Flight Control

Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Tsing Yi) Aeroplane Aerodynamics Structures & Systems I
HD in Aircraft Maintenance Engineering
Topic M11.9: Flight Control
AIRCRAFT FLIGHT CONTROLS
An aircraft is equipped with movable surfaces, or airfoils, which provide stability and
control during flight. These controls are normally divided into two categories, the
primary flight controls and the secondary flight controls. The three primary controls for
an airplane are the ailerons, elevators or stabilators, and rudder or rudders. The primary
flight controls are responsible for maneuvering the aircraft about its three axes as
illustrated in Fig. 10.
FIGURE 10 Aircraft flight controls. (Boeing Commercial Aircraft Co.)
Because aircraft are often capable of operating over a wide speed range and with different
weight distributions, secondary flight controls, also called auxiliary flight controls, have
been developed. Some of these surfaces, called tabs, allow the flight crew to reduce or
eliminate the pressure that they must apply to the flight controls. Other surfaces fall in a
group termed high-lift devices, which include flaps, slats, and slots. These features allow
the lift and drag characteristics of the aircraft wing to be changed to allow slow-speed
flight for takeoff and landing and high-speed flight for cruising. Still a third group of
surfaces is used to reduce lift and generate drag. This group includes spoilers and speed
brakes.
M11.9: Flight Control Page 1 of 50
Last Updated: Jun 2020
Ailerons
Ailerons, shown in Fig. 10, are primary flight-control surfaces utilized to provide lateral
(roll) control of aircraft; that is, they control aircraft movement about the longitudinal
axis. They are usually mounted on the trailing edge of the wing near the wing tip. Large
jet aircraft often employ two sets of ailerons, one set being approximately midwing or
immediately outboard of the inboard flaps, and the other set being in the conventional
location near the wing tips.
FIGURE 11 The L-1011 uses

two ailerons on each wing.
(Lockheed California Co.)
Figure 11 shows a transport aircraft wing with this aileron configuration. The outboard
ailerons become active whenever the flaps are extended beyond a fixed setting. As the
flaps are retracted, the outboard aileron control system is "locked-out" and fairs with the
basic wing shape. Thus, during cruising operations at comparatively high speeds, only the
in-board ailerons are used for control. The outboard ailerons are active during landing or
other slow-flight operations.
Aileron control systems operated by the pilot through mechanical connections require the
use of balancing mechanisms so that the pilot can overcome the air loads imposed on the
ailerons during flight. Balancing of the ailerons can be achieved by aerodynamic
balancing:
- extending part of the aileron structure ahead of the hinge line and
- shaping this area so that the airstream strikes the extension and helps to move the
surface.
Another method that may be used is to place a weight ahead of the hinge line to
counteract the flight loads. This is known as static balancing. Some aircraft may use a
combination of these techniques. Figure 12 shows ailerons using the mass-weight balance
method. Transport category aircraft use hydraulically operated ailerons and may not
employ these forms of balancing. If the transport control system is designed to allow the
pilot to operate the ailerons without hydraulic assistance, then some method of balancing
or control by control tabs is used.
FIGURE 13 Aileron balanced weights may be found inside the wing tip or exposed.
In many aircrafts, the operation of ailerons causes the aircraft to yaw against the direction
of the control movement; that is, a movement of the control for a left roll causes the
airplane to yaw to the right. This is because the aileron that moves downward creates lift
and drag, whereas the aileron that moves upward reduces lift and creates much less drag.
This drag causes a condition called adverse yaw. To overcome adverse yaw, a number of
modifications have been made in the design and operation of some aileron systems.
One method of combating adverse yaw is to design the aileron so that a substantial
section extends forward of the hinge line. This forward section moves down into the
airstream when the aileron is moved up and creates drag to balance the increased drag of

the down aileron. The top portion of the forward section of the aileron is rounded off in
order that it will not extend upward on the down aileron. This type of aileron is called a
Frise aileron.
Another, more common, method for controlling adverse yaw through the operation of the
ailerons is to design the control systems so there is differential movement between the
ailerons. The aileron moving upward moves approximately twice as far as the aileron
moving downward, as shown in Fig. 14.
FIGURE 14 Differential aileron movements allow each aileron to move up a

greater amount than it can move down.
FIGURE 15 Aileron differential control system.

In this way the drag on the up aileron tends to balance the drag on the down aileron. The
difference in the amount of aileron travel between the upward and downward movement
is caused by a differential control. This can be accomplished by several methods, one
being the placement of the control-rod connections on the drive wheels. An example of
differential control movement is illustrated in Fig. 15. In this illustration, it can be seen
that the movement of the control stick in one direction will cause an aileron to move up a
greater distance than the other aileron moves down. When the control stick is moved in
the opposite direction, the opposite effect must occur.
Rudder
The rudder is the flight-control surface that controls aircraft movement about its vertical
axis. The rudder is constructed very much like other flight-control surfaces, with spars,
ribs, and skin, and is mounted on the vertical fin, as illustrated in Fig. 10.
Rudders are usually balanced both statically and aerodynamically to provide for greater
ease of operation and to eliminate the possibility of flutter. Note that some light-aircraft
rudders may not use any balancing method. Different rudders for light aircraft are shown
in Fig. 16.
FIGURE 16 Different rudder configurations.
Rudders for transport aircraft vary in basic structural and operational design. Some are
single structural units operated by one or more control systems. Others are designed with
two operational segments that are controlled by different operating systems and provide a
desired level of redundancy.
The rudder shown in Fig. 17 consists of two segments, upper and lower, and each
segment consists of a forward and aft section. The forward rudder sections are attached to
hinge brackets mounted on the rear spar of the vertical stabilizer. Hinge brackets attached
to the rear spar of the forward sections support the aft rudder sections. The aft rudder
sections are hinged to the forward sections and connected by pushrods to the vertical
stabilizer structure. This provides aft-section displacement proportion-al to forward-

section displacement, thus increasing the aerodynamic efficiency of the rudders. Trim
and control tabs are not required with this type of rudder design because their functions
are performed by the aft sections of the rudder.
FIGURE 17 Four-section rudder. (McDonnell Douglas Corp.)

Elevators
Elevators are the control surfaces that govern the movement (pitch) of the aircraft around
the lateral axis. They are normally attached to hinges on the rear spar of the horizontal
stabilizer. The construction of an elevator is similar to that of other control surfaces, and
the design of the elevator may be unbalanced or balanced aerodynamically and/or
statically. Typical elevator installations for light aircraft and transports are shown in Figs.
18 and 10.
FIGURE 18 The elevator

of a light aircraft. (Cessna
Aircraft Co.)
Combination Control Surfaces
Some aircraft use combination control surfaces that combine the operation of at least two
control and/or stabilizer surfaces into one component. By the use of combination surfaces,
the construction of the aircraft can be simplified and the desired control response can be
achieved. Examples of these types of control surfaces include stabilators, ruddervators
and flaperons.
A stabilator combines the function of a horizontal stabilizer and an elevator. This type of
surface is used primarily on light-aircraft designs and on some high-performance military
aircraft. The stabilator usually incorporates a static balance weight on an arm ahead of the
main spar. This weight can project into the aircraft structure or be carried on the forward
portion of the tips of the stabilator. A stabilator is normally equipped with an antiservo
tab, which doubles as a trim tab. The antiservo tab moves in the same direction as the
control surface to aid the pilot in returning the stabilator to the trimmed neutral position.
A typical stabilator for a light aircraft is shown in Fig. 19.

FIGURE 19 Stabilator for a light airplane. (Piper Aircraft Co.)

Ruddervators are flight-control surfaces that serve the functions of the rudder and
elevators. The surfaces are mounted at an angle above horizontal, as shown in the
photograph of Fig. 20. When serving as elevators, the surfaces on each side of the tail
move in the same direction, either up or down. When serving as a rudder, the surfaces
move in opposite directions, one up and one down. When the pilot makes combined
rudder and elevator control movements, a control-mixing mechanism moves each surface
the appropriate amount to get the desired elevator and rudder effect.
FIGURE 20 Ruddervators on Beechcraft Bonanza.
Flaperons are surfaces that combine the operation of flaps and ailerons. These types of
control surfaces are found on some aircraft designed to operate from short runways. The
flaperon allows the area of the wing normally reserved for the aileron to be lowered and
creates a full-span flap. From the lowered position the flaperon can move up or down to
provide the desired amount of roll control while still contributing to the overall lift of the
wing.

SECONDARY FLIGHT-CONTROL SURFACES
The number and complexity of the secondary control surfaces on a particular aircraft
depend on the type of operation and flight speeds for which the aircraft is designed.
Figure 21 shows the secondary flight control surfaces found on a typical jet transport
aircraft.
FIGURE 21 The location of secondary flight controls on a Boeing 727. (Boeing

Commercial Aircraft Co.)
FIGURE 22 Trim tabs must be adjusted opposite to the desired

movement of the surface being controlled.
Tabs
Tabs are small secondary flight-control surfaces set into the trailing edges of the primary
surfaces. These are used to reduce the workload required of the pilot to hold the aircraft
in some constant attitude by "loading" the control surface in a position to maintain the

desired attitude. They may also be used to aid the pilot in returning a control surface to a
neutral or trimmed-center position. Figure 22 demonstrates the tab action.
Tabs can be fixed or variable, and the variable tabs can be designed to operate in several
different manners. There are many different types of tabs and tab-operating systems.
Figure 23 shows different types of control-tab configurations.

FIGURE 23 Various types of trim tabs.

A fixed trim tab, shown in Fig. 24, is normally a piece of sheet metal attached to the
trailing edge of a control surface. This fixed tab is adjusted on the ground by bending it in
the appropriate direction to eliminate cabin flight-control forces for a specific flight
condition. The fixed tab is normally adjusted for zero-control forces while in cruising
flight. Adjustment of the tab is a trial-and-error process, in which the aircraft must be
flown and the trim tab adjusted based on the pilot report. The aircraft must then be flown
again to see if further adjustment is necessary. Fixed tabs are normally found on light
aircraft and are used to adjust rudders and ailerons.
FIGURE 24 A fixed trim tab is adjusted on the ground for the average
flight conditions. (Ayres Corp.)
Controllable trim tabs are found on most aircraft with at least the elevator tab being
controlled. These tabs are normally operated mechanically by a cable and chain system,
electrically by a screwjack mechanism or a motor to drive the cable and chain system, or
hydraulically through actuators. When the pilot wishes to change the attitude of the
aircraft with the trim system, he or she activates the trim-control system and causes the
trim tab to be deflected in the direction opposite to the desired movement of the control
surface. When the trim tab is deflected into the airstream, the air tries to push the tab back
flush with the control surface. Since the control mechanism prevents the tab from being
pushed back flush, the whole control surface is moved.
Controllable trim tabs are adjusted by means of control wheels or cranks in the cockpit,
and an indicator is supplied to denote the position of the trim tab. If the tabs can be
operated electrically or hydraulically, they will incorporate some instrumentation to
indicate tab position. The mechanisms employed for the operation of the aileron trim
control on a typical airplane are shown in Fig.25. A control wheel located in the cockpit
adjusts the trim. The wheel is turned to the right to lower the right wing and vice versa.
The control wheel turns a sprocket and drives a sprocket chain. The chain turns another
sprocket wheel connected through a shaft to a miter gear. Through the pair of gears, the
axis of rotation is changed 90 degrees and the motion is delivered to another sprocket.
This sprocket wheel drives a chain connected to cable fittings. The cable is connected by

means of conventional turnbuckles and routed through pulleys to the chain that drives the
aileron trim-tab actuator. A similar mechanism can be used to trim the elevator and
rudder.
The foregoing description provides a sample of a typical trim-tab system, although many
systems on large aircraft are driven by means of electric actuators.
Servo tabs are used to aid the pilot in the operation of flight controls. When the pilot
moves a primary flight control, a servo tab deflects in the proper direction to aid the pilot
in moving the control surface. This reduces the force that the pilot must supply to the
control system to maneuver the aircraft.
An antiservo tab is used to aid the pilot in returning a surface such as a stabilator to the
neutral position and prevent it from moving to a full deflection position due to
aerodynamic forces. This type of tab has the opposite effect of a servo tab. The antiservo
tab also often serves as the pitch trim tab by allowing the pilot to adjust the neutral trim
position.
A control tab is used on some transport aircraft as a manual backup to flight controls that
are normally operated hydraulically. When in a manual reversion mode, the pilot can
operate the control tabs, and by their tab action they will cause the flight controls to move
in the appropriate direction.

FIGURE 25 Aileron trim-tab control system. (Cessna Aircraft Co.)
Flaps
A wing flap is defined as a hinged, pivoted, or sliding airfoil, usually attached near the
trailing edge of the wing. The purpose of wing flaps is to change the camber of the wing
and in some cases to increase the area of the wing, permitting the aircraft to operate at
lower flight speeds for landing and takeoff. The flaps effectively increase the lift of the
wings and, in some cases, greatly increase the drag, particularly when fully extended.
Various configurations for wing flaps are shown in Fig. 26. The plain flap, in effect, acts
as if the trailing edge of the wing were deflected downward to change the camber of the
wing, thus increasing both lift and drag. If the flap is moved downward sufficiently, it
becomes an effective air brake. The plain flap may be hinged to the wing at the lower
side, or it may have the hinge line midway between the lower and upper surfaces.
FIGURE 26
Configurations for
wing flaps.
The split flap, when retracted, forms the lower surface of the wing trailing edge. When
extended, the flap moves downward and provides an effect similar to that of the plain flap.
Plain flaps and split flaps may be attached to a wing with three or more separate hinges,
or they may be attached at the lower surface with a continuous piano hinge.
The Fowler flap and others with similar operation are designed to increase substantially
the wing area as the flap is extended. When retracted, the flap forms the trailing edge of
the wing. As this type of flap is extended, it is moved rearward, often by means of a
worm gear, and is supported in the correct position by means of curved tracks. The effect
of the Fowler flap, when extended, is to greatly reduce the stalling speed of the aircraft by
the increase in wing area and change in wing camber.
A slotted flap is similar to a plain flap except that as the flap is extended, a gap develops
between the wing and the flap. The leading edge of the flap is designed so that air
entering this gap flows smoothly through the gap and aids in holding the airflow on the
surface. This increases the lift of the wing with the flap extended.
Some aircraft designs incorporate combinations of Fowler and slotted flaps to greatly
increase the lift and drag of the wing. When the flap is initially extended, it moves aft on
its track. Once past a certain point on the track, further aft movement is accompanied by a
downward deflection, which opens up the slot between the flap and the wing.
Many turbine transport aircraft use this basic design, with several slot openings being
used to improve the airflow over the wing and flap surfaces. Figure 27illustrates this type
of flap combination.
FIGURE 27 The retracted and extended position of the flap segments in a typical
multiple-flap system.
Leading-Edge Flaps and Slats

Many airplanes are equipped with leading-edge flaps that are extended when the wing
flaps are employed. The leading-edge flap, when retracted, forms the leading edge of the
wing. When extended, the flap moves forward and down to increase the camber of the
wing. This provides greater lift at low flight speeds. The arrangement of a leading-edge
flap is shown in Fig. 28.
FIGURE 28 Leading-
edge flap. (Boeing
Commercial Aircraft
Co.)
Some aircraft have fixed slots built into the leading edge of the wings, usually only in the
area of the ailerons. These slots allow airflow to be directed over the top of the wing at
high angles of attack. This reduces the stalling speed of that portion of the wing and
improves aileron control when flying at high angles of attack. When at normal flight
attitudes, the slots have no significant effect on the flight characteristics of the aircraft.
This type of design eliminates the mechanism required for the slats and eliminates the
possibility of asymmetrical extension of the slats. A wing with a slot is shown in Fig. 29.
FIGURE 29 Slots are

fixed openings in the
leading edge of the
wing that improve
aileron control at high
angles of attack.
The use of slats (Fig. 30) on the leading edge of high-performance wings is a common
method of reducing stalling speed and increasing lift at comparatively slow speeds. The
slat forms the leading edge of the wing when not extended and creates a slot at the
leading edge when extended. The slot permits air from the high-pressure area under the
leading edge to flow up through the leading edge and to be directed along the top of the
wing. This effectively reduces the possibility of stall at lower speeds. Slats that extend to
form slots may be actuated aerodynamically or by mechanical controls.
Figure 30 Slats extend forwards and downwards.
Types of speed brake
Ideally the speed brake should produce an increase in drag with no loss of lift or change
in pitching moment. The fuselage mounted speed brake is best suited to meet this
requirement. For the wing mounted type spoiler, it can act as speed brake either in flight
or on ground, lift dumpers and lateral control.

Spoilers and Speed Brakes

Spoilers are also called lift dumpers. They are control surfaces used to reduce (or spoil)
the lift on a wing. The more common configuration on large turbine aircraft, shown in
Fig. 31, is to have a flat-panel spoiler laying flush with the surface of the wing and
hinged at the forward edge. When the spoilers are deployed, the surface rises up and
reduces the lift and increase drag. The other configuration, shown in Fig. 32, is common
among sailplanes and has the spoiler located inside the wing structure. When the spoilers
are deployed, they rise vertically from the wing and spoil the lift.
FIGURE 31 Spoilers are commonly designed with leading-edge hinges. (Lockheed

California Co.)
Flight spoilers are used to reduce the lift and increase drag, allowing controlled descents
without gaining excessive air speed or even decelerate quickly. Rapid deceleration is
required if turbulence is encountered at high speed, to slow down to the Rough Air Spped
as quickly as possible. A high rate of descent may be required to conform to Air Traffic
Control requirements, and particularly if an emergency descent is required.
To operate as speed brakes they are controlled by a separated lever in the cockpit and
activate symmetrically. Speed brakes are normally clear for operation up to VMO / M MO
but may “blow back” from the fully extended position at high speed. Spoilers will still
function as a roll control whilst being used as speed brakes. Depending on the aircraft
design, the spoilers may also be operated by the pilot control wheel or stick. When the
pilot moves the control wheel or stick left or right for a roll movement, the spoilers on the
wing toward the center of the turn (upward-moving aileron) move upward and aid in
rolling the aircraft into the turn. In some aircraft designs, the spoilers are the primary
flight control for roll.
Ground spoilers and flight spoilers greatly reduce the wing lift upon landing. They also
increase the aerodynamic drag of the aircraft after landing to aid in slowing the aircraft.
The pilot can control spoilers by:

manual control lever,
automatic flight-control system, or
automatic system activated upon landing.
The typical relative location of flight and ground spoilers is shown in Fig. 33.
FIGURE 32 Some aircraft designs (particularly sailplanes) have spoilers vertically

extended or retracted on upper surface of wing.

FIGURE 33 Flight spoilers are normally outboard of ground spoilers. (McDonnell

Douglas Corporation)
Speed brakes (also called divebreaks) are big drag panels used to aid speed control.
They may be on the fuselage or wings. If on the fuselage, the speed brake is on top or
bottom of structure. If on wings, speed brakes are symmetrical from top and bottom of
wing surface. They control speed and act as spoilers to decrease lift.
FIGURE 34 Speed
brakes on wing top
and bottom.
CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Aircraft control cables are generally manufactured of carbon fibre or corrosion-resistant

steel wire. Flexible cables are generally used for aircraft control.
Pulleys are used in aircraft control to change cable direction.
Turnbuckles are commonly used to adjust cable tension.

Additional information can be found at:

www.faa.gov Advisory Circulars 43.13-1A and 2A and
Aircraft Basic Science.
Control (Push-pull) rods transmit forces. They connect:

bellcranks (Fig. 35), or
bellcrank and torque arm (horn).
FIGURE 35 Push-pull
rod (top) and bellcrank
(L-shaped).
Bellcranks transmit force and change direction of the force. In Fig. 35, the effect of the
bellcrank operation can be seen.
Quadrants serve the same purpose as wheels. But quadrants move through relatively
small arcs, perhaps 100 degrees. They are often employed at the bases of control
columns or control sticks to impart force to cable systems.
FIGURE 36 A quadrant to move control cable.
Torque tubes are hollow shafts changing linear motion of cables or push-pull rods to
rotary motion. A torque arm (or horn) is attached to each torque tube by welding or
bolting. It imparts a twisting motion to the tube as the arm is moved back and forth. This
is illustrated in Fig. 37.

FIGURE 37 A torque
arm or horn
Cable guards (guard pins) are installed in the flanges of pulley brackets to prevent
cables from jumping out of pulleys. Cable guards must not interfere with pulleys. Cable
guards can be bolts, cotter pins or clevis pins.
FIGURE 38 A cable guard pin
Fairleads serve as cable guides to:

- dampen vibration,
- maintain cable alignment, and
- seal openings in bulkheads.
A fairlead is made of phenolic material, plastic or soft aluminum. It is split or slotted to

permit cable installation. It is installed without contact between cable and aircraft
structure. In no case should a fairlead deflect a cable by more than 3 degrees. It is good
practice to install a fairlead so that cable deflection is minimum. Cable tension ranges
from 25 lb [111.25 N] to 160 lb [712 N]. Any appreciable deflection at a fairlead will
cause excessive wear of the cable and the fairlead.

FIGURE 39 A fairlead.
In a pressurized turbine aircraft, cables leading from a pressurized section to a

nonpressurized section must have air-pressure seals where cables pass through a
bulkhead.
FIGURE 40 An air-
pressure seal for
cable installations in
pressurized
airplanes. (Boeing
Commercial Aircraft
Co.)
Typical Control System For a Light Aircraft

Most light aircrafts are controlled in flight using the 3 primary control surfaces: ailerons,
elevators and rudder. Operation of these is by moving control column tee bar assembly
or rudder pedals. On the forward end of each control column is a sprocket assembly. A
chain passes the sprockets to connect the left and right controls and then back to idler
sprockets on the tee bar.
It in turn connects to the aileron primary control cables. The cables operate the aileron
bellcrank and push-pull rods. Rotating the control wheels turn ailerons through cables,
bellcranks and aileron control tube assembly.
An elevator control system uses push-pull control rods (tubes). Moving the control arm
at the lower end of control column assembly moves push-pull rods to bellcrank at the rear
of the airplane. In turn, it transmits motion to the rear elevator control tube assembly.
This moves the elevator. Elevator is adjusted by adjustable rod ends on the control tubes.
A rudder control system uses a rudder pedal assembly. Force of rudder cables is
transmitted through cables to a torque tube assembly at the base of the rudder.
Force to flap handle is transmitted through cables to a torque tube. It applies angular flap
motion.

FIGURE 41 Control column assembly. (Piper Aircraft Co.)

FIGURE 42 Rudder pedal assembly. (Piper Aircraft Co.)

FIGURE 43 Aileron system for a light airplane. (Piper Aircraft Co.)

FIGURE 44 Aileron system for a light airplane. (Piper Aircraft Co.)

Typical Control System for a Large Aircraft

The primary flight controls for Boeing 757 are ailerons, elevators and rudder. Flight
controls are powered from 3 airplane hydraulic systems. When hydraulic power is lost,
there is no manual backup.
Spoilers assist ailerons in providing roll control and operate as brakes. A variable-pitch
horizontal stabilizer assists the elevators in providing pitch control. Trailing-edge flaps
and leading-edge slats provide high lift for takeoff. An alternative electric system can
operate the flaps and slats.
Rudder Control System

The rudder control system provides directional control about the yaw axis. Either rudder
pedal in cockpit hydraulically controls the rudder. 2 yaw dampers help eliminate
unwanted yawing to improve directional stability. The rudder control system operates
them.
Displacement of either set of rudder pedals sends a signal to the three rudder hydraulic
actuators. The position of the rudder is shown on the EICAS (Engine Indicating and
Crew Alerting System) status display.
FIGURE 45 Rudder-control diagram. (Boeing Commercial Aircraft Co.)

Rudder trim is controlled by rotation. The control provides signals to an electric motor
that repositions the rudder neutral point. The rudder trim indicator shows the units of
rudder trim that are signaled. The control signals from the rudder pedals and trim control
to the rudder actuators are modified by a rudder ratio changer. As airspeed increases, the
ratio changer reduces the rudder deflection that results from the rudder input from cockpit.
The ratio changer receives air speed inputs. It provides control signals to an actuator
powered by the left hydraulic system. The actuator modifies the control inputs to the
rudder.
2 independent yaw damper systems are continuously operated in flight to improve the
airplane directional stability and turn coordination. Each system has a yaw damper
controller. The controller provides signals to operate a yaw damper actuator. It in turn
generates rudder control inputs. The left and right yaw damper actuators are powered by
the left and centre hydraulic systems respectively.
Pitch Control
The pitch control surfaces consist of 2 hydraulically-powered elevators and a
hydraulically-powered stabilizer. A mach/speed trim system operates the stabilizer to
improve speed stability.
Elevator
Moving either control column sends a signal to the hydraulic actuators on the elevators.
There are left, centre and right actuators for each elevator. If 1 control column jams,
applying sufficient forward or aft force to the other causes the 2 columns to disconnect.
Pitch control is then available using the free control column.

FIGURE 46
Elevator-control
diagram.
(Boeing
Commercial
Aircraft Co.)
Elevator positions are shown on the EICAS status display. Separate pointers indicate the
left and right elevator deflection. A full-scale deflection corresponds to the maximum
elevator deflection. Two elevator feel systems provide artificial feel forces to the control
columns in cockpit.
Stabilizer
The stabilizer trim-control system shown in Fig. 50 provides pitch trim by varying the
horizontal stabilizer angle. Dual hydraulic trim motors position the stabilizer. Stabilizer
position is shown on indicators on either side of the control stand. The indicators show
the stabilizer position in units of trim. Green bands indicate the normal trim settings for
takeoff. There are three modes of stabilizer trim control: electric, manual, and automatic.

FIGURE 47 Stabilizer-control diagram. (Boeing Commercial Aircraft Co.)

Electric Trim
Split electric trim switches are on each control wheel. Actuating both switches provides
electric arming and direction signals to 2 trim control modules. The trim-control modules
use hydraulic power to reposition the stabilizer through a drive and brake mechanism.
Hydraulic power for stabilizer trim is controlled by two guarded stabilizer trim cutout
switches. When the guards are closed, the switches are in the NORM position and

hydraulic power is available for trim when the center and right hydraulic systems are
pressurized. The rate of trim is controlled by the trim-control modules. When air speed
increases, trim rate decreases.
Manual Trim
The stabilizer trim levers control manual trim. Moving both levers provides mechanical
arming and direction signals to both trim control modules. The signals from the trim
levers override all other trim inputs.
Auto Trim
Autopilots or mach/speed trim system (when autopilots are not engaged) auto control the
stabilizer. Mach/speed trim system improves speed stability by trimming the stabilizer as
air speed changes. Electric, manual or autopilot trimming inhibits mach/speed trim
system.
The reason an aircraft would need a mach speed trim control in the first place relates to
the behavior of its wing center of pressure as speed changes. The center of pressure (Cp)
is the point on a wing where the lift force acts. In low subsonic flight, the center of
pressure is usually pretty stable for a conventional airfoil shape and is located about one-
quarter of the way back from the wing leading edge. But as speed increases, the center of
pressure begins moving aft, particularly at transonic speeds starting at about Mach 0.7.
As the Cp moves aft, the moment arm between it and the elevator decreases. This
movement makes the elevator less effective in providing pitch control. The difference in
location between the Cp and the center of gravity (located in front of the Cp) causes the
aircraft nose to pitch down, so more elevator trim is required to keep the aircraft level.
Roll Control
The roll control surfaces consist of hydraulically-powered ailerons and spoilers. They are
controlled by rotating either control wheel.
If 1 control wheel jams, applying additional force will cause it to disconnect. Then the
free control wheel controls roll.
Aileron
Rotating either control wheel sends a signal to aileron hydraulic actuators. 2 actuators
actuate each aileron. Aileron positions are indicated on the EICAS status display.
Separate pointers indicate the aileron position on each wing. A full scale defection of the
position indicator corresponds to maximum aileron travel. Aileron trim is accomplished
by pushing both aileron trim switches. The switches operate an electric motor to transmit
signals to reposition the ailerons. Hydraulic power from 1 of the 3 hydraulic systems is
necessary to accurately set the aileron trim. An aileron trim indicator is located on both
control columns and indicates in units of trim.

FIGURE 48 Aileron-control diagram. (Boeing Commercial Aircraft Co.)
Spoilers and Speed Brakes

6 spoiler panels are located on each upper wing surface just forward of the trailing edge
flaps. The 3 most outboard spoiler panels and the 2 most inboard spoiler panels on each

wing operate with the ailerons to provide roll control and flight speed brakes. All 6
spoiler panels on each wing function as ground speed brakes.
The spoiler controller:

- combines signals from the control wheels and the speed brake lever,
- computes spoiler deflection and
- signals the spoiler panel actuators to actuate spoilers.
A separate hydraulic actuator powers each spoiler panel.

FIGURE 49
Spoiler-
control
diagram.
(Boeing
Commercial
Aircraft
Co.)
Rotating either control wheel actuates the roll spoilers. The speed brake lever controls
speed brakes. They also auto operate when airplane is on the ground. Placing the lever
in DOWN detent signals all spoiler panels to full down (or retracted) position. Moving
the speed brake lever to UP position signals spoiler panels to raise to the full up position.
The speed brakes extend to a greater maximum angle on the ground than in flight.

Moving the speed brake lever to the ARMED position signals the spoiler panels to extend
automatically after landing. The speed brake lever moves to the UP position and the
spoiler panels raise when all the following conditions occur:
- There is hydraulic pressure to both landing gear truck tilt actuators or nose
landing gear strut is compressed.
- Both truck tilt sensors detect a not-tilt condition (air-plane on the ground).
- Both thrust levers are at idle.
Following automatic speed brake extension, if any of the above 3 conditions are no
longer met, the speed brake lever moves to the DOWN position and the spoiler panels
retract.
The speed brakes also extend auto:

- any time the above 3 conditions occur and
- when either thrust reverser lever is raised to interlock stop.
The speed brake lever does not need to be at ARMED position.
Flap/Slat Control System

The trailing-edge flaps and leading-edge slats provide high lift for takeoff. They are
normally operated with hydraulic power from left hydraulic system. Alternatively,
electric motors operate them.
The flap lever controls their position. Moving the lever signals the flap Power Drive Unit
(PDU). It moves the flaps to the selected position. As the flaps move towards the
selected position, a signal is sent to the slat PDU that drives the leading-edge slats. The
left hydraulic system powers both PDU. 2 pointers indicate flap and slat positions.

FIGURE 50 Flap/slat-control diagram. (Boeing Commercial Aircraft Co.)
Normal Operation
When the flap lever is in the UP detent, all flaps and slats are retracted and the flap
position indicator points to UP. Moving the flap lever to position 1 signals flaps to
extend to 1. The leading-edge slats also begin to extend when commanded by the flap
drive. When they are moving, the position indicator pointers move midway between UP
and 1. When all slats and flaps reach position 1, the pointers move to 1. Placing the flap
lever in position 5, 15 or 20 signals the flaps to extend to this degree. The slats remain in
takeoff position. The position indicator indicates trailing-edge flap position only for all
flap settings exceeding 1.
Moving the flap lever to position 25 signals the flaps to extend to selected degree and the
slats to extend to landing position.
Selecting position 30 signals the flaps to extend to full down position and also arms a flap
load-relief system. If the air speed limit of flap is over, the flaps auto retract to 25
position. The flap lever does not move. The flaps extend back to position 30 when the
air speed is sufficiently reduced. The maximum flap extension speeds are displayed
around the flap position indicator. The leading-edge slats auto move from takeoff
position to landing position when stall warning system activates.

Gust lock
While control surfaces are key to an aircraft operation while moving though the air, the
surfaces are subject to wind forces while the aircraft is stationary. To keep the surfaces
from moving while the aircraft is not in operation, a device known as a gust lock is used.
A gust lock is used to keep the control surfaces and linkages from damage due to wind.
Many gust locks on commercial aircraft are internal to the aircraft and use a pin on the
yoke. Some have suggested using a cord tied to the internal yokes to prevent aileron
movement. While both the yoke pin and cords are useful, the rudder in these cases is not
protected. To assist in the protection of ailerons and rudders, others have devised a cord
that tied to both the yoke and the rudders to restrict movement. Aircraft that use a control
stick must restrict the stick internally or use external gust locks. Internal gust locks can be
large and cumbersome, adding unwanted weight to the aircraft. An internal gust lock
does restrict movement but may cause stress on the internal control linkage
CONTROL SURFACE RIGGING

According to instructions of manufacturer, actual rigging of controls for any particular
airplane should be accomplished. But there are certain operations common to almost all
systems and by which rigging of most small airplanes can be accomplished. The
following guidelines may be helpful in installing and rigging of control surfaces:
1. It is recommended (though not necessary) to level and place the airplane on jacks
during rigging and aligning of controls.
2. Remove turnbuckle barrels from cable ends before withdrawing cables through
the structure.
3. Tie a cord to the cable end before drawing the cable through the structures to
facilitate reinstallation of cables.
4. Before disconnecting cables, label all cable ends etc.
5. When turnbuckles have been set to correct cable tension, no more than 3 threads
should be exposed from either end of turnbuckle barrel.
6. Take cable tension with appropriate surface control in neutral position.
7. The manufacturers of some aircrafts provide rigging holes for the rigging of flight
controls. The hole in the bellcrank is lined up with the hole in the rigging fitting.
A pin is placed through the 2 holes to prevent the bellcrank from moving. The
mechanism is then rigged to achieve a neutral control surface setting and a neutral
cabin control position. Other ways of achieving a neutral control surface position
are to:
- clamp the surface in a neutral position or
- use a straight-edge rigging tool.
The objectives during the rigging procedure are:

(1) correcting cable tensions,
(2) balancing or synchronization between dual controls,
(3) synchronization of the cockpit control with the control surfaces to which it
is linked, and
(4) setting the range of control surface movement.

The objective in rigging a control system is to have the cockpit control in neutral at the
same time that the control surface involved is in neutral. Usually the cockpit control is
locked in the neutral position by:
- control lock in the airplane if this lock position is neutral, or
- an installed locking arrangement (such as a bar, block, or rod with clamps) that
will hold the control in neutral.
FIGURE 51 An
alignment hole used
for control surface
rigging.
-
FIGURE 52
Centering and
measuring rudder
travel. (Cessna
Aircraft Co.)
-
-
FIGURE 53 Straight-
edge rigging tool.
(Piper Aircraft Co.)

FIGURE 54 Cockpit controls locked in

neutral position (Piper Aircraft Co.)
Turnbuckles rig cables so that bellcrank assemblies are in neutral position. A special
rigging tool may be needed to determine bellcrank neutral position.
FIGURE 55 Bellcrank rigging tool. (Cessna Aircraft Co.)
Cable tensions must be set simultaneously as control units are positioned because any
change in control cable tension will likely produce a change in control surface position.
Cable tension is measured by tensiometer (cable-tension indicator). The correct riser
for cable size is installed on the indicator. Then the indicator is hooked over the cable.
The control lever is moved up against the case. The reading on the dial is read. This
reading is located on the conversion chart supplied with the instrument. The cable
tension is indicated opposite to the indicator reading in the column for cable size. The
cable tension may have to be corrected for ambient temperature using a temperature-
correction chart. It may be necessary to check and adjust cable tensions with seasonal
changes. This temperature change can cause airframe structure to expand or contract an
amount different from that of control cables due to difference in coefficients of expansion
of airframe and cable materials. These changes may cause cable tension to be too great

or too small, resulting in excessive system wear or loss of control effectiveness. Some
big aircrafts incorporate cable-tension regulators in design to auto correct variations.
FIGURE 56
Use of a
tensiometer
FIGURE 57
Cable-tension
temperature-
correction
chart. (Piper
Aircraft Co.)
The tension of control cables must be within the range specified by the manufacturer.
Excessive tension places undue stress on the cables, pulleys, pulley brackets and all other
parts associated with the support of the control system. During operation, these stresses
can lead to failure of the system. Excessive tension also increases the wear on cables,

pulleys, bearings and other parts. In addition, excessive tension increases the difficulty of
moving the controls, thus reducing the pilot ability to control the aircraft smoothly and
accurately. To measure control surface travel, a special rigging tool that lays on the
control surface may be required. A universal protractor or a digital protractor measures
the travel.
FIGURE 58 Use of rigging tool.
FIGURE 59 A universal protractor may be used to measure alignment and movement

angles.

FIGURE 60 Digital
electronic protractor.
(Kell-Strom Tool Co.)
The range of control-surface movement is given in manufacturer instructions or Type

Certificate Data Sheet. Adjustable stops limit control surface travel. Various types of
control travel stop for flight control may be used.
FIGURE 61 Bolt stops located on a
bulkhead. (Cessna Aircraft Co.)
FIGURE 62 Bolt stops located in a control

stick (Ayres Corp.)

FIGURE 63 The use of square bellcrank stops.

(Cessna Aircraft Co.)
Travel stop bolts are installed in nut plates mounted on a bulkhead. The stop is adjusted
in or out to obtain the proper control travel. The flat plates on the bellcrank allow the
control to move until the plate contacts the stop bolt.
A stop bolt is mounted in the control stick. The bolt protruding from fork is adjusted to
achieve proper control movement.
1 position can be selected on the bellcrank stops. The hole in the bellcrank is off centre.
It gives a different stop value for each side of the stop.
Then control cables are tensioned so that control surface is neutral. All adjusting
elements (such as turnbuckles and rod ends) must be checked after rigging to ensure that
they are within limits. Rod ends must be screwed into the rod at a distance sufficient to
prevent insertion of safety wire through inspection hole. Turnbuckles must not have
more than 3 threads outside the barrel.
In final inspection of control rigging, ensure that no cable splice or fitting can come
within 5.08cm [2 inches] of fairlead, pulley, guide, cable guard or other unit that can jam
control. The control should be moved to its extreme position both ways in this
inspection (stroke check). After all adjustments, appropriate safe ties (safety wires, cotter
pins, jam nuts, etc) should be installed.
BALANCING CONTROL SURFACES

The control surfaces for new airplanes are properly balanced (statically and
aerodynamically) in the factory. After overhauling, painting or maintaining control
surfaces of airplane, they need balancing to prevent flight flutter. Flutter can cause
excessive stresses in flight. This causes damages (such as cracks, complete failure) of
control surfaces, attachments and structures. So it is necessary that control surface be
checked whenever static balance may change.
Before balancing, new and unpainted surface should be painted. Control surface should
be complete with all parts (such as trim tabs and pushrods) as if in flight. A control
surface balance is checked by placing the surface on suitable bearings at the hinge line
and measuring the moment of the hinge line.

FIGURE 64 Balance-checking procedure
During balancing, the control surface is supported at the hinge line on a knife-edge
support. A screw jack and a scale are placed under the trailing edge of the surface. The
screw jack is adjusted up or down to provide the correct angular reading on bubble
protractor on surface. After correcting angle, the protractor is removed and the scale is
read. The weight of the screw jack is subtracted from the scale reading, resulting in
surface weight. The surface weight at the scale support point is multiplied by moment
arm, resulting in moment. If the moment is too big, add weight on surface in front of the
hinge line. Another method for balancing a control surface is using a balancing tool.
FIGURE 65 Control surface balance tool. (Piper Aircraft Co.)

This balancing tool is adapted to most control surfaces. It provides information on the
amount of weight that must be added or removed from the control surface.

FIGURE
66 Using
control
surface
balancing
tool on
rudder.
(Piper
Aircraft
Co.)
FIGURE 67 Balance weights for stabilator

and aileron. (Piper Aircraft Co.)
In some cases, balance weights consist of lead plates attached to the leading edge of
control surface.
FIGURE 68 Balance weight on an
aileron.
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE

An inspection for a particular type of aircraft should follow instructions given in
manufacturer service manual or maintenance manual. The following inspections are
typical of control systems:
1. Examine all cables for wear or corrosion. Wear will be most apparent at or near
pulleys, the ends of cable fittings, fairleads and other points where the cable may
come into contact with another part of the system. Broken strands of cable can be
detected by wrapping a rag around the cable and moving the rag back and forth.
Cables that are badly worn, have broken strands, or are appreciably corroded
should be replaced.

2. Examine all pulleys for wear, cracks and alignment. If a pulley is worn to an
appreciable extent or cracked, it should be replaced. The pulley should freely turn
when control cables are moved. If a pulley is out of line, it will cause wear to
both pulley and cable. The mountings for such pulleys should be corrected and
cable carefully examined for wear.
3. Note cable deflection where cables pass through fairleads or guides. If it is over 3
degrees, it must be corrected. Wear of cable and fairlead should be checked.
4. Check wear of pulley bearings, bearing bolts, bushings, clevis pins and all other
moving parts. All parts worn beyond specified limits must be replaced.
5. Check cable tension by tensiometer. Adjust cable tension by turnbuckles.
6. Check to prevent cable fitting within 5.08cm [2 inches] of a pulley, fairlead or
guide when control is moved to limits.
7. Check control surface travel to verify that it corresponds to Type Certificate Data
Sheet. Adjust travel by stop bolts and/or rod ends. Before cockpit control has
reached end of travel, set control surface stops to make contact.
8. After all adjustments, examine all safe ties of turnbuckles, clevis pins, nuts, etc
for correct application and effectiveness. Correct defective safe ties.
9. Upon completion of inspection, adjustment and service, check operation of the
control system. The controls should move smoothly and easily through their full
range of travel and should not exhibit any looseness or play (light, quick and
constant shifting). Check the system for direction of control movement because it
is often possible to cross cables and cause reverse movement. This is particularly
true of aileron systems.
When the right rudder pedal is pressed, the rudder should move to the right; when
the control is pulled back, the elevator should move upward; and when the wheel
is moved to the right, the left aileron should move down and the right aileron
should move up.
Fly-by-Wire (FBW) Control Systems

Introduction
The potential benefits of fly-by-wire (FBW) control of civil transport air-craft have long
been recognized. Some of the first aircrafts to which the technique was applied were the
Concorde and Boeing 767 for control of spoiler. It was only with design and
development of Airbus A320 that benefits have been fully exploited whereby
FBW/digital computer systems have complete control over all flight control surfaces.
Another significant feature of this aircraft is that each pilot has a side-stick type of
controller in place of the more conventional control column.
A FBW system has a number of advantages. The most notable ones are highlighted as
follows:
1. Weight saving. The elimination of the conventional connecting rods, cables and
pulleys, together with the mechanical adjustment, feel and interconnection units,
saves considerable weight even after allowing for the weight of the computers and
cable systems as replacements.
2. Reduced maintenance times. Conventional control systems can be very man-
power consuming where maintenance is concerned because of the need to make

many adjustments to the mechanical control runs in situ. Moreover, it can take
numerous flight tests to correct some conventional control system adjustment
problems. Maintenance downtime can be significantly reduced through greater
use of line replaceable units possible in FBW control systems and digital flight
control systems. Once fully developed, little or no physical maintenance is
needed.
3. Gust load alleviation. Another advantage of the use of FBW is that it may be
used to control the ailerons that will alleviate the effects of wind gusts. Normally,
when an aircraft encounters an up-gust of wind, the immediate effect is for the lift
generated by the wing to increase, causing the aircraft to climb, often quite
violently. This has the effect not only of causing discomfort to the passengers but
also of putting considerable stress on the aircraft structure. Fast computers can
sense initial increase in lift and deflect ailerons on both sides of aircraft upwards,
reducing the wing-generated lift and opposing the effects of the gust. This
reduces discomfort of the passengers, reduces the strength requirements of the
wings and reduces the fatigue endured by the structure.
4. Automatic manoeuvre envelope protection. In most commercial types of aircraft,
the control systems are such that manoeuvres can be initiated which would be
beyond the normal flight maneuver limits. With FBW controlled-aircraft,
however, the pilot demands requisite control surface deflections from computers
that are programmed such that the generated and distributed command signals are
tailored to match flight criteria established for particular aircraft type. In other
words, the computers limit control response. This ensures that flight maneuver
envelope limits of bank, pitch, yaw, speed, angle of attack and gravitational forces
are not exceeded.
5. Improved handling. From the pilot viewpoint, perhaps the most obvious feature of
FBW systems is the improvement in handling characteristics. The many small
deficiencies in handling of even modern airliners can be eliminated through the
efficient use of computers which can make the aircraft responses to control inputs
match exactly what the pilot would want them to be. However, given that all
modern airliners exhibited acceptable handling already, the achievement of
improvements in handling qualities was not a good commercial reason for FBW.
6. Fuel saving. A more compelling commercial reason for FBW was potential fuel
savings if aircraft could be flown at CG. This would normally have made aircraft
unacceptably unstable. Though there is a present perception of a need to allow
civil aircraft to be flown manually in the event of complete computer or electric
failure, and thus for aircraft always to exhibit stability, it is likely that in future,
when confidence in FBW is complete, flight with relaxed stability will be
permitted. Such flight could only be safely achieved through use of FBW. Once
it has been allowed, significant fuel could be saved. Moreover, acceptance of
relaxed stability would allow major weight savings due to ability of designer to
plan smaller tail surfaces on such aircraft, perhaps giving weight savings up to
10% on a typical airliner aircraft. So, though generation of aircraft represented by
A320 does not yet capitalize on fuel saving advantage offered by FBW, future
generations of aircraft (e.g. A330 and A340) might do so and to the extent of
using stability relaxation in the flight.

Advanced FBW Concepts

Introducing FBW to aircraft could simply provide a computer link between control and
control surfaces. That is, moving control would cause a corresponding and proportional
movement of control surfaces. Such a development would provide weight saving. But it
would do little to improve handling and would not advance technology very far towards
allowing aircraft with relaxed stability. In order to achieve either of these two goals, the
computer must be made to do a little more and, typically, this would be to cause aircraft
to respond in a certain manner to the pilot inputs by driving the controls as appropriate.
The pilot could be enabled, for example, to demand simple control surface movements.
Such FBW is often called Active Control system because control system itself is more
than a passive repeater of instructions.
If active control systems are to be effective, both computers and actuators must be fast to
minimize destabilizing effects of control delays. The speeds of reaction required will
depend on natural handling characteristics of aircraft: an unstable aircraft requiring a
much faster acting system than one with benign handling. The general layout of
components of active control system (number of computers, their functions, manner of
cross-voting) can be called architecture. The manner in which computers are expected to
create control surface and thus aircraft movement can be called control laws. In all
aircraft systems, design must allow for partial or total failure of elements and provision
must be made for alternate operation.
FIGURE 69 Computer arrangements.

Neither the ELAC nor the SEC provide the only control in either pitch or roll axes. This is designed
to decrease risk of common design fault having an uncontained effect on aircraft.
Furthermore, redundancy and safety are increased through the use of different microprocessor types,
different suppliers, physical segregation of signalling lanes and the division of each computer into two
physically separated units. The power supplies are also segregated. As with most other aircrafts, the
individual control surfaces are signalled by different lanes and powered by different hydraulic
systems.


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What are the primary flight controls of an aircraft?

What are the primary flight controls of an aircraft?

What are secondary flight controls used for?

What are secondary flight controls used for?

Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Tsing Yi) Aeroplane Aerodynamics Structures & Systems I

HD in Aircraft Maintenance Engineering

Topic M11.9: Flight Control

AIRCRAFT FLIGHT CONTROLS

FIGURE 10 Aircraft flight controls. (Boeing Commercial Aircraft Co.)

FIGURE 11 The L-1011 uses

M11.9: Flight Control Page 3 of 50

FIGURE 14 Differential aileron movements allow each aileron to move up a

FIGURE 15 Aileron differential control system.

M11.9: Flight Control Page 4 of 50

FIGURE 16 Different rudder configurations.

M11.9: Flight Control Page 5 of 50

FIGURE 17 Four-section rudder. (McDonnell Douglas Corp.)

M11.9: Flight Control Page 6 of 50

FIGURE 18 The elevator

Combination Control Surfaces

M11.9: Flight Control Page 7 of 50

FIGURE 19 Stabilator for a light airplane. (Piper Aircraft Co.)

FIGURE 20 Ruddervators on Beechcraft Bonanza.

M11.9: Flight Control Page 8 of 50

SECONDARY FLIGHT-CONTROL SURFACES

FIGURE 21 The location of secondary flight controls on a Boeing 727. (Boeing

FIGURE 22 Trim tabs must be adjusted opposite to the desired

M11.9: Flight Control Page 9 of 50

M11.9: Flight Control Page 10 of 50

FIGURE 23 Various types of trim tabs.

M11.9: Flight Control Page 12 of 50

M11.9: Flight Control Page 13 of 50

FIGURE 25 Aileron trim-tab control system. (Cessna Aircraft Co.)

Leading-Edge Flaps and Slats

FIGURE 29 Slots are

Figure 30 Slats extend forwards and downwards.

Types of speed brake

M11.9: Flight Control Page 18 of 50

Spoilers and Speed Brakes

FIGURE 31 Spoilers are commonly designed with leading-edge hinges. (Lockheed

The pilot can control spoilers by:

FIGURE 32 Some aircraft designs (particularly sailplanes) have spoilers vertically

M11.9: Flight Control Page 20 of 50

FIGURE 33 Flight spoilers are normally outboard of ground spoilers. (McDonnell

CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Aircraft control cables are generally manufactured of carbon fibre or corrosion-resistant

Pulleys are used in aircraft control to change cable direction.

Turnbuckles are commonly used to adjust cable tension.

M11.9: Flight Control Page 21 of 50

Additional information can be found at:

Control (Push-pull) rods transmit forces. They connect:

FIGURE 36 A quadrant to move control cable.

M11.9: Flight Control Page 22 of 50

Fairleads serve as cable guides to:

A fairlead is made of phenolic material, plastic or soft aluminum. It is split or slotted to

M11.9: Flight Control Page 23 of 50

In a pressurized turbine aircraft, cables leading from a pressurized section to a

Typical Control System For a Light Aircraft

M11.9: Flight Control Page 25 of 50