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Module 11.5.2: Avionic Systems

1. Auto Flight (ATA 22)

1.1 Auto Flight Control System (AFCS)

The role of the AFCS is generally to:

1.1.1 overcome a stability and control deficiency, e.g. Dutch Roll mode.
1.1.2 improve the handling or ride qualities.
1.1.3 carry out a maneuver that the pilot is unable to perform (either due to the accuracy
required or the length of time over which it is necessary to carry out the task, or the
lack of visual cues, etc).

The response of an AFCS is much more rapid than that of a human pilot. It prevents
disturbances from worsening. E.g. A human pilot can detect a change of pitch attitude of
about 1° in 0.3 s after it occurs, and a further 0.5 s response time. An autostabiliser, however,
can detect 0.1 º and apply an input within 0.1 s.

ASE = Aircraft Survivability Equipment

Fig.1.1 Hierarchy of AFCS.

Fig.1.2 Closed loop handling.

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1.2 Autopilot & Flight Director System (AFDS)

F/B = feedback
Fig.1.3 AFDS computer functions.

1.2.1 System Protection

1.2.1.1 Simplex

This term is usually used to define a single automatic control system and its appropriate
number of sub-channels. Though various elements of the system may be duplicated, a single
failure elsewhere results in complete unserviceability.

1.2.1.2 Comparators

In a simple comparator system, outputs from the sensors and actuators are monitored and
compared. If the sensed attitude change is in the wrong sense as the actuator movement, the
comparator will disconnect the system. This can be made to work even on a single lane
system.

1.2.1.3 Rate Trigger System

If rate (e.g. of climb or descend) exceeds a predetermined threshold, the system will be
tripped. By knowing the characteristics of an aeroplane during a system runaway
(malfunction normally very marked and distinguishable from normal flight), the value of the
threshold switch can be set so that it should not trip the system even during flight in
turbulence.

Fig.1.4 Single Channel Fail / Safe Operation.

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1.2.1.4 Duplex System

In a duplex system, 2 ‘lanes’ are used. A duplex system may be configured such that the
outputs from the 2 actuators are averaged before the demand is passed to the control surfaces.

If a runaway occurs in 1 lane with the actuator being driven ‘hard over’ (rapidly travels to the
end of a travel) in 1 direction,
1. the other lane will sense a disturbance and apply a corrective output to the actuator, and
2. the resulting average actuator displacement will be near zero.

Since a disturbance must take place before the ‘good’ lane can respond and counteract the
disturbance, this type of system will not totally eliminate the effects of a single-lane runaway.

However, more complex systems not only average the outputs of the actuators but also
monitor their positions. A comparator is then used to examine the actuator position signals. If
they differ by a pre-set amount, the channel is disengaged. In this way, it becomes quicker
and easier to detect runaways and other system malfunctions.

Fig.1.5 Dual Channel Failure / Passive Operation.

1.2.1.5 Triplex System

In a triplex system, each channel has 3 lanes. In such a system, malfunctions are detected via
a system of comparators and voting takes place to decide which lane is at fault. Such a system
is said to have single failure survivability as a complete lane can be lost without jeopardizing
the integrity (believability) of the system. This permits a flight or mission to be accomplished
despite a single failure.

1.2.1.6 Dual-Dual System

This term is used by some manufacturers to define a twin fail-operational control system
having twin passive monitoring systems. It should not be considered synonymous to a duplex
system since the control systems may or may not be active simultaneously. In the event of a
monitor detecting a failure in associated system, the second system with monitor is switched
in.

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Fig.1.6 Multi-channels Not Operational.

1.3 Autopilot

Autopilot relieves the human pilot from the constant attention needed to fly a steady course
on any selected magnetic heading in a turbulent medium. It also keeps the aeroplane
stabilized around its horizontal and lateral axes.

1.3.1 Types

1.3.1.1 1-axis autopilot systems control only the ailerons.

1.3.1.2 2-axis autopilot systems control the ailerons [bank (left or right tilt)] and the
elevators [pitch (nose up or down)] or the rudder [yaw (left or right turn)].
1.3.1.3 3-axis autopilot systems control the ailerons, the elevators and the rudder.

1.3.2 All autopilot systems contain essentially the same basic components:

1.3.2.1 Gyros to sense what the aeroplane angular displacement.

1.3.2.2 Servos to move the control surfaces.
1.3.2.3 An Amplifier to increase the strength of the gyro signals enough to operate the
servos. A controller is also provided to allow manual control of the aeroplane through
the autopilot system.

Usually 2 autopilots are installed. Normally, the pilot only uses one autopilot at a time
(Captain using A/P 1 and First Officer using A/P 2). However, for every Instrument Landing
System (ILS) approach, the pilot engages both autopilots. Certainly, the only exception is
when one of the A/Ps is inoperable.

1.3.3 The autopilot controls the aeroplane attitude during:

1.3.3.1 Takeoff (flight director only)

1.3.3.2 Climb
1.3.3.3 Cruise
1.3.3.4 Descent
1.3.3.5 Approach
1.3.3.6 Autoland
1.3.3.7 Go-around

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F/D = Flight Director

A/T ARM = Autothrottle
on
IAS = Indicated Air
Speed
FPA = Flight Path Angle
LNAV = Lateral
Navigation
VNAV = Vertical
Navigation
FL = Flight Level and
CH = Change
DISENGAGE =
disconnect = off
HDG = heading
TRK = track
LOC = localizer of
Instrument Landing
System

Fig.1.7 Autopilot flight profile.

The autopilot commands go to the Primary Flight Computers (PFC) to operate the flight
control surfaces.

1.4 Flight Director System (FDS)

When the FD is switched ON, the FD command bars will show on the Primary Flight
Displays (PFD). The flight crew uses the FD bars as guides to control the attitude of the
aeroplane.

1.5 Autoland

Fig.1.8 Approach categories.

1.5.1 Minimum Approach Requirements

1.5.1.1 indication of mode control,

1.5.1.2 indication of the automatic modes that are armed for use,
1.5.1.3 2 separate ILS radio receivers,

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1.5.1.4 indication of performance deviation warning,

1.5.1.5 disconnection of audible warning of autopilot,
1.5.1.6 cross-check of attitude references and pitch markings,
1.5.1.7 valid standby horizon,
1.5.1.8 2 serviceable radio altimeters,
1.5.1.9 rain repellant feature on windscreens and
1.5.1.10 ability to overshoot and go around.

1.5.2 Status

If the autopilot is engaged in the approach mode below 1500 ft radio altitude, the autoland
status will show on the PFD. The autoland status is the level of redundancy in the autoland
system.

1.5.2.1 LAND 3

Shows when there are no failures in any part of the autoland system.

1.5.2.2 LAND 2

Shows when any part of the autoland system is 1 failure away from NO AUTOLAND.

1.5.2.3 NO AUTOLAND

Shows when the autoland system is not

available. G/S=Glide Slope
Rollout: When the takeoff airspeed is
reached, the nose of the aeroplane will
begin to lift off the ground. The nose is then
raised to a certain angle, sometimes called
the rollout angle. This changes the angle of
attack, or the angle at which the wings are
cutting into the wind. This once again
changes the airspeed over the top of the
wings. When the airspeed over the wings is
high enough, the plane will lift off the
ground.

Fig.1.9 Approach / Autoland during AFDS operation.

Crab angle or drift angle is angle

between heading and track

Fig.1.10 Crosswind runway alignment.

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At the appropriate height above

the ground (as indicated by the
radio altimeter), the flight control
computer will retard the throttles
and initiate a pitch-up maneuver.
The purpose of this "flare" is to
reduce the energy of the aircraft
such that it "stops flying" and
settles onto the runway.

Fig.1.11 Flare height.

1.6 Autothrottle

Fig.1.12 Typical autothrottle system.

Autothrottle thrust mode annunciations relate to pitch mode annunciations on the PFD. The
Mode Control Panel (MCP) is used to select these modes. There are different autothrottle
modes in each of the flight phases of:

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1.6.1 Takeoff (TO)

1.6.2 Climb
1.6.3 Cruise
1.6.4 Descent
1.6.5 Approach
1.6.6 Go-Around (GA)
1.6.7 Autothrottle Disconnect

KTS = knots
Fig.1.13 Autothrottle flight profile.

1.7 Examples of System Hardware

1.7.1 Manufacturer / Supplier / Vendor: Rockwell Collins (USA)

FCS-700A Autopilot Flight Director System
http://www.rockwellcollins-lean.biz/ecat/at/FCS-700A.html?smenu=203
Platform: Boeing B747-400, B767-400.

1.7.2 Manufacturer / Supplier / Vendor: Rockwell Collins (USA)

AFDS-770 Autopilot Flight Director System (Including Backdrive)
http://www.rockwellcollins-lean.biz/ecat/at/AFDS-770.html?smenu=206
Platform: Boeing B777.

2. Communications (ATA 23)

2.1 High Frequency (HF) Communication Systems

The HF communication systems permit voice communications over greater distances than
line-of-sight radio systems. The HF systems operate in the HF aeronautical communication
band between 3.000 and 29.999 MHz. This range is often called shortwave.

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2.1.1 Long Range Communication

The long range is achieved by the use of sky waves which are refracted by the ionosphere to
Earth. The ionosphere reflects the signals towards the Earth. Sky wave distances depend upon
frequency, time of day and aeroplane altitude.

Since the ionosphere often reflects HF radio waves quite well, this range is extensively used
for medium and long range terrestrial radio communication. However, suitability of this
portion of the spectrum for such communication varies greatly with a complex combination
of factors:

2.1.1.1 Sunlight/darkness at site of transmission and reception

2.1.1.2 Distance between transmitter and receiver
2.1.1.3 Season
2.1.1.4 Sunspot cycle
2.1.1.5 Solar activity
2.1.1.6 Maximum usable frequency
2.1.1.7 Frequency of operation within the HF range

2.1.2 Short Range Communication

HF signals also go directly to ground stations and other aeroplanes.

Fig.2.1 HF signal paths.

2.1.3 HF Communication Transceivers

The transceivers contain the transmitter, receiver, power amplifier and power supply
circuitry.

In the mixer of Amplitude Modulator transmitter, sinusoidal signals are multiplied:

2sin[2ωct]cos[2ωmt] = sin[2(ωc+ωm)t] + sin[2(ωc−ωm)t]
2cos[2ωct]sin[2ωmt] = sin[2(ωc+ωm)t] − sin[2(ωc−ωm)t]
2cos[2ωct]cos[2ωmt] = cos[2(ωc+ωm)t] + cos[2(ωc−ωm)t]
−2sin[2ωct]sin[2ωmt] = cos[2(ωc+ωm)t] − cos[2(ωc−ωm)t]

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Single-sideband (SSB) mode provides for transmission and reception of upper sideband
(USB) only though some controllers have both USB and lower sideband (LSB) positions. In
dual installation, only 1 HF system can transmit at any one time. This is achieved by means
of an interlock logic circuit.

2.1.4 HF Communication System Operation Sequence

Calculation of Voltage Standing Wave Ratio:

PF  PR
VSWR  , where PF = Forward (transmission) Power and PR = Reverse (reflection) Power
PF  PR
Fig.2.2 HF system operation sequence (mode in ellipse).

WARNING

Do not transmit with the HF communication system while the aeroplane is refuelled or
defueled. An explosion can cause injuries to personnel and damage to the aeroplane.

Make sure personnel stay a minimum of 6 ft away from the vertical stabilizer when the HF
system transmits. RF energy from the HF communication antenna can cause injuries to
personnel.

2.1.5 HF Communication Antenna

The HF communication antenna transmits or receives RF signals in the HF range. Typically,

the antenna is approximately 9 ft long. An inverted u-shaped composite insulation material on
the leading edge of the vertical stabilizer surrounds the antenna driven element. The HF
antenna is a part of the leading edge of the vertical stabilizer. An access panel at the top of the
antenna covers the connections to the antenna couplers. For low speed aeroplane, a long wire
antenna may be used. The aerodynamic problems of wire antenna have led to the use of probe
antenna for higher speed flight.

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Fig.2.3 HF communication antenna.

2.1.6 A Typical HF Antenna Coupler

The HF antenna coupler aims to match the 50 Ω impedance of the antenna and feed-line with
the output impedance of the transceiver at the selected frequency. Perfect matching prevents
reflection. So VSWR is 1.

This results in a VSWR of less than 1.3:1. The antenna coupler is a sealed and pressurized
unit. It weighs about 17 lbs. A feed-line connects each coupler to the antenna. A coaxial cable
connects each coupler to its transceiver. Dry air or nitrogen pressurizes the antenna coupler at
5 to 7 pounds per square inch gage (psiga). Pressurization is through the pressure valve on the
front of the coupler.

ATE = Automatic Test Equipment. Test Equipment that makes 2 or more tests in sequence without manual
intervention. It usually stops when the first out-of-tolerance value is detected.
Fig.2.4 HF antenna coupler.

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2.1.7 System layout

2.1.7.1 Radio Tuning Panel (RTP) sends tuning data and mode information to the HF
transceivers.

2.1.7.2 Audio Management Unit (AMU)

Microphone audio signal and Push-To-Talk (PTT) discrete go to the HF transceivers through
the AMU. Received audio goes from the HF transceiver to the speakers and headsets through
the AMU.

A receiver (demodulator) includes a squelch circuit to remove audio from the speaker when no signal is received.
This prevents noise of the receiver from being heard in headphones or speaker
ACP = Audio Control Panel
CMCS = Central Maintenance Computer System
PNL = panel
Fig.2.5 HF system layout.

2.1.7.3 The Selective Calling (SELCAL) decoder alerts the flight crew when the aeroplane
receives a call.

2.1.7.4 The Digital Flight Data System (DFDS) receives the MIC switch signals for input
to the Digital Flight Data Recorder (DFDR).

2.1.7.5 Central Maintenance Computer System (CMCS) gets fault reports from the HF
system and records this information in a fault history. This shows the maintenance crew the
faulty components or functions.

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2.2 Very High Frequency (VHF) Communication System

The VHF communication system permits voice and data communication over line-of-sight
distances. It permits communication between aeroplanes or between ground stations and
aeroplanes. The VHF system operates in the VHF aeronautical frequency range of 118.000 to
136.975 MHz in 25 kHz spacing. For some systems, the spacing will be reduced to 8.33 kHz.
For engine ground run, the authorized engineer shall obtain start-up clearance on the
frequency 121.775 MHz, and a listening watch shall be maintained on the frequency
throughout the engine run.

NOTE
Do not transmit on 121.5 MHz (Emergency).
Do not transmit during refuelling or defueling.
Do not interrupt Air Traffic Control aeroplane communication.

2.2.1 System Layout

2.2.1.1 RTPs send tuning data to the VHF communication transceivers.

2.2.1.2 AMU
Microphone audio signal and MIC switch discrete go to the VHF communication transceivers
through the AMU. Received audio goes from the VHF communication transceivers to the
speakers and headsets through the AMU.

2.2.1.3 The SELCAL decoder alerts the flight crew when the aeroplane receives a call.

2.2.1.4 The DFDS receives the MIC switch signals for input to the DFDR.

2.2.1.5 CMS gets fault reports from the VHF system and records this information in a fault
history. This shows the maintenance crew the faulty components or functions.

2.2.1.6 The ACARS supplies data communications and services for aeroplane air/ground
datalink on the VHF system.

MKR = Marker (beacon)

PA = Passenger Address
Fig.2.6 VHF system layout.

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2.3 Satellite Communication (SATCOM) Systems

The SATCOM system uses aeroplane satellite communication equipment, ground stations
and a network of satellites to transmit and receive data and voice messages. SATCOM
supplies higher quality data and voice message signals for passengers and crew, over longer
distances than VHF / HF communication systems. The satellites act as relay stations between
the ground stations and the aeroplane. The ground station connects the SATCOM system to
the ground-based ACARS and public telephone networks.

2.3.1 System Layout

2.3.1.1 The SATCOM control and status pages on the Control Display Unit (CDU) give
the flight crew both control and system status data of the SATCOM system.

2.3.1.2 Microphone audio and PTT discrete go to the Satellite Data Unit (SDU) through
the AMU. Received audio goes from the SDU to the speakers and headsets through the
AMU.

2.3.1.3 The passengers use the SATCOM system through the Cabin Telecommunications
Unit (CTU).

2.3.1.4 The cabin crew uses the SATCOM system through the Cabin Passenger
Management Unit (CPMU) to send cabin data.

Class A amplifier operates at bias such that output (e.g. emitter-collector) current flows at all times because
voltage never reaches a sufficiently negative value to cut off current.
Class B amplifier is biased at approximately cutoff point.
In Class C amplifier, input (e.g. emitter-base) is biased well beyond cutoff point so that only small part of
positive peaks is amplified.
Fig.2.7 SATCOM system layout.

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2.3.1.5 High Gain Antenna System (HGAS)

The 2 HGASs receive and transmit voice and data signals. A High Power Relay (HPR) sends
signals to only 1 HGAS at a time. A radio frequency combiner (RFC) gets signals from each
AS and sends them to the RFU.

2.3.1.6 Low Gain Antenna System (LGAS)

The LGAS receives and transmits data signals. It operates only when a HGAS or a Class A
High Powered Amplifier (HPA) fails. The LGAS has a Low Gain Antenna (LGA) and a Low
Noise Amplifier / Diplexer (LNA / DIP).

2.4 Selective Calling (SELCAL) Systems

The SELCAL system tells the flight crew that there is a call from a ground station on a
communication transmitter and receiver (transceiver). Since the SELCAL system monitors all
incoming signals, the flight crew does not need to continuously monitor the radio channels.

2.4.1 System Layout

2.4.1.1 Each aeroplane has a different SELCAL code. A ground station transmits this code
with a signal to contact an aeroplane. Each transmitted code is made up of 2 Radio Frequency
(RF) pulses. During each pulse, the transmitted carrier is modulated with 2 tones. Thus, there
are a total of 4 tonnes per call. The tones are designated by letters A to S, omitting I, N and O.
When the aeroplane receives own SELCAL code, several flight deck indications come on to
alert the flight crew.

Fig.2.8 SELCAL system layout.

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2.4.1.2 HF and VHF Transceivers

The communication transceivers send received audio to the SELCAL decoder.

2.4.1.3 SELCAL Decoder

A SELCAL coding switch connects to the SELCAL decoder and gives each aeroplane own
SELCAL code. The SELCAL decoder monitors audio tones. If the tones are the same as the
code, the decoder sends a signal to the AMU.

2.5 Radio Tuning Panel (RTP)

The RTP is used to select different modes of operation: active and standby frequencies for
each communication radio. Each RTP has the following features:

2.5.1 active and standby frequency displays

2.5.2 frequency transfer switch
2.5.3 offside tuning light
2.5.4 frequency selectors
2.5.5 radio tuning switches
2.5.6 Amplitude Modulation switch
2.5.7 Radio Tuning Panel on/off switch
2.5.8 HF sensitivity control

Momentary switches have a white light in them that comes on when the function is selected.

2.6 Passenger Address (PA) System

The PA system enables the flight crew and cabin crew to address passengers throughout the
cabin and in the lavatories.

2.7 Audio Control Panel (ACP)

The ACP provides transmitter selection, receiver selection and volume control for the
communication radios, interphones, PA system and navigation receivers. The operator
transmits on only 1 communication system at a time. The ACP permits the operator to listen
to 1 or more radio systems at the same time. In order to listen to a radio channel, the receiver
volume control is pushed and rotated. When it is ON, a green light will be lit. When the MIC
light indicates green, a radio system has been selected for transmission by pushing a
transmitter selection switch. The MIC/interphone switch is used to connect the microphone to
the transceiver and to key the system. The CALL light comes on when the SELCAL system
detects a call for it.

Typically, there are 3 ACPs: 2 on the aft pedestal and 1 at the observer station. An
INT/RADIO switch provides the same function as the PTT switch on the control wheel.
When this switch is pushed and held to INT, flight interphone transmission is enabled. When
the switch is held in the RADIO position, radio transmission is enabled.

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2.8 Flight Interphone Systems

The flight interphone is used by members of the flight crew to communicate between one
another in the cockpit and is controlled by the 3 ACPs. When the full-face oxygen masks
stowage box doors are opened, the boom microphone automatically switches to the mask
microphone. Flight interphone can be used by pushing the PTT switch on:

1. control wheel,
2. the INT switch on the ACP, or
3. any radio PTT switch if the MIC INT button is pushed on the ACP.

2.9 Service Interphone/Call Systems

The service interphone/call system enables communication between the cockpit and the cabin
crew stations and the maintenance service areas. The call system is used to alert the flight
crew or cabin crew that another station is calling.

2.10 Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) System

The cockpit voice recorder system automatically records the last 30 minutes of all flight and
service interphones and radio communications initiated and received by the flight crew. A
cockpit area microphone (located in the recorder panel in the overhead panel) sends ambient
cockpit sounds to the CVR. Boom microphones also send ambient and voice sounds to the
CVR as "hot microphones" independent of the position of the respective PTT switches.
Additionally, when the captain’s or first officer’s full-face oxygen mask is removed from
respective oxygen mask stowage box and the box door is opened, the respective boom
microphone is switched off and the mask microphone is recorded as a hot microphone,
regardless of whether the PTT switches are used.

2.11 Examples of System Hardware

2.11.1 Manufacturer / Supplier / Vendor: Honeywell Aerospace (USA)

RTA-xxx Very High Frequency (VHF) Transceiver
http://honeywellcommnav.com/general/vhf.htm
Platform: Boeing B737 / 747 / 757 / 767 / 777, MD11 / 90, Airbus A319 / 320 / 321 / 330 /
340

2.11.2 Manufacturer / Supplier / Vendor: Rockwell Collins (USA)

SAT-2000 Satellite Communication System
http://www.rockwellcollins-lean.biz/ecat/at/SAT-2000.html?smenu=206
Platform: Boeing B737 / 747 / 757 / 767 / 777, MD11, Airbus A319 / 320 / 321 / 330 / 340

2.11.3 Manufacturer / Supplier / Vendor: Rockwell Collins (USA)

HFS-900 / HFS-900D / CPL-920D HF Communications
http://www.rockwellcollins-lean.biz/ecat/at/HFS-900_HFS-900D_CPL-920D_2.html#N5119
Platform: Boeing B737 / 747 / 757 / 767 / 777, MD10 / 11 / 90, Airbus A300 / 319 / 320 / 321
/ 330 / 340

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3. Navigation Systems (ATA 34)

3.1 Instrument Landing System (ILS)

The ILS function is now achieved through the Multi-Mode Receiver (MMR) which meets
industry-defined sensor requirements for both ILS and Global Positioning System (GPS). The
ILS circuitry in the MMR provides high integrity lateral (localizer) and vertical (glide slope)
information. This information is provided via ARINC (USA organisation Aeronautical Radio
Incorporated) 429 digital interfaces to the aeroplane Auto Flight Control System (AFCS) and
instrument systems during manually and automatically controlled precision approaches and
landings, including Category III landings. The GPS circuitry provides en-route navigation
and non-precision approach information. This information is provided via ARINC 429 digital
interfaces to the AFCS, Flight Management System (FMS) and instrument systems.

Low visibility operations categories (Cat I, Cat II and Cat III) apply to all 3 elements in the
landing – the aircraft equipment, the ground environment, and the crew. Airports troubled by
fog on a regular basis are prime candidates for Category III approaches, and including
autoland capability on jet airliners helps reduce the likelihood that they will be forced to
divert by bad weather. Alaska Airlines was the first airline in the world to manually land a
passenger-carrying jet (B727) in FAA Category III weather (dense fog) made possible with
the Head-Up Guidance System. For CAT IIIc, the flight control computer will continue to
accept deviations from the localizer and use the rudder to maintain the aircraft on the
localizer (which is aligned with the runway centerline.)

The ARINC 755 compliant MMR requires:

1. a localizer, a glide slope and an L-Band GPS antenna for RF inputs,
2. a control head for frequency selection in ARINC 429 (serial digital) format, and
3. an audio output sink for ILS station identification.

LOC G/S
Frequency Range (MHz) 108.10 to 111.950 328.65 to 335.400
Channel Spacing (MHz) 0.050 0.150
Table 3.1 ILS receiver performance characteristics.

L1 L2
Frequency (MHz) 1575.42 1227.60
Table 3.2 GPS receiver performance characteristics.

3.1.1 Glide Slope (G/S)

Fig.3.1 Glide Slope (G/S).

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3.1.2 Localizer (LOC)

Fig.3.2 Localizer (LOC).

3.1.3 ILS Antennas

Fig.3.3 ILS antennas.

3.1.3.1 LOC Antennas

Each antenna has 2 elements. The LOC antennas receive frequencies from 108.10 to 111.95
MHz at odd tenths intervals.

3.1.3.2 G/S Capture Antennas

Each antenna has 2 elements. The G/S capture antennas receive frequencies from 328.65 to
335.40 MHz. The G/S frequencies are paired with the LOC ones.

3.1.3.3 G/S Track Antennas

Each antenna is a dual element antenna. The G/S track antennas supply final approach and
landing G/S signals. They are located to minimize the vertical distance between them and the
nose landing gear (NLG).

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Fig.3.4 VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) and G/S track antennas.

3.1.3.4 Antenna Switching

On some aeroplanes, inputs can be switched between the VOR and LOC antennas located in
the nose radome via the LOC antenna switch. The G/S antenna switches can be used to
change the receiver G/S antenna inputs between the G/S antennas located in the nose radome
and the G/S track antennas installed on the aft nose landing gear doors.

3.1.4 System Layout

The antenna inputs go through the LOC and G/S antenna switches to the ILS receivers. ILS
deviation data are displayed through Electronic Flight Instrument Systems (EFIS). They also
go to the Autopilot Flight Director Computer (AFDC) for autoland calculations. The AFDC
sends ILS tune inhibits during the approach mode. The left ILS receiver sends G/S deviation
data to the Ground Proximity Warning Computer (GPWC) for Mode 5 alerts. The receivers
also send station audio signals and identifier signals to the AMU. The receivers get discrete
inputs from the air/ground relays.

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Fig.3.5 ILS system layout.

3.1.5 Typical Test Sequence

Time (in s) Status Remarks

0 Start / Invalid data Test command received from the CMC or front
panel test switch.
3 No computed data (NCD) -
5 Valid data G/S pointer up 1 dot, LOC pointer left 1 dot.
8 Valid data G/S pointer down 1 dot, LOC pointer right 1 dot.
11 Finish -

3.2 VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) Systems

The VOR/Marker Receiver provides the flight crew with accurate bearing information in
digital format as measured from the aeroplane to the selected ground-based VOR station. It
also provides aural and visual digital indications when the aeroplane is crossing over the
outer, middle or inner marker beacons. Each of the VOR ground stations transmits an
omni-directional signal and a directional one. Together, the signals give magnetic radial
information from 000 to 360º reference to the magnetic north.

The ARINC 711 compliant VOR/Marker Receiver requires:

1. VOR and Marker Beacon antennas for RF inputs,
2. a control head for frequency selection in ARINC 429 (serial digital) format, and
3. an audio output sink for VOR station and marker beacon identification.

Marker Receiver VOR Receiver

Frequency Range (MHz) 75.00 ± 0.01% 108.00 to 117.950
Channel Spacing (MHz) - 0.050
Table 3.3 VOR/Marker receiver performance characteristics.

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The VOR system operates 160 channels of which 120 are allocated to VOR en-route stations
with an output power of 200W each, providing a service range up to 200 nautical miles. Each
of the remaining 40 channels has an output power of 50W, providing a service range up to 25
nautical miles.

3.2.1 Conventional VOR (CVOR) and Doppler VOR

Fig.3.6 Conventional VOR.

Table 3.4 shows the modulation of radiation from a CVOR. The use of CVOR leads to
considerable site errors where the station is installed in the vicinity of obstructions or where
aeroplane is required to fly over mountainous terrain while using the station. The error is
caused by multi-path reception (direct path and reflected path with constructive interference
or destructive interference) due to reflection from the obstructions. A compatible Doppler
VOR (DVOR) is relatively insensitive to terrain effects.

Modulation Signal
30 Hz AM Variable phase
30 Hz FM Reference phase
1.02 kHz AM Identification
Voice AM Used as ground-to-air communication channel
Table3.4 Modulation of radiation from a CVOR.

   

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A ‘To’ or ‘From’ information is derived by

comparing the variable phase with the
reference phase shifted by the selected course
plus 180 º. If the angle is within ±90º of being
in-phase, a TO indication is given. If it is
within ±90º of being anti-phase, a FROM
indication is given.

Fig.3.7 VOR information displayed on an Electronic

Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI).

3.2.3 System Layout

RF signals from the VOR antennas go to the VOR receivers through the power dividers. The
VOR receivers use the RF signals to calculate station bearing and to decode the Morse code
station identifier signal. They get discrete signals from the air/ground relays and send VOR
magnetic bearing data to EFIS to be displayed on the Navigation Displays (ND). The VOR/
Marker Beacon (MB) receivers send station audio and identifier signals to the AMU.

PDS = power distribution system

Fig.3.8 VOR system layout.

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3.2.4 VOR Antenna

The VOR antenna is located on top of the vertical stabilizer (see Fig. 3.4). It receives RF
signals in the frequency range of 108.00 to 117.95 MHz. The antenna receives both VOR and
ILS frequencies.

3.2.5 Test Sequence

Time (in s) Status Remarks

0 Start / Invalid data Test command received from the Central
Maintenance Computer (CMC) or front panel test
switch on receiver.
3 No computed data (NCD) -
5 Valid data Test display.
Selected course arrow points to 0º on the compass.
If 000 is the selected course, deviation bar is
centered.
TO/FROM pointer shows a FROM indication.
15 ~ 20 Finish -

Fig.3.9 VOR test sequence shown on the ND.

3.2.6 Example of System Hardware

3.2.6.1 Manufacturer / Supplier / Vendor: Honeywell Aerospace (USA)

RVA-36B VOR Marker Receiver
http://honeywellcommnav.com/quantum/rva_36b.htm
Platform: Boeing B737 / 747 / 757 / 767 / 777, MD10 / 11 / 90; Airbus A300 / 319 / 320 / 321
/ 330 / 340.

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3.3 Marker Beacon (MB) Systems

Fig.3.10 The MB system supplies aural and visual indications when the aeroplane flies over MB transmitters.

3.3.1 MB Antenna

The MB antenna receives 75 MHz signals from the

MB ground stations. 6 screws are used to hold the antenna
to the fuselage bottom.
Fig.3.11 MB antenna.

3.3.2 Display Types

When an aeroplane passes over a MB transmitter, MB data will be displayed on PFD.

Fig. .12 MB data shown on PFD (Left: outer marker; Centre: middle marker; Right: inner, backcourse or an
airways marker).

3.3.3 Audio Outputs

The approach receiver selector and volume control on the ACP are for the pilots to listen to
MB audio.

Marker Frequency (kHz) Symbols Remarks

Outer (OM) 0.4 --------- Continuous dashes.
Middle (MM) 1.3 -.-.-.-.- Alternate dashes and dots.
Inner (IM) 3.0 ……… Continuous dots.
Backcourse 3.0 .. .. .. .. Continuous paired dots.
Airways 3.0 With the Morse code identifier for that
station
Table3.5 MB audio outputs.

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3.3.4 System Layout

The MB system has an antenna and a VOR/MB receiver. The MB antenna receives the 75
MHz signal and sends it to a 75 MHz band pass filter in the left VOR/MB receiver. The
receiver sends MB data and audio to the PFDs and AMU respectively.

Fig.3.13 MB system layout.

3.3.5 Test Sequence

Fig.3.14 MB system test sequence.

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3.4 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

The DME Interrogator provides the flight crew with accurate slant-range (line of sight)
distance information in digital format, as measured from the aeroplane to a selected
ground-based station. It calculates distance information for all channels in the DME range.

Frequency Range (MHz) Channel Increment (MHz)

Transmit 1025 to 1150 1
Receive 962 to 1213 1
Table3.6 DME interrogator performance characteristics.

The tuning input is via an ARINC 429 dual serial bus. There are 252 DME channels in total
of which 200 are paired with the VHF NAV frequencies.

The ARINC 709 compliant DME Interrogator requires:

1. an L-Band, vertically polarized antenna for RF inputs and outputs,
2. a control head or flight management system for tuning, and
3. an audio output sink for Morse Code functions.

Fig.3.15 DME operation.

Each DME ground station periodically transmits identification letters in Morse code at an
audio frequency of 1350Hz.

3.4.1 System layout

The DME interrogators get manual tune inputs from the left or right Multipurpose Control
and Display Unit (MCDU) or autotune inputs from the FMCS. They receive discrete signals
sent from the air/ground relays. They send slant range data to EFIS for display. DME, Air
Traffic Control (ATC) system and Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)
operate on the same frequency band. When any one of the DME interrogator, ATC
transponder and TCAS computer transmits, that unit will send out a suppression pulse. This
pulse goes through a suppression splitter to the other units to inhibit reception in the other
units to prevent interference. The DME interrogator receives the station audio identifiers and
sends them to the AMU.

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ATC transponder is a transmitter/receiver that transmits in response to an interrogation from

the ground station secondary surveillance radar system. When no ATC reply is made from
the aeroplane under surveillance, the indication on the ground radar scope is a single short
line.

XPNDR = transponder
Fig.3.16 DME system layout.

3.4.2 Test sequence

Time (in s) Status Remarks

0 Start / Fail Ground or self-test.
2 No Computed Data -
4 Normal /End Distance shown before the test starts.

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Fig.3.17 DME system test displays.

3.4.3 Example of system hardware

3.4.3.1 Manufacturer / Supplier / Vendor: Rockwell Collins (USA)

DME-900 Distance Measuring Equipment
http://www.rockwellcollins-lean.biz/ecat/at/DME-900.html?smenu=4
Platform: Boeing B737 / 747 / 757 / 767 / 777, MD11; Airbus A319 / 320 / 321 / 330 / 340.

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