Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment
Department: Land and Spatial Sciences
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS 3
(GES711S)
Raster and Vector Data Models
Presented by: Kaleb Gizaw Negussie
[email protected] Office: No. 104
(Polyheights)
Tel: 207 2865
Learning Objectives
Gain in depth knowledge about the
characteristics of vector and raster data
formats.
Learn the foundation of data conversion
processes between models.
Be able to identify both formats in a GIS
between environment
Learn the methodology for conversion formats
using the Spatial Analyst tool.
Spatial Modelling and Simulation
2
Contents
Vector Data.
Raster data.
Vector to raster data conversion (rasterization)
Raster to vector data conversion (vectorization).
Spatial Modelling and Simulation
3
Vector Data
The vector model is a data structure used
specifically to store geographical data.
Vector information is organized through a database
that is composed of two basic components: spatial
and thematic.
The spatial component is stored by means of the
node coordinates and the arc-node topology.
While thematic component refers to the attribute
data associated to the elements included within the
spatial database.
The connection between the two components
(spatial and thematic) is achieved through a unique
identifier tied to each entity.
4
Vector Data
Coordinates of the nodes and vertex of each arc
ARC Origin Node Intermediate vertex End Node
1 3.2, 5.2 1, 5.2 1,3
2 1,3 1.8,2.6 2.8,3 3.3,4 3.2, 5.2
3 1,2 3.5,2 4.2,2.7 5.2,2.7
Arc Topology
ARC Origin End Right Left
Node Node Polygon Polygon
1 1 2 External A
2 2 1 A External
3 3 4 External External Node Topology
Node Arc
1 1,2
2 1,2
Polygon Topology
Polygon Arc
3 3
A 1, 2
4 4
5 5
Vector model representation and related tables. Source:(Department of Geomatics, The University of Melbourne, 2008).
5
Vector Data
Spatial representation of objects in a vector model is defined by
mathematical functions, therefore points, lines, and polygons can be
modeled
Points:
Adimensional elements
Represent simple geographical entities (e.g. peaks of elevation, and
position/location of elements)
Represent polygon entities when using a small scale
Lines or polylines:
One-dimensional elements
Constituted by straight segments or arcs.
Represent linear geographical entities such as rivers and roads.
Polygons:
Two-dimensional elements
Comprised of boundaries and an enclosed area.
Represent geographical entities such as dams and urban areas.
6
Vector Data
Summary of advantages and limitations of vector models
for representing real world objects:
Vector
Graphical precision
Cartographical representation
Data volume
Topology
Ease of calculation
Updatability
Continuous spatial variation
Integration
Discontinuous spatial variation
Comparative summary of vector and raster data models characteristics. (Adapted from Department of Geomatics, The University of Melbourne, 2008).
7
Raster Data
Method for storing, processing and visualization of
geographical data. Each surface to be modeled is divided
into rows and columns, thus generating a regular grid.
Each cell should be rectangular, although not necessarily
square. Each cell within the grid stores both the position
where the element is located and the thematic value of that
element
Raster data are an abstraction of reality, based on
representation of space through a grid of cells or pixels,
where the position of each element is implicitly given by
the place (row, column) it occupies on the grid. In the
raster model, space is not continuous, but is divided into
discrete units. This makes raster data particularly well
suited for some spatial operations, such as map overlays
or surface calculations. 8
Raster Data
Raster data can be structured in two ways, although they are both just
different versions for representing and storing a matrix digitally.
• Exhaustive enumeration: In this data structure, the value of each pixel is registered
independently, so that we do not need to apply any kind of compression when the same
numeric value appears several consecutive times.
• Run-length coding: This data structure is basically an image compression method based
on coding groups of variable length. If there are several contiguous cells that share
identical numeric values, applying run-length coding
1. Exhaustive enumeration 2. Run-length coding
9
Raster Data
Summary of advantages and limitations of raster
models for representing real world objects:
Raster
Graphical precision
Cartographical representation
Data volume
Topology
Ease of calculation
Updatability
Continuous spatial variation
Integration
Discontinuous spatial variation
Raster characteristics. Source:(Adapted from Department of Geomatics, The University of Melbourne, 2008).
10
Vector To Raster Data Conversion
(Rasterization)
Rasterization is a procedure that allows the conversion of
vector data (points, lines, and polygons) into raster data
composed of cells (pixels) containing a discrete value
e.g., generation of a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) from topographic
contour curves or/and from known elevation points (stored as vector
data).
Any feature in vector format (point, line, or polygon) can be
converted into raster format.
11
Vector To Raster Data Conversion
(Rasterization)
POLYGONS
CELL CENTER: cell values are obtained by default, from the
value of the polygon that goes through the centre of each cell,
MAXIMUM_AREA cell value is determined by the polygon that
occupies the majority of the area within that cell.
MAXIMUM_AREA_COMBINED polygons falling within the same
cell and sharing the same attribute are combined into a single
one, so as to compute a total combined area. The cell will take
the value of the attribute that occupies the greatest surface area
within the cell.
12
Vector To Raster Data Conversion
(Rasterization)
POLYLINES
When converting vector polylines into a raster format, each cell on the
output layer holds the value of the line that intersects it when a single line
goes through the cell.
When more than one line intersects the cell, cell value can be assigned
based on one of the following methods :
MAXIMUM_LENGTH METHOD: Assigns the value of the longest line
that goes through the cell.
MAXIMUM_COMBINED_LENGTH: Assigns the value of the longest
line to the cell. If there is more than one line with the same attributes
the length is combined by default.
Cells that are not intercepted by any line at all take on the value NO
DATA.
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Vector To Raster Data Conversion
(Rasterization)
POINTS
If there is a single point contained within the cell, the cell will take
on that value.
When we have more than one point, we apply the
MOST_FREQUENT method to assign values. This requires a Priority
field, based on one of the following methods:
Priority field is set to (NONE), or if the Priority field holds the same
value for all records, the cell will take on the value of the point with the
lowest FID (i.e., the point that appears first on the attribute table)
Priority field contains different values for the records, the cell will take
on the value of the point with the highest priority. If two different points
share that highest priority value, despite having different attributes, the
cell will take on the value of the attribute that appears most frequently
between those two.
14
Raster To Vector Data Conversion
(Vectorization)
POLYGONS: Polygons stored in raster format are represented by
blocks of contiguous cells that share the same value. Cells with value
= NO DATA will not be transformed.
LINEAR FEATURES: When converting linear features stored in a
raster format into a vector polyline, the centre of each cell belonging
to the linear feature is linked to the others. Cells with value = NO
DATA will not be transformed.
POINTS: Each cell will be converted into a point feature, with
coordinates corresponding to the location of the centre of the cell,
and with the same value as the original raster cell. Cells with value =
NO DATA will not be transformed.
15
Spatial Modelling
16
Concepts of Spatial Modelling
and Simulations
Modeling is more limited in scope; it is the
process of simulation, prediction, or
description.
Models can include a combination of logical
expressions, mathematical procedures and
criteria, which are applied for the purpose of
simulating a process, predicting an outcome,
or characterizing a phenomenon.
Concepts of Spatial Modelling
and Simulations …
The Concepts:
Data representation of reality; for example, spatial data
models include the arc-node, georelational model, rasters or
grids, and tins.
Scientists in many disciplines have progressively been using
simulations to better understand the natural systems they
study.
Faster hardware, as well as increasingly precise instruments,
allow the construction and simulation of progressively
advanced models of various systems.
Governed by algorithms and equations, the spatial models at
the core of simulations are changed and updated at every
simulation step through spatial queries, implementing
massive updates (Heinis et. al, 2014).
Definitions of Spatial Modelling
In your own understanding, what do you
understand by the term „model‟?
Definitions of Spatial
Modelling…
A Model Is:
an abstraction of reality.
structured as a set of rules and procedures to derive new
information that can be analysed to aid in problem solving
and planning.
Modelling Is:
to produce a representation or simulation of a problem.
a procedure that run on a database to derive a measure or
set of measures.
a set of clearly defined procedures used to derive new
information.
Spatial modelling …
What is Spatial Modeling?
Analytical procedures applied with a GIS.
Operations on geographic data objects such
as points, lines, polygons, tins, and grids.
Modeling and Analysis are often used
interchangeably.
Spatial modelling …
Booch et al. (2012) defined a model: “a
simplification of reality created to better
understand the system created”
Aquifer
stream
Well
Volume
R.M. Hirsch, USGS
Spatial modelling …
Three Categories of Spatial Modeling:
Geometric models
distance, area, perimeter, buffers
Coincidence models
polygon overlay
Adjacency models
path finding, redistricting, allocation
What is Spatial Simulation?
Spatial simulation is a geostatistical technique
which has great potential as a tool for dealing with
the various problems associated with spatial
uncertainty.
The method has seen only sporadic use since its
practical implementation in the early 1970‟s
(Journel, 1974).
The term simulation is not so common in GIS, its
rather been used to refer to surface modelling
(underground) and highly used in general graphical
and video making context.
In this course, the term „Simulation‟ will be used
together with the term Modelling.
Simulation in general context …
Simulation is Used in Many Contexts, Such as:
simulation of technology for performance optimization,
safety engineering,
testing,
training,
education, and
video games.
Often, computer experiments are used to study simulation
models.
Simulation is also used with scientific modelling of natural
systems or human systems to gain insight into their
functioning.
Spatial Simulation …
GIS and Uncertainty in Simulations:
GIS Systems excel at manipulating spatial
information, but may not always adequately reflect
the level of uncertainty associated with that
information.
Spatial simulations, conditioned to honour existing
data as well as a variogram model, can provide
both qualitative and quantitative evaluations of
spatial uncertainty in interpolated data.
Display of several alternate simulations can
graphically illustrate the degree of uncertainty to
the data interpreter.
Spatial Modelling and Simulations in Namibia
The concepts are computer and software
technologies driven.
It‟s relatively new concept in Namibia.
Most work on simulations are done on large
scale based – meaning project based.
Various ministries such as MAWF, MME,
etc and private organisations such as
GeoCarta Namibia, GeoBusiness solutions,
De Beers Marine Namibia, etc has compiled
modelling projects.
Spatial Modelling and Simulations in Namibia
cont.…
The demand for surface modelling and
simulation is growing, specifically for
underground water studies in Ohangwena
region by Ministry of Agriculture, water and
forestry (MAWF).
Research potential for spatial modelling and
simulations.
The Nature of Spatial Modelling and Simulation
The Current Trend Of Modelling And Simulating:
Many scientists today across different disciplines no
longer solely study a phenomena in vitro or in
natura.
Instead, to better understand the phenomena, they
simulate it in large-scale computing clusters or
supercomputers. Simulating the phenomena allows
them to develop a better understanding of it by testing
and refining their hypothesis through a cycle of
building a spatial model, simulating it, analysing its
output, refining the model, and finally simulating it
again (Heinis et. al, 2014).
Machine learning is a method of data analysis that
automates analytical model building. It is a branch of
artificial intelligence based on the idea that systems can
learn from data, identify patterns and make decisions
with minimal human intervention (SAS, 2020).
The Nature of Spatial Modelling
and Simulation…
Computer simulation models combine theory, data
and algorithms to arrive at an abstract
representation of the character and functioning of a
land use system for example (Hammam, et al.
2003).
Ideally, once a simulation has been calibrated
against a known scenario, the model may be
used to make predictions about the future
state of the system.
The Nature of Spatial Modelling
and Simulation…
Role of Geographic Information Systems:
The growing use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to
automate land records and collect environmental data have led
to substantial interest in using the technology in urban
modelling.
Most of the applications of GIS are of two forms: integrating
the input data for use in urban models, or visualizing results
of the simulation in a map-based display. While both of
these roles are valuable, they do not exhaust the potential
applications of GIS technology.
A number of efforts have emerged to operationalize models
within a GIS software environment (Waddell, 2004).
Common Software Used In
Spatial Modelling And
Simulations
Common Software Used In
Spatial Modelling And
Simulations…
Common Software Used In
Spatial Modelling And
Simulations…
Summary
The chapter gave an introduction to general
modelling aspects, including spatial modelling, the
concepts, definitions, the nature of spatial
modelling and simulations.
The chapter also provided a list of software used in
modelling projects globally.
The next chapter is about “Data Models and Types
of Modelling and Simulations”.
References
1. Heinis, T., Tauheed, F., Ailamaki, A. 2014. Spatial Data Management
Challenges in the Simulation Sciences. March 24-28, 2014, Athens,
Greece: ISBN 978-3-89318065-3, on OpenProceedings.org. Retrivied
From: http://openproceedings.org/EDBT/2014/paper_120.pdf on the
06th June 2014
2. Waddell, P and Ulfarsson, G.F. 2004. Introduction To Urban
Simulation: Design And Development Of Operational Models.
University of Washington. Retrivied From:
http://synthicity.com/introduction_to_urban_simulation.pdf on the
06th June 2014
3. Hammam, Y., Moore, A., Whigham, P. A., & Freeman, C. 2003. A
vector-agent paradigm for dynamic urban modelling (pp. 99–104).
Presented at the 15th Annual Colloquium of the Spatial Information
Research Centre (SIRC 2003: Land, Place and Space).
4. Berry, J.K. 2007. Gis Modeling And Application Issues. GeoTec
Conference. May 14-17, 2007 – Calgary, Alberta, Canada
