p2F and then (1) or (2)
of the scattering angle θm .
to find φ
Use momenta pk ≡ mk |vk | Which values of θ give real-valued solutions
for p1F ? Analyze separately cases m2 > m1
and m2 < m1 .
2 → 2 elastic scattering
Assume that the scattering is elas- Scattering angles θ1 , θ2 the angle between
tic, no change of internal properties the asymptotes of the particle before and after
(masses), no new particle production interaction.
Interaction is potential, U = Notations for asymptotic momenta at large
U (~r1 − ~r2 ) , and assume distance:
? ~p1,, I , ~p2 I : momenta before the interaction
lim U(r ) = 0, r = |~r1 − ~r2 | ? ~p1,, I , ~p2 I : momenta after the interaction
r →∞
(I =”initial”, F =”final”)
Momentum conservation:
~p1 I + ~p2 I = ~p1 F + ~p2 F

(Kinetic) energy conservation

~p1 I 2 ~p2 I 2 ~p1 F 2 ~p2 F 2
+ +U = + +U
2 m1 2 m2 2 m1 2 m2

Demonstrate that in the center of mass frame

Example: UCoulomb (r ) = − αr 1) The scattering always happens in a plane
2) The absolute values of momenta of each
particle is conserved,
|~p1 I | = |~p1 F | ,|~p2 I | = |~p2 F |
3) The scattering angles are equal, θ1 = θ2
2 → 2 elastic scattering
Momentum conservation: Center of mass definition:~p1 I + ~p2 I =
~p1 F + ~p2 F = 0
~p1 I + ~p2 I = ~p1 F + ~p2 F (1)
~p1 I = −~p2 I , ~p1 F = −~p2 F
(Kinetic) energy conservation
⇒If scattering plane includes ~p1 I , ~p1 F ,
~p1 I 2 ~p2 I 2 ~p1 F 2 ~p2 F 2 then it must include ~p2 I , ~p2 F
+ +U = + +U
2 m1 2 m2 2 m1 2 m2 Energy conservation:

~p1 I 2 − ~p1 F 2 ~p2 F 2 − ~p2 I 2 ~p1 I 2 − ~p1 F 2

Demonstrate that in the center of = =−
2 m1 2 m2 2 m2
mass frame
1) The scattering always happens in ⇒ |~p1 I | = |~p1 F | = |~p2 I | = |~p2 F | (2),
a plane Assume that θ1 , θ2 are the scattering an-
2) The absolute values of momenta gles. Let’s write out x-component of (1)
of each particle is conserved, with account of (2):
|~p1 I | = |~p1 F | ,|~p2 I | = |~p2 F |
|~p1 I | − |~p2 I | = |~p1 F | cos θ1 − |~p2 F | cos θ2
3) The scattering angles are equal,
θ1 = θ2 ⇒ cos θ1 = cos θ2
Similarly for y -component

sin θ1 = sin θ2 ⇒ θ1 = θ2
Remark on 2 → 2 inelastic scattering
In the inelastic scattering the inter- Scattering angles θ1 , θ2 the angle between
nal state of particle might change, so the asymptotes of the particle before and after
kinetic energy is not conserved (con- interaction.
verts to/from internal energy). Momentum conservation:
Interaction is potential, U = ~p1 I + ~p2 I = ~p1 F + ~p2 F
U (~r1 − ~r2 ) , and assume
(Kinetic) energy conservation
lim U(r ) = 0, r = |~r1 − ~r2 | ~p1 I 2 ~p2 I 2 ~p1 F 2 ~p2 F 2
r →∞ + +U = + +U+∆Einternal
2 m1 2 m2 2 m1 2 m2

Demonstrate that in case of inelastic

scattering the center of mass frame
1) The scattering always happens in a plane
2) The absolute values of momenta are not
conserved, |~p1 I | =
6 |~p1 F | ,|~p2 I | =
6 |~p2 F |
3) The scattering angles are not equal,
θ1 6= θ2
2 → 2 elastic scattering

The scattering angle in the center of

mass frame is θ1 = θ2 = θ. Evaluate
the scattering angles ψ, ζ in the rest
frame of one of the particles (e.g.
particle 2)
2 → 2 elastic scattering

Galileo transformation for velocities:

~ CM ≡ R
If V ~˙ CM is the velocity of th center of
mass, and ~vi are the velocities of particles in
center-of-mass frame, then in the lab-frame
~ i = ~vi + V
V ~ CM
0 0
V1y v1y v1 sin θ
The scattering angle in the center of tan ψ = 0
= 0 =
V1x v1x + VCM v1 cos θ + VCM
mass frame is θ1 = θ2 = θ. Evaluate
the scattering angles ψ, ζ in the rest
0 0
frame of one of the particles (e.g. V2y v2y − |v2 | sin θ
tan ζ = 0
= 0
=
particle 2) V2x v2x + VCM − |v2 | cos θ + VCM
v1 sin θ
=
v1 cos θ − (m2 /m1 ) VCM
Scattering in the external field
Up to now we evaluated the shape .
of the orbit assuming that the initial
conditions (~r (0), ~v (0)) allow us to fix
energy E , angular momentum M and
the parameters of the orbit.
In some problems we might now
only part of this information:
For example, we scatter a flux of
particles with given energy E in the
electromagnetic field, and we need
to find the angular distribution of
particles after scattering. We do
not know exact position ~r (0) to
reconstruct the full trajectory of each
individual particle
Flux of the particles In what follows we assume that flux J is ho-
mogeneous, i.e. does not depend on transverse
Number of particles which pass coordinate
through the unit area in transverse
direction per unit of time

dN = J dS dt
Scattering in the external field
Flux of the particles Differential cross-section
Number of particles which pass The number of particles scattered in the
through the unit area in transverse range of angles (θ, θ + d θ) and divided by
direction per unit of time the flux
dN = J dS dt dσ 1 dNscattered (θ, θ + d θ)
=
dθ J dθ

dσ 1 dNscattered 1 dNscattered
= =
dΩ J dΩ J sin θ dθ dφ

dΩ = sin θ dθdφ

We have seen that instead of angle we could

use energy of the scattered particle (and restore
θ from energy-momentum conservation), so
we may also define differential cross-section as
number of particles scattered in the range
of energies (E 0 , E 0 + dE 0 ) and divided by
the flux

dσ 1 dNscattered (E 0 , E 0 + dE 0 )
0
=
dE J d E0
Scattering in the external field
Flux of the particles Differential cross-section
Number of particles which pass dσ 1 dNscattered (θ, θ + d θ)
through the unit area in transverse =
dθ J dθ
direction per unit of time
dσ 1 dNscattered (E 0 , E 0 + dE 0 )
0
=
dN = J dS dt dE J d E0

Assume that using energy-momentum

conservation we found E 0 = E 0 (θ). How the
cross-sections dd σθ and ddEσ0 are related with
each other ?

The beam of particles with constant energy is

scattering on the target, which is at rest in
the lab frame. Assume that we evaluated the
cross-section in the center-of-mass frame
dσ/dΩCM . How this cross-section is related
to the lab-frame cross-section dσ/dΩlab ?
Scattering in the external field

Differential cross-section Impact parameter ρ

The number of particles scattered in Distance between the center of field and
the range of angles (θ, θ + d θ) and asymptotic trajectory of the particle
divided by the flux before the interaction
dσ 1 dNscattered
= Scattering in the central field U(r )
dθ J dθ
Demonstrate that

θ = π − 2φ0 ,
∞ M
dr
Z
m r2
φ0 = r
M2
 
rmin 2
m
E − U(r ) − 2 m r2

where

m v∞2
E = , M = m v∞ ρ,
2

and thus  
dσ  dρ 
= 2πρ(θ)  
dθ dθ
Scattering in the Coulomb field

Differential cross-section Impact parameter ρ

The number of particles scattered in Distance between the center of field and
the range of angles (θ, θ + d θ) and asymptotic trajectory of the particle
divided by the flux before the interaction
dσ 1 dNscattered
= Rutherford’s formula
dθ J dθ
Demonstrate that in the Coulomb field
U = −α/r the cross-section is given by
 2
dσ α 1
=
dΩ 2mv∞2 sin4 (θ/2)