Module 2 in GE 1: The Self from Various Perspective

A number of philosophers through age have posited ideas about the nature of the self. These philosophers
includes David Hume, Rene Descartes, Socrates, Plato and even Saint Agustine of Hippo among others who remarkably
have provided unique views about the real nature of the concept we call ‘self”

SOCRATES

Socrates (470-399 BC) was a classical Greek philosopher and a pioneer in Western moral philosophy. As a
contribution to the field of philosophy, Socrates introduces the Socratic problem also known Socratic question. The
goal of which was to “Know Thyself.” Accordingly, there should be a dialogue between the self and the soul. One
should accept that he knows nothing and he knows and accept that he knows nothing as this leads to learning and
discovering the truth. Socrates who was greatly known for his Socratic method stated that “An unexamined life is not
worth living.” One has to self -examine and discuss about the self as this is a duty to achieve what is the greatest good
to a life. It is the goal of Socratic perspective to better the quality of human life through consistent self-examination.

PLATO

Plato (424-347 BC) was a classical Greek philosophers and the founder of Academy in Athens the first Institution
of higher learning in western world. An influential figure in western philosophy and the founder of western spirituality.
Plato stated that the ‘psyche’ or the ‘mind’ is comprise of three elements.

1. The appetites which involve our pleasurable desire such as those which provide us physical pleasure and
physiological comfort.
2. The spirited which denotes the part within us that agitated most of the time. I s highly spirited and
motivated to surpass and conquer life challenges. It is the area within us that enjoys triumph, honor,
greatness and affirmation.
3. The mind is the conscious awareness which think, mediates, weigh choices and assesses situations in our
lies. This side is rational and logical as it chooses only the best for us.

SAINT AUGUSTINE

Saint Augustine of Hippo (AD 354-430) was a Christian theologian and philosopher to have greatly contributed to
the progress of Western Christianity through his writings specifically The City of God, on Christian Doctrine and
Confessions. Saint Augustine pointed onto sin as the source of human unhappiness as sin impairs human free will. Saint
Augustine discovered and developed the concept of individual identity. He conceptualized an idea of the self and
eventually achieving an identity.

Saint Augustine identified the two-fold process comprised of self-presentation leading to seal-realization. He
reiterated that one transforms as he struggles in both body and soul to ultimately achieve happiness specifically found
God’s love. Augustine explored on the relationship between the mind and the body which are all essential in the
formation of a person. However he stressed on the superiority of the mind over that of the body. Understanding of the
self and the formation of identity is achieved through the process of ‘Introspection’ or ‘self-analysis.’

RENE DESCARTES
 Rene Descartes (1596-1650) is believe to be the father of modern western philosophy. He was a French
scientific thinker, mathematician and philosopher. Descartes developed the Cartesian philosophy which holds that
mental acts determine physical acts. Moreover he reiterated on the role of cognition as the active acquisition of
knowledge involving the individual’s imagination, intellect, perception as well as memory. He described the mind as the
‘intellectual substance’ which possesses a will.

Descartes pointed onto the relationship between the mind and the body. And from such insight begun his quest
for true knowledge and stated his very brilliant principle which state that “Cogito, ergo sum” which is ”I think, therefore
I am.” This is a method to assess one’s self. This is Descartes first theory of knowledge which lead the foundation in his
concept of self. He asserted that the idea of being human brings about an awareness of the self which may lead to the
development of unique identity. For Descartes being self-conscious is necessary to develop a personal identity. The
essence of your self makes you a “thinking thing,” engaged in all forms of mental operations determinant of being a
human with a distinct persona.

JOHN LOCKE

John Locke (1632-1704) was a prominent thinker during the “Age of Reason.” He is an English philosopher and
physician. Remarkably Locke is considered the “Father of Liberalism” as he had posited the ‘theory of mind’ which is a
breakthrough in the origin of modern understanding of the concept of identity and the self. It was Locke who develop
the concept of “Tabula Rasa.” He pointed onto the theory that at birth, the mind is a blank slate without innate ideas,
and it is experience that provides us knowledge provided by sensory experiences and reflections.

John Locke stated that personal identity or the self is found in the consciousness. He identified the brain as
comprising the consciousness which has one’s identity. It is alleged that life is a quest for the understanding of what is
after death and immortality. He argued as well that person may only be judged for the acts of his body but the truth
according to him is that one is liable only for the acts of which he is conscious.

DAVID HUME

David Hume (1711-1776) a prime mover in western philosophy is a Scottish philosopher from Edinburgh, known
for his insights on the psychological basis of human nature where he posited the passion rather than reason governs
human behavior. Hume argued against the existence of innate ideas, positing that all human knowledge is ultimately
founded solely in experience. He reiterated that reason is only the slave of passion which implies that logic and intellect
is basically superseded by an individual’s passion, drive and motivation. Hume also perceived that experiences are
derived from internal and external stimulus and they create impressions on the individual. According to Hume the self
and one’s mind is like a machine that can be turned on and off as they are only active when one is conscious.

IMMANUEL KANT

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) who was born in Prussia was a great contributor in modern western philosophy.
He asserted that it is the human mind which creates experiences. These experiences are similar among human on the
level of abstraction as we share important characteristics that resemble in specific points of interests. Human
experiences make up our persona according to logical effects provided by certain causes. Evidently, the development of
the individuality of the self is a unique human experience as t forges significant learning with in the person.

More so, Kant said that every person has an inner and outer self which comprises the consciousness. According
to Kant, the intellect as well as the psychological state of being is what we call as the inner self while the outer self is
made of senses and the physical self. Largely, the object of the inner self is the ‘soul’ while the outer elf is directed to the
‘body.’

SIMEUND FREU

Sigismund Schlomo Freud also known as Sigmeud Freud (1856-1930) was a neurologist from Austria. He
established psychoanalysis. This a school of thought revolving around the role of psychological conflicts with in the
unconscious which is relevant in the development of human behavior as well as personality. It was Freud who stated
that there are three components in the mind that interact to produce the individual persona. This concept in the
structural theory of personality involves the id, ego, and superego which are largely found with in the unconscious. The
conflict between these three components give rise to human persona.

The id and the superego are in constant conflict brought about by differences in their desire. As the id demands
pleasure and gratification of urges, the superego requires compliance to societal norms. The conflict is revolved by the
ego which is the self by maintaining the balance between these two structures of the mind. Freud considered the ego as
the realistic area of ones persona that maintains the balance and harmony within the individual.

GILBER RYLE

Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976) was born in Brighton, England. He was a British philosopher, a behaviorist who coined
the phrases “ the ghost I the machine.’ Ryle believed that mental phenomena are explained by observing public
behavior. Ryle, In his book ‘The Concept of Mind’ (1949) explained how the mental states are inseparable from the
physical states. Ryle focused on observable behavior in defining the self. He stated that every human being has both a
physical body and a non-physical mind which are ordinarily “harnessed together” while we are alive.

According to Ryle, thought the physical body is subject to the mechanical laws; the mind, on the other hand, is not
accessible to the public and definitely never subjected to mechanical laws. He stated that “A person therefore lives
through two collateral histories, one consisting of what happens in and to his body, and other consisting of what
happens in and to his mind. The first is public, the second private.” This simply how the mind is operating within the
person himself while the body is subjected to the observation and criticisms of the public.

PAUL MONTGOMERY CHURCHLAND

Paul Montgomery Churchland (1942) was from ancouver, Canada. He is a modern-day philosopher whose
studies greatly focuses on the workings of the brain.

He argued that ‘nothing but matter exists’ which is also known as materialism.

Paul hypothesized that the human consciousness can be explained through the natural networks
communicating through its hub in the brain which is the thalamus.

As we begin to use empirical evidence to describe how our brains and bodies function we learn to determine
how we feel and how certain situation affects us. Churchland believes that many are unaware of the appropriate terms
do determine the exact emotions and sentiment that they are undertaking. Hence, this leads to confusions as to how
we understand ourselves.

MAURICE MERLEAU PONTY

Merleau-Ponty, a French philosopher, wrote the book Phenomenologie de la Perception in 1945. In this book,
he expounded his thesis on ’The Primacy of Perception’ where he revealed how the body is central to one’s perception.
As an existentialist, Merleau-Ponty argued that perception is the determinant of one’s consciousness. It is our prejudice
that creates the perception that we have in our mind. This is the “primacy of perception” where Merleau-Ponty said
that “ there is harmony between intention and performance.” The same provides an explanation as to Merleau-Ponty’s
claim that “consciousness is primarily not a matter of “I think that” but of “I can.” Hence in this argument, it shoes how
action is required in the formation of self-perception as well as self-concept.
 SOCIOLOGY
THE SOCIOLOGY IN RELATION TO SELF

Societies can shape the development of their members in very different ways. Each society teaches its concepts,
values, and accepted behaviors to its children. This instruction is largely accomplished by social institutions such as the
home, school, and church.

MEAD AND THE SOCIAL SELF

Social Self

George Herbert Mead, a sociologist from the late 1800s, is well known for his theory of the social self, which
includes the concepts of 'self‘, 'me‘, and 'I' . Mead’s work focuses on the way in which the self is developed.
Mead's theory of the social self is based on the perspective that the self emerges from social interactions, such as:

 observing and interacting with others

 responding to others' opinions about oneself
 and internalizing external opinions and internal feelings about oneself

The social aspect of self is an important distinction because other sociologists and psychologists felt that the self was
based on biological factors and inherited traits.

According to Mead, the self is not there from birth, but it is developed over time from social experiences and
activities.
 Development of Self

According to Mead, three activities develop the self:

1. Language develops self by allowing individuals to respond to each other through symbols, gestures, words, and
sounds.
2. Play develops self by allowing individuals to take on different roles, pretend, and express expectation of others.
Play develops one's self-consciousness through role-playing.
3. Games develop self by allowing individuals to understand and adhere to the rules of the activity. Self is
developed by understanding that there are rules in which one must abide by in order to win the game or be
successful at an activity.
Two Sides of Self: Me & I

According to Mead's theory, the self has two sides or phases: 'me' and ‘I.’ the 'me' is considered the socialized
aspect of the individual. The 'me' represents learned behaviors, attitudes, and expectations of others and of society. A
phase of the self that is in the past. The 'I', therefore, can be considered the present and future phase of the self. The 'I'
represents the individual's identity based on response to the 'me‘, or the person’s individuality. The 'me' and the 'I'
have a didactic relationship.
SOCIALIZATION

The Socialization Process

Humans learn the expectations of society through socialization. Socialization is different based on race, gender
and class.

Socialization as Social Control

Agents of Socialization

1. The Family. Families introduce children to the expectations of society. Socialization is different based on race,
gender and class.
2. The Media. The average young person (age 8–19) spends 6 3/4 hours per day immersed in media in various
forms, often using multiple media forms simultaneously. Television is the dominant medium, although half of all
youth use a computer daily.
3. Peers. For children, peer culture is an important source of identity. Through interaction with peers, children
learn concepts of self, gain social skills, and form values and attitudes.
4. Religion. Children tend to develop the same religious beliefs as their parents. Very often those who disavow
religion return to their original faith at some point in their life, especially if they have strong ties to their family
of origin and after they form families of their own.
 5. Sports. Through sports, men and women learn concepts of self. Men learn that being competitive in sports is
considered a part of “manhood.”
6. Schools. In school, teachers and other students are the source of expectations that encourage children to think
and behave in particular ways. Research finds that teachers respond differently to boys than to girls, with boys
receiving more of their attention.
THE SELF FROM THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
(THE SELF EMBEDDED IN CULTURE)

Introduction
Cultural Anthropology is the study of human culture and society. It is the study of people – their origin, their
development, and contemporary variations, wherever and whenever those have been found (Ferraro2008).
Culture on the other hand refers to the major way in which human beings adapt to their environments and give
meaning to their lives. It includes human behavior and ideas that are learned rather than genetically transmitted, as
well as the material objects produced by a group of people (Nanda and Warren 2007).

Anthropologist Clifford Geertz in “The Impact of the Concept of Culture on the Concept of Man” states that
“….culture provides the link between what men are intrinsically capable of becoming and what they actually, one by
one, in fact become.” This leads us to the importance of culture in understanding who we are as human beings.

Man acquires his knowledge, beliefs, morals, customs, and other habits and capacities from his interactions with
others in the society where he belongs. We learn our cultural practices and traditions by listening, talking, and
interacting with other people.

As a child we learn appropriate behavior by observing and copying behavior of adults. We express our feelings
and make judgements of what is right or what is wrong based on our interpretation of adults behavior. This serves to
guide our own behavior and perception throughout life. Thus, our shared beliefs, values, memories, and expectations
bind us together who grow up in the same culture.

Television influences the language, traditions, beliefs, knowledge and even personalities.
Changes in the various areas of human relations and lifestyles. “Culture is also not a force or causal
agent in the world but a context in which people live out their lives.”

PERSPECTIVE OF SELF

• It is divided into two main categories

 “ME” Self refers to the aspects of someone that come from that person's experiences or known as
the “empirical self”.
 ‘I’ Self classified as the thinking self.
• James broke the “ME" self down into three sections:
 The Material Self
• The Social Self
• The Spiritual Self

• consists of things that belong to us or that we belong to. Things like family, clothes, our body, and money are
some of what makes up our material selves.
• The material self refers to tangible objects, people, or places that carry the designation my or mine. Two
subclasses of the material self can be distinguished: The bodily self and the extracorporeal (beyond the body)

self. Rosenberg (1979) has referred to the extracorporeal self as the extended self.
 • The bodily component of the material self requires little explanation. A person speaks of my arms or my legs.
These entities are clearly an intimate part of who we are. But our sense of self is not limited to our bodies. It
includes other people (my children), pets (my dog), possessions (my car), places (my home town), and the
products of our labors (my painting).
• It is not the physical entities themselves, however, that comprise the material self. Rather, it is our
psychological ownership of them (Scheibe, 1985). For example, a person may have a favorite chair she likes to
sit in. The chair itself is not part of the self. Instead, it is the sense of appropriation represented by the phrase
“my favorite chair.” This is what we mean when we talk about the extended self. It includes all of the people,
places, and things that we regard as “ours.”

Social self

• refers to how we are regarded and recognized by others

• Our social selves are who we are in a given social situation. For James, people change how they act depending
on the social situation that they are in. James believed that people had as many social selves as they did social
situations they participated in.
Spiritual self

• For James, the spiritual self was who we are at our core. The spiritual self is more concrete or permanent than
the other two selves. The spiritual self is our subjective and most intimate self. Aspects of an individual's
spiritual self include things like their personality, core values, and conscience that do not typically change
throughout their lifetime.
• The spiritual self is our inner self or our psychological self. It is comprised of our self-perceived abilities,
attitudes, emotions, interests, values, motives, opinions, traits, and wishes.
REAL SELF VS. IDEAL SELF
• The real self is who we actually are.
• It is how we think, how we feel, look, and act.
• It can be seen by others, but because we have no way of truly knowing how others view us, the real
self becomes our self-image.
• The ideal self is how we want to be.
It is an idealized image that we have developed over time, based on what we have learned and
experienced.
• May include components of what our parents have taught us, what we admire in others, what our society
promotes, and what we think is in our best interest.

IMPORTANCE OF ALIGNMENT

• If the way that I am (the real self) is aligned with the way that I want to be (the ideal self), then I will feel a
sense of mental well-being or peace of mind.
• If the way that I am is not aligned with how I want to be, the incongruence, or lack of alignment, will result in
mental distress or anxiety.
➤ The greater the level of incongruence between the ideal self and real self, the greater the level of resulting
distress.
The Self in Western and Eastern Thought

Different cultures and varying environment tends to create different perceptions of the “self” and one of the
most common distinctions between cultures and people is the eastern vs. western dichotomy wherein eastern
represents Asia and western represents Europe and Northern America.

Oftentimes we associate western thought with individualism and eastern/oriental with collectivism.
 There are actually a lot of sources in which you can analyze the perspective of each culture and country about
the concept of “self.” You can see it in their literature like how one culture depicts a hero or a villain in their stories. You
can see it in their social organization like how they see their boss or their subordinate. Art works, dances, even clothing
may show you clues about the “self.”

For the purposes of this lesson however, we will look at religious beliefs and political philosophies that greatly
influenced the mindset of each nation or culture.

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Individualist culture is a culture in which the goals of the individual take precedence over the goals of the group.
Collectivist culture is a culture in which the goals of the group take precedence over the goals of the individual.

In other words…
Individualist culture Collectivist culture
 In an individualist culture, members are  In a collectivist culture, members are
responsible for themselves and, perhaps, responsible for the group as a whole.
their immediate families.  In a collectivist culture, success is
 In an individualist culture, success is measured by one’s contributions to the
measured by how far one stands out from group as a whole.
the crowd. Ex: loyalty to company or country,
Ex: self-made millionaires, employees of specialized skills, fitting in…
the month, standing out…
Also applies on a personal level. That is, one can personally be collectivist while his or her culture is individualist.

Cooperation versus competition

Importance of in-group and out-group members
Individualistic self Collectivist self
The “I” identity. The “We” identity.
 The individual identifies primarily with self,  Collectivist views the group as the primary
with the needs of the individual being entity, with the individuals lost along the
satisfied before those of the group. way.
 The individual is acts and makes his own  The survival and success of the group
choices, looks after and taking care of ensures the well-being of the individual, so
oneself and being self-sufficient. that by considering the needs and feelings
 Independence and self-reliance are greatly of others, one protects oneself.
stressed and valued.  Harmony and the interdependence of
 In general, they tend to distance group members are stressed and valued.
themselves psychologically and  It sees the group as the important
emotionally from each other. One may element, and individuals are just members
choose to join groups, but group of the group. The group has its own values
membership is not essential to one’s somehow different from those of the
identity or success. individual members.
 Individualistic doers are self-assured and  Each person is encouraged to be an active
very independent people. They are quiet player in society, to do what is best for
and realistic, very rational, extremely society as a whole rather than themselves.
matter of fact people. They strongly  Rules promote unity, brotherhood, and
cultivate their individualism and enjoy selflessness.
applying their abilities to new tasks. But  Working with others and cooperating is
they are also very spontaneous and the norm; everyone supports each other.
impulsive persons who like to follow their
sudden inspirations.
Both collectivist self and individualistic self may have their downside. Individualistic people are susceptible to loneliness,
and collectivist people can have a strong fear of rejection.
The characteristics of individualism and collectivism can be summarized as follows:
Individualism:
Individual autonomy; self-oriented; personal goals; unique and independent; individual privacy; nuclear family;
individual rewards (equity); competition
Collectivism:
Group unity and harmony; group-oriented; group goals; conforming and interdependent; group belongingness;
extended family; equal distribution of reward (equality); cooperation

The Difference between Western and Eastern

Queue when waiting Actually, queuing cultural was forming in many Eastern countries, especially
in big cities. However in general, it is not engrained in the lifestyle of
people in the East.
Anger The Westerners’ happiness and sadness are expressed quite clearly. The
Eastern can “in fresh outside wilted.”
Contacts The relationships in the Western World are not as complicated as in Eastern
Society.
Definition of beauty Westerners like brown, Easterners prefer wife.
Elderly in day to day life Walking park in the West, you will encounter many elderly pet pimp stroll.
In the East, you will see the old men with his grandson are walking.
Handling of problems Westerners choose to confront the challenge, and the Easterners is avoiding
different issues.
In the restaurant Westerners are afraid to speak loudly in a crowded peace, Eastern are not.
ME The West upholds the individual in some aspects of life. They require those
around him to respect what belongs to personal problems.
In the East, forgoing individual is said to be a virtue.
Moods and Weather Westerners like sunshine, hate rain, Easterners like both rain and sunshine.
Opinion Westerners promote frankness. Easterners promote ingenuity, softening.
Party At the form parties, the West likes to stand in small groups, whispering
conversation. Easterners are sitting in large groups, talking loudly.
Punctuality Punctuality is highly respected elements if the encounter in the Western
World, The East are different, they can move slightly appointment time and
that does not become a big.
Shower Timing Westerners like to shower the morning before going to work. Easterners
are evening bath before bedtime.
Stomach ache In the West, if someone is weak abdominal or stomach pain, while dining,
they will drink carbonated salt drinks, whereas Easterners would call tea or
mineral water.
Sunday on the road On weekends the streets are often deserted West. In the East, especially in
big cities, people go to the street, to the amusement parks and shopping
malls for entertainment.
The Boss In the Western world, boss are also worked for a living as employees, In the
East, the boss is considered “giants.”
The Child Children in the West are not taking care of the whole family. In the East
family, children have equal position as the other members of the hose, has
its own rights and obligations.
Three meals a day Westerner’s often hasty breakfast, dinner through the speakers, often ate
fast food, lunch, so is considered a relaxed meal of the day.
Transportation Before, when Westerners regarded automobile transportation is the most
efficient, Easterners still cycling. Now, the opposite.
Traveling Westerners enhance observation and practical experience during the trip.
 Meanwhile, towards the East, the image saved as a souvenir in every
location is very important.
Way of Life Westerners recommended personal capacity, personality. . . . The oriental
always know integrate with the surrounding environment to create
harmony
What’s Trendy Westerners will find next trendy Asian dishes. Easterners “ dissipated” will
seek to European dishes.

SELF FROM THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

(The Self Embedded in Culture)

Cultural Anthropology is the study of human culture and society. It is the study of people - their origin, their
development, and contemporary variations, wherever and whenever those have been found (Ferraro 2008).
Culture on the other hand refers to the major way in which human beings adapt to their environments and give
meaning to their lives. I includes human behavior and ideas that are learned rather than genetically transmitted as well
as the material objects produced by a group of people (Nanda and Warren 2007).

Anthropologist CLIFFORD GEERTS in “The Impact of a Man” state that . . . . Culture provides the link between
what men are intrinsically capable of becoming and what they actually, one by one, in fact become. This leads us to the
importance of culture in understanding who we are as human beings.

Man acquires his knowledge, beliefs, morals, customs, and other habits and capacities from his interactions with
others in the society where he belongs. We learn our cultural practices and traditions by listening, talking, and
interacting with other people.

As a child we learn appropriate behavior by observing and copying the behavior of adults. We express our
feelings and make judgments of what is right or what is wrong based on our interpretation of adults behavior. This
serve to guide our own behavior and perceptions throughout life. Thus, our shared beliefs, values, memories, and
expectations bind us together who grown up in the same culture.

“Culture is also not a force or causal agent in the world, but a context in which people live out their lines.”