Telecommunications 1

• Week 2
Agenda
• Leftover previous time
• Recap
• Transmissions fundamentals
– SHM, Fourier
– Spectrum
– Bandwidth
– Amplification
– Decibels
• Quizz
• Other Order of Business
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Recap Contract - how do we feel safe with each other

• Safety feeling enables learning

• Phones away
• There are no stupid questions
• Be on time
• Optional breaks
• Upload Canvas upfront
• Patience
Recap Telecommunications, also known as
telecom, is the exchange of
information over significant distances
• What do you think telecom is? by electronic means and refers to all
types of voice, data and video
transmission.

This is a broad term that includes

a wide range of information-
transmitting technologies and
communications infrastructures,
such as wired phones; mobile
devices, such as cellphones;
microwave communications; fiber
optics; satellites; radio and
television broadcasting; the
internet; and telegraphs.
Transmission Fundamentals To be transmitted,
Signals and Systems data must be
transformed to
electromagnetic
signals.
Transmission Fundamentals
Signal categories: Analog and digital

Figure 3.1 Comparison of analog and digital signals

Transmission Fundamentals
Signal categories: Periodic and non-periodic
Frequency and
period are the
inverse of each
other.
Example 1
The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz. The period of this sine wave can be
determined as follows:
Example 2
The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?

Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we calculate the frequency from the period
(1 Hz = 10−3 kHz).
Sine Wave Review - 1

• We all know that the Sine of an angle is the opposite side

Digital divided by the hypotenuse, i.e.
Communications
Sine Wave Review - 2

Digital
Communications
Sine Wave Review - 3

Digital
Communications
Sine Wave Review - 4

Digital 10
Communications
Sine Wave Review - 5

Digital
Communications
Sine Wave Review - 6
Phase
describes the
position of the
Digital
Communications

waveform
relative to time
0.

Remember:Sine 0 = 0; Sine 90 = 1; Sine 180 = 0; Sine 270 = -1;

Sine 360 = Sine 0 = 0
Sine Wave Review - 7

Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases
Example 3
A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in degrees and
radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
Sine and Cosine Waves - 1

• Time varying signal

Digital
Communications
Fourier Transform – 1
Fourier analysis is a tool
that changes a time
domain signal to a
frequency domain signal
and vice versa.
A complete sine wave in
the time domain can be
represented by one
single spike in the
frequency domain
Figure 3.7 The time-domain and frequency-domain
plots of a sine wave
Fourier Transform – 2

Figure 3.8 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves
Fourier Transform -3
• A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data
communications
• We need to send a composite signal, a signal made of
many simple sine waves.
• According to Fourier analysis, any composite signal is a
combination of simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
Fourier Transform – 4
• If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition
gives a series of signals with discrete frequencies.
• If the composite signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition
gives a combination of sine waves with continuous
frequencies.
Fourier Transform – 5

Figure 3.9 A composite periodic signal

Fourier Transform – 6

Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and

frequency domains
Fourier Transform – 7

• Any wave that is periodic (i.e. it repeats

itself exactly over succeeding intervals)
can Digital
be resolved into a number of simple
Communications
sine waves, each with its own frequency
• This analysis of complex waveforms
is part of the Fourier Theorem
• You can build up a complex waveform
with harmonics of the fundamental
frequency
Harmonics – 1

• A harmonic is a multiple of a fundamental frequency. In the figure below, a fundamental

frequency of 100 Hz is shown with 31 harmonics (total of 32 “lines”).
Digital
Communications
Harmonics – 2
• In this example, 20 harmonics are mixed together to form a
saw-tooth waveform

Digital
Communications
Fourier Transform – 8

Figure 3.11 The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

Figure 3.11 shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It can be the signal created by a
microphone or a telephone set when a word or two is pronounced. In this case, the
composite signal cannot be periodic, because that implies that we are repeating the same
word or words with exactly the same tone.
Bandwidth and Signal Frequency
• The bandwidth of a
composite signal is the
difference between the
highest and the lowest
frequencies contained
in that signal.

Figure 3.12 The bandwidth of periodic and

nonperiodic composite signals
Example 4
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500,
700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components
have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.

Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz (see Figure 3.13).
Time limited and Band limited Signals

• A time limited signal is a signal for which the amplitude

s(t) = 0 for t > T1 and t < T2
• A band limited signal is a signal for which the amplitude
S(f) = 0 for f > F1 and f < F2
Transmission of Sinusoidal Signals
• Sender
– Sender signal s(t) = As sin(2 π f t )
– The transmitter has a given power Ps [mW]
– Power to Amplitude relation is Ps  As2

• Receiver
– Received signal: r(t) = Ar sin(2 π f t - ),  = Distance/ (Velocity of propagation)
– In most cases: Ar < As
– The receiver receives a power Pr [mW] < Ps [mW]

• During the transmission signals are always attenuated. The attenuation is strongly frequency
dependent.
• The delay may also be frequency dependent...
Logarithmic Expressions
dB (Power vs. Voltage Gain)

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
• Logarithmic expression of power gain: 𝐴𝑃[𝑑𝐵] = 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑃𝑖𝑛
[dB]

• Logarithmic expression of current gain:

2 2
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∙𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑃[𝑑𝐵] = 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑃𝑖𝑛
= 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 ∙𝑅
𝐼𝑖𝑛
= 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2
𝐼𝑖𝑛
+10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑅𝑖𝑛
 assuming 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 =𝑅𝑖𝑛 we get:
𝑖𝑛

2
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑰𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑨𝑰[𝒅𝑩] = 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 2 ∙ 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 𝟐𝟎 ∙ 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝒅𝑩]
𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝑰𝒊𝒏

• Logarithmic expression of voltage gain:

2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑖𝑛 2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑖𝑛 2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑃[𝑑𝐵] = 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2
= 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ∙ 2 = 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 ∙ = 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 + 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑅𝑖𝑛 assuming 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 =𝑅𝑖𝑛
2 2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑨𝑽[𝒅𝑩] = 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 = 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 2 ∙ 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 𝟐𝟎 ∙ 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝐝𝐁]
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑽𝒊𝒏
Logarithmic Expressions
dBm (decibel ref to mW)

• dBm is a unit for measuring power levels referenced to 1 mWatt

• It’s used extensively in telecom due to small power levels:

– 0dBm: power level = 1 mWatt
– >0dBm: power levels > 1 mWatt
– <0dBm: power levels < 1 mWatt

• Examples:

P 0.5mW = 10 ∙ log 0.5 = − 3.0dBm

P 1mW = 10 ∙ log 1 = 0.0dBm
P 2mW = 10 ∙ log 2 = + 3.0dBm
P 10mW = 10 ∙ log 10 = +10.0dBm
P 100mW = 10 ∙ log 100 = +20.0dBm

𝑑𝐵𝑚
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑊)
𝒅𝑩𝒎 = 10 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 (𝑾) = 10 10 ∙ 0,001 (𝑊)
0,001 (𝑊)
Gain vs. Attenuation
Examples

• We use electronic circuits in communication to process signals.

• By this we manipulate signals to produce a desired result that involves
either gain or attenuation.

Gain Attenuation
• Gain means amplification. In order to • Attenuation is a loss introduced by passive
amplify a signal we must apply energy, e.g. component (resistor, capacitor, inductor) or an
power supply. active semiconductor component.

• Gain is simply the ratio of the output to the • If the output signal is lower in amplitude than
the input, the circuit has loss, or attenuation.
input.

Vin Vout vin

Av=0,8x
Vin Vout

R1=1k
Av=10x
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅2
𝐴𝑉[𝑑𝐵] = 20 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 =20 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 vout
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅1 +𝑅2 )

R2=4k
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑉[𝑑𝐵] = 20 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 dB
𝑉𝑖𝑛 4
𝐴𝑉[𝑑𝐵] = 20 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 dB
1+4
𝐴𝑉[𝑑𝐵] = 20 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 10 = 𝟐𝟎 𝐝𝐁
𝐴𝑉[𝑑𝐵] = 20 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 0,8 = −𝟏, 𝟗𝟑𝐝𝐁
Gain vs. Attenuation
Cascading gain/lossy stages

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

G1=0,10 G2=25x G3=100x

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Output

Voltage amplification 0,1 x 25 x 100 vout = 250  vin

Gain (dB) -20 27,96 40,00 47,96 dB

+ +
0 dBm -20 dBm 7,96 dBm 47,96 dBm Pout = Pin (dBm) + 47,96 dB
(1 mWatt) + + = 0 dBm + 47,96 dB
= 47,96 dBm (= 62,52 Watt)

𝑑𝐵𝑚
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑾 = 10 ∙ 10

0,001 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 47,96

= 10 10 ∙
0,001 𝑊 = 62.517 ∙
0,001 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
= 𝟔𝟐, 𝟓𝟐 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕
Attenuation of Signals
• The attenuation for the transmission is
– af [dB] = 10 log ( Ps /Pr ) = 20 log (As/Ar)

• Decibel (dB)
– is a ratio (not a value)
– expresses a logarithmic relationship
– is used to indicate relative magnitude (gain or loss)
– dB = 10 log(P1/P2)
• Power ratio n of: (n=2) => 3 dB, (n=10) => 10 dB,
(n=100) =>20 dB
(n=0.1) => -10 dB

• For expressing power, frequently dBW is used, expressing the

signal strength with reference to 1 W
– Power [dBW] = 10 log ( Power [W] /1 W )
Power Equations
• The transmitter has a given power Ps [dBW]

• The medium has an attenuation of af [dB/km] for a unitary

distance

• The receiver has a sensitivity Sf [dBW]

– Thesmallest incoming power which it will detect with acceptable error -
see discussion later...

• To receive a signal properly the power equation (in dB) must

be considered

Ps - afx - Sf > 0
where x: distance [km]

What can be influenced? Ps- sometimes... X - usually...

Quizz
Question 0

• Given a list of frequencies shown below calculate their

corresponding periods.
a) 24 Hz, b) 8 MHz, c) 140 GHz, d) 100 GHz
• What are the corresponding frequencies of the following
periods:
a) 5s, b) 12µs, c) 200ms
Question 1
A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60 Hz. What is the
lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the same
amplitude.

Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We show this by a series of spikes (see
Figure 3.14).
Question 2
A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a middle frequency of
140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an amplitude of
0. Draw the frequency domain of the signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at 240 kHz. Figure 3.15 shows
the frequency domain and the bandwidth.
Question 3
• What is the component in which the output Voltage is larger than
the input voltage
a) attenuator b) amplifier c) differential d) multiplexer
• The power output of an amplifier is 7watts. The power gain is 80.
What is the input power?

• What is the total gain of amplifiers with a power gain of 6, 8, 5 when

connected in series?
Question 3
• What is the component in which the output Voltage is larger than
the input voltage
a) attenuator b) amplifier c) differential d) multiplexer
• The power output of an amplifier is 7watts. The power gain is 80.
What is the input power?
power in= power out/gain = 7/80 = 87.5mW
• What is the total gain of amplifiers with a power gain of 6, 8, 5 when
connected in series?
total gain=multiplication of individual gains = 6*8*5=240