EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

in
Wes Hayward, W7ZOI
Rick Campbell, KK7B
Bob Larkin, W7PUA

Editors: Technical Illustration:

Jan Carman, K5MA David Pingree, N1NAS
Steve Ford, WB8IMY
\ F
Dana Reed, W1LC Cover Design:
Jim Talens, N3JT Sue Fagan
Larry Wolfgang, WR1B Bob Inderbitzen, NQ1R

Proofreaders: CD-ROM Development:

Kathy Ford Dan Wolfgang
Jayne Pratt Lovelace

Production:
Michelle Bloom, WB1ENT
Paul Lappen
Jodi Morin, KA1JPA
 CONTENTS

Contents

Prefacc

1 Getting Started
1.1 Experimenting, "Homebrewing," and the Pursuit of the New
1.2 Getting Started - Routes for the Beginning Experimenter
1.3 Some Guidelines for the Experimenter
1.4 Block Diagrams
1.5 An IC Based Direct Conversion Receiver
1.6 A Regenerative Receiver
1.7 An Audio Amplifier with Discrete Transistors
1.8 A Direct Conversion Receiver Using a Discrete Component Product Detector
1.9 Power Supplies
1.10 RF Measurements
1.11 A First Transmitter
1.12 A Bipolar Transistor Power Amplifier
1.13 An Output Low Pass Filter
1.14 About the Schematics in this Book

2 Amplifier Design Basics

2.1 Modeling Simple Solid State Devices
2.2 Amplifier Design Basics
2.3 Large Signal Amplifiers
2.4 Gain. Power, DB and Impedance Matching
2.5 Differential Amplifiers and the Op-Amp
2.6 Undesired Amplifier Characteristics
2.7 Feedback Amplifiers
2.8 Bypassing and Decoupling
2.9 Power Amplifier Basics
2.10 Practical Power Amplifiers
2.11 A 30-W - 7-MHz Power Amplifier

3 Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits

3.1 Filter Basics
3.2 The Low Pass Filter, Design and Extension
3.3 LC Bandpass Filters
3.4 Crystal Filters
3.5 Active Filters
3.6 Impedance Matching Networks

4 Oscillators and Frequency Synthesis

4.1 LC-Oscillator Basics
4.2 Practical Hartley Circuits and Oscillator Drift Compensation
4.3 The Colpitis and Some Other scillators
4.4 Noise in Oscillators
4.5 Crystal Oscillators and VXOs
4.6 Voltage Controlled Oscillators
4.7 Frequency Synthesis
4.8 The Ugly Weekender, MK-II, A 7-MHz VFO Transmitter
4.9 A General Purpose VXO-Extending Frequency Synthesizer
5 Mixers and Frequency Multipliers
5.1 Mixer Basics
5.2 Balanced Mixer Concepts
5.3 Some Practical Mixers
5.4 Frequency Multipliers
5.5 A VXO Transmitter Using a Digital Frequency Multiplier

6 Transmitters and Receivers

6.0 Signals and the Systems that Process Them
6.1 Receiver Fundamentals
6.2 IF Amplifiers and AGC
6.3 Large Signals in Receivers and Front End Design
6.4 Local Oscillator Systems
6.5 Receivers with Enhanced Dynamic Range
6.6 Transmitter and Transceiver Design
6.7 Frequency Shifts, Offsets and Incremental Tuning
6.8 Transmit-Receive Antenna Switching
6.9 The Lichen Transceiver: A Case Study
6.10 A Monoband SSB/CW Transceiver
6.11 A Portable DSB/CW 50 MHz Station

7 Measurement Equipment
7.0 Measurement Basics
7.1 DC Mesaurements
7.2 The Oscilloscope
7.3 R F Power Measurement
7.4 RF Power Measurement with an Oscilloscope
7.5 Measuring Frequency, Inductance, and Capacitance
7.6 Sources and Generators *
7.7 Bridges and Impedance Measurement
7.8 Spectrum Analysis
7.9 Q Measurement of LC Resonators
7.10 Crystal Measurements
7.11 Noise and Noise Sources
7.12 Assorted Circuits

8 Direct Conversion Receivers

8.1 A Brief History
8.2 The Basic Direct Conversion Block Diagram
8.3 Peculiarities of Direct Conversion
8.4 Mixers For Direct Conversion Receivers
8.5 A Modular Direct Conversion Receiver
8.6 DC Receiver Advantages

9 Phasing Receivers and Transmitters

9.1 Block Diagrams
9.2 Introduction to the Math
9.3 From Mathematics to Practice
9.4 Sideband Suppression Design
9.5 Binaural Receivers
9.6 LO and RF Phase-Shift and In-Phase Splitter-Combiner Networks
9.7 Other Op-Amp Topologies. Polyphase Networks and DSP Phase Shifters
9.8 Intelligent Selectivity
9.9 A Next-Generation R2 Single-Signal Direct Conversion Receiver
9.10 A High Performance Phasing SSB Exciter
9.11 A Few Notes on Building Phasing Rigs
9.12 Conclusion
10 DSP Components
10.1 TheEZ-Kit Lite
10.2 A Program Shell
10.3 DSP Components
10.4 Signal Generation
10.5 Random Noise Generation
10.6 Filtering Components
10.7 DSP IF
10.8 DSP Mixing
10.9 Other DSP Components
10.10 Discrete Fourier Transform
10.11 Automatic Noise Blankers
10.12 CW Signal Generation
10.13 SSB Signal Generation

11 DSP Applications in Communications

11.1 Program Structure
11.2 Using a DSP Device as a Controller
11.3 An Audio Generator Test Box
11.4 An 18-MHz Transceiver
U.5 BSP-10 2-Meter Transceiver

12 Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations

12.1 Simple Equipment for Portable Operation
12.2 The "Unfinished," A 7-MHz CW Transceiver
12.3 The S7C, A Simple 7-MHz Super-Heterodyne Receiver
12.4 A Dual Band QRP CW Transceiver
12.5 Weak-Signal Communications Using the DSP-10
12.6 A 28-MHz QRP Module
12.7 A General Purpose Receiver Module
12.8 Direct Conversion Transceiver for 144-MHz SSB and CW
12.9 52-MHz Tunable IF for VHF and UHF Transceivers
12.10 Sleeping Bag Radio
12.11 14-MHz CW Receiver

Contents of CD-ROM

Index
 PREFACE

The predecessor for this book. Solid State Design for the Radio the natural extension of frequency synthesis. Mixers, including
Amateur I SSL)), was first published by ARRL in early 1977. The frequency multipliers, appear in the fifth chapter. These chapters
goal for that text was to present solid state circuit design methods are laced with projects that can be constructed, but they also
to a community much more familiar with vacuum tube methods. emphasize important basic concepts. Chapter 6 moves on to
But, another goal was integrated into the text, that of presenting present communications equipment, predominantly using
the material in a way that would allow the reader to actually super-heterodyne methods. System design considerations arc
design his or her own circuits. Handbooks of the day presented included, especially with regard to distortion and dynamic range.
only an encyclopedic overview of solid state devices with brief The chapter contains several projects including a high
qualitative discussions about functionality. SSD described circuit performance receiver. Chapter 7 deals with measurement
elements in terms of models that could be used for analysis. methods and includes considerable test equipment that the
Design consists of more than merely combining representative experi menter can build. Chapter 8 then moves on to a fundamental
circuits from a catalog or handbook. discussion of direct conversion. This is followed by a thorough
SSI) succeeded with design becoming the key word in the title, treatment of the phasing method of SSB in Chapter 9. Chapters
especially in later years as the world became accustomed to all 10 and 11 present fundamental concepts of digital signal
electronic equipment being predominantly solid state. What processing and illustrate them with projects. The book concludes
surprised many is that the hook remained popular, even after with Chapter 12 featuring a variety of experimental activities of
many of the transistors used in the circuits were no longer special interest to the authors.
available. A Compact Disc is included with the book. This CD contains
Experimental Methods in Radio Frequency Design (EMRFD) some design software, extensive listings for DSP firmware related
is the sequel to SSD. with design remaining as a central theme. to Chapters 10 and 11, and a sizeable collection ofjournal articles
Our goal is to present models and discussion that will allow the relating to material presented in the text. The design software is
user to design equipment at both the circuit and the system level. written for a personal computer using the Microsoft Windows
Our own interests are dominated by radio frequencies, so the text operating system, while the journal papers are presented in Adobe
discusses problems peculiar to radio communications equipment. Acrobat (PDF) format.
A final emphasis in EMRFD is experimentation. A vital part of This book is a personal one in that we have only written about
an experiment is measurement. Wc encourage the reader to not those things we have actually experienced. We specifically
only build equipment, but to perform measurements on that gear avoided an encyclopedic discussion of material that we had not
as it is being built. actually experienced through experiments. Equipment of interest
The word "experiment." often conjures memories of school to the three of us dominates. The amateur bands up to 2 meters are
exercises where a teacher has assembled equipment and we. as considered, and are illustrated with CW and SSB gear. The book
students, go through a prearranged set of steps to arrive at a uses some mathematics where appropriate. It is. however, kept at
conclusion, also predetermined. Although efficient, this is a poor a basic level.
representation of sciencc. Rather, experimental science begins The book contains numerous projects that are suitable for
with a new idea. An experiment to lest the idea is then generated, duplication. Printed circuit boards arc not generally available for
the experiment is built, measurements are made, and the results these, although boards may become available at a later time.
are pondered, which often results in new ideas to test. This can all Readers should keep an eye on the world wide web for PCB
be done by one person working alone. EMRFD encourages the information and other matters related to the book. See http://
participating reader to build equipment with an attitude of www.arrl.org/notes/8799, Wc generally prefer that builders use
continually seeking to understand the equipment and to the projects as starting points for their own designs and
understand the primitive concepts that form the basis for the experiments rather than duplicating the projects presented.
equipment and the circuits contained therein. Our greatest hope
is that the text will illustrate the potential of amateur radio, and
other personal science, as a training ground for the individual. Acknowledgments
This text is aimed at a variety of readers: the radio amateur who The following experimenters have contributed to this book
designs and builds his own equipment; college students looking through experiments, direct correspondence, encouragement,
for design projects or wishing to garner practical experience with and by example. We gratefully acknowledge their contributions.
working hardware: young professionals wishing to apply their
fresh engineering and physics coursework to kitchen table Bill Amidon (sk); Tom Apcl. K5TRA; Leif Asbrink. SM5BSZ:
projects: non-engineers wanting to dabble in a technical field: Kirk Bailey, N7CCB: Dave Benson, K1SWL: Byron Blanchard,
engineering managers recapturing the fun of making things N1EKV: Denton Bramwell. W7DB: Guy Brennert, K2EFB:
(instead of people) work: and technical explorers of all types. Rod Brink. KQ6F; Kent Britain, WA5VJB: Wayne Burdick.
The first chapter of EMRFD deals with the problems of getting N6KR;
started with experimentation. Numerous projects are presented, Russ Carpenter, AA7QU; Dennis Criss; Bob Culter, N7FKI;
aimed at assisting the experimenter in beginning investigations George Daughters. K6GT: John Davis. KF6EDB: Paul Decker.
in electronics. Chapters 2 through 5 then deal with specific circuit KG7HF; Rev. George Dobbs, G3RJV:
functions. Chapter 2 presents amplifiers while filters are Pete Eaton, WB9FLW: Gerry Edson, WA0KNW: Bill Evans,
discussed in Chapter 3. Oscillators emerge in Chapter 4, including W3FB;
George Fare, G 3 0 G Q ; Johan Forrer. KC7WW; Dick Frev. the book and related experiments.
K4XU; Some folks have made special contributions and deserve
B a n i e Gilbert: Jack Glandon. WB4R.NO; Joe Glass, WB2PJS: special thanks. Colin Horrabin. G3SBI; Harold Johnson.
Dr. Dave Gordon-Smith. G3UUR; Mike Grcaney, K3SRZ: W4ZCB: and Bill Carver. W7AAZ, collectively formed the
Linley Gumm, K7HFD; "Triad," a group building the high performance transceiver
Nick Hamilton, G4TXG; Mark Hansen. KI7N; Markus Hansen. partially described in Chapter 6. We sincerely appreciate their
VE7CA; Neil Heekt; Ward Helms. W7SMX; Don Hilliard. willingness to share their efforts and results with us. Thanks go
W0PW: Fred Holler, W2EKB; Robert Hughson; to Roger Hayward, KA7EXM. for building some equipment
Pete Juliano. W6JFR; described in the book as well as helping with field testing of
Bill Kclsey. N8ET; Ed Kesslcr, AA3SJ; Paul Kiciak. N2PK; numerous designs. Jeff Datum, WA7MLH, deserves special
Don Knotls, W7HJS; O. K. Krienke; (hanks for his efforts. He built equipment described in SSf) and
Beb Larkin. W7SLB; John Lawson, K5IRK; Roy Lewallen. provided encouragement for this version. Special thanks to Merle
W7EL: John Licbcnrood. K7RO: Larry Liljcqvist, W7SZ; B. Cox, W7YOZ, and Jim Davey. K8RZ, for several decades of
F. Logan Jr.. WB2NBD; bouncing around radio ideas, building the second prototypes,
Stephen Maas, W5VHJ; Chuck MacCluer, W 8 M Q W ; Jacob and manning the distant station for countless experiments. Very
Makhinson. N6NWP; Kmic Manlv. W7LHL; Dr. Skip Marsh. special thanks arc extended to Terry White, K7TAU. Terry did
W6TFQ (sk>: Mike Michael, W3TS; Jim Miles, K5CX: high quality PC layouts for several of the designs presented in the
Dave Ncwkirk. W9VKS; text and in earlier QST articles. He also built some equipment
Gary Oliver, WA7SH1: shown in the book and provided measurement assistance on
Paul Paget, N I F B ; several occasions.
Dave Roberts, G8KBB: Mike Reed. K.D7TS: Don Reynolds, Special mention should be made of the efforts of the late Doug
K7DBA (sk); Dr. Ulrich Rohde, KA2WEU; Dr. Dave DeMaw. W1FB. As co-author of SSD, he provided interest and
Rutledge, KN6EK; Tom Rousseau. K7PJT; encouragement for this sequel. One of Doug's greatest qualities
Bill Sabin, W0IYH; Tom Scon, KD7DMH: Marty Singer, was his intense, sincere interest in radio communications. He
K7AYP; Derrv Spittle, VE7QK; designed and built radio equipment, used it on the air, and then
Fred Telewski, WA7TZY; clearly wrote about the efforts, establishing a standard for all lo
Paul Wade. W1GHZ; At Ward, W5LUA; Dr. Fred Weiss; Jim follow. We missed him often through the generation of this text.
Wyckoff, K3BT; Finally, we want to thank our families, and especially our
Bob Zavrel, W7SX: Bob Zulinski, WA8MAM; wives: Charlene (Shon) Hayward, Sara Rankinen, and Janet
Larkin. A book requires time and intense effort that often detracts
We have certainly missed some folks in our list. Please accept from other activities. Our "better halves" have all tolerated these
our apologies for our oversight and our thanks for your help with moments of distraction.

About the Cover Photograph

The cover photograph is an experimental 2.4 GHz IC direct splitter. The passive circuitry is similar to Fig 9.39, and the pho-
conversion receiver front-end on a gallium arsenide die. The die tograph on page 9.43 shows this 1C connected to baseband cir-
is a little more than one millimeter wide, and less than one mil- cuitry described in Chapter 9. Note the call signs on the die.
limeter high. Gold-bond wires conncct to the metal squares "MAL." who was not licensed in 2001, is now K7MTL. Photo-
around the edge. The large spiral is a quadrature hybrid coupled graph by Dean Monthei.
inductor, and the matched inductors at the top are in a Wilkensen
 About The Authors
All three of the authors share a similar early exposure to radio, obtaining an amateur license as a teen or earlier.
They all started with the novice class license. Their early ham experiences expanded to become careers in science
and electronics. All three are members of the IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Socicty and have published
extensively in a wide variety of journals and books. All three writers contributed to all chapters of this text, but
each author had a primary responsibility listed below.

Wes Hayward, W7ZOI

Wes received a BS in Physics from Washington State University in 1961 and an MSEE from Stanford University
in 1966. He worked on electron device physics at Varian Associates, The Boeing Co.. and Tektronix. He then did
RF circuit design, first at Tektronix and then at TriQuint Semiconductor. Wes is now semi-retired, dividing his
time between writing and consulting. Wes was the primary contributor to Chapters 1 through 7 and large parts of
12 and can be contacted at [email protected].

Rick Campbell, KK7B

Rick received a BS in Physics from Seattle Pacific University in 1975. after two years activc duty as a US Navy
Radioman. He worked for 4 years in crystal physics basic research at Bell Labs in Murray Hill, NJ before returning
to graduate school at the University of Washington. He completed the MSEE degree in 1981 and the PhD in EE
in 1984. He served on the faculty at Michigan Tech University until 1996. Since 1996 he has been with ihe
Advanced Development Group at TriQuint Semiconductor, designing microwave receiver circuitry. Rick had
primary responsibility for chapters 8. 9. and large parts of 12. He can be contacted at [email protected].

Bob Larkin, W7PUA

Bob received a BS in EE from the University of Washington and a MS in EE from New York University. He
worked for 12 years at Bell Labs in New Jersey in areas of circuit design and signal processing. In 1973 he and
his wife Janet started Janel Labs where a variety of radio frequency products were manufactured. They moved the
company to Corvallis Oregon in 1975 where it operated until being acquired by Celwave RF in 1991. He now
works as a consultant specializing in microwave circuits. Bob was the primary contributor to Chapters 10 and 11
and wrote a section in Chapter 12. Readers can contact Bob at [email protected].
 i ER

Getting Started

1.1 EXPERIMENTING, "HOMEBREWING," AND THE PURSUIT OF T H E NEW

Amateur Radio is a diverse and colorful that a fly fishing enthusiast would never The inspiration for experiment varies. In
avocation or hobby where the participants consider fishing with a fly that he or she rare cases, the experimenter may feel that
communicate with each other through the had not fabricated. The majority take an his or her work could lead to a new twist in
use of radio signals. The communications, intermediate path, building parts of their the state-of-the-art, a better receiver. But
which can encompass and extend beyond radio stations while purchasing others. For more often it will just be a casual thought
the planet, are often routine and predict- some, building is an exercise in craftsman- that "Hey. I've never built one of these
able. but can at times be ethereal. The ship, an opportunity to generate equipment before and I'll learn something if I do." The
romance of communicating with the other with an individual imprint and personality. most common is an effort spurred by a need;
side of the world blends with the joy of Common to all of these, amateur radio a ham wants a rig to lake along on a hiking
observing a complicated part of nature. For presents an opportunity that is rare among trip when no such thing can be purchased.
some of us. the wonder never disappears. avocations, a chance for individual, unre- No matter what the origin, the experimenter
Although radio can be fun, our prag- strained investigations in fundamental sci- can enjoy the knowledge that he or she is
matic society demands more than excite- ence and technology. This is a rarity in an learning more about the subject and about
ment when resources are used. The virtue age when most research and design is per- the research process.
that most often justifies our use of the formed by teams of investigators within In this book we encourage all levels of
radio spectrum is the growth of a profi- large organizations, be they universities or what has becomc known as radio "home-
cient communications system that can be the engineering arms of corporations. There, brewing," ranging from beginner projects
called upon in times of emergency. The the subjects chosen for investigation are of- to sophisticated multi-mode creations. We
examples of its use are numerous. ten those of corporate or national interest. It generally emphasize simple equipment
But, "ham" radio is more than this. It is is increasingly rare that a study is initiated described by primitive explanations. By
a technical avocation of diverse educa- out of simple curiosity. Fortunately, we are primitive, we intend that the discussion
tional potential. It has values that go well not so constrained within our personal in- relate to the most fundamental and basic
beyond that of a supplementary communi- vestigations of radio science. circuit design concepts. The equipment
cations network. Consider an example. An experimentally and systems presented are themselves
Most radio amateurs have an interest in inclined radio amateur envisions a new basic, often without the frills, bells, and
the technical details of the equipment they scheme for a receiver. It might be a better w histles of commercial equipment. Some
use. Historically, this was a requirement: front end circuit, a new block diagram, or a refinements will be discussed, allowing the
The only way a radio amateur could as- way to realize some receiver functions with experimenter to add those he or she needs.
semble an operating station was to person- a computer. The experimenter can analyze This book emphasizes equipment de-
ally build his or her gear. Commercial the scheme, design an example, build a pro- sign. Our interest is in basic circuit func-
equipment was rare, and was often pro- totype, build and assemble needed test tions and the underlying concepts that
hibitively expensive. But today, high qual- equipment, measure the receiver perfor- allow them to be understood. This book is
ity "ham" gear is readily available in most mance, compare it with predicted results, generally NOT a collection of projects for
of the world, much of it at modest prices. and use the receiver on the air. Each part of reproduction and construction. Although
Although no longer necessary, it is still the investigation can interact with the oth- some of the equipment may be directly
common for radio amateurs to build at least ers. All of the activity can be done without duplicated, wc would prefer to have you
some of their own equipment. The reasons interference from other sources. The pro- adapt our results to fit your own needs.
are varied and as numerous as the partici- gram will never be cancelicd by the chang- This book is, in many ways, a sequel to
pants. A few purists consider building the ing goals of an organization. Nor will it be an earlier effort. Solid State Design far the
equipment they use to be a non-optional, rushed by the economic pressures of a cor- Radio Amateur.' That 1977 book,
integral part of their hobby in the same way porate program. co-authored with the late Doug DcMaw.

Getting Started 1.1

r

W1FB. had goals similar to those outlined actually built an example of what is dis- neglect them at our peril. The little rigs,
above, plus that of introducing solid-state cussed. we will so state in the related text. and the conccpts they represent, are at the
methods to readers with experience lim- We emphasize the traditional commu- core of wireless technology. It is not
ited to vacuum tube electronics. The later nications modes of CW, the original digi- enough to play with them as a novice and
need has become arguable, for virtually tal mode, and SSB phone. Building little then move on to other things; they need to
all of our equipment is now based upon rigs and radiating and receiving continu- be revisited over and over again at differ-
solid-state technology. ous waves are to a radio experimenter ent stages of o n e ' s vocation, each time
All of the circuits presented in this text much like playing scales and folk tunes achieving a new level of mastery until fi-
have been constructed, tested, and used in are to a musician. They are the first things nally one is probing the deepest mysteries
practical, on-the-air situations. If there arc we learn, are important parts of the daily of the art.
exceptions where the authors have not practice routine throughout life, and we

1.2 GETTING STARTED—ROUTES FOR T H E BEGINNING EXPERIMENTER

What to build:
A frequent question asked by the pro- the copper away, leaving only those BREADBOARDED CIRCUITS
spective experimenter regards an initial regions needed to form the desired circuit.
Breadboard, as applied to electronics,
project or subject for pursuit. A common After etching, the board is washed and
is a term f r o m a time when early radio
choice for a first project comes from a drilled. Pure copper is easily corroded, so
experimenters built their equipment on
desire to extend the capabilities of an ex- it is common to plate boards with a tin
slabs of wood, often procured f r o m the
isting station. The future experimenter al- coating, forming a more stable and
kitchen. The term remains as an industry-
ready has experience with on-the-air ac- solderable surface. Refined boards include
wide description of a preliminary experi-
tivity and a working station. He or she then copper on both sides, and even plating on
mental circuit. There are numerous
wants to extend that station to new bands, the inside of the holes. Industrial boards
modern methods that can be used to gener-
improved transceiver performance, or fab- will often incorporate many layers.
ate a one-of-a-kind circuit.
ricate a rig o f f e r i n g portability. While Modern practice features surface mount
these goals are all worthy, they can be dif- technology, S M T , using small c o m p o - UGLY CONSTRUCTION
ficult. They may be conceptually impos- nents without wire leads. The leads have A particularly simple method was out-
sible for the beginner, and impractical for been replaced with metalized regions on lined in an early QST paper and is now
the seasoned experimenter with other life the parts that are then soldered directly to know as "Ugly Construction."- Although
commitments. A belter "first" experiment the board. T h e soldering provides physi- certainly not unique, the s c h e m e works
may well be something that is much sim- cal mounting as well as electrical connec- well and continues as a recommended
pler. Several simple projects are offered tion. The S M T boards are cheaper lo build method. The scheme consist of the follow-
later in this chapter as suitable beginnings. and usually much more dense. S M T parts ing:
can be so small that they are hard to handle
1. A ground plane is established using
without a good microscope. SMT is an
How to build it:
an un-etched scrap of copper clad circuit
interesting way to build if there is a need
board material.
for really small equipment. The small size
Another getting-startcd question re- 2. Following the schematic for a circuit
of S M T circuits often results in improved
gards the methods lo use in building elec- being built, grounded components are sol-
high frequency performance.
tronics. There are several options, all with dered directly to the ground foil with short
their assets and weaknesses. A few arc Growing SMT popularity in manufac- leads.
discussed below. turing means that surface mounted is the 3. Some non-grounded p a n s are sol-
only available form for a component. Many dered to and supported by the grounded
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS parts d o n ' t exist in leaded forms. In some components.
The primary construction scheme used cases they can be handled by the "Surf- 4. Other non-grounded components are
in modern electronics is the printed circuit boards" by Capital Advanced Technolo- supported with suitable "tie down points"
board (PCB). Here, pads or islands of gies which are found in DigiKcy catalogs. consisting of high value resistors.
metal are attached to an insulating mate- These are small SMT boards with an inter- 5. Once finished and working, the board
rial, usually epoxy-fiberglass. Wires on face that will adapt to other board forms. can be mounted in a suitable box. hidden
the parts are pushed through holes in the Circuit boards have been built in a home from view if desired, where it becomcs a
board and soldered to the pads, which are environment by hams for generations. The permanent application of the idea. Ugly
interconnected by printed metal runs, thus reader should review the subject in TheARRL construction is illustrated in Fig 1.1.
forming the circuit. Handbook to find out more about the meth- Casual circuit analysis allows the
A FCB begins as a fiberglass sheet with ods. A major problem with home etched builder to pick the standoff resistor values.
copper laminated to one or both sides. The boards is the disposal of the used etchant. Any "high R " value resistors can be used.
metal surfaces are then coated with a light usually a solution of ferric chloride. Disposal Usually, I - M Q resistors work well any-
sensitive "photo-resist" material. A pattern practices common in the past are now ques- where within R F circuits. The typical 1/4
for the circuit is optically transferred to the tioned in this era of enlightened recycling. W resistor of any value has a stray lead-to-
surface and the unexposed materia] is Although some of the projects described in lead parallel capacitance of about 0.3 to
washed away. The board is now placed in this text use etched boards, few of the boards 0.4 pF, perhaps a little more with longer
a solution thai chemically etches some of were etched in our home labs. leads, and a series inductance of 3 to 5 nH.

1.2 Chapter 1
 %

Glue or solder.

Fig 1.2—An example of "Manhattan"

breadboarding.

ISolder.k
1

Fig 1.1—A partial circuit illustrating "ugly" construction.

1 i
Solder.

Rcactance is little consequence far work method to be especially useful for slightly Fig 1.3—A "quasi-circuit board"
up through 150 M H z or so. High R means massive components such as floating, non- scheme for breadboarding. The
that resistance is high with respect to the grounded, trimmer capacitors. The spe- installed resistor here is soldered to
ground and to a pad that connects to
reactance of the inductance. Wc sometimes cific glue type has little impact on circuit
the rest of the circuitry.
use R values as low as lOkfl. It is often p e r f o r m a n c e . Variations of this method
surprising just how f e w standoff resistors have been called "Manhattan Construc-
are needed in an ugly breadboard. tion." and can be mixed with other bread-
The greatest virtue of the ugly method is boarding schemes. The reader can find
low inductance grounding. Any construc- numerous examples on the Web on sites
tion schcmc that preserves this grounding dealing with Q R P experiments, as well as
integrity will work as well. Picking a in F i g 1.2.
method is a choice that the builder has. a The proponents of Manhattan Construc- when the board is not etched in a circuit-
placc where he or she can develop the tion often use small round pads that are specific pattern. One method, called
methods that work best. glued to a ground foil with epoxy or simi- "checker-board," uses double sided circuit
Integrated circuits can be placed on an lar glue. The pads are placed so that all board with one side functioning as a
ugly board with leads sticking up, "dead components are parallel to board edges ground foil. The other side consists of a
bug" style. There is little need to glue the and close to the ground foil. This produces matrix of small islands of copper. These
chips down, for components and wires will an attractive board resembling a commer- regions are created either by etching or
eventually hold them in place. Grounded cial, PC board. This does not seem to com- manually with a hack saw. Patterns of
IC leads are bent and soldered directly to promise performance. squares on 0.1-inch centers accommodate
the foil. With traditional ugly construction, parts traditional ICs. Holes are drilled in the is-
Some builders prefer to maintain ICs can be moved about to make room for lands where components must reside. A
with the 1C label facing upward, allowing another stage. In the extreme, an entire large drill bit then removes ground foil
later inspection. They then bend all leads circuit can be lifted and moved, a stage at around the hole without enlarging it. N o
out in a "spread eagle" format. a time, to another board. holes are required where a ground con-
We have never had a problem with ugly A primary virtue of a bread-boarding nection is needed. C o m p o n e n t s usually
equipment being less than robust. Many of scheme is construction speed and flexibil- reside on the ground side of the board. See
our ugly rigs have been hauled through the ity, especially important when the primary Fig 1.3.
mountains of the Pacific Northwest in purpose of building gear is information The double sided checker-board can
packs without incident. An outstanding about circuit behavior. also serve for breadboarding with surface
example, the work of a friend, is the W7EL Some folks prefer to rebuild a circuit mounted components. Parts then reside
Optimized Q R P Transceiver, a rig that has after a breadboarding phase, replacing an on the pattern side with holes drilled to
traveled around the world in suitcases and ugly prototype with a more permanent, reaeh ground. Small leaded components
packs. ' Few if any standoff resistors were production-like version. These e f f o r t s take can also be surface mounted.
used in that rig. additional time and rarely produce perfor- The checkerboard s c h e m e . " M a n h a t -
mance superior to the original bread- tan" variants, and even double-sided
MANHATTAN BREADBOARDING boards. Even looks can be deceptive when printed boards have fairly high capaci-
Several other construction schcmes of- one hides ugly breadboards behind more tance from pads to ground. These arc often
fer similar grounding fidelity, including attractive front panels. poor quality capacitors with low Q. under
those where small pads of circuit board 100 for epoxy fiberglass board material,
material are glued or soldered to the QUASI-PRINTED BOARDS and arc subject to water absorption. A
ground foil. These pads then have compo- S o m e experimenters p r e f e r to build single sided format is preferred for critical
nents soldered to them. We have found this equipment that looks like a PCB, even sections of a I X oscillator application.

Getting Started 1.3

r

1.3 SOME GUIDELINES FOR T H E EXPERIMENTER

With Solid-Stare Design for the Radio consist of several sections, each designed • I t ' s not about c r a f t s m a n s h i p : A p o r t i o n
Amateur c a m e c o n s i d e r a b l e interaction so that it can be built, tested, m o d i f i e d , and of the h o m e b r e w i n g c o m m u n i t y was
with the rest of the a m a t e u r radio c o m m u - r e d e s i g n e d as n e e d e d , with m i n i m a l schooled with the idea that "nice l o o k i n g "
nity. A f r e q u e n t question w e heard was c h a n g e to the rest of the system. E v e n the circuit construction went along with good
" H o w d o I get started with e x p e r i m e n t - simplest little rig should be built a stage at p e r f o r m a n c e . But the two factors are gen-
i n g ? " Or, " I ' v e read about and have e v e n a time, turned on sequentially, tested, and erally isolated. This is illustrated in Fig
built some kits and published projects, but m o d i f i e d as n e e d e d . Single b o a r d trans- 1.4. There is no relationship between hav-
1 want to go further. I w a n t to do m y o w n c e i v e r d e s i g n s are p o p u l a r in the Q R P ing a nice looking, orderly circuit board
design. What is the next step?" arena. But realize that the ones that work and good p e r f o r m a n c e f r o m that board. In-
A set of guidelines is o f f e r e d in an at- well are p r o b a b l y the result of several re- deed, those s a d d l e d with the chore of de-
tempt to answer some of these questions. builds, and even then, s o m e d o n ' t w o r k signing a printed board to p e r f o r m as well
These are not f i r m , well established rules, very well; others are s u p e r b . as an ugly breadboard m a y w o n d e r if there
but mere i m p r e s s i o n s and personal biases might be an inverse relationship!
• A v o i d e x c e s s i v e m i n i a t u r i z a t i o n : It
that we have generated, approaches that
takes m u c h m o r e time to build small things • U s e b r e a d b o a r d i n g o v e r a ground plane
work for us. T h e y are o f f e r e d w i t h o u t
than those where the circuitry can expand for communications circuits, especially
guarantee.
without b o u n d . E v e n when building small when investigating new ideas. Use vector
portable Q R P transceivers, it's often board or wire-wrap methods for slow digital
• K I S S : T h i s British term is short f o r circuits, but treat fast digital circuits as if they
w o r t h w h i l e to establish the design with a
" K e e p It Simple, Stupid." W e o f t e n design were R F functions. In general, build with
larger b r e a d b o a r d .
equipment that is more complicated than those methods that will offer the best, low
needed. It is well worth some extra time • B a s e projects on your own goals: Our
inductance, grounding while allowing cir-
during design to evaluate every part to see central personal goal is learning through
cuits to be quickly designed, assembled, and
if it is really needed. T h e function of each experimentation. H e n c e , we base projects
tested. If you are concerned with aesthetic
part should be u n d e r s t o o d and justified. on questions that need investigation rather
details, build a second version. Alterna-
T h e circuit should function as intended. than what we need or want for on-the-air
tively. an attractive panel can be used to hide
This does not imply that designs with the operation. But your goals m a y be d i f f e r -
ugly, but highly functional breadboards.
m i n i m u m n u m b e r of parts are best. H o w - ent. It is w o r t h w h i l e to r e v i e w and d e f i n e
t h e m as a m e a n s of p i c k i n g the best • Build what you use, and use what you
ever. it is rarely j u s t i f i e d to overdesign by
p r o j e c t s for you. Isolate p r i m a r y g o a l s build: T h o s e of us in the h o m e b r e w end of
adding extra c o m p o n e n t s " b e c a u s e a prob-
f r o m those that are serendipity. a m a t e u r r a d i o often kid our appliance op-
lem might o c c u r . " F o r e x a m p l e , designs
erator f r i e n d s , suggesting that a "real h a m "
with a p r o f u s i o n of ferrite beads and "sta- • Be wary of "Creeping F e a t u r e s . " T h e
should build instead of just operate. S o m e
bility e n h a n c i n g " resistors may be suspect. term " a p p l i a n c e " o f t e n d e s c r i b e s the
avid experimenters may take this too far;
• A v o i d lore: Lore, in this ease, refers to transceivers that we purchase for
they build a rig, use it j u s t long e n o u g h to
" k n o w l e d g e " that is based upon experi- on-the-air communications. Appliances,
c o n f i r m f u n c t i o n a l i t y , and go on to the
e n c e s that are d i v o r c e d f r o m c a r e f u l e v e n o n e s that we build ourselves, are
next project, missing s o m e exciting dis-
thought. A classic e x a m p l e in amateur ra- usually expected to have m a n y features,
c o v e r i e s along the w a y . B y u s i n g the
d i o r e g a r d s the thermal stability of L C but these bells and whistles can actually
e q u i p m e n t with t e m p e r e d intensity, the
oscillators. Envision the a m a t e u r experi- i m p e d e e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o g r e s s . A single
e x p e r i m e n t e r will d i s c o v e r the strength
menter w h o built an oscillator using a tor- band, single m o d e transceiver can be as
and weakness of the rig, allowing the next
oid. T h e circuit drifted when he o p e n e d experimentally enlightening and i n f o r m a -
project to be even m o r e s u c c e s s f u l . T h e
the w i n d o w to the w i n t e r w e a t h e r . T h e tive as a multiple m o d e , general coverage
s a m e a r g u m e n t s might be applied to s o f t -
next evening he replaced the inductor with transceiver.
ware d e v e l o p m e n t s !
one w o u n d on a ceramic coil f o r m , notic-
• U s e the literature. P e r u s e c a t a l o g s ,
ing less drift w h e n he o p e n e d the w i n d o w . • B e w a r e of the golden s c r e w d r i v e r : A
data m a n u a l s , w e b sites, and even instruc-
H e concluded that ccramic f o r m s are bet- good friend, W A 7 M L H , encountered a
tion m a n u a l s for circuit ideas. W h e n a cir-
ter than toroids, having never c o n s i d e r e d f e l l o w on the air w h o s e sole m e t h o d f o r
cuit m e t h o d is not understood, it should be
the specific coil f o r m s that w e r e used, the e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n was to a d j u s t all of his
studied in texts appropriate to the technol-
other c o m p o n e n t s in the circuit, or the fact e q u i p m e n t f o r m a x i m u m output. H e did
ogy. It is u s e f u l to build s o m e t h i n g with
that the w e a t h e r had i m p r o v e d . P o o r l y this with a f a v o r i t e s c r e w d r i v e r , which he
the part as a way to really understand that
executed e x p e r i m e n t s like this often gen- treated as g o l d e n . A f t e r c a r e f u l t w e a k i n g
part.
erate erroneous conclusions. T h e result- of all circuit e l e m e n t s that c o u l d be ad-
ing lore, a l t h o u g h interesting, s h o u l d • While p l a n n i n g is n e c e s s a r y , d o n ' t j u s t e d , he w a s a l m o s t a l w a y s able to coax
a l w a y s be questioned. It is a l w a y s better to spend e x c e s s i v e time in the preliminary a 100-W transceiver into delivering 110
do meaningful measurements. design p h a s e of a project. Rather, outline W of output. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w h a t started
preliminary ideas and goals, do initial cal- as a g o o d piece of e q u i p m e n t had b e c o m e
• P l a n y o u r p r o j e c t s with block dia- culations (on a c o m p u t e r only if they are a distorted disaster. W h i l e w e all tend to
grams: Start with small diagrams w h e r e really c o m p l i c a t e d ) , g a t h e r parts, and a d j u s t circuits for " m a x i m u m s m o k e . " lin-
each block is a global element, p e r h a p s begin b u i l d i n g . E n j o y the f r e e d o m that ear circuitry should be c o n f i n e d to o p e r -
containing several stages. E x p a n d these to a l l o w s you to c h a n g e y o u r mind in the ate under linear c o n d i t i o n s . It is important
show greater detail. Block d i a g r a m s will middle of an investigation. R e f i n e d calcu- that the limits be r e c o g n i z e d and a d h e r e d
be discussed further below. lations can o c c u r d u r i n g and a f t e r c o n - to. T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t w h e n
• G e n e r a t e m o d u l a r e q u i p m e n t : A high struction and are not just "design p h a s e " b u i l d i n g S S B gear. A l i g n m e n t m e a n s ad-
p e r f o r m a n c e receiver, f o r example, should activities. j u s t m e n t to the p r o p e r , m e a s u r e d level.

1.4 Chapter 1
 Fig 1.4—"Nice looking" circuit construction does not always equate to good circuit performance.

which may d i f f e r f r o m m a x i m u m . local clubs to find out who is building. Lis- F C C has specifications for spurious emis-
• A l w a y s keep notebooks for experi- ten to the appropriate nets and attend the sions from US transmitters. These specifi-
ments: Record those wild circuit ideas that specialty clubs. Write to fellows who cations depend upon transmitter output
come up while you cut the lawn or watch author articles of interest, especially if power. Even for equipment running full
T V ; record important data during experi- they live nearby. Watch the chat sessions power, the specifications are generally
ments, including the temperature when on the Internet or the Web. Amateur radio easy to meet at HF. When power drops
you open the window; take notes on the is about communications, so d o n ' t hesi- below 5-W output, they become even
circuits that you build, including changes tate to communicate. easier. Throughout this text we take the
thai are made during building and "turn approach that even greater levels of clean-
• Look toward the ordinary for expla-
on". Date the notebook and place small liness will be sought. This book includes
nations: When a design is not working as
dated labels inside the rigs so you can find a chapter on test equipment. One of the
well as it should, we look for explanations
the data when i t ' s needed. Use bound or items featured there is a spectrum analyzer
that will explain the differences. All too
spiral notebooks rather than loose-leaf that will allow the builder to measure spec-
o f t e n we consider the complicated an-
documents, for they are more permanent. tral purity.
swers, only to discover that the real an-
A long term computer based index of note- swer is in the "obvious." It is always
A final "rule:" D o n ' t let any of these
books is very useful. worthwhile to return to fundamentals.
rules get in the way of experimenting and
• Find others with the same passion for • Strive to build equipment that does building! It's OK if there are things that
experimenting: Although this guideline is not pollute the already abused radio spec- you d o n ' t understand even if that includes
pretty obvious, i t ' s also easy for the ex- trum: Make an e f f o r t to generate clean the project you are about to build, for you
perimenter to become isolated in his or her equipment, meaning that it does not emit will understand much more when you are
own world. Builder hams are rarely iso- signals at frequencies other than the in- finished. The real goal of this pursuit, and
lated. Finding the local ones will give you tended ones. While most of this concern is of this book is to learn by doing.The same
a place to communicate your ideas, hear with transmitters, the ideas should also be can be said for other "rules" that may ap-
about new thoughts, and to share junkbox applied to receivers. The difficult ques- pear in the literature or on the web: D o n ' t
parts as well as test equipment. Ask at tion is " H o w clean is clcan e n o u g h ? " The let them keep you f r o m experimenting.

Getting Started 1.5

1.4 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
F i g 1.5 s h o w s a c o l l e c t i o n of e l e m e n t s Basic Block Diagram Elements
that c a n b e u s e d in a d e t a i l e d b l o c k d i a -
g r a m of a r a d i o . T h i s s h o r t list is g e n e r a l l y
extensive enough to describe the
Amplifier. Provides net power gain.
n o n - d i g i t a l d e s i g n s in this b o o k .
Schematic and block diagrams serve a
v a r i e t y o f p u r p o s e s in e l e c t r o n i c s . T h e Mixer. Provides an output frequency
p u r p o s e of the b l o c k d i a g r a m is to p r e s e n t
the f u n c t i o n s and their interconnection
that is a sum/dif of input
u s e d in a p i e c e of e q u i p m e n t . S c h e m a t i c frequencies.
d i a g r a m s p r e s e n t the d e t a i l s .
A b l o c k d i a g r a m is a u s e f u l w a y to p l a n Oscillator. Generates an output at
a n d d e s c r i b e t h e e q u i p m e n t w e w i s h to
a single frequency.
b u i l d . T h e b l o c k d i a g r a m will s e r v e as the
starting point for mathematical analysis
that w e m a y a p p l y t o the o v e r a l l s y s t e m . It J Combiner/Splitter. Adds two signals or
c a n a l s o e m p h a s i z e the f u n c t i o n s r e q u i r e d splits one into two parts while isolating
to c o m p l e t e t h e d e s i g n . T h i s is i l l u s t r a t e d them.
with F i g 1.6 s h o w i n g a d i r e c t c o n v e r s i o n
transceiver for the 40-meter band. Several Inputs/outputs. Coax', speaker,
filters are s h o w n , i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e f u n c t i o n s
microphone, headphones.
that are i m p o r t a n t f o r g o o d p e r f o r m a n c e . ? <1 I t= s >
D
T h e low p a s s a n d t h e h i g h p a s s b e t w e e n
t h e m i x e r and a u d i o a m p l i f i e r a r e s i m p l e ,
c o n s i s t i n g of o n e c o m p o n e n t e a c h . T h e r e
Low Pass Filter Resonator
m a y b e n o c o m p o n e n t s f o r t h e s i g n a l split-
ter, bul the f u n c t i o n r e m a i n s .
High Pass Filter.
Fig 1.7 s h o w s a m o r e elaborate circuit, a
s u p e r - h e t e r o d y n e S S B / C W transceiver for
the 5 0 - M H z b a n d . T h e p h a s i n g m e t h o d can
also be used; such a 5 0 - M H z transceiver is Bandpass Filter.
presented in F i g 1.8. D e s i g n i n g any of these
s y s t e m s b e g i n s by f o r m i n g the block dia-
g r a m s , which includes s p e c i f y i n g each of All Pass Filter
the blocks. O n c e this is d o n e , the individual
(Phase Shift network)
circuits can b e d e s i g n e d . S o m e e l e m e n t s are
missing in the b l o c k d i a g r a m in the interests
of clarity. Tt will b e u s e f u l to add b l o c k d e t a i l Fig 1.5—Common block diagram elements.
during circuit design.
S o m e b l o c k d e t a i l s m a y d i f f e r f r o m the
final i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , b u t f u n c t i o n s r e - audio LC/HPF
m a i n . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e s p l i t t e r and p h a s e LC/BPF
Receiver
s h i f t i n g f u n c t i o n s a r c o f t e n c o m b i n e d in
q u a d r a t u r e c o m b i n e r c i r c u i t s o p e r a t i n g at
RF. W e sometimes show a 90-degree
p h a s e s h i f t in o n e p a t h w i t h n o n e in a n - 7-7.1
Input
tA RF

LO/
High Gain
audio ftmp.

other where actual circuitry merely main- MHz

tains a 9 0 - d e g r e e d i f f e r e n c e . Audio ic/iPJ
RF Power
T h e s e f i g u r e s o f f e r a g l i m p s e of w h a t Amplifier
the text will c o v e r . T h e d e s i g n of t h e b l o c k TX output
. e m e n t s will e a c h b e d i s c u s s e d in i n d i -
iudl c h a p t e r s . T h e n , t h e b l o c k s will b e 7 MHZ
IC/LPF
nibled in system chapters related to fil-
- r a c i n g , a n d digital s i g n a l p r o c e s s i n g jfKev

Fig 1.6—Block diagram of a direct conversion transceiver.

f «* Quarter 1
1.5 AN IC BASED DIRECT CONVERSION RECEIVER
This receiver design is one of the sim- tion effort. formance among very low current receiver
plest possible thai will allow CW and SSB The basis for this receiver is the NE602 components. The NE602 contains a mixer
signals lo be received. It offers perfor- (or NE612) integrated circuit. Originally and an oscillator, two essential blocks
mance enough for on-the-air contacts introduced by Signetics in the late 1980s, needed for a receiver. The mixer in a direct
while serving as an introductory construc- the chip is easy to use and offers good per- conversion receiver serves to heterodyne
the incoming antenna signal directly down
to audio. The oscillator provides mixer LO
(local oscillator) injection for this conver-
sion. The oscillator within the NE602 is a
single transistor followed by a buffer am-
plifier of undisclosed complexity. The
NE602 mixer is a doubly balanced circuit
of a type known as the Gilbert Cell with
operation outlined in a later chapter.
The LM386N audio amplifier follow-
ing the NE602 completes the receiver. The
LM386N will drive a small speaker, or
headphones of high or low impedance. The
ideal set of "cans" to use with this receiver
is a light weight pair of the sort used with
jogging receivers or similar consumer
gear.
The receiver is shown schematically in
F i g 1.9. Our version is built using the
"ugly" methods outlined earlier. If you use
a pre-etched and drilled circuit board, take
the lime to study the board layout in detail,
and trace the circuit while studying the
schematic diagram. Merely stuffing parts
and soldering will provide you with no
more than soldering practice.
The signal from the antenna connector
is applied to a pot that serves as a gain
control with output routed lo a single tuned
circuit using L I , a toroid inductor. This
circuit drives the mixerinpul at NE602pins
1 and 2. The load within the IC looks like
a pair of 1,5-kQ resistors from the input
pins to a virtual ground.
The NE602 oscillator has acollector tied
to the positive power supply. The base of
that transistor is available at pin 6 while
pin 7 goes to the emitter. Internal bias
resistors set the voltage and establish a cur-
rent of about 0.3 mA in the Colpitts oscil-
lator. Feedback capacitors in our circuit
run between pins 6 and 7 and from pin 7 to
ground. A 270-pF capacitor then ties the
base to the rest of the tuned circuit.
A simplified version of the oscillator
circuit is shown in Fig 1.10. This illus-
trates the way a simplified circuit is used to
calculate the resonant frequency. Fig
1.10A shows the complete oscillator. But.
the two 680-pF feedback capacitors have a
series equivalent of 340 pF, as shown in
part B of the figure. In going from Fig
1.10B to Fig 1.10C. we resolve the 50-pF
variable and 10-pF fixed into 8.3 pF; the
270 and 340 pF become 150 pF. We evalu-
ated both variable capacitors at their maxi-
mum value, Fig 1.10C has nothing but
parallel capacitors which add directly to

Getting Started 1.7

 form Fig 1.1 OD. A simple resonance cal-
culation shows tuning lo 6.9 MHz.
T w o variable capacitor ( C I and C2) are
used in our oscillator. They are nearly the
same value. The larger, C I , directly paral-
to +6
VCC lels the inductor. A detailed analysis shows
100> 100uF± that it will tune over a wide range, the full
1OOuF. > .1
6.9 to 7.5-MHz span. C2 is "padded d o w n "
Ant. JT^t with a 10-pF scries capacitor. C2 has a
ra LM386
1 47 10 value ranging from 5 to 50 pF. The series
L100uF capacitor then generates a composite C
1K 1* x .22
T T ranging from 3.3 to 8.3 pF, a 5 - p F differ-
NE602
~180 ence. Add capacitancc in parallel with C2
1 '
0.1 AFOUt to crcatc even greater bandspread (resolu-
.1 - .22 tion or low tuning rate).
nrir
1 All fixed capacitors should ideally be
NP0 ceramic types, readily available from
^ f 680 680 major mail order sources. But, d o n ' t hesi-
270 tate to try other caps if you have them in
your junk box. The worst that will happen
32
is that the receiver will drift more than
Tkr, ' P-2 |>0 desired. N e w parts are easily substituted
later.
These capacitor variations are doubly
L1.L2, 20 t. #26 on T37-6 toroid for 6.9-7.5 MHz. significant. First, you can adapt a tuned
circuit to work with whatever you have on
hand. For example, common 365-pF AM
broadcast capacitors can be used in both
positions with appropriate padding. Sec-
Fig 1.9—Direct conversion 7-MHz receiver using two integrated circuits. ond, the use of two capacitors is a very
practical means for building simple receiv-
ers while avoiding the mechanical com-
plexity of a dial mechanism. W e have used
double cap tuning for transceivers in other
parts of the book. Adapt the circuit to what
you have available.
The mixer input network at LI that in-
Bias jects antenna signals into the NE602 uses
(A) an inductor identical to that in the oscilla-
" '^TL
10 270 tor, tuned with a mica compression trim-
-ib- -)l mer capacitor. Any variable can be used
200 Pin 6 here. If a 365-pF panel mounted cap is
j, „ 680
used, the 270-pF capacitor could be re-
50 33 r i . i e uh duced in value. If the only available vari-
Pin 7
able capacitor is much smaller than 180
pF, you may have to resize L I . or add or
subtract net capacitance a bit to hit reso-
nance. The inductance can be reduced by
spreading or removing turns, or increased
10 270
by compressing turns. Both circuits are
-f— very tolerant of such changes.
200 340
86? !L2 (B) Once the mixer has been wired, most of
50 33 the receiver is finished. The L M 3 8 6 is a
low power part with no heat sink required.
This receiver draws only 7 mA when sig-
nals are low. with more current with louder
1.16 uH signals. A simple 5-V power supply works
< >—#
8.3 well. A fi-V battery pack will run the
200 J (D) receiver for extended periods.
5 '" J12 ?
(C) ! 12
"so The NE602 mixer features excellent LO
33 471
to RF isolation. This means that there is little
- - = —
LO energy appearing at the mixer R F port,
and hence, the receiver antenna terminal.
The presence of such energy can lead to a
Fig 1.10—Simplified version of the oscillator in a NE602. See text for explanation, common problem of "tunable h u m " with

1.8 Chapter 1
 I 0 0 - Q resistor in the power supply line.
The resistor serves as a f u s e if you have
done something drastically wrong. Insert-
ing the headphones when the output
capacitor is uncharged will p r o d u c e an
audi ble pop. If the audio seems to be work-
ing, turn the receiver off. remove the extra
resistor, and start again. Attach an antenna,
advance the gain control and tune C l. Sig-
nals should be heard. Adjust the front-end
tuned circuit for maximum signal. If you
have a calibrated signal generator you can
inject a signal and see if the operation is at
the right frequency. If you have a general
coverage receiver available, you can attach
the antenna of this receiver to that of the
general coverage receiver where you will
be able to hear the L O signal. 11'an antenna
is not available, you can throw 20 or 30
feel of wire out on the floor. While this is
not going to compete with a good outdoor
antenna, it will provide signals in abun-
Fig 1.11—Direct conversion receiver assembly. dance to listen to and c o n f i r m receiver
operation.
some direct conversion receivers. poor strong signal handling capabi lity of the The receiver in Fig 1.11 was built for the
The receiver also has problems. Some, receiver. Although helped a bit by placing 40-meter band. 1 f you want to try a different
the audio images, arc intrinsic to all simple the only gain control in the antenna lead, the band, all that is required is to change the
direct conversion receivers. This is the problem is intrinsic to the NE602 mixer. The two inductors. Increasing the 1.16-|iH in-
price, but also the thrill of such a design. basic Gilbert Cell is capable of much more, ductor to4.S n H will drop the receiver right
The selectivity is lacking. This can be rem- but only when biased to draw considerably into the 80 meter band. A band switching
edied with audio filters that can be placed more current. The current is kept low in the version would be practical.
in the receiver. Examples of audio filters NE602 by design, for it is intended for bat- The first popular receivers of this sort
are found elsewhere in this book. These tery powered consumer equipment and not appeared in the USA in a QST paper by
filters would go between the mixer and the ham gear. Strong, high performance direct W A 3 R N C . 4 Variations of a similar sort
audio amplifier. It is easy to add such conversion receivers are described later in were generated and published in Europe
things to a breadboarded receiver, but more the book. by George Dobbs, G3RJV. George used a
difficult with a printed board. Initial turn-on and adjustment is straight double tuned circuit in the front end to
The greatest performance deficiency is the forward. Apply power initially with a improve signal handling properties.

1.6 A REGENERATIVE RECEIVER

There was a time when simple vacuum The core of a regenerative receiver is means that audio also appears within the
lube regenerative circuits were the only the detector. Fig 1.12 shows a JFET ver- circuit. It need only be coupled out and
receivers available to the radio amateur. sion of a classic regenerative detector us- applied to headphones or an audio ampli-
Even when super-heterodynes became ing a "tickler coil." Signals f r o m the an- fier lo complete the receiver.
possible, the regenerative design remained tenna or a preceding radio frequency Our receiver uses some slightly unusual
as the entry level radio. amplifier are applied to the tuned circuit, circuits that simplify the design. The de-
Regenerative receivers have b e c o m e producing a voltage at the F E T gate. This lector is based upon a little appreciated
popular again, but they now generally use produces F E T drain currents that vary at variation of a traditional Hartley oscilla-
semiconductors. M u c h of this popularity the R F rate. The R F drain current flows in tor, a variant without transformer action.
has been fueled by the work of Charles the tickler coil which couples energy back Instead, two series inductors, LI and L2,
Kitchin, N I T E V . 5 - 4 People now build re- to the original coil through inductive trans- serve as the traditional "tank," or resona-
generative receivers for the sheer j o y of former action. If enough energy is coupled tor. Toroids were used, although Q is not
listening to a receiver that is extremely back, the circuit oscillates. Even when the critical and traditional cylindrical coils
simple, yet is capable of receiving signals coupling is weaker, insufficient f o r oscil- will also work. Indeed, low Q radio fre-
f r o m all over the world. The radio offered lation, the circuit can have very high gain. quency chokes o f f e r opportunity to the ex-
here tunes from 5.5 to 16 MHz, covering This makes the weakest signal large within perimenter.
three amateur bands, 7, 10.1, and 14 MHz, the detector circuit. The presence of any
The delector, Q2, uses a junction field
as well as international short-wave broad- large signal in a "square-law" device like
effect transistor. Whi le we used a 2N5454,
casts at 6. 7, 9.5, 12, 13.5, and 15 MHz. a J F E T will produce detection, which
the detector worked well with any N-chan-

Getting Started 1.9

 C3, each with a large knob. C2 is a '"band-
set" while C3 is a higher resolution "band-
spread" tuning, an action resulting from
the series and parallel fixed capacitors
around C3. Regeneration is controlled with
Regeneration another 365-pF variable capacitor. None
R g 1.12—A of the variable capacitor values are terribly
classic critical. If you find others at a flea market
Audio regenerative or hamfest, you can adapt the circuit to use
detector.
RF in Out them. That's part of the charm of a person-
alized regenerative receiver; it applies
positive feedback to your imagination.
This circuit uses an RF amplifier, Ql.
The gain is not really needed, or even de-
Tuning sired. However, the amplifier provides a
relatively stable driving impedance for the
detector, and is a convenient way of vary-
ing the strength of the signals arriving at
the detector. The RF amplifier is preceded
nel depletion mode FET we could find in using a large ferrite bead. A 1-mH or by a 5th order low pass and 3rd order high
our junk box. This included the U309, 2.5 inH RFC will work well in this posi- pass filters. The high pass rejects signals
J310.2N4416, 2N3819, and MPF-102. as tion. A 1-K resistor even functioned in from the AM broadcast band that could
well as some even more obscure parts. We place of L3, although the regeneration con- overload the receiver. The low pass attenu-
couldn't find a FET that would not work. trol was not as smooth as it was with an ates FM and TV broadcast signals that
Use what you have! The complete recei ver inductor. could inter-modulate in the RF amplifier
schematic is shown in Fig 1.13, and a front The mechanical complications of a dial or detector, producing distortion within
panel photograph appears in Fig 1.14. mechanism are avoided by tuning the re- the receiver tuning range.
We wound our own 1-mH choke for L3 ceiver with two van able capacitors. C2 and Audio gain is provided by Q3 driving

iok ...
RF Gain | 7
Li ' LS ~ "K
O.GuH °-6uH se„

390 200

LI: 20t #22 T68-6

L2: 5t #22 T30-6
L3: 1 mH, 30t #28 FB43-6301
02,3,4: 365 pF see text
1,4,5: 12t #28, T30-6
Lb: 20t #26 T5D-6.
Ql,3,4: 2N3904, 2N2222, etc.

Q2: 2N5454, see text.

D1,2: 1N4152, or any Si sw.

Fig 1.13—A regenerative receiver tuning from S.S to 16 MHz. See text for discussion of parts and construction.

1.10 Chapter 1
 6 . 8 - 1 6 MHz
Detector

j 2.2

f 1.1» t M
V

Fig 1.14—Front panel view of the

regenerative receiver. I t
Fine Regen Q-Mult. i
188 *5V
-^-WV-
i "p
- © I -
2H3
Coarse after GI3XZM

T
Regen. Ret: G3RJV Sprat 105

Fig 1.16—Alternative regenerative detector.

the operator's hands. However, the rest of becomes overloaded, reduce the R F gain
Rg 1.15—A simple crystal oscillator the receiver could be as simple as a block control. Tune the receiver until an AM sig-
becomes a substitute for a signal
of wood found in the garage. Our receiver nal is found. Then reduce regeneration
generator.
was built " u g l y " with scraps of circuit until the "squeals" subside. CW and S S B
board material. One scrap will suffice, are best received with the regeneration
although our receiver used three, an indic- well advanced. While the receiver works
tor of earlier experiments. Other bread- best with an outside antenna, it will func-
boards will work as well, but a printed cir- tion with as little as a f e w feet of wire
cuit board should never be used for a tacked to the wall. The signal generator of
I" 1. a common L M 3 8 6 N output amplifier. regenerative receiver. Even if dozens are Fig 1.15 requires no more than a two foot
This will drive cither low impedance to be built, such as in a club effort, the piece of wire on its output, somewhere in
" W a l k m a n " type phones or a small project should emphasize open ended, the same room as the receiver.
speaker. Walkman is a Sony trademark. Q 4 flexible breadboarding to encourage ex- There are n u m e r o u s interactions be-
is an active decoupling filter that provides perimentation. tween controls, features that o f f e r chal-
hum-free dc to the detector. Although the Some experimentation may be required lenge and intrigue for the experimenter
receiver of Fig 1.13 is shown with a 12-V to set up the regeneration. Increasing L2 w h o takes the time to enjoy them. Numer-
power supply, it worked well with volt- by a turn or decreasing R1 will both ous circuit refinements are available to the
ages as low as 6. Typical current is 20 mA increase regeneration. However, too much experimenter who wishes to continue the
at 12 V. inductance at L2 or too little resistance at quest. The experimenter will discover a
A signal generator with frequency R I will produce such robust feedback that great deal from his or her efforts in operat-
counter is u s e f u l during initial experi- regeneration cannot be stopped or easily ing this receiver. The availability of very
ments with the receiver. However, many controlled. high gain through positive feedback can
builders may not have them available. Fig Operation of this, or any regenerative be used to great advantage. But operation
1.15 shows a suitable substitute, a crystal receiver is a multiple control effort. Begin can be a greater challenge than found with
oscillator that will operate anywhere with the regeneration control, C4. at mini- a more advanced receiver.
within the receiver range. Numerous inex- mum capacitance, unmeshed, and set the A more recent experiment used a differ-
pensive crystals are available from the two tuning controls at half. Set the R F gain ent regenerative detector, shown in Fig
popular mail order sources that will pro- f o r m a x i m u m gain, +12 V on the ampli- 1.16. This circuit eliminates one of the
vide a starling point. For example, a fier. with the audio gain in the middle and variable capacitors used in the other cir-
10-MHz crystal available for under $ 1 will attach anantenna. Tuning C2 may produce cuit, replacing it with a pair of potentiom-
mark the 10.1-MHz amateur and the 9.5 to a signal. Now slowly advance the regen- eters. This circuit was featured in a recent
10-MHz SW broadcast bands. eration. adding C at C4. Tt is normal for issue afSPRATby George Dobbs, G3RJV.
The receiver can be built in any of many background noise to increase with a mild although the circuit seems to be the brain-
forms. A metal front panel is a must, af- "plop" occurring in the headphones as the child o f G 1 3 X Z M . 7 Performanceof the two
fording shielding between circuitry and detector begins to oscillate. If the detector circuits is similar.

Getting Started 1.11

1.7 AN AUDIO AMPLIFIER WITH DISCRETE TRANSISTORS
Thi- a m a t e u r l i t e r a t u r e is rich w i t h o l d e r
dc-ign-. u s i n g h i g h i m p c d a n c e h e a d -
p h o n e * . T h e s e d e s i g n s a r e o f t e n very bat-
ter) e f f i c i e n t , a vital p e r f o r m a n c e v i r t u e
tor p o r t a b l e or e m e r g e n c y e q u i p m e n t . B u t
high i m p e d a n c e h e a d p h o n e s t h a t c a n b e
u>ed with t h e m o r e e f f i c i e n t d e s i g n s h a v e
b e c o m e r a r e . T h e a n s w e r to this d i l e m m a
is a s i m p l e a u d i o a m p l i f i e r that will d r i v e
low i m p e d a n c e h e a d p h o n e s w h i l e m a i n -
taining reasonable efficiency.
O n e solution to the p r o b l e m is o n e of
m a n y i n t e g r a t e d circuits. T h r o u g h o u t the
book w e used the L M 3 8 6 o r o p - a m p s to drive
h e a d p h o n e s of the S o n y " W a l k m a n " vari-
ety. A n alternative circuit is s h o w n in Fig
1.17. T h i s a m p l i f i e r uses c o m m o n l y avail-
able discrete transistors. T h e version of the
circuit that w e built used leaded parts, but
could just as well be built with S M T c o m p o -
nents. Q1 f u n c t i o n s as a gain stage. T h e 2.2-
k f l c o l l e c t o r load ( R 8 ) with lOO-H
degeneration ( R 4 ) p r o d u c e Q 1 bias current
of 2 m A f o r an a p p r o x i m a t e voltage gain of Fig 1.17—Simple audio amplifier using discrete components.
20. Q 2 f u n c t i o n s as a floating voltage source
that e s t a b l i s h e s bias f o r c o m p l e m e n t a r y cuit is similar to m a n y of the simpler inte- H o w e v e r , t h e d i s c r e t e s o l u t i o n is a v a i l a b l e
e m i t t e r - f o l l o w e r o u t p u t transistors Q 3 and grated circuits. T h i s circuit f u n c t i o n s well w h e n an I C is not. A l l of t h e t r a n s i s t o r s in
Q 4 . N e g a t i v e f e e d b a c k through R 3 r e d u c e s with p o w e r supplies f r o m 5 to 15 V . t h i s circuit a r e very i n e x p e n s i v e a n d u s u -
g a i n and establishes overall bias. T h i s cir- A n 1C is u s u a l l y t h e p r e f e r r e d s o l u t i o n . ally f o u n d in the e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s j u n k - b o x .

1.12 Chapter 1
1.8 A DIRECT CONVERSION RECEIVER USING A DISCRETE COMPONENT
PRODUCT DETECTOR
The direct conversion receiver de- generation. This circuit, using negative feed- feeding Q3 and Q4. The mixer collectors arc
scribed earlier used a NE-602 integrated back. uses a form found throughout the book, bypassed for RF.
circuit to fulfill both the detection and the one where an added component reduces gain The detector output feeds adilTerential sig-
local oscillator functions. Discrete (non- to improve performance. The output drives nal to a LM386 audio amplifier. De-coupling
integrated) components can also be used in the mixing product detector consisting of Q3 became important with this stage, owing to
these applications. The receiver shown in and Q4. An RF signal is extracted from the the internal resistance found with a normal
Fig 1.18 uses a differential amplifier as the antenna through a gain control, low pass fil- 9V battery. An uncomfortable "howling" os-
product detector. This design, shown for tered. and applied to the base of Q5 where it cillation disappeared with high decoupling
operation in the 40-meter band, has been is ampli fied and converted to a current source capacitancc for the audio amplifier.
built with both traditional leaded compo-
nents and with surface mounted technol-
ogy (SMT) parts and appears in Fig 1.19.
Q l functions as a local oscillator. Volt-
age control is used with any of several com-
mon tuning diodes. The Colpitis circuit uses
small powder iron toroids for both leaded
and SMT components. C I is a combination
of NPO capacitors, selected during construc-
tion to resonate at the desired frequencies.
With the parts shown, the receiver tunes
over about a 50-kHz range in the 40-meter
band. The range may be expanded by paral-
leling additional varactor diodes, increas-
ing the value of the 82-pF blocking capaci-
tor. decreasing the value of the 2.2-kiJ
resistor in scries with the tuning control, or
combinations of these measures.
The oscillator is buffered with Q2. a
common-emitter amplifier with emitter de- Fig 1.19—Inside view of SMT direct conversion receiver.

<13 m&, no
sig.)

LI: 1.2nH, I8t#26, T37-6

L2,L3: 11uH 16t»?8, 130-6
or 1 oH chip inductor
M: 33pf «t 4» Varactor, MC209,
KC109, BTE-416, etc. BBY40 used
for SMT version,
Cl: Sip-1 Op-lOp see text
gi-QS: 2M3904
SMT Top views
c Fig 1.18—Direct conversion receiver using
discrete oscillator and detector components.
(HJM386E, Mouser) Integrated circuits are used for the audio
output amplifier and for voltage regulation,
SO-8
SOT-23 but could also use discrete components. This
2H3904 BBX40 receiver is suitable for construction with
(ST Microelectronics, (Philiigs,
SOT-23 either leaded or SMT components.
Motiser) SO-B

Getting Started 1.13

 1.9 POWER SUPPLIES
A m o n g t h e m a n y tools n e e d e d by the
c i r c u i t e x p e r i m e n t e r , b e g i n n i n g o r sea-
s o n e d , is a p o w e r s u p p l y . I n d e e d , s e v e r a l
arc a l w a y s u s e f u l . B a t t e r i e s s e r v e well f o r
simple, low current applications. H o w -
ever, the m o r e useful power supply ex-
t r a c t s e n e r g y f r o m the p o w e r m a i n s . T h a t
a c v o l t a g e is a p p l i e d to a t r a n s f o r m e r , is
rectified, filtered with a large capacitor, 117 AC
and regulated with transistors and/or inte-
grated circuits.
AC Circuit Rectifier + Filter Cap
T w o m a j o r design questions are pre-
s e n t e d to t h e b e g i n n e r : W h a t t r a n s f o r m e r (+)
T1
s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d a n d h o w large s h o u l d D1
- V . D3 n r
the f i l t e r c a p a c i t o r b e ? F i g 1 . 2 0 s h o w s an
<->
e x a m p l e 1 2 - V , 0 . 5 - A d e s i g n w e u s e to
address these questions.
T r a n s f o r m e r s a r e rated f o r R M S o u t p u t
voltage with a load. T h e peak voltage
AC
117 ac M
L
T .,D2

Regulator
will b e h i g h e r by a f a c t o r of 1.414, s o a Rectifier,
12.6-V t r a n s f o r m e r will h a v e a p e a k out- Circuit Filter Cap. Output
01
put of 17.8 V. T h e t r a n s f o r m e r c u r r e n t rat-
<+)
i n g s h o u l d e q u a l or e x c e e d t h e m a x i m u m
desired dc current, so a 0.5-A transformer
T1
T t 7812
Cf
is a d e q u a t e f o r this a p p l i c a t i o n . T h i s is
s h o w n in p a r t A of Fig 1.20. A s w i t c h and
! cT i-I
p r o t e c t i v e s l o w - b l o w f u s e is a d d e d to t h e
transformer primary. 117 AC
- ^ U i IK, 1®
1A, S.B.
A b r i d g e r e c t i f i e r u s i n g f o u r d i o d e s is
a d d e d to t h e c i r c u i t to g e n e r a t e a dc o u t p u t .
T h e b r i d g e is p r e f e r r e d o v e r c i r c u i t s w i t h
Fig 1.20—Fundamental power supply. Part A shows the transformer and rectifier, B
j u s t t w o d i o d e s , f o r a c e n t e r l a p p e d trans-
adds the critical output filter capacitor, while C uses a 12-V regulator IC.
f o r m e r is t h e n not r e q u i r e d . B r i d g e recti-
f i e r d i o d e s s h o u l d h a v e an a v e r a g e c u r r e n t
rating above the m a x i m u m power supply Fig 1.21—Wave-
forms for a simple
c u r r e n t . 1-A d i o d e s w o u l d be f i n e f o r this
power supply. The
application. "before filtering"
S o m e w a v e f o r m s arc s h o w n in F i g 1.21. shows the raw
T h e " b e f o r e f i l t e r i n g " v o l t a g e is the r e s u l t rectified signal
without any filter
of r e c t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e c i r c u i t of F i g 1.20A.
capacitor. The "V-
The " V - c a p " trace s h o w s the voltage cap" shows the
a c r o s s t h e c a p a c i t o r w h e n it is a d d e d to the voltage across the
circuit, F i g 1.20B. T h e s i g n i f i c a n t d e t a i l is filter capacitor
t h e ripple, o r v a r i a t i o n in u n r e g u l a t e d out- attached to the
p u t v o l t a g e o c c u r r i n g at the f i l t e r c a p a c i - rectifier when
loaded to a modest
tor. F i g 1.22 s h o w s r i p p l e for t w o d i f f e r e n t
current.
c a p a c i t o r v a l u e s w h e n the load c u r r e n t is
0 . 5 A.
A s u i t a b l e r e g u l a t o r is t h e p o p u l a r 7 8 1 2 .
T h i s t h r e e t e r m i n a l r e g u l a t o r IC will p r o -
vide t h e d e s i r e d o u t p u t w i t h a dropout of
a b o u t 2.5 V . D r o p o u t is the m i n i m u m v o l t -
a g e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the r e g u l a t e d o u t -
p u t a n d the h i g h e r u n r e g u l a t e d i n p u t . W i t h Fig 1.22—Wave-
a 2.5-V dropout, the unregulated input forms showing the
m u s t b e 14.5 V o r m o r e o v e r the e n t i r e voltage across
c y c l e . Fig 1.22 s h o w s that a 2 0 0 0 - ( i F ca- filter capacitors of
p a c i t o r will b e a d e q u a t e , b u t 5 0 0 | i F will two values when
loaded with 0.5 A.
not. If w e d e f i n e AV as t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e -
See text
t w e e n t h e p e a k r e c t i f i e d v o l t a g e a n d the discussion.
m i n i m u m u n r e g u l a t e d v a l u e , 17 - 14.5 =
2.5, 1 a s the o u t p u t c u r r e n t , a n d At a s the
t i m e f o r a half c y c l e ( . 0 0 8 3 s e c o n d f o r
6 0 H z ) , t h e m i n i m u m c a p a c i t o r v a l u e in

1.14 Chapter 1
 Farads is given by
Unregulated Regulated
I«At
Zrsput Output C = (Eq 1.1)

. ..11
Fig 1.23—Extending For this example. Eq 1.1 predicts a mini-
the output current mum C of 1700 p F A practical value of
capability of a 2500 flF would be a good choice.
regulator with a The complete circuit with the regulator
"wrap-around" PNP
transistor. is shown in Fig 1.200. Extra capacitors,
placed close to the regulator IC. serve to
stabilize the IC. The user should check data
sheets for the IC that he or she uses
to evaluate stability. The 1 - k Q bleeder
resistor consumes little current, but guar-
antees that the supply turns off soon after
the switch is opened.
The 0.5-A rating of the 7812 becomes a
problem when more current is needed. Fig
1.23 shows a circuit that will extend the
output current rating by adding a power
transistor, Q1 now carries most of the cur-
rent with the split being determined by the
ratio of R2/R1. The dropout for the total
1-: circuit is now that of the IC plus a little
more than a volt for the diode/transistor
and R1 and R2.
Fig 1.24 shows a supply using a LM317.
This is a programmable voltage part that
can supply outputs from 1.2 up to 37 V. set
389 S7V o a t
with two resistors, for an output current of
1.5 A. The power supply we built, used
extensively for developing many of the cir-
cuits in this book, was variable voltage and
also included a 12-V regulator as a second
output. An 18-V transformer was used, for
we wanted regulated outputs up to 20 V,
Many other regulators are found in ven-
dor catalogs, many with considerably higher
output currents and lower dropouts. The ex-
perimenter is encouraged to build his own
circuits using them. Switching mode regula-
tors offer interesting performance virtues
Rg 1.24—Practical dual output power supply featuring the LM-317 regulator. with equally interesting challenges.

1.10 RF POWER MEASUREMENTS

Before one can do any meaningful ex-
periments with transmitters, you must be
Me to measure R F power. A basic scheme
f o r d o i n g this is shown in Fig 1.25. The RF Peak
Voltage DC
is applied to the 50-41 termination through Load Voltmeter
j coaxial cable. It is necessary that a well Detector
defined impedance be available to absorb Fig 1.25—A basic
the transmitter power. The load must be RF power meter.
capable of dissipating that power in the
form of heat. So if the transmitter is ca-
pable of delivering, for example, 100 W,
the 5 0 4 2 load resistor must be capable of
dissipating this power. The load must be a
resistor that really appears as a resistor to

Getting Started 1.15

 the radio frequency applied to it. This
means that the usual power resistors sold P(milliwattS) • 10 (V * 0.7)
by vendors, even if capable of dissipating (1 w s c a l e )
100 W. will not be suitable. They are usu-
ally built as a "wire wound"" part, making
them highly inductive for RF. It is some-
times possible to tune them, an interesting Fig 1.25—Dual
avenue for the advanced experimenter. range power
Suitable 50-12 terminations, or "dummy meter. The
4-W input uses
loads" can be built with parallel combina- the formula to
tions of 2-W carbon resistors, or similar 2 calculate power
or 3-W metal oxide power resistors such as In milliwatts. The
those manufactured by Yaego or Xicon. 50-mW range
Some of these are used in power attenua-
50 re® uses the curve of
tors described in Chapter 7. Input 1K34A Fig 1.23.
1.5K
The RF power dissipated in the resistor (5)— -WV
will develop a corresponding RF voltage.
That is rectified with a simple diode detec- (Use Calibration
tor. providing a signal across the capacitor Curve)
equaling the peak RF voltage, less 0.7 V
for the diode turn-on voltage.
The power meter is completed with a suit-
able dc volt meter. It can be as simple as a
0-1 -mA current meter and a resistor, Calibration, 50 mW Raagu
a FET voltmeter, or even a digital voltmeter.
Fig 1.26 shows a dual range power
meter. Essentially it is a pair of power
meters sharing a single meter movement.
The higher power pari of the circuit starts
with a 4-W load built from two parallel
100-n. 2-W resistors. These can be car-
bon or metal film resistors. If 2-W resis- S e j &2 0.3 6 5 Git O.T on I
tors are not available, four parallel 200-fl
1 -W parts will work as well. The resulting
RF voltage is rectified with a silicon Fig 1.27—Calibration curve for the 50 Fig 1.28—The front panel of the dual-
switching diode. This should be a 100-V mW range of the previous power meter. range QRP power meter.
part such as the 1N4148.1N4I52,or simi-
lar diode. The voltmeter part of the circuit
is a 20-kfi resistor driving a 0-1 mA meter.
Assume a transmitter is attached and keyed
on to produce an indication of 0.6 mA. This 100
1 . 5 Meg
represents a peak of 12 V. for the meter mul-
tiplier is the 20-kD resistor. The resulting f To High Z
Voltmeter
power is then calculated from the formula
given with the figure, 1613 mW. or 1.6 W.
The 50-mW input to the power meter
£
uses a single 51-fi. '4-W, resistor with a
more sensitive 1N34A rectifier diode. The
meter multiplier is now just 1.5 kQ. An *= standoff
approximate calibration curve is shown in
Fig 1.27. The finished meter is shown in Fig 1.29—RF probe suitable for use with a VTVM, FET voltmeter, or even a DVM.
Fig 1.28. Resistors marked with * are standoff resistors used for probe construction and
Other schemes suitable for RF power have little impact on circuit operation.
measurement include terminated oscillo-
scopes, microwave power meters (usually
using calorimeter measurement methods.) when instrumentation is limited. Fig 1.29 meters and a small transmitter or similar
spectrum analyzers, and wideband loga- shows a very simple RF probe. The photo RF source. The transmitter is attached to
rithmic integrated circuits. Some of these in Fig 1.30 shows an open breadboard ver- the power meter and the output is mea-
will be covered in a later chapter. sion; it's the sort of circuit that one builds sured. The corresponding RF voltage is
Often we wish to examine an RF voltage when a measurement must be done imme- noted and the RF probe is attached to the
to sec if a circuit is "alive." and perhaps to diately. A long lasting version of the same power meter 50-il resistor, producing a
adjust it. The classic method for doing this circuit might better be built inside a cylin- result that can be compared.
used an RF probe with a high impedance, der at the end of the coaxial cable. Fig 131 shows a high impedance de volt-
usually vacuum tube or FET voltmeter. The probe may require calibration. This meter suitable for use with this probe. It is
The method is still very useful, especially is best done with one of the other power also a good starting measuremenl tool for

1.16 Chapter 1
 Fig 1.31—Simple high impedance
voltmeter for measuring dc voltages
in circuits. It can be used with the RF
probe of Fig 1.29 and Fig 1.30.

s -•
Fig 1.30—Close up view of an RF probe
built on a strip of PC board material.
The probe is a capacitor lead.

use in the lab. For general utility, it is useful

to have the 5.1-Mi2 resistor at the tip end of sured without upsetting signals that may be the 6.2-kil resistor if needed.
a probe that is i nserted into a circuit for mea- present in the circuit. This circuit can be W e will have more to say about RF
surements. This allows the dc to be mea- calibrated with a fresh 1,5-V battery; vary power measurement in Chapter 7.

1.11 A FIRST TRANSMITTER

This section describes the design of a scrap of circuit board material. The crystal The oscillator is followed by a buffer
simple transmitter suitable as a first rig. a was held on the board with a piece of amplifier. A buffer is an amplifier that
project for someone who has never built a double sided foam tape tTesa. 67601). The allows power to be extracted from an
transmitter. Ii uses robust circuits with few oscillator worked right o f f with several V oscillator, or other stage, without adversely
adjustments required during construction. peak-to-peak observed at both the base and disturbing it. An ideal buffer often has a
It can be built with nothing more than a the emitter with an oscilloscope and 10X high input impedancc so it can be attached
volt meter, a power meter, and power sup- probe. The RF probe described earlier without extracting any power. The best
ply, W e used an oscilloscope and a spec- could also be used. The oscillator func- buffers have good reverse isolation, mean-
trum analyzer during the rig design phase tioned well with supply voltages as low ing that any signal present at the output is
and those results are presented. However, as 2.5 V. A quick check with a receiver heavily attenuated at the input.
that equipment is not necessary for con- confirmed the frequency, The first buffer tried was an emitter fol-
struction. The crystal controlled 2-W lower, a common choice to follow acrystal
40-meter transmitter is built with bread- oscillator. Performance was poor. While
board methods rather than with a printed the loading was light, the output was highly
circuit. distorted. This problem behavior is dis-
The circuit, shown in F i g 1.32. begins cussed in detail in Chapter 2. The design
with 0 1 functioning as a crystal controlled was changed to the degenerated common
oscillator. Our crystal had a marked fre- emitter amplifier shown in F i g 1.33. W e
quency of 7045 kHz. This was the speci- obtain the buffer input from the oscillator
fied frequency for operation with a 32-pF base instead of the more common emitter,
load capacitance. This Colpitis circuit uses for the waveform is cleaner, more
a pair of series 390-pF feedback capaci- sinewave-like. at that point.
tors. The equivalent 195 pF parallels the The buffer is added to the crystal oscil-
crystal. Because this capacitance is much lator by soldering the required pans to the
larger than the specified 32 pF. the operat- board or to other components. The board is
ing frequency will be less than the marked not installed in a box at this time. Rather,
7045 kHz. if you want the frequency to be it's loose where it is easiest to build and
exact, a small trimmer capacitor can be measure. W e can tack solder small load
placed in series with the crystal. W e will resistors or coax connectors to the board to
eventually do this as a method of obtaining facilitate experimentation.
some slight tuning, but don't bother with The buffer output transformer has a 4:1
this refinement in the beginning. The com- turns ratio. The primary, the 12-turn wind-
plexity of crystals is discussed in later ing on a FB43-2401 ferrite bead, or a
Fig 1.32—Crystal controlled oscillator
chapters. that is the start of the beginner's FT37-43 loroid. which is virtually identi-
The oscillator is built on the end of a transmitter. cal, has an inductance of about 50 ttH. This

Getting Started 1.17

has a 7-MHz reactance of 2.3-k£2. The load amplifier will require modest drive of 200 drive is removed from the amplifier.
on I he output is transformed from 5 0 li up to 300 mW. We could obtain more power The desired driver output power is
by the square of the turns ratio to 800 fl. by biasing the second stage for higher gain '/« W. This can be realized by properly
the approximate impedancc presented to and output. A more conservative and loading the stage. We must present a re-
the collector of Q2. The inductive reac- stable, free from self-oscillation, approach sistive load to the collector given by
tance is much higher, so it docs not impact adds a third stage.
the circuit operation. The output is not The evolving design is shown in Fig 134 <Vr V e)-
'
tuned, allowing it to function well over a with a class C amplifier for Q3. We want (Eq. 1.2)
wide frequency range. this third stage to provide a power gain of 2•P
We measured the power from the 3-turn 10 and pick another 2N3904. With an F,
output lint on T1 by attaching a small length more than ten times the operating fre-
of coax cable that ran to the 50-mW input of quency, gain will be good. The 2N3904 where V K is the supply, V e is the emitter
the power meter described earlier. The out- also has a beta that holds up well at high voltage, and R L is the load resistance in
put was +10 dBm. 10 mW. with R1 =270 £2, currents, a useful characteristic for a power Ohms. I V^.-V.) is about 11 V for this ex-
and was up to +15 dBm with R1 of 150 £2. amplifier. While we wanted class C opera- ample. so the equation predicts a desired
Recall that the power meter has a 50-£2 lion in the 3" 1 stage, stability was deemed load of about 150 £2. An L-network. LI
impedance. vital, so the circuit is degenerated with a and the 200-pF capacitor, is designed
We want more than 10 mW from our 10-fl emitter resistor and a 100-Q load is to transform a 50-ft load to "look like"
transmitter and will eventually add a power placed at the base. Class C operation is 200 £2 at the collector. An RF choke pro-
amplifier to reach an output of two W. That assured. Q3 current disappears when RF vides collector bias for the transistor.
While tunable components could have
been used in the L-network to get the op-
timum output, we elected to use fixed val-
ues. We measured LI and set the value to
•+12V DC that desired. We then used a 5 % value for
the 200-pF capacitor. Variable elements
are only needed in higher Q situations, or
where it is not possible to find tight toler-
ance components.
Fig 1.33—Evolving
Power output could be measured with
transmitter
schematic showing the 4-W position of the wan meter. We
22K the addition of a used an alternative approach here. A 51 -12
buffer amplifier, Q2. 7:-W resistor was tack soldered into the
100 circuit at the output point shown in Fig
1.34 and the output voltage was measured
with an oscilloscope and 10X probe. The
Q3 output was 123 mW, 7 V peak-to-peak
4. 7K
390 at the load, with R l = 2 7 0 £2 in the buffer.
Changi ng RI to 150 £2 increased output to
314 mW. The DC current, 43 mA, was de-
2.2K
termined by measuring the voltage drop
across the 10-£2 decoupling resistor. The
Tl=12t #26, 3t link #22, IB43-2401 calculated efficiency is then 62%. good for
an amplifier which contains resistors in
both the emitter and col lector. The 2N3904
at Q3 is operati ng well within ratings. Gen-
erally, a TO-92 plastic transistor like the
2N3904 can dissipate a quarter of a wall
for extended times, or half a watt for the
shorter intermittent periods encountered in
a CW transmitter. This "rule of thumb"
22? can be stretched with heat-sinking, or eas-
ily violated in thermally isolated settings.
100 Owing to the good efficiency, the dissipa-
-K—f tion is only 200 mW in Q3.
Q3 power output varied smoothly from
4.7K very low levels up to the maximum 314
mW as V c c was adjusted from 5 to 12 V.
This is generally a useful method for ex-
amining stability. We will eventually add a
« = I 2 t # 2 6 , 3 " l i n k #22, FB43-2401 "drive control" to the circuit.
i l = 2 6 t # 2 8 on T 3 7 - 6 Before conti nuing we need to address the
Q1,Q2,Q3=2N3904 issue of spectral purity. Some observed
waveforms have departed from a sinewave.
Fig 1.34—A Class C driver amplifier, Q3, Is added to the transmitter. This means thai these waveforms are

1.18 Chapter 1
harmonic-rich. This transmitter uses a has a low pass characteristic, it has only ating harmonic distortion. Spectrum ana-
crystal oscillator operating at the output two components and is not very effective lyzer measurements showed spurious
frequency. The only signals that should be as a filter. If the driver amplifier is going driver outputs at - 2 7 , - 3 0 , - 4 3 , and - 4 9
present anywhere within the transmitter lo be used by itself as a transmitter, an- dBc for the second through fifth har-
are at 7 MHz or harmonics at 14, 21, other low pass filter should be added monics when the driver was delivering
28, ... MHz. The only filtering needed is to the output. There is, however, little full output. The harmonic suppression was
a low pass filter at the transmitter output. value in adding a better low pass filter actually worse at lower output levels. The
While the L-network that makes a 50-Q after the driver if it is to be used only to term dBc refers to dB down with respect
load appear as 200 Q at the Q3 collector drive another stage which will also be cre- to the carrier.

1.12 A BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR POWER AMPLIFIER

The project now starts to get exciting as the collector terminal in most TO-39 pack- transistor. Care was taken to keep the emit-
we begin to experiment with higher output aged devices. ter lead short when the amplifier was built,
powers. The transistor we have selected for It's always difficult to estimate heat sink for even small amounts of inductance can
a 2-W power amplifier (PA) is a 2N5321. sizes. While one can do thermodynamic alter the performance. This is not always
This is a NPN device in a TO-39 case with calculations, it's generally adequate with bad.
a collector dissipation of 10 W in an infinite small transmitters to experimentally treat Transmitter testing always begins by at-
head sink, or I W in free air, 50-V break- the problem. Touch the heat sink often dur- taching a 50-fl load to the output. This can
downs, the ability to switch acurrent of 2 A, ing initial measurements. If it's too hot to be a power meter or a resistor of the proper
and a 50-MHz F T all for less than $1. The touch, the heat sink is not large enough. Wc rating. The PA should never be run without
low F t restricts the device to the lower always seem to err in the conservative area a load.
bands, but it also means that high frequency with more heat sink than is needed. The first PA we built for this project used
stability will not be an issue. The 2-W PA The formula presented in Eq 1.2 shows the simplified circuit of Fig 1.36. This cir-
schematic is presented in Fig 1.35. that a 25-fl load resistance presented to the cuit suffered from instabilities which be-
The first detail we must consider with collector will support the desired output. A came clear as we varied the drive from the
the PA is a heat sink. Our intention was to simple pi-rietwork was designed. The net- earlier part of the transmitter. At one point,
increase power by about 10 dB to the 2 to work Q was kept low, but was picked to the RF output and the collector current both
3-W level. If efficiency turns out to be 50%, generate a network with standard, and junk- changcd abruptly. The oscilloscope showed
we will have a collector dissipation that is box available, capacitors. A matching net- frequencies well below the desired 7 MHz.
the same as the RF output. The transistor work design is presented in Chapter 3. Changing the collector RF choke from the
can't support this power without a heat A 33-V Zener diode is attached from the original 15 tlH to a smaller 2.7-|iH molded
*ink. We had a Thermalloy 2215A in the collector to ground. The collector voltage choke moved the frcqucncy up, but the in-
sunk box which should be more than ad- will never reach these levels with normal stability was still present. However, chang-
equate. The transistor was mounted in the Class-C operation, so the diode is transpar- ing the base circuit to one with a lower drive
seat sink which was then bolted to a PC ent except for the sometimes substantial impedance completely solved the problem.
board scrap. Holes through the board made capacitance that it adds to the collector cir- The output power and collector current now
lite leads available for soldering. Be care- cuit. But, the diode conducts if the output vary smoothly as the drive is varied. The
ful to avoid any short circuits that are not load disappears, and prevents collector base transformer is a 2:1 turns ratio step-
intended. The transistor case is attached to breakdown that might otherwise destroy the down that now drives the base from a

750p,
Mica

T2, 5 bxfilar turns #22, FB43-2401

L2=12t#22,T50-6,space over half core.
Q5=2W5321 with Heat Sink

Fig 1,36—Earlier simplified PA design which suffered with

Fig 1.35—A 2 W power amplifier. stability problems. See text for discussion.

Getting Started 1.19

 12,5-£2 source impedancc. The 33-fi base put. But once the output gets much increases, the bottom of the collector swing
resistor absorbs some drive and tends to sta- beyond 3 W. Q5 begins to heat. Although a drops toward zero. But at this point the
bilize the amplifier. Changing this resistor higher power was observed with the oscil- amplifier is fully loaded. Further excur-
is one of the experimental "hooks" avail- loscope when the key was first pressed, the sions are not consistent with simple class
able to the experimenter fighting power decreases over a period of a C operation. More drive will cause higher
instability. few seconds before stabilizing. We inves- current with little increases in output, al-
The 2-W amplifier is installed in the tigated this by looking at the collector lowing efficiency to decrease. This causes
transmitter. An output power of 2.25 W waveform at differing drive levels. When the heating. Changing both the matching
results from a drive of just over 100 mW. driven to 2.25-W output, the collector volt- network and drive power is needed for
Increasing the drive produces higher out- age varied between 3 and 23 V. As drive higher output.

1.13 A N O U T P U T LOW P A S S FILTER

When the 2-W amplifier drive is coax connector, for adequate harmonic at- positive going signal opposes the current
adjusted for 2.25-W output, the measured tenuation. Chapter 3 provides detail. extracted by the 3.9-kii resistor. Hence,
efficiency was 47%. A spectrum analysis the collector docs not switch immediately
showed 2 nd and 3"1 harmonics at - 3 6 dBc
and -47 dBc. Addition of an outboard low Practical Details to a high state. Rather, it ramps upward at
an approximately steady rate until Q4 be-
pass filter removed all spurious responses The modules built so far are mere scraps comes saturated. Forcing the stage to turn
to better than - 7 5 dBc. of circuit board material sitting on a bench on smoothly over a couple of milliseconds
The outboard low pass filter is shown in with short pieces of wire to tie them to- restricts the bandwidth of the modulation
Fig 1.37. This is a 7"'-order Chebyshcv gether. They need to be refined and pack- related to turning the carrier on. That band-
design with a 7.5-MHz ripple cutoff fre- aged to create a transmitter that we can put width will extend a few hundred Hz on
quency and a ripple of .07 dB. The rather on the air. An almost complete schematic either side of the carrier. Beyond that, no
obscure ripple was picked to fit standard of the transmitter is shown in Fig 1.39. clicks will be heard in a good receiver.
value capacitors that were on hand. The The first refinement is a keying circuit. A power output control is added to the
inner capacitors are parallel combinations This function is performed by Q4. a emitter of Q2. Owing to the class C nature
of680 and 180 pF. The measured insertion PNP switching integrator. This is a favor- of the following amplifiers, the output con-
loss for the filter was 0.11 dB at 7 MHz. ite keying scheme of ours, allowing a trol will allow the transmitter to run from
The filter was built into a small aluminum grounded key to control the positive sup- the maximum output down to virtually
box. Fig 1.38, as an outboard appendage ply to a transmitter stage. Keying in the nothing. The control is a screwdriver ad-
so it could be used for other projects. Also, positive supply allows the grounded parts justed pot mounted on the board.
the performance is superior when the of the circuit to remain grounded without
A variable capacitor, CI. is added to the
shielding around the filter is absolute. If ever being disturbed by keying. Q4 serves
crystal oscillator. The capacitor used in our
the same filter was built into the transmit- the additional function of shaping the key-
transmitter tuned from 5 to 80 pF and pro-
ter. there is a greater chance that ground ing. When the key is pressed, current
vided a tuning range of 3 to 4 kHz. Use
currents and radiation could provide paths begins to flow in the 3.9-kSi resistor. The
whatever is in your junkbox. While cer-
for signals to leak around the filter. current flows from Q4 base which "tries"
tainly not a substitute for a VFO. it allows
This extreme filtering is probably re- to turn Q4 on. As the Q4 collector voltage
the user to dodge some interference. A
dundant. A much simpler filter could be begins to increase, the change is coupled
"spot" switch, S2. allows the oscillator to
built into the transmitter, near the output back to the base through the capacitor. The
function without placing a signal on the air.
Finally, a transmit-receive system is
added. Tliis function is performed with a
multi-pole toggle switch, a simple but ad-

L4 L5 L6

860 860
£70 470
SM
SM SM_

L4,L6-1.52 uH, 19t T50-6.

L 5 = l . 7 UH, 2It T50-6.

Fig 1.38—Inside view of the 7-eiement low pass filter built to

Fig 1.37—Low pass filter for use with the experimental go with the beginner's rig. The filter Is also used with other
transmitter. equipment.

1.20 Chapter 1
 T2f 5 bifilar turns #22, FB43-2401
ll=26t#28, T37-6 L2=12t#22,T50-6,space over half core.
Q1,Q2,Q3=21J3904 Q4=2N3906 Q5=2N5321 with Heat Sink

Fig 1.39—A nearly complete schematic of the transmitter. This version combines the PA with the earlier stages, adds shaped
keying, power output adjust, T/R switching, and VXO action.

equate solution. S 1 A applies the +12 V the supply reaching Q2. S I B switches the elsewhere in the book.
supply to the oscillator during transmit antenna f r o m the receiver to the transmit- If this transmitter is to be used with a high
periods. The supply is always available to ter. The miniature toggle switch at S I is quality modern receiver with a wide AGC
Q3 and Q5 and does not need to be suitable for powers up through a few watts. range, a two pole switch is all that is needed
switched. The keying circuit, Q4, controls More refined T/R methods are presented at S1. The user can then listen to the trans-
mitter in the receiver as the key is actuated.
The more common scenario places this
From transmitter with a simple direct conversion
receiver such as that described earlier in this
Receiver
chapter. It will then be impossible to turn the
gain in that receiver down far enough to pre-
vent overload. An answer to the problem is
presented in Fig 1.40 where a sidetone oscil-
lator is added to the system. A 555-timer
integrated circuit functions as the square
wave oscillator which is keyed on and off
with Q5. Q5 base currcnt routes through a
10-kJ2 resistor attached to the key in Fig
1.39. R2 must be adjusted for the head-
phones used with the transmitter. The head-
phones are disconnected from the receiver
during transmit intervals, attached only to
the sidetone oscillator. Two phone jacks are
included on the transmitter. A short cable
then routes the receiver audio output from
the receiver to the transmitter where it is
switched. This scheme does not prevent the
receiver from being overloaded, but guaran-
Fig 1.40—Sidetone oscillator for the transmitter. This circuit is also suitable as a tees that you don't have to listen when it
code practice oscillator. happens. The rcceivcr won't be damaged by

Getting Started 1.21

 Fig 1.41—Overall view of the complete transmitter
construction.

Fig 1.42—Outside view of the Beginner Station. At left is the

beginner's direct conversion receiver with the transmitter at
the right.

the overload. A third pole is needed on the

.switch for this refinement. Three pole
double throw toggle switches are unusual,
so we used one with four poles.
The complete transmitter is packaged in
a standard box as shown in Fig 1.41. This
one measured 2 x 3.5 x 6 inches, although
whatever is available will work. Alterna-
tively, you can build your own box. The
outside of the box can be fixed to be as
attractive as you would like it to be. consis-
tent with personal tastes. The variable ca-
pacitor, C I , the spotting switch ,S2. and
the T/R switch are loeated on the front
panel as shown on the right hand side of
Fig 1.42. The key j a c k and a headphone
jack are also located on the front. The rear
panel contains power receptacles, a j a c k
for the audio input f r o m the receiver, and
coaxial connectors for the antenna and a
cable to the recei ver input. The box we pur-
chased for the transmitter had gray paint
on it. Unfortunately, it had nearly as much
paint on the inside as was on the outside.
Fig 1.43—The inside view of the transmitter shows the capacitor and T/R switch Inside paint was removed where compo-
mounted to the front panel with power and coaxial connectors on the rear. The left nents were grounded to the ease. Details of
board contains the first three stages while the right board contains the 2-W power the internal construction appear in F i g
amplifier. A heat sink is under that board. A small board under the T/R switch 1.43.
contains the sidetone oscillator.

1.22 Chapter 1
1.14 A B O U T T H E S C H E M A T I C S IN THIS B O O K
T h e schematic diagrams used in this in the circuit with 25 V being typical. In W e generally label schematics with the
book differ slightly f r o m other A R R L pub- some applications we will use C values in parts that we used. But that does not m e a n
lications ill that we use slightly different nF, which stands for nanofarad. 1000 p F = that this is what you might want to use. An
conventions. Not all details are presented 1 nF. example is our frequent use the 1N4152
in all schematics. R F transformers are specified by turns silicon switching diode. In all cases, vir-
Capacitors are in microfarads if electro- ratio rather than impedance ratio. O f t e n tually all of these can be replaced by the
lytic or if they have decimal values less this data is presented within the schematic more c o m m o n 1N4148 or 1N914. When
than l. Values greater than unity are in pi- diagram rather than as part of a caption. there is a question about such details, look
cofarad if they are not electrolytic. Elec- The same holds for inductance values. W e the part up and see if the parts you have on
trolytic caps always have a voltage rating strive to load the schematic with as much hand are similar. Then try the substitu-
greater than the V c c or V d d value used information as possible. tion.

REFERENCES
1. W. Hay ward and D. DeMaw, Solid State Radio, ARRL. 2 nd Edition, 1976, p 144. for Beginners," QST, Sep, 2000, p 61.
Design for the Radio Amateur. ARRL, 3. R. Lewallen, " A n Optimized Q R P 6. C. Kitchin, "An Ultra-Simple VHF Re-
1977. Transceiver," QST, Aug, 1980, pp 14-19. ceiver for 6 Meters," QST, Dec, 1997, p 39.
2. R. Hayward and W. Hay ward, "The Uglv 4. J. Dillon, "The Neophyte Receiver," 7. G. Dobbs, "A Stable Regenerative
Weekender," QST, Aug, 1981, pp 18-21. See QST. Feb, 1988, p 14-18. " Receiver," SPRAT, Issue 105, Dec, 2000,
also G. Grammcr, Understanding Amateur 5. C, Kitchin, "A Simple Regenerative Radio p 21.

Getting Started 1.23

 CHAPTER

Amplifier Design Basics

2.1 MODELING SIMPLE SOLID S T A T E DEVICES

Small signal amplifiers are used in a he or she uses a device. What is needed is A real world diode departs from the
receiver to bring weak signals up to the something simpler, a model with enough ideal. Firsl. a slight voltage drop appears
point that they can be heard in headphones. complication to be useful in practical across the forward biased diode. Current
Large signal amplifiers in transmitters cre- applications, but with no extra frills, remains very small until that level is
ate even larger signals that, when applied Wc use models for even the simplest of exceeded. Second, the flow of diode cur-
to an antenna, propagate lo be heard by the parts. A resistor, for example, is modeled rent causes a slight additional voltage
receivers. Clearly, the amplifier function as an ideal element, a part that obeys drop. A refined model with these charac-
is central to all that we do as radio experi- Ohm's Law, with no other characteristics. teristics is shown in Fig 2.3. The model
menters. The real resistor is more complicated: becomes an ideal diode, a 0.6-V battery,
Before we gel into the details of the even the smallest surface mounted part has and a diode resistor, R D , that is the ratio of
amplifier circuits, we examine devices that capacitance and inductance. Wire leads a small increase in applied voltage. AV,
can amplify. A preliminary look at diodes only make the effects larger. The L and C and the resulting small change in current,
soon evolves into a discussion of bipolar alter circuit behavior, but can be described AI, We sometimes refer to the threshold
and field effect transistors. But, prior to by more elaborate models. (0.6 V in the figure) as a diode offset volt-
that, we examine the modeling process. age. The offset will vary with diode type.
Silicon junction switching and rectifier
Even the simplest electronic devices can
be very complicated in their overall
The Junction Diode diodes usually have an offset of 0.6 to
behavior, especially if all power levels and The first device we model in detail is the 0.7 V. Germanium and hol-carrier silicon
all frequencies arc considered. Such a junction diode. The diode is a dcvice that diodes will have lower values, while some
complete description can be overwhelm- has polarity dependant properties. Specifi- compound semiconductor parts have
ing. Indeed, such a complete device pic- cally, if we insert an ideal diode in a func-
ture would conceptually bury the salient tioning dc circuit that carries a current, the
behavior thai the designer may seek when circuit will be unchanged by the presence
of the diode if the polarity is for "forward
bias." But. current flow will cease if the
diode is reverse biased. The schematic dia- X
R gram of Fig 2.1 illustrates a forward bi-
ased diode defined by this behavior. Re-
versing the diode leads eliminates current
flow in the circuit.
The current in the circuit of Fig 2.1 is
shown in Fig 2.2. a curve called an I-V
characteristic. The current is thai flowing
through the diode and the voltage is that
across the diode. Fig 2.2 plots a current
that is completely determined by elements Fig 2.2—IV Characteristics for an ideal
or perfect diode. The curve shows I for
external lo the diode. This particular part any possible V that might be applied to
Fig 2.1—Forward biased junction diode. is called an "ideal" diode. the ideal diode.

Amplifier Design Basics 2.1

 R

Hi
D 1 I(V)
Wv
s —
u
i

Diode Bias, Volts

Fig 2.3—IV characteristic for a refined diode model. Fig 2A—IV characteristic for a common junction diode. This
follows the diode equation.

t h r e s h o l d s e x c e e d i n g o n e volt. b e h a v e if o n e m i c r o v o l t w a s a p p l i e d to it. s o u r c e with a large b a s e resistor is used,

T h e m o d e l of F i g 2 . 3 is m o r e a c c u r a t e T h e c u r r e n t flowing in t h e d i o d e , Eq 2.1, a l l o w i n g us to control b a s e current. A posi-
t h a n t h e ideal d i o d e , b u t is still less t h a n w o u l d b e e s s e n t i a l l y z e r o if a m i c r o v o l t tive v o l t a g e is a p p l i e d to the c o l l e c t o r ,
p e r f e c t in s o m e s i t u a t i o n s . A m u c h b e t t e r was a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y . B u t , t h e d i o d e m i g h t reverse b i a s i n g the c o l l e c t o r - b a s e j u n c t i o n .
d i o d e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n is a m a t h e m a t i c a l h a v e a m u c h d i f f e r e n t r e s p o n s e if t h e T h e t w o - d i o d e m o d e l w o u l d predict zero-
m o d e l w h e r e c u r r e n t is g i v e n by an e q u a - diode already had a bias current flowing. collector current. But, collector current
tion, F i g 2 . 5 s h o w s part of a d i o d e I V c u r v e . d o e s f l o w in p r o p o r t i o n to the c u r r e n t in
T h e p o i n t c o r r e s p o n d i n g to 5 m A D C c u r - the base. T h i s is transistor action. T h e r a t i o
I = v(e" V / k T
-l) r e n t f l o w is m a r k e d with a t a n g e n t line. of c o l l e c t o r to base c u r r e n t is u s u a l l y sig-
qV/kT Eq 2.1 T h e s l o p e of this line d e f i n e s a r e s i s t a n c e ,
Is!, e a c h a n g e in c u r r e n t f o r an a p p l i e d c h a n g e
in v o l t a g e that o c c u r s w h e n a s m a l l s i g n a l
is a p p l i e d to the b i a s e d d i o d e . T h e d i o d e
w h e r e I s is c a l l c d t h e s a t u r a t i o n c u r r e n t in
h a s a r e s i s t a n c e of a b o u t 5 Q w h e n t h e
a m p e r e s , q is the c h a r g e on an e l e c t r o n , k
c u r r e n t is 5 m A , g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d b y
is B o l t z r r i a n ' s c o n s t a n t , and T is t h e d i o d e
t e m p e r a t u r e in d e g r e e s K e l v i n . T h e s e c - 26
o n d , a p p r o x i m a t e f o r m is c o m m o n . T h i s -
l(mA) Eq 2.2
m o d e l , k n o w n m e r e l y as the diode equa-
tion, is i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g 2 . 4 f o r the c a s e of T h e f a c t o r 26 m V (or . 0 2 6 V ) c o m c s
T = 3 0 0 K ( n e a r r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e ) and I s = f r o m d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of E q 2.1 and is a v e r y
3 x I 0 " 1 5 A, a value that w e i n f e r r e d f r o m c o m m o n p a r a m e t e r in s e m i c o n d u c t o r elec-
measurements for the popular 1 N 4 I 4 8 / tronics:
I N 4 1 5 2 s e r i e s of p a r t s . C h a n g i n g J s
generates new offset values. The diode Fig 2.5—Small signal model for a
— * .026 Eq 2.3
e q u a t i o n is a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e it junction diode represents it as a
o r i g i n a t e s as a d e s c r i p t i o n e v o l v i n g f r o m resistor with the slope shown. See text.
basic physics. Physics based models are
A s m a l l s i g n a l d i o d e m o d e l is no m o r e
generally preferred because they follow
t h a n a s i m p l e r e s i s t o r . W e will m a k e
f r o m f u n d a m e n t a l s , e v e n t h o u g h they m a y
e x t e n s i v e u s e of s m a l l s i g n a l m o d e l s as w e
not be as intuitive.
move on.
M o r e r e f i n e d d i o d e m o d e l s will i n c l u d e
reverse breakdown, high frequency
p a r a m e t e r s ( i n d u c t a n c e and c a p a c i t a n c e , ) The Bipolar Transistor
and even carrier lifetime. N o matter what T h e b i p o l a r t r a n s i s t o r is a t h r e e t e r m i n a l
m e t h o d s w e u s e to a n a l y z e a circuit, t h e d e v i c e . If w e u s e t h e s a m e e q u i p m e n t t h a t
r e s u l t s of the a n a l y s i s will o n l y b e as g o o d w e u s e d to e x a m i n e d i o d e s , w e m i g h t c o n -
as t h e m o d e l s . c l u d e that t h e b i p o l a r t r a n s i s t o r is j u s t a
p a i r of d i o d e s in o n e p a c k a g e , a t t a c h e d a s
SMALL SIGNAL DIODE MODEL s h o w n in F i g 2.6. T h i s is an i n c o m p l e t e ,
T h e a n t e n n a s i g n a l s that o u r r e c e i v e r s yet useful model. Fig 2.6—Apparent model of a bipolar
a m p l i f y a r e o f t e n in t h e m i c r o v o l t r e g i o n L e t ' s p l a c e this model in a test circuit, transistor. This is what we would Infer
or less. W e ask h o w the diode w o u l d s h o w n in F i g 2.7. A v a r i a b l e v o l t a g e bias by examination with a VOM.

2.2 Chapter 2
Fig 2.7—The circuit we used to bias a bipolar transistor for Fig 2.8—A current source is added to the diode pair to form i
active operation. See text. representative model. The diode is often ignored as in B.

nified by the greek letter beta, p. A typical

value might be 100.
The simplified model on the right side
of Fig 2.7 is clearly in error. The "collec-
tor" diode is reverse biased by V K , yet
considerable current flows against the
diode arrow. A better model is shown in
Fig 2.8A where the original diode pair is
supplemented by a current source propor-
tional to the current in the base-emitter
diode. The model in Fig 2.8B is the model
we use for evaluation of biasing circuits. It
ncglects the collector-base diode and re-
fines the base-emitter diode.

SMALL SIGNAL BIPOLAR

TRANSISTOR MODEL
What happens with the bipolar transis- Fig 2.9 Evolution of a small signal transistor model.
tor for small signals? How do we model it?
The methods used with the diode are ex-
panded to describe the transistor, as shown
in Fig 2.9. using r e is more common. Common emit- Another feature of the model is illus-
In Fig 2.9A, the input diode is replaced ter small signal amplifier input resistance trated by a simple amplifier design, shown
for small signals with a resistance. The is in Fig 2.10A. An NPN transistor is biased
resistance is exactly that used with with a base resistor attached to a positive
the earlier diode, 26/1 where I is now the supply. A load resistor, R c , is placed in the
DC current in milliamperes for the Rin = ( P + l ) - r e Eq 2.5
collector. The base resistor is adjusted
base-emitter diode. The current amplify- until the emitter current is 1 mA. The small
ing properties that we discovered earlier A traditional viewpoint emphasizes the signal model shown in Fig 2.10B is used
are preserved for small signals, so the small bipolar transistor as a current controlled for analysis.
signal collector current remains at [Jxi h . device with p representing current gain. With I mA emitter current, the trans-
We use a lower case "i" to emphasize the But beta can vary considerably for a given conductance is g m =l/26. Signal current is
small signal levels. transistor type, suggesting that the ampli- then v i n xg m . This current produces an out-
An alternative small signal model is fier gain may differ for different transis- put voltage because it flows in R... result-
shown in Fig 2.9B. Here the resistance in tors, which is not true. A preferred small ing in a voltage gain of g r a xR c , which is
series with the base has been replaced with signal model is shown in Fig 2.9C. where
one in the emitter. This resistance, termed the part is viewed as a voltage driven com- Gv=Rc/re Eq 2.8
r c . is given by ponent. The output current source is now Knowing biasing details, voltage gain
specified by a transconductance, gm: can be predicted '"by inspection" as a
26
Eq 2.4 resistor ratio, independent of beta. Current
gain, or p. is still of significance, for it will
*c Sm * h Eq 2.6
where I c is now the emitter current in mil- alter the signal current that flows when
liamperes. The collector current exceeds drive voltages are applied, which defines
that in the base by p, and the emitter cur- The transconductance. g m . is given by input impedance.
rent is the sum of the collector and base Note that we have said nothing about
1E ( m A )
values, so the dc emitter current is greater Eq 2.7 transistor type. Our discussion has consid-
than the base value by (P+l). Accordingly, 26 ered the NPN. but has said little else of a
the emitter resistor of Fig 2.9B is smaller specific nature. This is not an oversimpli-
than the resistor of Fig 2.9A by (p+l), Both While p may vary among transistors, g n fication. Much of the utility of the bipolar
models are equally valid, although that is well defined by emitter current. transistor results from properties that

Amplifier Design Basics 2.3

 the positive supply through a voltage
divider. R, and R 2 . The equivalent circuit
for the divider is shown in Fig 2.13B. The
base voltage with the transistor tempo-
rarily removed is found f r o m divider
action as

E q 2.10
R, + R 2

where the prime indicates that the base is

open circuited, and absent from the calcu-
lation. The emitter voltage is below the
base by the 0.6-V offset, placing the emit-
Fig 2.10—The simple amplifier at A is analyzed with the small signal model at B. ter voltage at 1.45 V. The emitter current
is then determined by the 3 3 0 - f i emitter
resistor as 4.39 mA. The collector current
is almost the same as that in the emitter,
depend primarily upon the standing emit- will decrease from the reduced collector and the drop across the collector load puts
ter current. voltage. A lower than nominal beta will V c at 7.61 V.
cause collector voltage to climb, forcing
BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR BIASING more base current to flow.
This analysis, although close, is in
error. Base current flow produces an IR drop
Accurate transistor current is vital to any Application of the model and some in the biasing resistor chain. This
design, because current determines small al aebra provides a general equation for Fig decreases the base voltage below the value
signal properties. The power dissipation, 2.12, shown in Fig 2.13 by about 0.25 V. There are
the power output capabilities, the distor- two solutions to this problem. One would
lion. and even frcqucncy dependence are v « • R i + v.b • P- K replace R, and R 2 with a "stiffer" voltage
Vr = E q 2.9
also determined by bias current and volt- | 3 R C + R, divider. Values of 3.3 k f l and 680 fl would
age. Biasing methods will be evaluated work well, but at the price of greater power
with the model of Fig 2.8B, where the consumption. The other alternative is a more
base-emitter junction b e c o m e s an ideal An even better bias scheme is shown in
careful analysis. If this is performed, the
diode with a 0.6-V battery. Collector cur- Fig 2.13A, where the base is driven from
emitter current is given by
rent is then fSxIh.
The first bias example we consider is
that shown in Fig 2.11. A I - k i l load resis-
tor appears in the collector, while the base
e
is biased f r o m the 12-V supply through a ( R j + R j Rj (P+O+R.-Rj
100-kQ resistor. The model assumes an E q 2.11
offset of 0.6 V, so the base current is 11.4
V across 100 k f l , or 114 p.A. If transistor The I c value for the components in Fig
(5=100. the collector current is 11.4 mA. 2.13 is 3.759 mA.
But, the l-k£2 collector resistor produces P N P biasing is identical to that of the
an IR drop of 11.4 V. leaving a collector NPN, except that the voltages are mea-
voltage of only 0.6 V. sured with regard to the positive power
Repeating the calculation with slightly supply, which may or may not be
higher (3 predicts a negative collector volt- ••ground." See Fig 2.14.
age, impossible without a negative supply. Fig 2.1 S shows a natural refinement to the
Recall that earlier models included a Fig 2.11—A simple amplifier used for biasing scheme. Here another resistor is
collector-base diode that prevented the bias analysis. added, a normal part of a decoupling scheme.
collector f r o m being more than a diode The added resistor provides negative feed-
drop below the base. Whenever the collec- back like that used earlier in Fig 2.12. This,
tor voltage equals or drops below that of in combination with the feedback from R 3 of
the base, for an NPN. the transistor is said Fig 2.13 further stabilizes bias.
to be saturated. A scheme useful f o r biasing an N P N
The scheme of Fig 2.11 is, at best, a poor transistor with a directly grounded emitter
bias method. Slight changes in beta yield is shown in Fig 2.16. A P N P transistor
great uncertainty. Biasing is improved emitter senses the dc col lector voltage and
with negative feedback, with one f o r m compares it with the P N P base at a refer-
shown in Fig 2.12. The 100-kQ resistor is ence, V r , established with voltage divider
biased from the collector rather than the R [ and R 2 - The reference divider is usually
12-V supply. An intuitive examination designed to put most of the power supply
shows that this is an improved method, on the N P N collector. The 0.1 -|xF capaci-
even before we "crunch" any numbers. If tor stabilizes the negative feedback bias
the beta changes to drive the transistor Fig 2.12—Improved bias is obtained loop. W i t h the values shown, the bias is
toward saturation, the current throueh R l from the collector. defined bv

2.4 Chapter 2
 + 12 V
R2, 6.8K
-33K 5.S4K
33K £ i-AAAr-
(7,61v)
(2.05v 4f-
Rl, 33K ;>
RC, IK
S.8k|R2 P-45V)
i >330
± TH3

(b)
Fig 2.14—PNP biased to the same
conditions as we established with the
Fig 2.13—Evolution of base bias from a voltage divider. NPN example.

Vcc • R 2
R, 4 R 2

• 0.6 Eq 2.12
Vcc '" V R
lr
RA

The Field-Effect
Transistor
Although the bipolar transistor is our
work horse, various forms of field effect
transistor, or FET, are closc in popularity.
Among FETs, one of the most common is
the junction variant, the JFET. A JFET is
Fig 2.15—Decoupling resistor adds
much like vacuum tube triodes of the past Fig 2.17—Test setup used to evaluate a
negative feedback to the biasing with
and is easily biased and used in amplifier an emitter resistor. JFET.
applications. FETs, including the JFET,
generally lack the uniformity and predict-
ability of a bipolar transistor. JFETs tend
to be low noise devices. Not only is the often called operation in the saturation
noise figure low, but the low frequency region. Saturation is just the opposite con-
flicker, or "1/F" noise is small. This com- dition in a FET from saturation in a bipo-
bination makes the JFET especially useful lar transistor.
for low noise oscillators. Fig 2.19 shows the usual source resistor
Fig 2.17 presents the test setup that al- method used for biasing an N-Channel JET
lows us to measure, and then model the at a current below l ciss . The current flow-
JFET. The example is an N-channel ing through the resistor establishes
Depletion mode JFET. A drain power sup- a positive sourcc voltage. As current
ply. + V d d , is applied. The gate voltage is increases, the source voltage increases,
then varied while examining the current causing the gate-to-souree voltage differ-
that flows. Fig 2.18 is a resulting plot of ence to become more negative. This is the
drain current vs gate-to-source voltage action needed to decrease current, eventu-
with constant drain voltage. The gate volt- ally stabilizing the bias. The action of an
age is negative for most of the curve. The external source R is a form of negative
Fig 2.16—A "wrap-around" PNP biases
gate can be no more than 0.6 V positive, an NPN with grounded emitter. The feedback, just as we used with an emitter
for the gate of a J F E T is actually a diode 0.1-|JF capacitor stabilizes bias and is resistor in the case of a bipolar transistor.
junction. The metal oxide silicon field ef- the dominant element in the bias loop. Fig 2.19 includes some J F E T equations.
fect transistor, M O S F E T , has similar prop-
erties, but uses an insulating gate. There is SMALL SIGNAL JFET MODEL
then no diode clamping action. Fig 2.18 showed a complete curve,
Once gate-to-source voltage drops to an is at -3 V for the example of Fig 2.18. describing large and small signal behavior
adequate level, drain current goes to zero These data are typical for the popular J310 as well as JFET biasing. The simplified
and the FET is said to be in "pinch-off." JFET. A drain voltage higher than the small signal model is shown in Fig 2.20.
The pinch-off voltage, the gatc-source V magnitude of the pinch-off is usually Here an open gate terminal accepts an
where current drops to (or nearly to) zero. required to ensure linear operation. This is input voltage. That signal then controls an

Amplifier Design Basics 2.5

 /
/
/

/
/ D . e„
Basic FET equation I D =I
L
t e l
v
+ v
sgi
l for
Pinchoff voltage is negative
„ Channel FET
/
-v j in
Source Bias Resistor V S =R s.-I un so. R5 =—£. I -
E T_ T .
\ ss
- 3 - 2 - 1 0 1

Current with set source R:

Fig 2.18—Drain Current vs Source-to-Gate Voltage for J310 Fig 2.19—JFET bias circuit and equations. The left circuit is a
type Junction Field Effect Transistor. I d s s =35 mA and V p =-3 V. practical amplifier, while that on the right is the bias
V p is the voltage where drain current goes to zero. I d s s is the equivalent. Pick a desired drain current, l D (must be less than
drain current when the gate and source are both at the same l D S S ), and use the middle equation to find the required source
potential. resistor. The resulting source voltage Is given by Ohm's Law.

output current source related to the input Fig 2.20—Simplified small signal JFET
by a transconductance, g with model.

las (-
=2 1+ E 2 13
"T
^P ' V T' Pl « -
or "amps per volt." From the equations in
F o r example, if we biased the F E T for a Fig 2.19, we see that the D C drain current
gate voltage equaling half of the pinch-off is then 8.75 mA, which is realized with a
value, with I d s s = 3 5 mA and V p = - 3 V , the source R of 171 CI. The low frequency in-
small signal transconductance is 0 . 0 1 1 7 S , put resistance is essentially infinite.

2.2 AMPLIFIER DESIGN BASICS

Having examined basic device models 10-1.881 = 8.119 V . The collector-to-emitter through a IO-|iF capacitor which has a
and biasing, we now evaluate some basic voltage, VCL.. is 6.238 and power dissipation 1-kHz reactance o f 16 CI. B e i n g very small
amplifier designs, first with the bipolar is the product of this voltage with the stand- compared with the amplifier input or the
junction transistor ( B J T ) and then the ing current, 11.73 mW. source, it may be neglected for a 1-kHz
junction field effect transistor ( J F E T ) . Small signal transistor characteristics analysis. The same argument may be made
We begin with a single stage audio are established by emitter current. T h e for the output capacitor. The result is the
design, Fig 2.21. The circuit that we might resulting small signal model is that in F i g small signal circuit o f F i g 2 . 2 I d . The
build is presented in Fig 2.21a. while a bias- 2.21c. The 1 - k O emitter resistor has dis- power supply is missing in the small sig-
ing related part is shown in Fig 2.21b. The appeared from the circuit for it is well nal models where V c c is replaced by
voltage divider, 10 k£2 and 3.3 kf2, creates bypassed by the 100-p.F capacitor. T h e ground: the supply is fixed and does not
an equivalent source of 2.481 V at the base. small signal r c is 2 6 / I e ( m A ) = 13.82 42. T h e change with audio signal current, so it is
This decreases by 0.6 V in moving through input resistance looking into the base is effectively a signal ground.
the transistor to produce an emitter voltage almost 1.4 k£l = r e x ( | } + l ) . W e characterized the B J T by a trans-
of 1.881 V. The emitter current is then 1.881 The input source is a 1 - m V voltage gen- conductance, g m = 0 . 0 7 2 4 amp/volt. Also,
mA. With beta=l()0, base current is 19 |iA, erator in series with a resistance of 1 k Q , we neglect any effect related to the base
well below the 7 5 2 |iA in the voltage which might represent a previous stage. bias divider on the small signal model.
divider. The collector voltage is then The source is AC coupled to the base The 1-mV input signal is voltage

2.6 Chapter 2
 open circuit source behind a 1-kQ resis-
tor. so the load that would allow the maxi-
mum available power to be extracted
would be a 1-kQ resistor. The available
input bccomcs 0.5 mV across 1 kQ, or 2.5
x 10"10 watts, leaving a transducer gain of
1572. or 32.0 dB. This is nearly as high as
the power gain. The gain difference is a
consequence of the input impedance mis-
match. We will have more to say about
gains and dB later in this chapter.
A common practice converts a voltage
gain to decibel form with the familiar
20*Log(G v ), 27.6 dB for this example.
This is not a correct result, for the source
impedance is not the same as the load
impedance. The decibel construct is one
that should only be applied to power
ratios. It works with voltage ratios only
when the related resistances are equal.
In the amplifier we analyzed, the input
was applied to the base while the emitter
was grounded through a large bypass
capacitor. Hence, the input was applied
Fig 2.21—Single transistor audio amplifier design. See text for details. between the base and the emitter. The out-
put was extracted from the collector-cmit-
ter port. This is a common-emitter (CE)
configuration, for the emitter is common
to input and output. A common-collector
divided between the l - k Q source resis- schematic shows the input is tied to ground
(CC) amplifier is shown in Fig 2.22.
tance and the 1.39-kQ input resistance. through r e . the I3.8-Q resistor, which
The base input voltage becomes 0.582111V would severely attenuate the signal. How- The complete amplifier circuit is shown
to produce a collector signal current of ever, the current source representing the in Fig 2.22A, while the small signal ver-
i c =g m xv b c =0.0421 mA. This current flows transistor is also attached to the i npul node, sion is in Fig 2.22B. The open circuit dc
through a resistance of 333 £2, the parallel and that current moves in unison with base voltage is 5 V, so the emitter bias
equivalent of the 500-Q load and the 1 -kD the input voltage. This yields the results current is 4.4 mA, leading to r c =5.91 £2.
collector resistance. The output voltage is outlined. The follower of Fig 2.22B is driven from
then 0.0421 mAx333. or 14.02 mV for a We calculated a voltage gain. The gains a l-k£2 source impedance. It is terminated
circuit voltage gain of 24.1, Note that this of greater interest are power ratios. One of in a pair of 1-kQ resistors in parallel. The
is also exactly the ratio interest to the RF designer is, simply, input resistance of a follower is given by
power gain, the output power divided by
R, input power. The output power is calcu-
Eq 2.14 R.n = ( p + ' M r , + R L ) Eq 2.15
lated (for Fig 2.21) as V-/R where R is the
5 0 0 - 0 load and V is the 14.02-mV output.
where the load is the total impcdance seen Output power is then 3.93 x 10"7 W. The while the output impedancc is
by the collector. input power is the base voltage (0.582 mV)
R
The form of this equation is especially across the transistor input R of 1.4 k£2, or s
R, Eq 2.16
intuitive, emphasizing the role of r c as 2.435 x 10-1" W. The power gain is the
a degeneration resistance. If we placed a ratio of the two powers, 1614. Using a dB
The voltage gain for the emitter follower
10-£"2 resistor in series with the 100-f.tF relationship, this becomes 32.1 dB. This is
is
emitter bypass capacitor, the net emitter high but reasonable for a single transistor,
resistance would be 10+ 13.8=23.8 Q and for this amplifier operates at low frequen-
R>
the voltage gain would becomc 14. The cies. Such gain from a single transistor at Gv =- Eq 2.17
radio frequencies is more difficult. R, + rc
role of emitter current is clear; Increasing
standing emitter current causes r c to Power gain is fundamental but is not Substituting r e into these equations
decrease, increasing voltage gain. Emitter always the gain we measure. We usually shows that the follow er has a gain of 0.988.
degeneration is a common feedback measure transducer power gain, espe- essentially 1, accounting for the circuit
schcmc. cially when working with RF circuits. name. Setting (3 to 100, the input resistance
We have treated the bipolar transistor as Transducer gain is output power deli vered is 51 k£2 while the output resistance is 15.8
a voltage controlled device. Beta was indi- to a load vs the maximum power avail- CI. The input resistance and the voltage
rectly used in the calculation, but only to able from the input generator. We have gain both grow if the follower is lightly
set transistor input resistance. This, in turn, already calculated output power. The loaded. The output resistance decreases as
established the fraction of the 1-mV input available power from the source is the the source impedance drops.
voltage that appeared at the base. power that would be delivered to a termi- It is very common to dc-couple a fol-
There is a counter intuitive nature to the nation that was impedance matched to the lower to a preceding amplifier; this is
modeling presented in Fig 2.21D. The generator. The generator was a 1-mV illustrated in Fig 2.23.

Amplifier Design Basics 2.7

 can be very large. However, this is some-
what synthetic, for the input impedance is
usually very low. making the amplifier
difficult to drive. The common applica-
tions use a current source to drive the CB
amplifier, realized by placing an extra re-
sistance in series with the input.
The CB amplifier has the useful prop-
erty that it offers excellent reverse isola-
tion. That is, the input impedance of a CB
amplifier is not affected by anything that
happens to the output circuit. The example
shown in Fig 2.24 is biased to a current of
about 0.8 mA. producing an input resis-
tance of 32 a .
The equations for the small signal prop-
Fig 2.22—Common collector amplifier, also known as an emitter follower.
erties of the various amplifiers are deri ved
in Introduction to RF Design1 and are dis-
cussed in The An of Electronics.2
The CC amplifier had a low output
impedance. Nothing was said about the
common emitter and common base ampli-
fier output resistance. Both are essentially
infinite for the simple models considered
where the BJT is m o d e l e d as an "ideal
current source."
Most of the amplifier analysis we have
done is based upon simple models, ones
that have but one or two parameters. Beta
has only minor impact on circuit perfor-
mance. The dominant clement in all of the
models is rL.. the emitter resistance. This
parameter is directly related to current, a
Fig 2.23—Voltage Amplifier with a DC coupled emitter follower. parameter under the control of the circuit
designer. This would suggest that all
bipolar transistors are more alike than they
are different and that the only major differ-
ences are in the frequency capability and
size. This is generally an accurate view of
the small-signal bipolar transistor.

Small-Signal FET
Amplifiers
The field effect transistor families are
similar to the BJT; as three terminal
dcviccs. they can be configured into three
different forms. Fig 2.25 shows the com-
mon source, common gate, and common
drain (or source follower) configurations
Fig 2.24—Common Base Amplifier with small-signal equivalent.
for an N Channel JFET.
There are many similarities b e t w e e n
BJT and JFET circuits, The common gate
FET amplifier (CO) has a low input
impedancc with a high output impedance.
The third basic amplifier configuration The topology o f f e r s excellent reverse
is the common base (CB) amplifier of Fig isolation. The follower (CD) has a low
2.24. output impedance with a very high input
which is normally very close to unity. We
The input resistance for the c o m m o n impedance.
essentially assume that the current injected
base (CB) amplifier is
into the CB amplifier appears at the out- JFET bias current is controlled by the
1 put. The voltage gain is then designer, j u s t as it was with the BJT.
p Resistor values may, however, have to be
Rin ~ rc = 7 ~ E q 2.18
tm G v = a R, E q 2.20 device specific, picked for a given FET to
The current gain for the CB amplifier is establish p e r f o r m a n c e . Within a given
given by the parameter a . The voltage gain for the CB amplifier JFET type, for example, a 3:1 variation in

2.8 Chapter 2
 Fig 2.26—A JFET operating as a series
switch.

M O S F E T s a r c u s e f u l a u d i o s w i t c h e s in
Fig 2.25—Common Source, Common Gate, and Common Drain JFET Amplifiers, many applications.
T h e F E T s m a y be u s e d as v o l t a g e vari-
a b l e r e s i s t o r s . As s u c h , t h e y can f u n c t i o n
ill g a i n c o n t r o l c i r c u i t s .

High Frequency Effects

Little has been said about the e f f e c t s of
high f r e q u e n c y . Yet, m u c h of our interest as
radio e x p e r i m e n t e r s is in the p e r f o r m a n c e of
transistor circuits at f r e q u e n c i e s well b e y o n d
the r a n g e of o u r simple m o d e l s .
T h e f i r s t t h i n g t h a t h a p p e n s to t h e B J T
a s f r e q u e n c y i n c r e a s e s is that p d e c r e a s e s
o v e r the d c a n d a u d i o val Lies. T h i s is s h o w n
Fig 2.27—Current gain vs Frequency for Fig 2.28—The hybrid-pi transistor in the c u r v e of F i g 2 . 2 7 of |3 vs f r e q u e n c y .
a BJT. model. T h e l o w f r e q u e n c y (3 is s h o w n as p 0 . T h e
f r e q u e n c y w h e r e |3 d r o p s to a v a l u e of unity
is c a l l e d t h e c u r r e n t g a i n b a n d w i d t h p r o d -
is c o m m o n . A s i m i l a r v a r i a t i o n e x i s t s F E T c h a n n e l (the s o u r c e - d r a i n p a t h ) a n d uct, o r m o r e o f t e n , j u s t a s F,. D r o p p i n g to
with p i n c h o f f v o l t a g e . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n of is r o u t e d to t h e o u t p u t w h e n the c o n t r o l a f r e q u e n c y o f F t / 2 will p r o d u c e [3=2. T h e
these t w o v a r i a b l e s m i g h t lead o n e to f e c i v o l t a g e is p o s i t i v e with r e g a r d to the c h a n - f r e q u e n c y w h e r e (3 b e g i n s to d e p a r t f r o m
that it w o u l d b e n e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e to n e l . T h e c h a n n e l is the c u r r e n t p a t h be- P{) is c a l l e d t h e " b e t a c u t o f f . "
d e s i g n with F E T s . F o r t u n a t e l y , i t ' s n o t that t w e e n s o u r c e a n d d r a i n . T h e c h a n n e l is bi- T h e r o l e o f f of c u r r e n t g a i n with f r e -
bad, for the v a r i a t i o n s are r e l a t e d to e a c h ased above ground by the voltage divider. q u e n c y is m o d e l e d w i t h an a d d e d b a s e
o t h e r . T h a t is, a g i v e n J F E T in a f a m i l y T h e s w i t c h is o p e n c i r c u i t e d if the c o n l r o l capacitor. Fig 2.28. T h e other elements are
with a h i g h t d s s will a l s o tend to h a v e a v o l t a g e is m o r e n e g a t i v e with Tegard to g e n e r a l l y u n c h a n g e d , so the c o m p l e t e roll
pinchoff with a more negative value, pro- the c h a n n e l t h a n the F E T p i n c h o f f volt- off may be attributed to the capacitor
d u c i n g less v a r i a t i o n in g m , the d o m i n a n t age. The switching F E T may be modeled a c r o s s the i n p u t . T h e c i r c u i t s h o w n in F i g
small signal characteristic. as a v o l t a g e c o n t r o l l e d v a r i a b l e r e s i s t o r in 2 . 2 8 is c a l l e d the hybrid-Jt m o d e l .
T h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n f o r the s i m i l a r i t i e s this application. L o w e s t R occurs w h e n At low f r e q u e n c i e s an o u t p u t s i g n a l
t h e c o n t r o l v o l t a g e is at o r a b o v e t h e f r o m a t r a n s i s t o r is e i t h e r in p h a s e ( 0
b e t w e e n F E T and B J T a m p l i f i e r s . M a n y of
c h a n n e l . T h e g a t e r e s i s t o r is u s u a l l y l a r g e , d e g r e e s ) o r o u t of p h a s e ( 1 8 0 d e g r e e s ) with
the p r o p e r t i e s r e s u l t f r o m f e e d b a c k that is
a l l o w i n g t h e c o n t r o l to b e s e v e r a l v o l t s the i n p u t s i g n a l . T h e s e s i m p l e p h a s e r e l a -
a d d e d t o a circuit b y t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n . F o r
higher than the channel. Although the gate
e x a m p l e , t h e f o l l o w e r h a s Ihe l o a d in t i o n s h i p s no l o n g e r h o l d a b o v e t h e (3 c u t -
d i o d e is t h e n f o r w a r d b i a s e d , c u r r e n t is
series w i t h t h e c u r r e n t s o u r c e . T h e v o l t a g e o f f w h e r e the m a t h e m a t i c s c h a n g e , t a k i n g
s m a l l and of little c o n s e q u e n c e .
d e v e l o p e d a c r o s s the load then g e n e r a t e s a on a (formally) c o m p l e x charactcr.
signal that c o n t r i b u t e s to the c o n t r o l of t h e V i r t u a l l y all F E T t y p e s f u n c t i o n w e l l a s A typical B J T is t h e 2 N 3 9 0 4 . T h i s N P N
current generator. switches. Enhancement mode M O S F E T s t r a n s i s t o r h a s a t y p i c a l F t of a b o u t 3 0 0
T h e J F E T h a s an a d d i t i o n a l p r o p e r l y not o f f e r the a d v a n t a g e of no g a t e d i o d e to MH/. and a low f r e q u e n c y (30 of 100. T h i s
p r e d i c t e d b y t h e p r e c e d i n g m o d e l , the c o m p l i c a t e the c i r c u i t . Cm As M O S F F . T s p l a c e s t h e (5 c u t o f f at a b o u t 3 M H / . T h i s
s w i t c h a c t i o n i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g 2 . 2 6 . T h e are u s e f u l in v e r y h i g h s p e e d s w i t c h i n g d e v i c e will h a v e s o m e p h a s e s h i f t e f f e c t s
J F E T f u n c t i o n s h e r e as a s e r i e s S P S T a p p l i c a t i o n s w h e r e t h e y m a y b e used f o r at all f r e q u e n c i e s w i t h i n the H F s p e c t r a a n d
s w i t c h . A n i n p u t ac s i g n a l is a p p l i e d to t h e m i c r o w a v e signal control. J F E T s and higher.

Amplifier Design B a s i c s 2.9

2.3 LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS
Our previous small signal viewpoint is 1-kQ impedance. We observe an output tive extreme, the transistor is cutoff with
now expanded. We will examine over- voltage at the collector. The dc base volt- current having vanished. At the other end,
driven receiver circuits only intended for age is approximately 'A the power supply, the transistor current is well beyond the
small signals. A more c o m m o n large so the emitter is at about 1.8 V. The emitter bias value. The collector has dropped
signal amplifier is a transmitter stage, a current is then 1.8 mA. producing a dc col- below the base voltage and the transistor
circuit intended to function at high levels. lector bias voltage of 8.2 V. The emitter is saturated for the bottom, voltage-flat
Distortion is a consequence of large sig- current leads to a small signal r e value of parts of the curve.
nal operation. Distortion in an amplifier about 14 fl. Voltage gain is 70 with the Simple models prcdict much of the
merely means that the output is something 1-kQ collector load. The input resistance nonlinear behavior, without formal analy-
different than a replica of the input. A dis- will be a little over 1 k£2 if p is 100. This sis. The base-collector diode prevents col-
torting circuit driven by a sinewave will means that the base signal voltage is just lector voltages more than a diode-drop
have non-sinewave outputs when viewed over half the generator value. below the base. But, the collector current
in the time domain, experimentally with From the bias and small signal analysis, generator is capable of increasing "as
an oscilloscope. In the frequency domain, we predict that an input of 20 mV peak at needed" to supply larger currents, but only
the distortion appears as harmonics. A dis- the generator will produce a bit over of the prescribed polarity. The larger drive
torting circuit driven by two or more 10 mV at the base. The voltage gain of 70 examples would sound very distorted if
signals may contain outputs that are the applied to this will give a peak collector this audio amplifier was part of a receiver.
result of intcrmodulation, frequencies that signal of 0.7 V. or a peak-lo-peak value of The next example is a familiar emitter
are sums and d i f f e r e n c e s of input fre- 1.4 V. The 8.2-V zero signal collector follower that might be on the output of
quency multiples. value will then move between 7.5 V and an oscillator. A follower has a low output
The B J T model of greatest popularity is 8.9 V. This is still a long way from the impedance, and should, we reason, be
an extension of the diode equation, + 10-V supply or the 2.5-V base where capable of delivering power to a low
saturation would be approached. W e impcdancc such as a mixer. BUL this
»r v
k-T Eq 2.21 would expect a sinewave input to generate
lp - Ipc a sinewave output.
Fig 2.30 shows w a v e f o r m s for three
drive levels: .02 V, 0.1 V, and 0.5 V peak.
where 1 E S is called the emitter saturation + 10V
current. V is the voltage on the base- The sinusoidal output is very close to
emitter diode. The other parameters are the the values we estimated. However, the
other two cases are severely distorted. The 3.3K J>
same as appeared with the diode equation
in Section 2.1. This is part of the model 0.1-V drive case, five times stronger than 200 0. 1
k n o w n collectively as the Ebers-Moll the initial 20-mV input, is enough to cause -V\A,
equations. The non-linear exponential the output lo reach the 10-V positive
behavior is intrinsic to the bipolar transis- power supply, causing collector current to
tor. Detailed use of this model takes us drop to zero. The other part of the cycle is
well outside the realm of this text, but is still well behaved with approximately
highly recommended for those with such sinusoidal outputs.
interests. 3 The most severely distorted output Fig 2.31—Emitter follower to drive a
results from the largest input signal, 0.5 V 50-Q load. This circuit is not biased to
Many large signal properties of ampli-
peak, also shown in Fig 2.30. At the posi- deliver the needed output power.
fiers are extensions of simple circuit
analysis. Although the details arc always
buried within refined models, much can
be discerned f r o m careful analysis with-
out analytic complexity. Some examples
will be used to illustrate this.
Fig 2.29 shows a simple audio ampli-
fier driven with a 1 kHz signal behind a

ou +
2 0 . Bins 20.5ms 21.0ms 21.5ms 22.5ms 23.0ns
a o » U(COl)
Time

Fig 2.29—A simple audio amplifier

examined for large signal performance. Fig 2.30—Output waveforms for the simple amplifier at several drive levels.

2.10 Chapter 2
reasoning is flawed. ing the voltage across the capacitor to With the emitter voltage at 4.3 V, wc still
The emitter follower circuit is shown in instantaneously change. The capacitor have 4.3 mA flowing in the l-k£2 resistor.
Fig 2.31. A pair of 3.3-k£2 resistors bias could conceptually be replaced by a bat- The transistor current has now dropped to
the base at half the 10-V power supply, tery'- In no-signal conditions the 4.4-mA 2.3 mA. Because it is still positive, the tran-
and the emitter is biased with a l-k£2 resis- transistor current flows in the 1-kQ bias sistor is still controlling the output and the
tor. 15=4.4 mA, setting r s to 5.9 £2. The resistor with zero current in the 50-£2 load. follower continues to follow.
follower is driven from a 2 0 0 - i i source Applying a positive going signal to the But what happens when the drive
resistance for an output resistance of base merely turns the transistor on harder. reaches the full negative value of - 0 . 5 V?
7.9 £2. If this circuit was going to be used As the base voltage increases from the If the linear, small signal model applied,
to drive a 5 0 - f t filter, the 50-£2 resistance 5-V no-signal level to 5.5 V. the emitter the base would drop to 4.5 V. leaving the
would be realized by adding a series 43-£2 will follow f r o m 4.4 V to 4.9 V. W e now emitter at 3.9 V with the output at - 0 . 5 V,
resistor to the output. have +0.5 V on the output load, forcing an producing a current in the load o f - 1 0 mA.
This follower circuit is being driven by a output current of 10 mA to flow. The cur- But the current flowing in the bias resistor
signal source with a peak amplitude of 0.5 V. rent in the 1 -k£2 bias resistor has increased would still be 3.9 mA. implying that the
The input impedance is well above the 200- to 4.9 mA, so the total transistor current is transistor current would be - 6 . 1 m A . This
Q driving source, so virtually all of the avail- 14.9 mA. is not possible! The transistor can supply
able generator signal is present at the base. A negative-going base signal produces current via the model current generator,
The modeling process is applied to complications. A small negative base drive but that current cannot be negative.
capacitors with the same importance that of 0.1 V to 4.9 V would drop the emitter to Fig 2.32 presents the waveforms. The
it is to transistors. A capacitor accumulates 4.3 V, which drops the output to -0.1 V. The negative going excursion is clipped at the
charge through current flow, never allow- current in the 50-£2 load becomes - 2 mA. point when the transistor emitter current
drops to zero, leaving all output current to
flow in the l-k£2 resistor.
This simple circuit has illustrated the
difference between small signal and large
signal models. Currents of either polarity
are allowed in a small signal model. The
large signal behavior is restricted to that
dictated by the model, in this case limited
to the positive current flow predicted by
the Ebers-Moll equation.
The low small signal output impedance
of a follower was a consequence of nega-
tive feedback. T h e load in series with the
output creates a voltage that is applied to
the transistor in opposition to the signal
driving it. If we allow the follower to "run
out of current," the transistor is cut off with
zero current flow. The low output imped-
7.6I1S 7.2US 7.HUS 7.6US 7.Bus 8.Otis ance is no longer present during that part
0 U(bas) » U(eni) of the cycle when transistor current flow
Tine
has ceased.
Fig 2.32—Follower waveforms. Fig 2.33 shows the output after the
design was modified. The emitter bias
resistor was changed f r o m 1 k£2 to 330 £2,
increasing the emitter bias current to 12.6
mA. This is larger than the needed 10 mA.
so the output remains clean. But, even a
slight increase in drive could allow
the distortion to return. The ultimate
refinement might be a complementary out-
put such as is found with many audio
amplifiers.
T h e next example considered is a
10-MHz Class A amplifier intended to
develop a few milliwatts of output power.
T h e circuit is in F i g 2.34. The base is
biased from a 10-V supply through a volt-
age divider of 10 k£2 and 3.3 k£2, produc-
ing a D C emitter voltage of 1.64 V. The
200-£2 emitter resistor sets an emitter cur-
rent of 8.2 mA, yielding a small signal r e of
3.2 £2. T h e 50-£2 output load sets the smal I
signal voltage gain at 16.
A common approximation sets high

Amplifier Design Basics 2.11

 + 10V 1 5 UH
Fig 2.35—The class
"2M39M 2N39Q4 A amplifier Is
10K. 1.893UH modified with
11 10K-
50 0 . 1 >< " —I output impedance
rtvv 31- 50 0.1 0.1 7k transformation for

fo ,3 K fT- 1 1 200|
i—v\/v 31-

3.3K
159 = higher output
power.

0.1
10 MHz

Fig 2.34—A class A amplifier.

frequency p at F,/F, placing |3 al 30. T h i s

sets input resistance of about 100 Q . w h i c h
predicts thai about 2/3 of the open circuit
input voltage will appear at the base. A n
input signal of 10 m V peak p r o d u c e s about
6.7 m V on the base. Applying the small
signal voltage gain, the output will be 105
m V peak. P e r h a p s of greater interest, the
load current for this output is 2 m A peak.
T h e transistor c o l l e c t o r c u r r e n t varies
f r o m the quiescent (no-signal) value of 8.2
mA up to 10.2 m A and d o w n to 6.2 111A.
While small signal characteristics are pre-
served, the o u t p u t c u r r e n t is a l r e a d y
b e c o m i n g a sizable fraction of the D C bias 9.2U +
1.5us 1.6US
current. n U(COl)
A characteristic found with the present
circuit (hat we did not see in earlier ampli- Fig 2.36—50-Q termination on the class A amplifier.
fiers results f r o m the use of a collector R P
choke. T h e inductor has the properties of
a constant current source. As a dc current
is established in the inductor, (he action of
the inductor "tries" to maintain that value.
This allows the collector voltage to exceed
\ i X , which never occurred when a collec-
tor resistor supplied bias current. This is
shown in plots which follow.
W e now increase the input drive to 50-
mV peak. This is a five times increase over
(he 10-tnV case, so w e expect a similar
increase in b o t h the o u t p u l voltage and
current if small signal conditions are pre-
served. M e a s u r e m e n t s and c o m p u t e r
s i m u l a t i o n s b o t h c o n f i r m this general
b e h a v i o r , a l t h o u g h the o u t p u t s i g n a l s
depart considerably f r o m sinusoids. Out- -18U +
put voltage across the load is about 0.5 V 1.5US 1.6US
a U(QUt) • U(COl)
peak. C o l l e c t o r current d r o p s almost to
zero at one point in the c y c l c but reaches a
m a x i m u m of about 19 m A , about twice the Fig 2.37—Collector (upper) and output load (lower) voltages with the pi network
bias value. Distortion is severe. output circuitry.
The amplifier with 0.5-V drive is current
limited, for the current drops to zero at one
point in the drive cycle. However, the volt-
age excursions are still small. The output will b e the same. Output voltage can. h o w - while going an equal distance above V c c at
power with a 5 0 - Q load is about 2.5 m W . ever. increase as R, grows. T o obtain the the o p p o s i t e part of the cycle. This voltage
C o n s i d e r c h a n g e s in load resistance m a x i m u m p o w e r output, wc wish to p i c k a excursion should occur as the current var-
seen by the collector. If we maintain drive load that allows the collector voltage to ies f r o m twice the bias value d o w n to zero.
at 0.5 V p e a k , the collector signal current d r o p nearly to the base value (saturation) T h e load resistance that allows this is

2.12 Chapter 2
 voltage, and P,,ul is the output in Watts. designed. Rather, he or she wishes to mea-
P (VCC-VB) This form applies to Class B and C ampli- sure the amplifier output with 5 0 - Q instru-
fiers as well as the class A amplifier under mentation and perhaps drive other circuits
discussion. with a 50-U impedance. The solution is
Application of Eq 2.22 predicts a load found in Fig 2.35 where an impedance
where 1 K is the dc bias value. A more
resistance of just over 1000 £2 for maxi- transforming Jt-network is inserted be-
familiar form expresses ihe load in terms
m u m output. Changing the load to 1 k f i in tween the 50-£l load and the collector. This
of a desired output power,
the circuit produces a 10-MHz output of network makes the termination "'look like"
11 V peak-to-peak corresponding to a 1000 £1 at 10 MHz. It also has low pass
power of about 16 mW. Even larger resis- filtering characteristics, attenuating energy
z tance would have produced voltage limit- at 20 MHz, 30 MHz, and higher harmonic
' oul frequencies. Fig 2.36 shows the collector
ing, so this is close to optimum.
More often than not, 1000 £1 is not the waveform when the 50-£i load is connected
where R L is the load resistance in Ohms, impedance that the designer wishes to use directly to the collector. The waveforms af-
V,^ is the power supply. V B is the D C base as a termination for the amplifier just ter matching are shown in Fig 2.37.

2.4 GAIN, POWER, DB AND IMPEDANCE MATCHING

A u d i o and other low frequency amplifi- determination of the RF power. Consider the simple circuit of Fig 2.39
ers are easily analyzed with the low fre- The other reason we arc concerned with consisting of a voltage source, V, and a
quency models used for biasing. But most power is that it is power and not v oltage or source resistance, R s . W e will terminate
of our interest is in higher frequencies current that is more fundamental. Power is this in a load R. O h m s Law provides the
where measurement difficulties persist. the rate that energy is transferred, whether net current, while voltage divider action
These encourage us to consider power it be a rate of dissipation, such as the power gives the voltage across the load, yielding
instead of the voltages and currents that that becomes heat in a resistor, or the rate the power
dominate the view of the circuit theorist. that energy may pass through a surface,
This emphasis is an integral part of R F such as the rate that a radio or light wave
design and forms the basis f o r this section. passes through a plane. That plane could
The emphasis on power measurement goes well be the capture area of an antenna. The
back to early methods. Power at radio, micro- unit f o r power is the Watt (W), or Joules
wave, and even optical frequencies was mea- per second. We are more familiar with it
sured using a Bolometer. The Bolometer is being the product of current and voltage.
based upon temperature measurements. A An amplifier application is presented in
resistive load is embedded in a thermally Fig 2.38 consisting of a voltage source
well-insulated chamber. The application of with related source resistance, the ampli-
RF power causes a temperature increase, fier, and an output load. While 50 Q is
which can be detected with a thermometer. common for both the source and load, this
But, the same increase in temperature can be is certainly not necessary. But, if power is
produced with application of direct current. to be measured, we must have some resis-
Measurement of the direct current and related tance, for a voltage across an open circuit Fig 2.39—A voltage with a source
voltage then provide a very fundamental provides n o power. resistance R s delivers power to a load R.

R-source
R-load impedance Matching
-*vW-
V-gen ^

R-source

V-gen.
R-load

Nor*aliied Load Rrsisaare

Fig 2.38—Basic amplifier with resistive input and output Fig 2.40—Power delivered to the load is maximum when the
Impedances. load resistance equals that of the source.

Amplifier Design Basics 2.13

 V" R occurring when both input and output arc mW or +30 dBm. But a strong received
Eq 2.24 matched. signal from the terminals of an antenna
(RS + R)2 The power gain of Eq 2.25 is rarely mea- might be at one microwatt. 30 dB below
sured directly. Instead, we more often the 1 mW, or at - 3 0 dBm.
A plot of power vs R is given in Fig 2.40 measure or calculate transducer gain, first Many instruments are calibrated in
where we have normalized the curvc. The mentioned in Section 2.2. Transducer gain dBm. The dBm output of a signal genera-
maximum power is shown as 1 and the is: tor is a measure of the available output
normalized resistance, defined as r= R/R s power of the generator. Available power,
r
is 1 when power is maximum. This is the OUT discussed above, was the power actually
familiar result that the maximum power Eq 2.2fi transferred for the single case when the
transfer occurs when the load resistance, load matched the source. It is common for
R, equals that of the source. R s . We then the output to be specified in a 50-fl sys-
where P o u t is the power delivered to the tem, a common RF standard. A signal gen-
say that the source is matched to the load.
load and P A V is the power available from erator set up for an output o f + 1 0 dBm will
In the general case, the source impedance
the source. Power gain and transducer gain deliver that power to a 50-Q load attached
can have a reactive part. Then, maximum
are equal in a perfectly matched amplifier. directly. It will also deliver that power to
power transfer occurs when the load is a
A variant of transducer gain is the inser- a 200-12 load if an appropriate 2:1 turns
complex impedance with the same resis-
tion power gain obtained when a transmis- ratio transformer is placed between the
tance as that in the source impedance.
sion line is broken, and an amplifier is load and the generator.
When a generator voltage and the inserted. This occurs when both R s and RL
related source resistance are specified, the are identical, usually 50 H. RF detection instruments, such as RF
power extracted when the generator is ter- power meters or spectrum analyzers, are
minated in a matched load is called the also calibrated in dBm. These instruments
available power, for it is the maximum The Decibel, or dB. usually have a 50-Q input impedance.
power that is available from that generator. They behave like a 50-fl resistive load
Gain can be expressed as a numeric when attached to a generator. A 50-fl sig-
The amplifier of Fig 2.38 has an input ratio, but is more often specified in deci-
resistance, R in , and an output resistance, nal generator set for an output o f - 4 0 dBm
bels, given by should produce an indication of - 4 0 dBm
RGUL. The rest of the amplifier is modeled
with a controlled current generator. The when attached to a spectrum analyzer.
amplifier will be matched at the input when dB = 10 • Log Eq 2.27 Wideband instruments used for general
RS=RJN. The output is matched with a load purpose electronic measurements include
RJ_—ROUR Picking these source and load wideband voltmeters and oscilloscopes.
resistances will produce this perfectly where P t and Pi arc two different powers. If They usually have high input impedance,
matched amplifier. While it sounds easy an amplifier has a 5 mW output and is being typically 1 MU. When used with a 10X
enough, it can be very complicated in a driven by a generator with an available probe, the input resistance becomes 10
practical RF application. In a practical power of 1 mW, the power ratio P ^ / P ^ is MQ. The measurement philosophy behind
amplifier R,„ will depend upon the load, 5. for a transducer power gain of 7 dB. the design of these instruments is to
RL, while R m will depend on R S . Eventu- The dB construct was not invented to con- present such a small load to a circuit being
ally stability becomes a dominating issue. fuse the prospective designer. Ralher, it is a measured that the instrument can be ig-
Circuits that are unconditionally stable can natural consequence of the mathematics. nored. The oscilloscopc is usually used in
eventually be matched perfectly at both Output power is calculated from an input an in situ, or in-place measurement. This
input and output. power and a numeric gain by using multipli- contrasts with the measurement philoso-
Source and load resistances arc not cation. It is also calculated from a dB ratio, phy of many RF measurements, which use
changed directly as a means of achieving but now simpler addition is used. substitution. For example, we substitute a
matched conditions. Rather, a 50-12 gen- The dB construct is useful for other power meter for the antenna when we wish
erator might be applied to an impedance comparisons. For example, we might to measure transmitter output power.
transforming network that presents a dif- examine the harmonic distortion in an The wideband oscilloscope can be used
ferent impedance to the amplifier input. amplifier and find that for a 3-mW drive at for measurements in a 50-£2 system, but it
These networks are discussed in greater 7 MHz, output appears not only at 7 but at becomes vital to establish a well defined
detail in Chapter 3. 14, 21 and 28 MHz. If the 14-MHz output input impedance. This is done with a 50-£i
We always are interested in the "gain" is less than the 7-MHz output by a factor of resistive termination. A form that can be
of an amplifier. This usually means power 500, we say that the 2 nd harmonic is 27 dB built for the home lab is shown in Fig 2.41,
gain, which is the ratio of two power lev- below the fundamental. The 7-MHz com- while a photo in Fig 2.42 shows a home-
els. With a known source voltage, V, and ponent is often regarded as a carrier and built version and a couple of commercial
source resistance, R s , and the modeled the 14-MHz component is then said to be terminators. The commercial models are
input resistance R IN (from Fig 2.38), we at -27 dBc where the "c" indicates dB with built with low inductance disk resistors
can calculate the input power. Output regard to a carrier or reference power. that offer higher bandwidth than can be
power can also be calculated when the Another often used variation of the dB easily achieved with leaded parts in a
amplifier is well modeled. Knowing the ideal occurs when a power is referenced homebuilt box.
powers, the power gain is: against a standard of one milliwatt. We Gain measurements in a 50-£2 environ-
then say that the power is in dBm, meaning ment are straightforward with the termi-
power referenced to one mW. This does nated oscilloscope and a signal generator.
Eq 2.25 NOT depend upon impedance. The dBm The generator is first attached directly to
values will be positive or negative depend- the terminated oscilloscope with a length
ing on their relationship to 1 mW. A one of coaxial cable. The 'scope response is
The maximum possible gain is that watt QRP transmitter has an output of 1000 noted, and power is calculated to be sure

2.14 Chapter 2
 BNC
male
J100
BNC ~
female

c o a x i a l cable

oscilloscope

50 Ohm ^ f\I
terminator /
'scope
input
Fig 2.42—Homebrew and surplus terminators.
Fig 2.41—Terminators for oscilloscope Input loading. See
Chapter 7 for additional detail on power measurements.

that this is not too large for the amplifier. with a 10X probe to study the amplifier. of a related term called voltage reflection
The cable is then disconnected, the ampli- Output power can be measured from a volt- coefficient, often signified by the Greek
fier is attached, another section o f cablc is age determination at a load on the amplifier letter Gamma, T. Gamma is given for re-
inserted to connect to the instrumentation, output. But amplifier input power is not de- sistive loads,
the amplifier is powered, and the new fined when the input impedance is unknown.
response is noted. The response will Although common, it is rarely valid to
(hopefully) be larger than it was without merely measure a voltage ratio to calculate a
r=-R - R 0
Eq 2.28
R + R„
the amplifier in place. power or transducer gain.
Several approaches can be used to
determine gain. The first would be to mea- where R „ is the reference resistance. In the
sure the new voltage with the terminated
Measures of impedance examples we have discussed, R n would be
oscilloscope and then calculate a new match and mismatch the source resistance while R is the load.
output power. The transducer gain then In Fig 2.40 we saw that the power trans- Gamma is related to VSWR through
becomes 10 Log (P 0 0 ,/P A V )- scheme ferred from a source to a load depends
works well with a calibrated oscilloscopc upon the match between the two. This
VSWR = l i f t Eq 2.29
operating within it's bandwidth. curve has a symmetry that is not immedi- i-|r|
The alternative method removes all need ately obvious. Although the power trans-
for oscilloscopc calibration and accurate ferred from the source to the load is 100% where the bars around F indicate that only
response at the test frequency, but placcs a only when the match is perfect, the degree the magnitude of T is used. In the general
greater burden on the signal generator. The of match depends only on the ratio of one case. T has both magnitude and angle,
reference is first established with the signal resistor to the other without regard to corresponding to complex impedance with
generator attached directly to the oscillo- which is larger. That is. if the source is 50 both resistive and reactive parts. Also, the
scope. The response is noted, as is the output £i, we see that power transfer is 88.9'"r more general form of Eq 2.28 uses com-
setting for the generator. The amplifier is effecti ve for loads of either 25 O or 100 £2. plex impedance to define Gamma.
then inserted in line, and the signal generator Similarly, 12.5-1} or 2 0 0 - 0 loads produce r=(z-z0)/(z+z„).
output is reduced until the 'scope response is 64% power transfer and so forth. The ratio Fig 2.40 showed power transfer effi-
exactly the same as noted earlier. The new o f these resistances to 50 SI (always with
generator output is examined and found to the larger number taken) is called the volt-
be lower than the original. The difference in age standing wave ratio, or VSWR.
generator settings in dB is then the trans- The term VSWR arises from transmis-
ducer gain. sion line behavior and it relates to voltages
Gain can still be determined, even if the measured along a transmission line that is
signal generator is not calibrated. A step not matched. While we can do this mea-
attenuator is inserted in the generator out- surement with RF volt meters and suitable
put. Attenuation is increased when the transmission lines, this is not the way we J iJ
amplifier is placed in the system until a usually measure the degree of impedance 0-J 0.4 016 08 I
reference 'scope response is duplicated. match. (Actually, some microwave experi-
The attenuator difference is then the gain. menters still do just this measurement.)
Fig 2.43—Power transfer related to
The oscilloscope can, of course, be used Rather, we perform bridge measurements reflection coefficient.

Amplifier Design Basics 2.15

 Input from
Signal Generator
"RF" 50 Ohm
Terminat ion
fni •
1 Signal
f4- >1 R1 <;R3
Generator

f-l £ I 'O) " x " I—VvV—

^ Unknown z 50
R2? i
'' © "Det"
1f f To "Detector"

Fig 2.44—Return Loss Bridge, All

resistors are normally 50 £2.

Step
Attenuator
50 Ohm
c i e n c y as a f u n c t i o n of the t e r m i n a t i n g Termination
resistance. A similar plot is given in Fig
2 . 4 3 where power is now plotted against Fig 2.45—Using a return loss bridge with an amplifier.
reflection c o e f f i c i e n t , T.
Although reflection coefficient, r , may
seem like an esoteric impractical parameter,
it is easily measured (in magnitude) using a
- R-L.
simple apparatus that can be built in the home be m e a s u r e d . The bridge is first open cir- 20
T= |() E q 2.31
lab. This circuit, shown in Fig 2.44, is called cuited at the " X " port, and the detector
a return loss bridge, or RLB. The three resis- r e s p o n s e is noted. T h e n , a 50-£J termina- While we have illustrated the RLB with
tors in the bridge are 50 A when building a tor is p l a c e d on the " X " port. A large o s c i l l o s c o p e d e t e c t i o n , a 50-Q power
bridge for use in a 50-£2 system. The signal decrease in detector r e s p o n s e should b e meter or s p c c t r u m analyzer is preferred.
generator is assumed to then have a 50-£2 noticed. This response is a measure of h o w Both are described in C h a p t e r 7. T h e s e are
impedance as well. The transformer is a com- well the R L B is f u n c t i o n i n g and is called 50-£2 instruments, so they do not require
mon mode choke (see Chapter 3.) Construc- the bridge directivity . A n a m p l i f i e r (power the external t e r m i n a t o r so vital to the
tion is discussed in Chapter 7. on) is n o w attached to the " X " port through oscilloscope. T h e 'scope s u f f e r s f r o m t w o
T h e b r i d g e action o c c u r s b e c a u s e all a coaxial c a b l e , and a t e r m i n a t o r is p r o b l e m s that c o m p r o m i s e this applica-
resistors are 50 C2. A s s u m e that the " X " a t t a c h e d to the a m p l i f i e r output. T h e tion. First, it is a w i d e b a n d instrument, so
port, the u n k n o w n , is terminated in 5 0 Q . detector response will be lower than the noise limits the sensitivity, making it dif-
Then half of the v o l t a g e a p p l i e d at the level present with the " X " port open cir- f i c u l t to see the w e a k s i g n a l s that are
" R F " port appears at the j u n c t i o n of R 1 cuited by a ratio called the return loss, a readily seen in a spectrum analyzer. Sec-
and R2. But half also appears at the " X " dB value. T h e step attenuator in the detec- ond, m a n y of the t e r m i n a t i o n s that we
port. T h e voltages are equal on either side tor can be adjusted to attenuate the refer- m i g h t m e a s u r e are n a r r o w b a n d w i d t h
of the c o m m o n m o d e transformer, so no ence to better measure return loss. loads. As such, they will p r o d u c c high
signal appears at the detector. In contrast, Return loss is related to F through return loss at one f r e q u e n c y , but not at the
a larger signal appears when the u n k n o w n harmonics. The usual signal generator is
" X " port is either open or short circuited. R. L. = - 20 • Log r E q 2.30 harmonic rich. T h e h a r m o n i c s are resolved
Use of the return loss bridge is presented and, hcnce, ignored in a spectrum analyzer
in F i g 2.45, where an a m p l i f i e r input will The inverse form is measurement.

2.5 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS AND T H E OP-AMP

T h e differential amplifier, or diff-amp, is then proportional to the voltage (or cur- driven together, the c o m p o s i t e circuit
is the f o u n d a t i o n f o r most silicon analog rent) d i f f e r e n c e between the inputs. T h e would behave as one transistor. T h e t w o
integrated circuits in use today, m a k i n g it basic differential a m p l i f i e r using N P N bi- collector signals would then be identical.
a very important topology. H e r e we inves- polar transistors is presented in Fig 2.46. This operation is called common-mode
tigate differential a m p l i f i e r f u n d a m e n t a l s W e start with two identical transistors drive or e x c i t a t i o n . T h e large e m i t t e r
and e x a m i n e a m a j o r derivative of it, the biased at the s a m e dc base voltage. T h e resistor b e c o m e s a degeneration element,
operational amplifier, or op-amp. t w o emitters are attached and returned to causing the c o m m o n - m o d e gain to be low.
F o l l o w i n g the n a m e , the d i f f e r e n t i a l ground through a c o m m o n resistance, as T h e other d i f f - a m p drive is the differen-
amplifier is a circuit intended to a m p l i f y a in F i g 2 . 4 6 A . T w o identical c o l l e c t o r tial-mode, where one base is driven in one
d i f f e r e n c e . T h e differential a m p l i f i e r has resistors are attached, biased f r o m a c o m - direction while the other is driven by an
t w o input terminals. T h e output, which can mon supply. This circuit can have signals opposite polarity. A s s u m e that Q1 and Q2
be between t w o collectors or from j u s t one. applied in t w o ways. If the t w o bases arc arc biased with a dc base voltage of 5. T h e

2.16 Chapter 2
voltage at the common emitter is then 4.4. tion found most often in integrated circuits First, a differential amplifier is very easy
Total current will be 4.4 mA for an emitter where the emitter resistor is replaced by a to decouple. With constant total current,
resistor of 1 kf2. If the two transistors are third transistor. Set V bJ to 2 volts and pick signals are not injected onto the Vcc power
identical, cach will be biased to an emitter the Q3 emitter resistor for the same 4.4 supply, very important when the diff-amp
current of 2.2 mA. We now apply a differ- m A. This leaves bias conditions for Q1 and is one of many such circuits within an IC.
ential signal causing V b , to increase by Q2 as they were, although the common The other consequence of the constant
10 mV while V b , drops by an equal 10 mode gain is even lower. current source is that drive applied to just
mV. The emitter voltage remains essen- Q3 is a constant current source, a circuit one input will result in differential output
tially constant. V c , decreases while V c2 that acts as if the bias for Q1 and Q2 came signals. This is shown in the amplifier of
increases by an amount related to the gain. from a very large negative power supply Fig 2.47. The two collector voltages have
A useful property of this circuit is that with an equally large resistor. The effect equal amplitudes and are out of phase with
total current does not change with differ- of this topology is to force the sum of the each other.
ential drive. currents in Q1 and Q2 to remain constant. Although differential amplifiers are
Fig 2.46. part B shows the circuit varia- This has two important consequences. abundant in integrated circuits, they are
also useful and practical in discrete form.
Fig 2.48 shows a diff-amp with readily
available parts that might be used to pro-
vide balanced local oscillator drive to a
mixer without transformers. This circuit is

Fig 2.46—Differential Amplifiers. operational amplifier.

Vcc=10
R F C }- S-RFC
Vcl

0.1 Q1 4 — VC2

0.1 .IK
IK

V-bb
IK •IK

Fig 2.47—Differential Amplifier that converts a single ended Fig 2.48—Differential Amplifier built with discrete
signal into a differential one having two outputs with a components. The emitter resistors are adjusted for equal
differential relationship. The 2 and 5-V points are fixed current in the two transistors. VBtt represents a base bias
voltage, usually generated within the IC containing this power supply, which could be a simple voltage divider from
differential pair. the higher supply.

Amplifier Design Basics 2.17

useful because it provides a balanced out- power supply, or "rail." The "+" input is voltage follower with a gain of +1. The
put with reduced even order harmonics as called the non-inverting input for the out- value of the feedback resistor is of no con-
well as power gain. The use of two emitter put polarity follows it in direction. sequence for this circuit, for the input cur-
resistors eases the need to have identical Circuit operation is similar if the non- rent is very small. (A practical unity gain
transistors. inverting ("+") input is grounded and the follower normally has the output shorted
Having examined properties of the diff- positive going signal is applied to the " - " to the inverting input.)
amp, we will now look at the "ultimate" or inverting input, except that now the The modification in Fig 2.S1 adds an
diff-amp example, the operational ampli- output moves in the opposite direction. equal valued resistor from the inverting
fier. An op-amp is shown schematically in That is, the output makes a transition from input to ground. Setting Vin to 0 forces the
Fig 2.49. The interna) circuitry can be the positive power supply to the negative output to ground. However, when we set
rather complicated; familiar examples one. Repeating these experiments at refer- the input to +1 volt, we find that the output
such as the 741 or 358, will include a dozen ence voltages other than ground shows that moves to +2 volts. Our circuit now has a
or more transistors while high perfor- the output depends only upon the voltage non-inverting gain of 2. This is confirmed
mance variants will have many more. difference between inputs. through voltage divider action. The volt-
The operational amplifier (Fig 2.49) is The input transistors for most op-amps age at the " - " input must be half of that
shown with two power supplies, although are biased for low current operation, caus- at the output; a voltage other than +1 at the
virtually all can be used with a single sup- ing the input impedance to be quite high. " - " input would produce an input differ-
ply. The basic operation is. in some ways, We usually neglect R j n during the analysis ence that would move the output.
exactly like the simple diff-amps dis- of op-amp circuits. Fig 2.52 shows an inverting amplifier.
cussed above. The op-amp has two inputs Op-amps are rarely operated "open The "+" input is grounded with an input
just as the diff-amp has two base inputs loop," as described above. Instead, they applied to a resistor attached to the invert-
that effect their outputs. The usual op-amp, are used with negative feedback. This is ing input. We start with the amplifier input
however, has just one, single ended out- illustrated in Fig 2.50. Power supplies are at ground. The output must then be at
put. Moreover, the output voltage can be omitted in the op-amp circuits that follow, ground. Increasing the excitation to +1
either above or below the input voltages. but are assumed to be + and - 15 volts. volt causes the inverting input to "try" to
The usual op-amp has several gain Assume initially that the "+" input for go positive, an action that is inverted with
stages, all cascaded with the output of one Fig 2.50 is at ground. If the output was at gain in the op-amp. The system is in equi-
feeding the input of the next. As such, the a different voltage, the inverting input librium when the output is - 1 volt. The
low frequency voltage gain is often very would then be at a level other than ground. amplifier then has an inverting gain of 1.
high with values ranging from 50.000 up This would then produce a difference volt- A general behavior has emerged from
to over one million. While op-amp gains age at the inverting input that forces the this discussion, easing further analysis:
are often expressed in dB (using the famil- input toward ground. Negative feedback around an op-amp
iar 20*LOG(Vout/Vin) formula), this is Increase the non-inverting input to +1 always has the effect of forcing the two
often incorrect. The dB form only volt. Similar arguments show that the out- inputs to have the same voltage. This can
pertains to power ratios. The equation put increases until the inverting input is be used to derive the usual formulas for
relating voltage ratio is valid only when also at + 1 volt. The circuit of Fig 2.50 is a gain of closed loop amplifiers. The char-
terminating impedances are equal.
A typical op-amp can provide output
voltages from near the negative power
supply up to within a volt or two of the
positive supply. The inputs can also occur
at a wide variety of voltages. A 741
op-amp will work with inputs that are from
about V cc +2 to V cc - 2 . This span is called
the common mode input range. Op-amps
using PNP bipolar input transistors can
have a common mode input range that
extends all the way to the negative supply.
Examples include the LM-324 and
LM-358, which are especially useful with
single power supplies. Fig 2.50—A unity gain follower. Fig 2.51—A follower with a gain greater
Assume that the " - " input in Fig 2.49 is than unity.
constant at ground with power supplies of
+ 15 and -15 volts. Set the "+" input sev-
eral volts negative. The output will then be
very negative, as low as it can go. As the
"+" input is increased, the output remains
negative until the input gets close to -AAA/—
ground. Then, the output will start to 100K 100K
V l n
increase very quickly. The output goes A A A
- v w — — w v - 4
100K
above ground as the "+" input becomes
100K 100K
just a few millivolts positive. The voltage
gain may be evaluated from a curve of the 100K
output vs the input. With even modest
Fig 2.52—An inverting amplifier with Fig 2.53—A summing amplifier with
inputs, the output reaches the positive unity gain. three inputs.

2.18 Chapter 2
 Fig 2.55—The Ra-Rb-C2 network
Fig 2.54—Feedback reduces an output resistance. establishes DC bias with little impact
on AC gain. C1 and the related resistor
then set AC gain. If C1 has a small
reactance compared with its series
aeteristic is maintained so long as all A highly useful effect of negative feed- resistor, the gain will grow with
inputs and outputs are maintained within increasing frequency.
back is that of altered impedance. The zero
the allowed ranges. voltage difference at the inverting ampli-
The inverting input of a closed loop fier of Fig 2.52 tells us that the voltage at
amplifier is often described as a "summing the " - " input is essentially zero. There is. without feedback) is very high. Negative
node," illustrated in F i g 2.53 with ihree however, signal current flowing into the feedback is also useful in single stage
inputs. All three have the same input resis- node. The e f f e c t of the feedback is to amplifiers using but o n e transistor. The
tor values, so the gain for each input is the reduce the impedance at that node to near effects are similar; parallel negative feed-
same at - 1 . This circuit is sometimes zero. back reduces gain, making it depend
referred to as a " m i x e r " in audio circles, Feedback also decreases output resis- primarily on resistor values, and reduces
although the term mixer has a much differ- tance. F i g 2.54 s h o w s an ideal o p - a m p both input and output impedance. Not all
ent meaning f o r the R F experimenter. with an added output resistance. R 0 0 1 . f o r m s of negative feedback reduce imped-
Analysis is direct. The feedback resistor Feedback is extracted f r o m the output end ance. Emitter degeneration in a transistor
maintains the two op-amp inputs at the of this resistor. Because V ^ , drives the amplifier increased amplifier input R as it
same voltage, which is ground in this feedback resistor, it is this point ( V M ) that reduces gain.
example. Any single input will change the is controlled by the feedback element, R r . Placing capacitors (or inductors) in a
output accordingly while feedback keeps Changing the load (R L<M(J ) may have feedback path will force the amplifier gain
the summing node al ground. We calculate impact on fcllul, the o p amp direct output, to depend upon f r e q u e n c y . An example is
the current entering the summing node for but it has little effect on V,,,,,; the output presented in Fig 2.55 where C , causes gain
each input and note that the total current impedance at V o u ( is very low. a result of to be lower at high frequencies. has the
into the s u m m i n g node, including thai the feedback. effect of allowing R A and R B to set D C
from the output via the feedback resistor, conditions with little effect on gain for A C
The effects of feedback from a parallel
must be zero. This defines the output signals. But. this must done with care to
resistor are most dramatic with op-amps
response. avoid stability problems.
where the open loop gain (that gain

2.6 UNDESIRED AMPLIFIER CHARACTERISTICS

The ideal amplifier is linear with an out- lines somewhere in our community. Rather,
put that is an exact replica of the input with we are concerned with the noise that is gen-
the only difference being greater amplitude erated within the circuitry- The dominant
and a phase difference. There should be no component of this noise, so called thermal
other output frequencies. If two inputs are noise, originates from random motion of the
applied to an ideal linear amplifier, the result electrons within a conductor. This noise
will be two outputs, each being just what shows up as a voltage that appears between
would be seen if each input was applied the two conductor ends. The available power
alone, with nothing else added. Several phe- present is kTB (in watts) where k is
nomena compromise amplifiers from this Boltzman's constant, T is absolute tempera-
ideal. They include noise, gain compression, ture in Kelvin, and B is the bandwidth we use
harmonic distortion, and intermodulation to observe the noise. Although a power kTB
distortion. is available from any conductor, the related
voltage is very small if the conductor is a
good one. A resistor, a conductor with larger
Noise in Amplifiers resistance, allows a larger voltage to appear,
Noise is a familiar corruption in an ampli- but with the same available power. (Avail-
fier. The noise of concern is not what we able power was discussed in an earlier
most often hear coming from our HF receiv- section.)
ers; that noise generally arises from thunder Fig 2.56 shows a simple amplifier ter-
storms somewhere in the world, or power minated in 50 fi at bolh input and output. for noise analysis.

Amplifier Design Basics 2.19

 T h e s o u r c e and load r e s i s t a n c e s g e n e r a t e S in • N„ N o i s e f i g u r e is a l s o a vital p a r a m e t e r
n o i s e . T h e n o i s e g e n e r a t e d by the o u t p u t F = - E q 2.34 w i t h i n a r e c e i v e r , f o r c a r e f u l c o n t r o l of
load is n o r m a l l y i g n o r e d d u r i n g a n o i s e n o i s e will a l l o w t h e d e s i g n e r to u s e l o w
a n a l y s i s of the a m p l i f i e r , for the circuit gain, which keeps distortion low. Details
d e s i g n e r is p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d with t h e w h e r e G N 0 I S E is t h e noise gain, the o u t p u t are d i s c u s s e d in later c h a p t e r s .
available n o i s e f r o m the a m p l i f i e r . T h e n o i s e p o w e r d i v i d e d b y the a v a i l a b l e input R e c a l l that t h e n o i s e p o w e r a v a i l a b l e
noise f r o m the input s o u r c e is i n c r e a s e d by n o i s e p o w e r . G S ) G N A L is t h e f a m i l i a r sig- f r o m a r e s i s t o r is k T B . A u s e f u l n u m b e r to
the a m p l i f i e r gain, j u s t as any signal w o u l d nal g a i n u s e d a b o v e . All f o r m s of t h e s e r e m e m b e r is that k T = - 1 7 4 d B m at " r o o m "
be i n c r e a s e d . T h e r e is n o t h i n g that c a n b e e q u a t i o n s are u s e d in d e r i v i n g s o m e of the t e m p e r a t u r e of 2 9 0 K . If t h e n o i s e w a s
d o n e to avoid this noise. If the a m p l i f i e r results we use with noise figure.
o b s e r v e d in a r e c e i v e r w i t h a b a n d w i d t h of
a v a i l a b l e p o w e r gain is G and t h e a v a i l a b l e T y p i c a l N F v a l u e s r a n g e f r o m 1 to 10 3 k H z (a v o i c e " c h a n n e l " ) , B w o u l d be
noise p o w e r f r o m the input s o u r c e is N,, the d B f o r the a m p l i f i e r s that w e f r e q u e n t l y 3 0 0 0 H z a n d l O x L o g B is 3 4 . 8 d B . T h e
o u t p u t noise will b e G x N j , even w h e n the u s e in R F s y s t e m s . M i x e r s tend to h a v e noise p o w e r available f r o m the resistor
a m p l i f i e r is p e r f e c t and noiseless. higher noise figures. Modern F E T ampli- would then be - l 7 4 d B m + 34.8 dB =
A real w o r l d a m p l i f i e r will h a v e a noise- fiers are c a p a b l e of N F as l o w as 0.1 t o 0 . 2
- 1 3 9 . 2 d B m . A r e c e i v e r c a n b e t h o u g h t of
o u t p u t that is e v e n h i g h e r t h a n the a m p l i - d B at U H F w i t h v a l u e s u n d e r 1 d B e v e n
as a l a r g e a m p l i f i e r . If t h e r e c e i v e r had a
f i e d i n p u t n o i s e . T h e o u t p u t n o i s e is p o s s i b l e a t 10 G H z .
10 d B n o i s e f i g u r e , t h e o u t p u t n o i s e w o u l d
g r e a t e r b y a r a t i o t h a t w e call the noise W e f r e q u e n t l y ask f o r the n o i s e f a c t o r b e t h e s a m e as w o u l d a p p e a r if an i n p u t
factor o r noise figure, d e s i g n a t e d by F. T h e of a c a s c a d e of t w o a m p l i f i e r s . T h i s r e s u l t n o i s e o f - 1 3 9 . 2 d B m + 10 d B = - 1 2 9 . 2
l o g a r i t h m i c f o r m of noise Figure is is d B m w a s a p p l i e d to the i n p u t of a p c r f e c t ,
NF(dB)=l()*Log(F). The two forms, alge- noiseless receiver.
b r a i c r a l i o or dB, are u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y , T h e r e l a t e d n o i s e v o l t a g e f r o m a resis-
a l t h o u g h t h e a l g e b r a i c r a t i o is u s e d in all = F, + - E q 2.35 tor is
of (he e q u a t i o n s t h a t f o l l o w . T h e e x t r a ~i
n o i s e is that g e n e r a t e d w i t h i n the a c t i v e VN =^4-k-T-B-R E q 2.36
w h e r e F j and F 2 a r e n o i s e f a c t o r s f o r s t a g e
d e v i c e and c i r c u i t c o m p o n e n t s . 1 and 2, r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d G ] is t h e a v a i l -
A f o r m a l t r e a t m e n t of n o i s e 4 d e a l s w i t h able p o w e r gain for the first stage. W h i l e w h e r e k is a g a i n B o l t z m a n n ' s c o n s t a n t
n o i s e p o w e r r a t i o s . N o i s e f a c t o r is g i v e n the n o i s e f r o m b o t h s t a g e s c o n t r i b u t e s t o ( 1 . 3 8 x 1 0 " 2 3 ) , T is t h e r e s i s t o r t e m p e r a t u r e
bv, t h e net n o i s e f a c t o r , t h e 2 n d s t a g e n o i s e in K, B is b a n d w i d t h in H z and R is t h e
c o n t r i b u t i o n is r e d u c e d b y t h e gain of the r e s i s t a n c e in Q . T h e a v a i l a b l e p o w e r , k T ,
N„
f i r s t s t a g e . C l e a r l y , if w e c a n c a l c u l a t c N F is c a l l e d a spectral power density, usually
F = - E q 2.32
G-Nin for t w o stages, w e can perform the calcu- in W / H z . T h e r e s u l t i n g v o l t a g e , V n , is
l a t i o n s s e v e r a l t i m e s and o b t a i n t h e r e s u l t a spectral voltage density in v o l t s - p e r -
w h e r e N q u T is t h e o u t p u t n o i s e p o w e r f o r a n y n u m b e r of s t a g e s . root-Hz. Op-amps often have noise speci-
d e l i v e r e d to t h e l o a d , N i n is t h e n o i s e N o i s e f i g u r e is a vital a m p l i f i e r a n d f i e d in t e r m s of an e q u i v a l e n t i n p u t spec-
p o w e r available f r o m the input resistance, r e c e i v e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c at V H F w h e r e tral voltage density of n o i s e . T h e s a m e
and G is t h e a v a i l a b l e p o w e r g a i n of the e x t e r n a l n o i s e ( t h u n d e r s t o r m s , etc) is l o w . m e t h o d is s o m e t i m e s u s e d f o r t r a n s i s t o r s ,
c i r c u i t . N 1 n is t h e n o i s e p o w e r a v a i l a b l e W h i l e a l o w n o i s e f i g u r e is r a r e l y n e e d e d a l t h o u g h n o i s e f i g u r e is t h e m o r e c o m m o n
f r o m the s o u r c e r e s i s t a n c e w h e n it h a s a at l o w e r f r e q u e n c i e s , it b c c o m e s m o r e p a r a m e t e r used to s p e c i f y a n R F d e s i g n .
t e m p e r a t u r e of 2 9 0 K. N F is the r a t i o of important when small antennas are used. A m p l i f i e r n o i s e f i g u r e is not a l w a y s a
two noise powers. The larger n u m b e r (nu-
m e r a t o r ) is the n o i s e a c t u a l l y c o m i n g f r o m
the a m p l i f i e r w h i l e t h e s m a l l e r ( d e n o m i -
n a t o r = G N i n ) is the n o i s e that w o u l d b e +12 v
c o m i n g f r o m t h e a m p l i f i e r if it g e n e r a t e d
n o n o i s e of its o w n . A p e r f e c t , n o i s e l e s s 0.1
a m p l i f i e r w o u l d h a v e F = ] f r o m the e q u a -
0.1 Output
tion, o r c o n v e r t i n g to d B , N F = 0 d B . 0.1
G a i n , G, is the p o w e r g a i n w e n o r m a l l y — I f — @
a s s o c i a t e with an a m p l i f i e r : o u t p u t s i g n a l
p o w e r d e l i v e r e d to t h e l o a d . S o u x , d i v i d e d
by S|, an i n p u t s i g n a l p o w e r . If w e i n s e r t
t h i s g a i n r a t i o i n t o the n o i s e f i g u r e d e f i n -
ing e q u a t i o n , and r e a r r a n g e t h e t e r m s , w e
obtain

Sj/N;
F = - E q 2.33
>™„ / N „

T h i s d e s c r i b e s a c o m b i n a t i o n of signal
Fig 2.57—Feedback amplifier illustrating gain compression and distortion. This
and n o i s e . E s s e n t i a l l y , noise f i g u r e can b e
circuit has 20-mA l c . T, consists of 10 bifilar turns on a FT-37-43 ferrlte torold core,
interpreted to be a d e g r a d a t i o n in s i g n a l to although the specific core type is not critical. This circuit features a small signal
n o i s e ratio as w c p r o g r e s s t h r o u g h the a m - gain of 20.5 dB and a good impedance match to 50 £2 at both input and output. See
p l i f i e r . T h i s e q u a t i o n c a n b e r e a r r a n g e d to text for noise Figure, gain compression, and intercept results.

2.20 Chapter 2
 Calibrated
followed by a 15-MHz low-pass filter,
Mol»e Source guaranteeing a drive free of harmonics.
The measurement results are shown in

0
Table 2.!.
The drive power was varied from - 2 0 to
Receiver +5 dBm with a step attenuator. The 14-MHz
output, although increasing with drive, still
showed gain compression, severe at the
I n e IMS
Voitwtei highest drive. At lower levels the harmonics
(also shown in dBm) grow at a level propor-
tional to the harmonic number. Hence a 10
dB drive change causes a change of about 20
Fig 2.58—Scheme used to measure receiver noise Figure. Audio voltmeter dB in 2" 1 harmonic and about 30 dB in 3 rd
examples are the HP3400A or the Fluke Model 89.
harmonic. This simple behavior disappears
as the amplifier enters gain compression.
Most linear circuits display harmonic ampli-
tudes proportional to order with increasing
simplc constant that may he extracted from A 22.5 dB ENR corresponds to ENR=178 as
drive.
a data sheet and applied to a design. a power ratio. If we measure Y of 19 dB for
Rather, data sheet noise figure is specific a receiver, the corresponding power ratio is It is common to specify harmonic (and
to a "typical" amplifier, or more often, is 79.4. F is then 2.27, or NF=3.6 dB. other) distortions in terms of "dBc." which
the best NF one can achieve. The noise is dB with regard to the desired carrier.
Hence, with a drive of - 1 0 dBm, the
figure of a specific design then depends
upon devicc biasing and the impedance
Gain Compression desired output was +11 dBm, and the 2 nd
presented to the device input. Most non-ideal amplifier behavior harmonic was - 3 0 dBm, or -41 dBc.
An example amplifier is shown inFig 2.57 occurs at higher powers with a simple
in connection with our discussion of distor- example being gain compression. Fig 2.57
showed a typical amplifier that illustrates
Intermodulation
tion. This amplifier was measured with an
HP-8970 Noise Figure test set as 6 dB at 10 gain compression and other problems. The Distortion, IMD
and 20 MHz. The circuit is discussed further circuit is a feedback amplifier with a We next consider intermodulation dis-
as we investigate feedback amplifiers. 20 mA collector current. This circuit, tortion, IMD. Intermodulation describes
The most common method for noise- fig- which was built and measured, has the behavior of an amplifier when it is
ure measurement is shown in Fig 2.58. This migrated into numerous receiver and driven with two signals ("tones") that are
transmitter applications. No heat sink is generally close to each other in frequency.
drawing deals with a receiver. However, the
needed in normal applications. Second order IMD then creates undesired
same source is used to measure an amplifier
Small signal amplifier gain was 20.5 dB. outputs at the sum and the difference fre-
by following it with a receiver (or spectrum
Repeating the measurement at several quencies. The desired output of a mixer is
analyzer). After a measurement of the cas-
input powers allows one to plot a graph of often a 2nd order TMD product between
cade is obtained, the earlier equation is used
gain Vs power. Eventually a point is the RF and LO. Third order IMD from two
to obtain the NF of the amplifier alone. The tones at f, and f ; generates products at
critical part of the measurement system is reached where the gain begins to drop. The
output power where the gain is I dB below (21'2-f, ) and ( 2 f l - f 2 ) . The order relates to
the noise source. The one used here is a the number of frequencies participating in
Zener diode. When the switch is open, the the small signal value is called the 1-dB
a distortion process where (2f|-f 2 ) can be
diode is off. The pad attenuation, if large, compression point and occurred at an out-
thought of as f,, f j , and f 2 . Order is also
forces the output impedance to be close to put of+16.5 dBm.
ambiguously related to the underlying
5012. When the diode is turned on by clos- mathematical description of the distortion.
ing the switch, the noise increases by a large Harmonic Distortion Consider an example where two equal
amount. The noise increase is called the
A familiar amplifier distortion appears strength, - 1 5 dBm tones at 14.0 and 14.2
excess noise ratio, ENR, and is about 22.5
in the form of harmonics. If an amplifier is MHz are applied to the amplifier of Fig
dB for our noise source, which is described
driven at one frequency, amplifier non-lin- 2.57. The desired outputs occur at the
in Chapter 7.
earity generates a distorted output. That original frequencies at a level of +5 dBm.
With a 22.5 dB ENR, the noise output
output will contain the original input plus 20 dB above the drives. Also present are
of a perfect, noiseless receiver would
harmonic components. A harmonic is an the third order IMD terms at 13.8 and 14.4
increase by 22.5 dB when the source is MHz. A sketch of the spectrum analyzer
integer multiple of the input frequency.
turned on. But the receiver is contributing response is shown in Fig 2.59 with the
The amplifier of Fig 2.57 was measured
noise of its own. so the noise increase will analyzer set for a+10 dBm reference level
with a spectrum analyzer. The input was
be less than 22.5 dB. The output increase at the top of the display. The distortion
from a crystal controlled 14-MHz source
is called the "'Y-factor.'" Noise factor (a
power ratio rat her than dB) is related to the
ENR and Y by
Table 2.1 All powers are In dBm, dB with regard to one mW.
Eq 2 3 7 Drive Power 14 MHz 28 MHz 42 MHz 56 MHz
-20 dBm +1 dBm -51 dBm -72 dBm
-10 +11 -30 -46
where both ENR and Y are power ratios 0 +18 +3 -7 -35 dBm
+5 +21 +11 0 - 1
rather than dB values. Consider an example:

Amplifier Design Basics 2.21

 outputs have a power of - 4 5 dBm. The
I M D products are said to be 50 dB below
one of two equal desired output tones.
Transmitters are sometimes described
by an IMD thai is below the desired output
by a specified amount. But, implicit in such
a specification is transmitter operation at
rated output power. There is rarely a "rated
output" for amplifiers like this one.
A m p l i f i e r intermodulation distortion
generally depends upon drive level.
Increasing drive by 1 dB will cause third
order I M D powers to increase by 3 dB.
This was readily confirmed during the
tests to obtain the data of Fig 2.59. Con-
tinuing this procedure allows us to plot
both desired output power for each tone
and distortion power for each I M D prod-
uct. This plot is shown in Fig 2.60. The
curves are "log-log" form, with both x and
y axis in dBm. The "desired output" plot is
a linear straight line ( s l o p e = l ) until gain
compression is encountered. The third
order distortion plot is a straight line fol-
lowing a steeper path.
Fig 2.59—Spectrum from the feedback amplifier when driven with two tones. The
smaller signals are third order intermodulation distortion. If this was the input to a It is useful to extend the two curves,
receiver, all of these signals could be heard. each being straight lines on the log-log
plot, until they intersect. The point where
the desired and the third order curves cross
is called the third-order intercept point or
sometimes just the intercept point. There
arc two power values (input and output)
associated with this point, with the values
d i f f e r i n g by the small signal amplifier
gain. T h e s e values are very useful as a
Figure-of-merit for the amplifier. T h e
higher the third order output intercept,
lP3out, the more immune that amplifier is
to distortion problems. We sometimes see
this called OIP3, with the " 0 " indicating
that the number relates to the output. IIP3
is also popular to indicate third order
input intercept. 01P3 and 1IP3 differ by
the stage gain.
Note that the intercept is mathematical;
it is usually impossible to operate an am-
plifier with an output power as high as the
output intercept. The amplifier intercept,
IP3out or OIP3, is more than a mere figure
of merit. If the operating output powers
are known and if IP3out is specified, the
distortion can then be calculated with

1MDR = 2 • ( l P 3 0 U T - P ( X ; T ) E q 2.38

where I M D R is the IMD Ratio in dB, the

difference between the desired signal and
the distortion; IP^ 0llt is the output intercept
in dBm; and P o u t is the output power in
dBm. Both powers are "per tone," one of
Fig 2.60—Plot of amplifier output vs input when two equal input tones are varied
two identical values. For example, our test
together. Both the desired output amplitude and the distortion product amplitudes
are plotted, although only extrapolation distortion is shown. Gain compression is amplifier has IP3 0U , = +30 dBm. If we drive
evident. The distortion products intersect the desired output at the intercept the amplifier with two tones to an output
points. of - 7 dBm per tone, the I M D ratio is

2.22 Chapter 2
74 dB, leaving the output distortion prod- dBm. (See section 2.5 for the conversion.) (t'l+ f j ) and ( f j - f j ) . These distortion fre-
ucts a t - 8 1 dBm. Once we have the cascade input intercept, it quencies are usually far removed from the
It is not necessary to actually draw the can be moved to the output by adding the gain inputs. Hcnce, they can be removed with a
plot of Fig 2.60 to obtain the intercept. of the cascade. Eq 2.39, derived in Introduc- filter following the amplifier. This is
Rather, it can be inferred f r o m a single tion To Radio Frequency Design,s describes not possible with third order products
distortion measurement with Eq 2.38; this coherent voltage addition of third order dis- very close lo the frequencies causing the
is the usual practice. tortion products, so it represents a worst ease. distortion.
Intercepts have another very important We have experimentally observed that this The test amplifier was found to have a
use. If the output intercepts of all stages in worst-case behavior is usually realistic. second order output intercept o f + 4 4 dBm.
a cascade are known, a composite intercept Fig 2.60 also includes sccond order Second order intercepts are generally
can be calculated for the cascade. Consider TMD. A second order intercept point, and numerically higher than the third order
the two-stage amplifier of Fig 2.61. Each values f o r I P 2 i n and IP2out are defined in ones, although the second order distortion
stage has a gain of 12 dB, but the sccond the same way as those of the third order does not drop as quickly. Second order
stage has lower 1MD than the first. The in- products. If inputs occur at f ( and f 2 . I M D can be a major difficulty in wide band
tercepts of each stage can be normalized to second order I M D occurs at frequencies designs, such as general coverage receiv-
any desired point in the cascade. Picking ers or spectrum analyzers.
the overall amplifier input as that point, It is interesting to compare the 1 dB
the first stage (IP3out= +15 dBm) has compression power with output intercepts.
lP3in=+3 dBm, while the second stage has Our test amplifier had P o u t ( - l dB)=+16.5
G=12 dB G=12dB dBm and I P 3 o m = + 3 0 dBm, a difference of
an intercept at the cascade input of IP3cin=
- 4 dBm, 24 dB below that stage's output 13.5 dB. Differences of 13 to 16 dB arc
intercept. The second stage will dominate common for amplifiers with bipolar tran-
distortion, which becomes clear when they sistors. Smaller values (7 to 10 dB) are
I IP3out(2)=+20
are compared at a single normalized plane more common with silicon JFETs and with
IP3out{1)=+15
within the chain. We can calculatc the I CiaAsFETs. The difference is not intended
input intercept of the cascade with to be a Figure-of-mcrit. Indeed, smaller
IP3out(1)=+3 =1.9953 mW
numbers indicate that a device can be
IP3out(2)=-4 =0 3981 mW
operated closer to it's intercept. Typically
any of the devices we commonly use for
IP, ( m w ) = ) T + } r Fig 2.61—A cascade of two amplifiers,
each well specified for gain arid output amplifiers cannot operate at powers as
intercept. The composite intercept is high as their output intercepts.
Eq 2.39 easily calculated. An extension of this A test set used to measure 2nd and 3rd
allows an entire system to be analyzed order intercepts is show in Fig 2.62. The
where all powers are now mW rather than for IMD.
key to the scheme is the hybrid combiner
that adds the output of two signal genera-
tors while preserving impedancc match
and isolating the two generators. A 6-dB
hybrid is the preferred scheme owing to
the excellent isolation afforded. But a 3-
dB hybrid can be substituted if good qual-
ity signal generators are used. A 6 - d B
hybrid is a network with an output that is
6 dB lower per tone than each input. Note
that the 6-dB hybrid has the same sche-
matic as a return loss bridge. Hence, one
instrument can be used to measure imped-
ance match and to isolate signal sources.
Every home lab needs at least one hybrid
combiner.
The intercept formalization is generally
restricted to circuits with constant, or
nearly constant, bias current. A Class AB
or B amplifier where current grows with
applied drive is not generally described by
an intercept. Rather, it is characterized
with a simple I M D ratio, usually at full
power output.
Further information on distortion and
noise is found in Introduction to Radio Fre-
quency Designfi The reader is also referred
to Bill Sabin's presentation in the 1995 (and
later) ARRL Handbook1 concerning distor-
tion. including that of 2nd order IMD.

Amplifier Design Basics 2.23

2.7 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
A circuit f o r m a p p e a r i n g o f t e n in this c o l l e c t o r and base. T h i s is m u c h like the b i a s r e s i s t o r . C o m p o n e n t s that a r e p r e -
b o o k is the f e e d b a c k a m p l i f i e r . T h i s is a resistor betw>een an o p - a m p output and the d o m i n a n t l y u s e d for b i a s i n g a r e m a r k e d
c i r c u i t with t w o f o r m s of n e g a t i v e f e e d - inverting input which r e d u c e s gain a n d with " B . " T h i s a m p l i f i e r w o u l d n o r m a l l y
back with (usually) a single transistor to decreases input resistance. be t e r m i n a t e d in 5 0 Q. at b o t h the input and
o b t a i n w i d e b a n d w i d t h , well c o n t r o l l e d Several additional circuits are presented o u t p u t . T h e t r a n s f o r m e r has the e f f e c t of
g a i n , a n d w e l l c o n t r o l l e d , s t a b l e input and s h o w i n g p r a c t i c a l f o r m s of t h e f e e d b a c k m a k i n g the 50-C2 load " l o o k l i k e " a l a r g e r
o u t p u t r e s i s t a n c e s . S e v e r a l of t h e s e a m p l i - a m p l i f i e r . T h a t in F i g 2.64 s h o w s a c o m - load v a l u e . R L = 2 0 0 Q to the c o l l e c t o r . T h i s
f i e r s c a n b e c a s c a d e d to f o r m a high gain p l e t e c i r c u i t . T h e b a s e is b i a s e d wilh a is a c o m m o n and u s e f u l v a l u e f o r m a n y H F
c i r c u i t that is b o t h stable a n d p r e d i c t a b l e . r e s i s t i v e d i v i d e r f r o m the c o l l e c t o r . H o w - applications.
T h e small-signal s c h e m a t i c f o r the f e e d - e v e r , m u c h of t h e r e s i s t o r is b y p a s s e d , F i g 2 . 6 5 d i f f e r s f r o m Fig 2 . 6 4 in t w o
back a m p l i f i e r is s h o w n in Fig 2.63 without leaving only Rf active for actual signal p l a c e s . F i r s t , the c o l l e c t o r is b i a s e d
bias components or power supply f e e d b a c k . E m i t t e r d e g e n e r a t i o n is ac t h r o u g h an R F C i n s t e a d of a t r a n s f o r m e r .
details. T h e design begins with a N P N tran- c o u p l e d to the e m i t t e r . T h e r e s i s t o r R E T h e c o l l e c t o r c i r c u i t then " s e e s ' ' 5 0 Q
sistor biased to a stable d c current. Gain is d o m i n a t e s t h e d e g e n e r a t i o n s i n c e R E is w h e n that load is c o n n e c t e d . S e c o n d , the
reduced with e m i t t e r degeneration, increas- n o r m a l l y m u c h s m a l l e r t h a n the e m i t t e r e m i t t e r d e g e n e r a t i o n is in s e r i e s w i t h t h e
ing input resistance w h i l e decreasing gain. b i a s , i n s t e a d of the e a r l i e r p a r a l l e l c o n n e c -
Additional f e e d b a c k is then a d d e d wilh a t i o n . E i t h e r s c h e m e w o r k s well, a l t h o u g h
parallel f e e d b a c k resistor. R f . b e t w e e n the t h e parallel c o n f i g u r a t i o n a f f o r d s e x p e r i -
mental flexibility with isolation between
s e t t i n g d e g e n e r a t i o n and b i a s i n g . A m p l i -
f i e r s w i t h o u t an o u t p u t t r a n s f o r m e r are not
c o n s t r a i n e d by d e g r a d e d t r a n s f o r m e r p e r -
; Ar?)Iiticr f o r m a n c e a n d o f t e n o f f e r flat gain to s e v -
eral G H z .
R-f T h e v a r i a t i o n of Fig 2 . 6 6 m a y w e l l b e
rAA/V t h e m o s t g e n e r a l . It uses an a r b i t r a r y t r a n s -
R-S : f o r m e r to m a t c h the c o l l e c t o r . B i a s i n g is
R-L t r a d i t i o n a l a n d d o e s not interact wilh the
/ V V >
feedback.
F e e d b a c k is o b t a i n e d d i r e c t l y f r o m the
R-E o u t p u t tap in the circuit of F i g 2 . 6 7 . W h i l e
this s c h e m e is c o m m o n , it is less d e s i r a b l e
t h a n the o t h e r s , f o r the t r a n s f o r m e r is p a r t
of the f e e d b a c k loop. This c o u l d lead to
Fig 2.63—Small signal circuit for a i n s t a b i l i t i e s . N o r m a l h . the parallel f e e d -
feedback amplifier. b a c k t e n d s to s t a b i l i z e the a m p l i f i e r s . T h e
e q u a t i o n s and c u r v e s p r e s e n t e d b e l o w per-
tain to c i r c u i t s with f e e d b a c k t a k e n
d i r e c t l y f r o m the c o l l e c t o r .
T h e circuit of F i g 2 . 6 8 h a s several f e a -
Fig 2.65—A variation of the feedback
amplifier with a 50-fi output termination
at the collector.

Fig 2.64—A practical feedback

amplifier. Components marked with "B"
are predominantly for biasing. The 50-Q
output termination is transformed to
200 Ci at the collector. A typical trans-
former is 10 bifilar turns of #28 on a
FT-37-43 ferrite toroid. The inductance Fig 2.67—A feedback amplifier with
of one of the two windings should have Fig 2.66—This form uses an arbitrary feedback from the output transformer
a reactance of around 250 C2 at the transformer. Feedback is isolated from tap. This is common, but can produce
lowest frequency of operation. bias components. unstable results.

2.24 Chapter 2
tures. T w o transistors are used, each with resistors are chosen next. A reasonable input
Table 2.2
a separate emitter biasing resistor. How- and output impedance match occurs with
ever, ac coupling causes the pair to oper- Simulated Gain vs Degeneration
R r Rt=R s R, Eq 2.40 and Feedback Resistors for a
ate as a single device with degeneration
set by R k . The parallel feedback resistor, 2N3904 biased with l E =20 mA where
R f , is both a signal feedback element and where RF is the parallel feedback and RU. is r e =1.3 £1. Gain was calculated at 14
the net degeneration resistance, r,.+RH. MHz, so p=300/14=21. Resistors
part of the bias divider. This constrains the
Here R f is the external degeneration, were picked as standard values and
values slightly. Finally, an arbitrary out-
and re is the current dependant value, to provide an input return loss
put load can be presented to the composite
26/I e (mA). For example, an amplifier better than 10 dB. The first example
collector through a Jt-iype matching
driven by 50 ii and terminated in 200 Q is the amplifier described in the
network. This provides some low pass previous section.
filtering, but constrains the amplifier might use 10-£2 external degeneration
Load R-degen R-feedback Gain
bandwidth. and 10-mA current for RE = 12.7 Ohms.
R r = 787 Q would produce RIN = R S and R 0 6 £5 1.3 kQ 20.3 dB
3.9 a 3 kQ 24.8 dB
R l with RIN and R 0 being the input and 4.7 Q 2.7 kQ 23.9 dB
Design Procedure output resistances f o r source and load 5.6 12 2 kQ 22.3 dB
Design begins by picking a bias current, R S and R l . A practical choice would be 6.8 a 1.6 kQ 20.7 dB
usually dictated by output power and IMD RF = 820 Q, a standard value. 10 n 91 o a 16.8 dB
requirements. Next the output load imped- 12 a 750 Q 15.1 dB
There is still a wide range of values that
15 a 560 Q 12.6 dB
ance presented 10 the collector (or drain) is can be used for degeneration and feedback. 18 a 430 Q 10.3 dB
chosen. A value of 200 Q is probably the The final choice is made on ihe basis of 22 Q 330 Q 7.7 dB
most c o m m o n , for it affords good gain desired gain, which can be determined by the 2.7 a 820 a 20.0 dB
with reasonable current. With that load, equations presented in Fig 2.69. The choice 3.9 a 680 Q 18.2 dB
the output power will be restricted to is eased by example data in Table 2.2. While 4.7 a 560 Q 16.9 dB
around 200 m W in 12-volt systems. Pro- the data i n the table is for one current. 20 mA. 5.6 a 470 a 15.6 dB
6.8 Q 390 Q 14.1 dB
gressively lower impedances will allow it will provide an initial estimate.
10 Q 270 Q 10.7 dB
higher output power. Most feedback am- The equations of Fig 2.69 appear long 12 Q 220 Q 8.8 dB
plifiers end up being designed for 5 0 - Q and messy, but are easily programmed for 15 n 150 Q 5.4 dB
input resistance. a calculator or computer.
The emitter degeneration and feedback Fig 2.70 shows the gain obtained when

^ / V W -
Gain vs Degeneration when Matched
Vcc B
•RFC

AAV Out
R-f r t G(d)
0 .1 7k. 7k

In

0.1
0.1 10 15 20 25 30
0.1
5 1
Degeneration Resistance
1R-E

Fig 2.70—Gain Vs net degeneration resistance when the

amplifier is matched. This evaluation occurred at 14 MHz with
Fig 2.68—Feedback amplifier with two parallel transistors. a 2N39Q4 biased to 20 mA with a 50-Q source and 200-Q load.

(|S + l ) 2 - R e J - 2 - | 8 R f < / 3 + l ) - R e + J3 2 R /
G := 10 log 4 R L - R S
; i + f?) -R e + R s ] - R f + ( R l + R s + 0 R s + | 8 - R L ) R e + 0 R S R L + R L *

[(l+/5)-(Rf+Rs)]-Re + Rs-Rf]
R ; « := ( 1 + 0).(R f + RL).
(1+|8)«e+|8-RL + R L + R f
R„
K
o
( 1 + J 8 ) - R e + R g + J8-Rs

Fig 2.69—Transducer Gain G in dB, Input resistance, R in , and Output resistance, R 0 , both in Ohms for a feedback amplifier.
The analysis is restricted to the case where parallel feedback is obtained from the collector. R, is the parallel feedback and R„
is the total emitter degeneration (see text.) Rs and R L are the source and load resistances, and are arbitrary for this analysis,
p is the current gain and is approximated as a scalar value, |3=Ft/F where Ft is the current gain-bandwidth product and F is the
operating frequency, both in MHz.

Amplifier Design Basics 2.25

 Gain vs Deaeiteration. Feedback R-1.3K. Output R vs Degen, Feedback R=1.3K.
B-in vs Degen, Feedback R=1.3K
223 rs
150
20 TV a) 125
G(d) 100
17.5
75
15 ao
25
12.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
IU 2 1U 15 20 25 30
0 5 10 IS 20 25 .50 35 Degeneration, Ohms d
Degeneration Resisnnc« Degeneration, Oluits

Fig 2.72—Input resistance Vs Fig 2.73—Output resistance Vs

Fig 2,71—Gain Vs degeneration for degeneration for fixed feedback degeneration for a fixed 1.3-kQ
fixed feedback R of 1.3 kn. resistance. feedback resistance.

Output R Vs Source R (1.3K, 6 Olmisj Input R vs Load R (1.3K, 6 Ohius)

Kta(Rt)

20 40 80 100 50 100 ISO 200 250 300 350 100 450 500

Fig 2.76—Feedback tends to flatten

Fig 2.74—Output resistance depends on Fig 2.75—Input resistance as a function frequency response. This is even more
the source resistance. of load resistance. dramatic with lower gain amplifiers.

Eq 2.40 is applied, forcing a reasonable Feedback extends the bandwidth of

input and output impedance match. transformer terminated amplifiers. Fig AA/V
It is common to build an amplifier only 2.76 shows gain vs F for the example am- vdd B - l
to then find that the gain must be changcd plifier with a 2N3904 at 20 mA. 6 - Q de-
a little. The effcct of changing the emitter generation and 1.3-kQ R f , 5 0 - Q sourcc Out
resistor is presented in Fig 2.71 for a fixed and 2 0 0 - 0 load. There is less than a 3-dB
R f = l .3 k O . The same 14-MHz, 2 0 - m A variation over the HF spectrum, and the
R-f
-VvV-o ~
bias case is assumed. Fig 2.72 and Fig 2.73 amp is usable up to 50 M H z . even with a
show the related effect on terminal resis- modest 2N3904. Higher F t transistors can
tances. produce much greater bandwidth, espe- In
A characteristic of feedback amplifiers cially when configured for low or modest
(sometimes useful, sometimes frustrating) gain without any transformers that might
is that they are partially transparent. The compromise frequency response.
input resistance becomes a strong function While wc usually think in terms of build-
of the load while the output resistance ing feedback amplifiers with bipolar tran-
depends upon the source. This is illus- sistors, they arc just as tenable with FETs.
trated in Fig 2.74 and Fig 2.75. Again, a Fig 2.77 shows a JFF.T version of the
1,3-kJT2 f e e d b a c k R and 6 - Q external amplifier. This circuit uses no degenera- Fig 2.77—A feedback amplifier using a
degeneration are used. The amplifier tion resistor. The FET is self-biased with a FET. See text for design details.
transparency is partially " f i x e d " with the bypassed source resistor, and the biased
addition of an attenuator at the amplifier FHT Iransconductance is calculated using
output, especially useful when the ampli- equations presented earlier. Having this
fier must interface with filters and value, we can then ask "what current (r e ) in Feedback amplifier noise figure is usu-
switching-mode mixers. Pads must be a bipolar transistor would produce the same ally greater than that f r o m the same tran-
added with care, for they will decrease transconductance?" Finding that value, we sistor without feedback. Noise available
overall gain, available output power and then use the same equations for analysis f r o m the feedback resistors is injected into
output intercept. that were applied to the bipolar, Fig 2.69. the circuit. A feedback amplifier was built

2.26 Chapter 2
using a 2SC1252 transistor (F,«2 GHz) These amplifiers are specified by their dis- greater available gain. The input resistor
with degeneration and feedback resistors tributor f o r a voltage on the output pin with should be driven from a source at D C
of 5.1 Q and 1.8 k O . Noise figure was a specified current allowing the user to ground. Bandwidth depends on the output
measured with an HP8970B test set for pick R , for an available V c c . For example, transformer with severe distortion pos-
differing standing currents. The noise the Minicircuits M A R - 2 is specified for sible at low frequencies if it does not have
figure was 1.8 dB in the H F spectrum 25 mA at 5 V. Hence, for a 12-V power adequate reactance. A typical 7-MHz
for I c =l 0 inA, increasing to 3.3 dB with supply, 280 fi would be needed for R , . application uses a 20-turn primary on a K'l -
63 m A . Noise figure for the 2 N 3 9 0 4 This IC should not be used without a drop- 37-43 toroid with a 5-turn output link.
example amplifier featured in this section ping resistor. The power dissipation in A common base amplifier with trans-
(20 mA, 6 a and 1.3 kll. 200-Q load) was the resistor should be checked. It's only former output coupling is shown in F i g
measured at 6 dB. 175 m W in this example, so a 14-W resistor 2.80. This circuit uses no feedback other
Fig 2.78 shows a feedback amplifier would suffice. than the 47-11 degeneration. This is pre-
with two transistors in a Darlington con- Fig 2.79 presents another two discrete sented as an evolutionary step toward a
figuration. This circuit is typical of sev- transistor feedback amplifier. This is a feedback amplifier, but it is very useful as
eral popular silicon monolithic integrated buffer amplifier designed by W7EL. This shown. The common base topology fea-
circuit amplifiers that arc presently avail- circuit is similar to M A R circuits parts, but tures excellent reverse isolation, and. as
able. Those components within the dotted uses transformer output coupling for even such, it is an excellent VFO buffer. The
line are part of the 1C. Q1 and Q2 usually amplifier is biased to about 4 mA collector
have F t above 5 G H z . so the amplifiers current, so has an input resistance at the
o f f e r useful p e r f o r m a n c e to 2 G H z and emitter of 6.5 SI- Adding a series 4 7 - f i
beyond with gain from 10 to nearly 20 dB. resistor creates a reasonable input match
to a 5 0 - 0 source. The power gain will be
determined by the ratio of turns on the
output auto-transformer.
An interesting variation of this circuit
is presented in Fig 2.81. The 47-S'2 input
resistor has been replaced by a single turn
link through the t r a n s f o r m e r core. The
operation is easily understood if we think
of driving the input with a current source.
The low input impedance at the emitter
has no impact on the current flowing.
Essentially the same current flows in the
collector (recall that the current gain of a
common base amplifier is unity), but it
now flows in the high impedance multiple
turn transformer windings. This allows
the circuit to provide power gain. We now
" s a m p l e " the collector current with a
winding, creating a voltage across the
Fig 2.79—Feedback amplifier, the
Fig 2.78—Feedback amplifier with a design of W7EL, often used as an winding. The new "voltage" is placed in
Darlington connection of transistors. oscillator buffer. series with the low emitter input imped-

Vcc WV-f-
33
;m-turns
.01
— I f —

;n-turns
I* H-Xi=501

— V W
3.3K
.01

Fig 2.80—Common base amplifier with an input resistance. Fig 2.81—A transformer feedback amplifier designed by D.
See text. Norton of Anzac.

Amplifier Design Basics 2.27

 -AAA

Fig 2.83—Small signal circuit of a

transformer type feedback amplifier
using a JFET.

0.1

Fig 2.82—A modified feedback amplifier where transformer feedback increases

input impedance.
viimm
'Sm
ance 10 create a 5 0 - f l input termination. (25-dB return loss) over a 5 to 100 M H z m^rn^m
H o w e v e r , this is d o n e without any resis-
tors, so the noise f i g u r e is not c o m p r o -
range with noise f i g u r e under 2 dB. This
amplifier, h o w e v e r , s u f f e r s f r o m a m a j o r Fig 2.84—A feedback amplifier example.
Bill
mised. T h i s a m p l i f i e r is the brainchild of p r o b l e m : the terminal i m p e d a n c e s depend This circuit supplements test equip-
ment. With Vcc=12, lc=65 mA and
David N o r t o n of A n z a c . 8 strongly on the t e r m i n a t i o n at the other
OIP3=+42 dBm, Gain=16 dB, and
T h e Fig 2.81 amplifier will be matchcd port. T h e circuit is worse than resistive bandwidth exceeds 50 MHz.
if f e e d b a c k amplifiers in this regard.
T r a n s f o r m e r s can be f u r t h e r applied to
- m - 1 Eq 2.41 extend p e r f o r m a n c e of a m p l i f i e r s . F i g ing, provides the gate voltage needed for
to p r o d u c e a t r a n s d u c e r p o w e r gain of 2.82 s h o w s a generally traditional f e e d - gain and low noise performance. Design
2 0 L o g ( m ) dB. F o r example, if m=3, n is back amplifier that is m o d i f i e d by passing details are given in Introduction to Radio
then 5, and the p o w e r gain is 9.5 dB. The the input lead through the t r a n s f o r m e r core Frequency Design, p 2 1 6 . ' 0 Bill Carver.
t r a n s f o r m e r s for these a m p l i f i e r s are o f t e n to alter input impedance. This topology is W 7 A A Z , has built practical versions of this
wound on a binocular-type balun core. A early w o r k of R o h d e . 9 amplifier. See QST, May. 1996, 1 1 with fur-
turn through such a ferrite core is counted F i g 2,83 shows a F E T amplifier (small ther discussion in Chapter 6.
as a single pass of wire through both holes. signal circuit only) using an input trans- T r a n s f o r m e r feedback a m p l i f i e r design
Polarity is vital to c o n s t r u c t i o n of the former. A tapped transformer feeds signal is a s u b j e c t that c o n t i n u e s to p r o d u c e
t r a n s f o r m e r . If w o u n d wrong, the input to both the F E T source and the gate. The design activity. The reader can find more
i m p e d a n c e will be negative, almost guar- winding driving the source sees a low i n f o r m a t i o n starting w i t h papers by
anteed to create oscillation. Tn amplifiers impedance, so adjustment of turns ratio can T r a s k 1 2 1 3 and K o r e n . 1 4
of this kind that w e have built, we mea- ensure a perfect match. The gate winding, Fig 2.84 shows an e x a m p l e of a f e e d -
sured e x c e l l e n t input i m p e d a n c e m a t c h even though there is no signal current flow- back amplifier.

2.8 BYPASSING AND DE

Our amplifier designs have included the m a r k e d value while i n d u c t a n c e is a setup of Fig 2.86. Fig 2.87 s h o w s a test
g r o u n d e d p o i n t s that w e r e not really at small value that g r o w s with c o m p o n e n t f i x t u r e w i t h an installed 4 7 0 - p F leaded
g r o u n d . R a t h e r , those points are "signal lead length. Resistance is a loss term, usu- capacitor. T h e fixture is used with a signal
grounded" through bypass capacitors. ally controlled by the Q of the parasitic generator and spectrum analyzer to evalu-
O b t a i n i n g an e f f e c t i v e b y p a s s can be i n d u c t o r . All c o m p o n e n t s s h o w s o m e ate capacitors. Relatively long capacitor
difficult and is o f t e n the route to design i n d u c t a n c e , including a wire. E v e n a leads were required to interface to the B N C
di fficulty. leadless S M T c o m p o n e n t will display c o n n e c t o r s , even though the c a p a c i t o r
T h e p r o b l e m is parasitic i n d u c t a n c e . inductancc c o m m e n s u r a t e with the d i m e n - itself was small. T h e signal generator was
A l t h o u g h we label and m o d e l parts as sions. A wire has an inductance of about 1 tuned over its range while e x a m i n i n g the
" c a p a c i t o r s , " a m o r e c o m p l e t e model is nH per m m of length. s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r r e s p o n s e , which was
needed. T h e better model is a series L R C , B y p a s s capacitor characteristics can be m i n i m u m at the series resonant f r e q u e n c y .
shown in Fig 2.85. Capacitance is close to m e a s u r e d in the h o m e lab with the test Parasitic inductance is calculated f r o m this

2.28 Chapter 2
 50 Ohm. S21 Ref. 0.00 dB

Fig 2.85—Model (or a bypass capacitor.

signal Pad
Generator I
i Wv- -» f-«r-
50 Spectrum
BypassI
Analyzer
Cap

Start 0.300 MHz Stop 3,000.000 MHz

Fig 2.86—Test set for home lab measurement of a bypass Fig 2.88—Network analyzer measurement of 470-pF shunt
capacitor. capacitors. Both SMT and leaded parts are studied.

Fig 2.87—Test fixture for measuring self

resonant frequency of capacitors.

frequency. The C value was measured with tance dominates, keeping the data on the E a c h capacitor w a s a s s u m e d to h a v e a
a low frequency L C meter. Measurement edge of the Smith Chart, for the Q is moder- series inductance of 7 nH. A parallel reso-
gear is discussed in Chapter 7. ate at 28. Bypassing is "perfect" at only one nance is approximately f o r m e d between
The measured 4 7 0 - p F capacitor is mod- frequency, that of series resonance. An ideal the L of the larger capacitor and the C of
eled as 485 pF in series with an inductancc (no inductance) capacitor would have a the smaller. The Smith Chart plot shows
of 7.7 iiH. The L is larger than we would capacitive reactance of about 2 Q at 150 us that the impedance is nearly 50 Q at 63
see with shorter leads. A 0.25-inch 4 7 0 - p F MHz. The actual 150-MHz value is induc- M H z . Impedance would be even higher
ceramic disk capacitor with zero lead tive with a magnitude of about 5 Q. with greater capacitor Q. This behavior
length will show a typical inductance Traditional lore tells us that the band- is a d r a m a t i c e x a m p l e of lore that is
closer to 3 nH. The measured capacitor Q width for bypassing can be extended by generally w r o n g !
was 28 at self- resonance of 82 M H z but is paralleling a capacitor that works well at Bypassing can be improved by parallel-
higher at lower frequency. one frequency with another to a c c o m m o - ing. However, the capacitors should be
Data from a similar measurement, but date a d i f f e r e n t part of the spectrum. approximately identical. F i g 2.91 shows
with a network analyzer is shown in H e n c e , paralleling the 4 7 0 p F with the result of paralleling two capacitors of
Fig 2.88. Two 4 7 0 - p F capacitors are mea- a . 0 1 - u F capacitor should extend the about the same value. They differ slightly
sured, one surface mounted and the other bypassing to lower frequencies. The cal- at 390 and 560 pF, creating a hint of reso-
a leaded part with 0.1-inch leads. culations are shown in the plots of Fig nance. This appears as a small "burble" in
Fig 2.89 shows two calculated plots for 2.90. The results are terrible! While the the reactance plot and a tiny loop on the
the 470-pF capacitor. The one on the left is low f r e q u e n c y bypassing is indeed Smith Chart. These anomalies disappear
a Smith Chart showing the behavior vs. fre- improved, a high impedance response is as the C values become equal. Generally,
quency, while that on the right is a plot of created at 63 M H z . This complicated paralleling is the scheme that produces the
component reactance vs. frequency. Reac- behavior is again the result of inductance. best bypassing. T h e ideal solution is to

Amplifier Design Basics 2.29

p l a c e a c h i p c a p o n e a c h s i d e of a p r i n t e d
c i r c u i t r u n o r w i r e at a p o i n t t h a t is to b e
bypassed.
Additional capacitors were measured. A
.01 - u F d i s k ( l e a d e d , 5 0 - V , 0 . 2 - i n c h d i a m -
eter) w a s r e s o n a n t at 2 0 M H z in t h e test f i x -
ture s h o w n , i n d i c a t i n g an i n d u c t a n c c of 6.5
nH. The Q was 5.7. T w o different 0.1-uF
leaded capacitors were investigated. Both
h a d identical c a p a c i t a n c e e v e n t h o u g h o n e
w a s l a r g e r than the other. T h e i n d u c t a n c e
w a s a b o u t 4.5 n H w i t h 0 = 5 f o r b o t h .
M a t c h e d capacitor pairs f o r m an e f f e c -
tive bypass over a reasonable frequency
r a n g e . T w o of t h e , 0 1 - j i F d i s k s h a v e a
reactancc magnitude less than 5 Q f r o m 2
to 2 6 5 M H z . A p a i r of the 0 . 1 - u F capaci-
tors w a s even better, p r o d u c i n g the s a m e
b y p a s s i n g i m p e d a n c e f r o m 0 . 2 to 3 1 8
Fig 2.90—The classic technique of paralleling bypass capacitors of two values,
M H z . T h e 0.1 - l i F c a p a c i t o r s a r e c h i p c o m -
here 470 pF and .01 pF. This is a terrible bypassl See text.
ponents with attached wire leads. Even
belter results can be o b t a i n e d with multi-
layer ceramic chip capacitors. Construc-
t i o n w i t h m u l t i p l e l a y e r s c r e a t e s an
integrated paralleling. We have measured
s o m e 0 . 2 - u F p a r t s w i t h an i n d u c t a n c e of
2 n H . T h e m u l t i - l a y e r c o m p o n e n t s are
more expensive than the monolithic
0.1-uF parts investigated.

S o m e applications (e.g.. IF amplifiers)

r e q u i r e e f f e c t i v e b y p a s s i n g at e v e n l o w e r
frequencies. Modern tantalum electrolytic
capacitors are surprisingly effective
through the R F s p e c t r u m while o f f e r i n g
h i g h e n o u g h C t o b e u s e f u l at a u d i o .
T h e parts should be e v a l u a t e d f o r critical
applications.
W e h a v e d i s c u s s e d t h e p r o b l e m of
bypassing, but have neglected the related
p r o b l e m of d e c o u p l i n g . T h e bypass
capacitor usually serves a dual role, first
creating the low i m p e d a n c e needed to gen- Fig 2,91—Paralleling bypass capacitors of nearly the same value. This results in
e r a t e a " s i g n a l " g r o u n d . It a l s o b e c o m e s improved bypassing without complicating resonances.
part of a d e c o u p l i n g low pass filter that
passes dc while attenuating signals. The
a t t e n u a t i o n m u s t f u n c t i o n in b o t h d i r e c -
t i o n s , s u p p r e s s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n in t h e
p o w e r supply that m i g h t reach an ampli-
fier while k e e p i n g amplifier signals f r o m
r e a c h i n g the p o w e r supply.
A l o w p a s s f i l l e r is f o r m e d w i t h a l t e r -
nating series and parallel component con-
n e c t i o n s . A p a r a l l e l b y p a s s is f o l l o w e d b y
a series i m p e d a n c e , ideally a resistor.
Additional shunt elements can then be
a d d e d , although this m u s t be d o n e with
care. An inductor between shunt capaci-
t o r s s h o u l d h a v e h i g h i n d u c t a n c e . It will
r e s o n a t e w i t h the s h u n t c a p a c i t o r s to c r e -
ate h i g h i m p e d a n c e s j u s t l i k e t h o s e t h a t
c a m e f r o m p a r a s i t i c L in t h e b y p a s s e s . T h i s
m a k e s it d e s i r a b l e to h a v e an i n d u c t a n c e
t h a t is h i g h e n o u g h t h a t a n y r e s o n a n c e is
below the b a n d of interest. But series
Fig 2.92—Two different resistor values parallel a decoupling choke. The lower,
inductors have their o w n problems; they 30-£2 value is more effective. See text.

2.30 Chapter 2
have parasitic capacitancc that create their (Amidon) -43 material have Q in the 4 to allel resonance can be a disaster. When the
own self-resonance. 10 region in the HF spectrum. One can also ultimate bypassing is not possible, nega-
A couple of available RF choices were create low Q circuits by paralleling a tive feedback that enhances wideband sta-
measured (now as series elements) with series L of modest Q with a resistor. bility is often used.
the equipment described earlier. A 2.7-|iH Fig 2.92 shows a decoupling network Capacitors also appear in circuits as
molded choke was parallel resonant at 200 and the resulting impedance when viewed blocking elements. A blocking capacitor,
MHz, indicating a parallel capacitance of from the "bypass" end. The 15-uH RFC for example, appears between stages, cre-
0.24 pF. The Q at 20 MHz was 52. A resonates with a 0.1-nF capacitor to ating a near short circuit for signals while
15-fiH molded choke was parallel resonant destroy the bypass effect just above 0.1 accommodating different dc voltages on
at 47 MHz. yielding a parallel C of 0.79 MHz. A low value parallel resistor fixes the two sides. A blocking capacitor is not
pF. This pan had a Q of 44 at 8 MHz. the problem. as critical as a bypass, for the impedances
Large inductors can be fabricated from A major reason for carcful wideband on either side will usually be higher than
series connections of smaller ones. The bypassing and decoupling is the potential that of the block.
best wideband performance will result for amplifier oscillation. Instability that Emitter bypassing is often a critical
only when all inductors in a chain have allows oscillations is usually suppressed application. As we have seen, a few Ohms
about the same value. The reasons for this by low impedance terminations. The base of emitter degeneration can drastically
(and the mathematics that describe the be- and collector (or gate and drain) should alter amplifier performance. A parallel
havior) are identical with those for paral- both "see" low impedances to ensure sta- resonant emitter bypass could be a pro-
leling identical capacitors. bility. But that must be true at all frequen- found difficulty while a series resonant
Low inductor Q is often useful, which cies where the device can produce gain. It one can be especially effective. Clearly,
encourages us to use inductors with ferrite is never enough to merely consider the op- detailed modeling is the answer to compo-
cores. Inductors using the Fair-Rite erating frequency for the amplifier. A par- nent selection.

2.9 POWER AMPLIFIER BASICS

The remainder of this chapter deals with A Class B amplifier can display good cuits operating in Class C and higher are
power amplifiers, a subject dear to the envelope linearity, meaning that the out- tuned at the output. The tuning accom-
radio experimenter. The earliest tinker put amplitude at the drive frequency plishes two things. First, it allows different
among us cut our teeth on attempts to changes linearly with the input signal. The terminations to exist for different frequen-
extract more power from the already total absence of current flow for half of the cies. For example, a resistive load could be
stressed amplifier devices of the day. We drive cycle will create harmonics of the presented at the drive frequency while pre-
all recall stories of 6L6 receiving vacuum signal drive. senting a short circuit at some or all
tubes being coaxed into providing high A Class C amplifier is one that conducts harmonics. The second consequence of
output power by immersion in an oil bath. for less than half of a cycle. No current tuning is that reactive loads can be created
The rest of us have tried to extract power flows without drive. Application of a small and presented to the amplifier collector or
from transistors, only to see the device dis- drive produces no output and no current drain. This then provides independent con-
appear "in smoke." Experience of this sort flow. Only after a threshold is reached trol of current and voltage waveforms.
is a "right of passage" for all RF experi- does the device begin to conduct and pro- While not as common as A, B, and C,
menters; don't miss it! vide output. A bipolar transistor with no Class D and E amplifiers are of increasing
source of bias for the base typically oper- interest. The Class D circuit is a balanced
Classes of Amplifier ates in Class C. (two transistor) switching format where
The large-signal models discussed ear- the input is driven hard enough to produce
Operation lier are suitable for the analysis of all square wave collector waveforms. Class E
Many of the amplifiers considered so far amplifier classes. Small-signal models are amplifiers usually use a single device with
have been "Class A." The class of opera- generally reserved for Class A amplifiers. output tuning that allows high current to
tion of an amplifier is determined by the The most common power amplifier flow in the device only when the impressed
fraction of a drive cycle, or duty cycle class is a cross between Class A and B. the voltage is low.
where conduction occurs. The Class A Class AB amplifier that conducts for more Class A and AB amplifiers are capable
amplifier conducts for 100% of the cycle. than half of each cycle. A Class AB ampli- of good envelope linearity, so they are the
It is characterized by constant supply cur- fier at low drive levels is indi stinguishable most common formats used in the output
rent, regardless of the strength of the driv- from a Class A design. However, increas- of SSB amplifiers. Class B and, predomi-
ing signal. Most of the amplifiers we use ing drive produces greater collector (or nantly, Class C amplifiers are used for CW
for RF applications and many audio cir- drain) current and greater output. and FM applications, but lack the enve-
cuits in receivers operate in Class A. Amplifier class letter designators were lope linearity needed for SSB. Recent work
,h
A Class B amplifier conducts for 50 % augmented with a numeric subscript. A with a 4 method of SSB may change that,
of the cycle, which is 180 degrees if we vacuum tube Class AB 1 amplifier was one allowing distorting amplifiers to be used
15
examine the circuit with regard to a driv- operating in AB, but with no grid current in SSB service.
ing sinewave. A Class B amplifier draws flowing. In the absence of grids, the num- Efficiency varies considerably between
no DC current when no input signal is ap- bers have disappeared. amplifier class. The Class A amplifier can
plied. But current begins to flow with any While wide bandwidth Class A and reach a collector efficiency of 50%, but
input, growing with the input strength. Class B amplifiers are common, most cir- no higher, with much lower values being

Amplifier Design Basics 2.31

 +12V
+12V • - A A
Pout Vs Pin at 5, 10, 20, 30, 50 MHz
Keyed

-20 -15 -10

Pa at Input, dBm
T = 10 b i f i l a r t u r n s FT-37-43
Fig 2.94—Gain compression characteristics for the simple
Fig 2.93—Class AB amplifier chain. power chain.

typical. Class A B a m p l i f i e r s are capable of as a general p u r p o s e gain block for C W output of + 1 0 d B m per tone, the output
higher e f f i c i e n c y , although the wideband transmitters. Total current is about 80 m A intercept w a s + 3 2 d B m . Increasing drive
circuits popular in H F transceivers typi- with no R F drive, reaching 200 mA or more f o r + 2 0 d B m per tone output (100 m W /
cally o f f e r only 3 0 % at full p o w e r . A Class when drive is increased with most of the tone or 4 0 0 m W P E P ) yielded a h i g h e r
C amplifier is c a p a b l e of e f f i c i e n c i e s ap- increase occurring in the second stage. Fig v a l u e of I P 3 o u t = + 3 5 d B m . T h i s is
proaching 100% as the conduction cycle 2.94 shows P o m Vs. P i n at 5 , 1 0 . 2 0 , 3 0 , and expected, for total current is now h i g h e r at
b e c o m e s small, with c o m m o n values of 50 50 M H z for this amplifier when operating 180 m A .
to 75%. Both Class D and E are c a p a b l e of with a 12-V supply. T h e m e a s u r e m e n t s T h e p o w e r supply for the input stage is
9 0 % and h i g h e r e f f i c i e n c y . were done with a signal generator and a normally keyed when used f o r C W trans-
A n e n g i n e e r i n g text treating p o w e r spectrum analyzer. Low frequency gain is mission. T h e bias for the output stage is
amplifier details is Krauss, Bostian, and high at 35 dB, dropping to 28 dB at 50 M H z . derived f r o m the s a m e supply resulting in
R a a b ' s Solid State Radio Engineering.16 Low frequency output power is over half a a typical b a c k w a v e 70 dB below full out-
A landmark p a p e r targeted to the h o m e watt, with over a quarter of a watt available put. " B a c k w a v e " is the r e s i d u a l signal
e x p e r i m e n t e r was that p r e s e n t e d by a at 50 M H z . However, gain is severely com- present f r o m a C W transmitter during key-
group f r o m Cal Tech in QST f o r M a y and pressed at this level. Higher output power up periods.
June, 1 9 9 7 . " is available with impedance matching. This design, although lacking in e f f i -
A heat sink is used on the output transis- ciency. is otherwise very u s e f u l and has
tor, f o r dissipation b c c o m e s high with been used in over a d o z e n transmitters or
A Two-Stage General t r a n s c e i v e r s in o u r stations. It can be
large drive. T h e dissipation in the 2 N 3 9 0 4
Purpose Class AB is 3 5 0 mW, safe f o r keyed (low duty cycle) driven by a crystal oscillator on any H F
Amplifier C W applications, but marginal for S S B or band to f o r m an e f f e c t i v e Q R P transmitter.
T h e circuit of Fig 2.93 operates in Class digital m o d e s . Preceding it with a f e e d b a c k a m p l i f i e r pro-
A B with an output of half a watt in the H F T h e third order intermodulation distor- d u c e s a D S B or S S B chain suitable for
spectrum. This circuit was originally built tion w a s m e a s u r e d at 14 M H z . With an Q R P use, or as a driver f o r a five watt PA.

2.32 Chapter 2
2.10 PRACTICAL POWER AMPLIFIERS
This section presents several design the drive cyclc when the base is reverse saving the more expensive output transis-
examples for power amplifiers. A two watt biased. Decreasing this resistance can tor from damage. The typical Zener diode
bipolar power amplifier was presented in improve stability at the price of gain. will have a relatively high capacitance,
Chapter l with the "Beginner's Transmit- Base matching occurs with T1. a simple even before breakdown, requiring that the
ter." Some simple power meter circuits transmission line transformer consisting input C in the low pass filter be reduced in
were also included. of a bifilar winding on a ferrite core. These value.
transformers are discussed in the filter The virtue of this diode is open to
chapter. Other impedance transformation
A CW-QRP Rig Amplifier circuits can also be used, including tuned
debate. It is often seen in amateur applica-
tions, especially with transistors not
A familiar RF power amplifier encoun- L, Jt. or Tee networks. The stage that must intended for Class C RF applications. It is
tered by the experimenter is that used with drive this will probably be loaded with not so common in commercial applications
a low power (QRP) transmitter. The popu- a higher impedance, perhaps 200 Q. usi ng transistors intended for RF. The pro-
lar design provides about 1.5-W output Another bifilar transformer could be used, tection function is easily studied with a
from a 12-V supply. The load resistance or a single ferrite transformer with a 4:1 high-speed oscilloscope.
the collector would "like to see" is then turns ratio could make the transition from An RF choke routes bias to the collec-
200 to 12.5 a in one step. tor. An extra inductor is placed in series
It is important that the base drive be pro- with the supply, providing a series imped-
Eq. 2.42 vided by a low impedance source. A higher ance for decoupling. A resistor then paral-
source resistance might supply the needed lels the decoupling choke, as discussed in
base current, but then develop high voltage an earlier section. An optimum decoupling
Evaluation yields R L =48, so close to during the negative part of the drive cyclc. RFC uses large lossy ferrite beads.
50 Q that no impedance matching network This could lead to emitter base breakdown, A 7-MHz scries tuned circuit is formed
is required at the output. Only a low pass a phenomenon that creates transmitted by the 50-pF. 10-pH combination. The
filler is required to attenuate the strong noise and a slow performance degradation back-to-back diodes provide a short cir-
harmonics that arc often created by the in the output transistor. Emitter-base cuit for large RF signals, generating a con-
circuit. The amplifier circuit is shown breakdown is easily observed with a venient electronic T/R system. This
in Fig 2.9S. The 7-MHz design illustrates wideband oscilloscope. A low driving scheme, and similar T/R methods arc dis-
the design ideas, which are frequency impedance also helps stability. cussed in Chapter 6.
invariant. A small heat sink is needed for a TO-39 A low ripple Chebyshev low pass filter
The amplifier input is to be driven from transistor such as the 2N3866 or 2N3553. with a cutoff frequency of about 7.5 MHz
a 50-Q source. While not required, it pro- A clip-on heat-sink will suffice. The tran- is recommended. Details appear in Chap-
motes convenient measurement. The sistor can even be soldered into a hole in a ter 3. The capacitance at the transistor end
builder can then test and adjust the driver circuit board. If the latter method is used, of the filter should be reduced to account
stages alone, with the earlier transmitter the hole must be isolated from circuit for Zener diode capacitance and the 50 pF
stages, and without the complications of ground with extra capacitance absorbed related to the T/R. No component values
the output amplifier. This amplifier will into the design. are shown for this example.
usually require a drive power of 20 to 100 The amplifier includes extra compo- The ideal transmitter design will include
mW, depending upon the transistor type nents that are not always needed. One is variable RF drive. Besides being useful for
used in the amplifier. The 50-Q drive is the familiar Zener diode at the collector. communications, it is a very useful experi-
transformed downward to "look like" a This should have a breakdown value of mental tool.
12.5-Q source at the base. This transfor- about 3 times V c c but less than the transis- Amplifier adjustment consists of noth-
mation provides the high base current tor breakdown. The diode's purpose is lo ing more lhan varying the drive power
required for efficient operation. The 18-Q load the amplifier if it loses an output ter- while watching the output to a 50-S2 load.
base resistor serves as a wideband load for mination. The diode conducts only if the Amplifier operation without a load should
the input driver, even during the part of collector voltage becomes too high, thus be avoided. The output power should
change smoothly with drive, with any
jumps suggesting instability.
It is interesting to monitor efficiency
while drive is varied. Drive is adjusted,
output power is measured, power supply
current is noted, input power is calculated,
and the resulting efficiency is calculated.
Efficiency is usually low when the output
is considerably less than the design level,
but increases with drive. It will often Im-
possible to drive the amplifier to an output
greater than 1.5 W. usually at the pricc of
efficiency. If you are interested in higher
output, the output network should be
re-designed accordingly.
It is useful to examine amplifier perfor-
mance with a variety of loads. This is eas-
Fig 2 . 9 5 — T y p i c a l o u t p u t a m p l i f i e r in a Q R P t r a n s m i t t e r . ily done with a transmatch. The dummy

Amplifier Design Basics 2.33

 Waveforms of a Class-C Amplifier

In an effort to g a m e r intuition a b o u t t h e v o l t a g e s in T e s t points are available at t h e transistor b a s e a n d

C l a s s - C amplifiers, a low p o w e r e x p e r i m e n t w a s per- collector, a l l o w i n g the v o l t a g e s to be m o n i t o r e d with a
f o r m e d with the circuit of Fig A. A signal g e n e r a t o r high s p e e d o s c i l l o s c o p e , a T e k t r o n i x 7 7 0 4 A in this c a s e .
p r o v i d e d b a s e d r i v e to the 2 N 3 9 0 4 amplifier. T h e collec- T h e first c a s e e x a m i n e d w a s t h e r e f e r e n c e for t h e
tor w a s b i a s e d at 5 V t h r o u g h a 4 . 5 - p H high Q inductor. A e x p e r i m e n t with results s h o w n in Fig B. T h e low R F drive
variable c a p a c i t o r a l l o w e d t h e inductor to be t u n e d to the barely e x c i t e s t h e b a s e , but turns the transistor on at the
drive f r e q u e n c y , or be d e t u n e d for an inductive collector p e a k s . T h e resulting current is a short s p i k e , but still
t e r m i n a t i o n . A Z e n e r d i o d e c o u l d be a d d e d to the circuit. p r o d u c e s a very c l e a n collector w a v e f o r m , just reaching

C SH39n4 Fig A—RF Drive is applied to the base

TP1 i
Fig. Drive C Zener
of a BJT while the un-terminated
5 MHz from
50 Ohm
y ^ r ^ B 1.6 irff 200 pF 1,0 collector is biased through a tuned
Generator C 30 rrSf 200 j)F no circuit. The data table relates results to
_L £
"i D 30 irff 10 pF no
operating conditions.

E 30 irftf 10 pF yes
i
rfc: ICt #26 FT23-43
LI: 4.5 uH, Qu=ZOO at 5 MHz, 321 t»26, T50-6.

Fig B—Low drive produces a clean collector waveform in Fig C—Increased drive produces severe clipping in the
the upper trace. The lower trace shows the base voltage. base voltage and an 18-V peak collector signal.
In ail cases, the vertical sensitivity is shown for each trace,
and the 0-V line is marked at the left of the trace.

Fig 2.96—Schematic load is p l a c e d at the t r a n s m a t c h o u t p u t , and

+-vcc L,
for a 10-W output t h e c o l l e c t o r v o l t a g e is o b s e r v e d w i t h an
Class C amplifier. o s c i l l o s c o p c and 10X. 1 0 - M f i p r o b e . T h e
The input auto-
o u t p u t p o w e r will b e 1.5 W w h e n t h e
transformer might
2 Ohms consist of 3 turns t r a n s m a t c h is p r o p e r l y a d j u s t e d . H o w e v e r ,
5 . 6 Ohms Low Pass through a binocular o u t p u t p o w e r will d r o p c o n s i d e r a b l y as t h e
L L =
\ koi
type balun t r a n s m a t c h is " t w e a k e d . " T h e c o l l e c t o r
jr £-7; J ,
<k
T transformer core. A
Thomson 2SC1969
v o l t a g e will u n d e r g o m a j o r c h a n g e s
during this a d j u s t m e n t , with voltages
1 ooo would be a good
<: i o sometimes going well beyond the
transistor choice,
a but try other parts expected 24-V value observed when oper-
i '
as well. See text. a t i n g in t h e u s u a l c l a s s C m o d e with a

2.34 Chapter 2
 Fig D—Operation with an inductive load allows the Fig E—The Zener diode is attached, effectively protecting
collector voltage to ring up to over 40 V on positive peaks. the transistor from excess voltage.

zero at the bottom of the oscillation. The positive Note the change in vertical scale. The transistor is
collector peak easily reaches twice the supply value. probably on the verge of damage at this point. Note also
Just a hint of base conduction can be seen at the peak that the base voltage has changed, having been altered
of the base waveform. The conduction must be occur- by the stressed collector.
ring only over a small fraction of the applied waveform, The amplifier has no resistive load other than that
for the base spends most of the cycle below 0.6 V. The represented by the unloaded resonator Q and provides
Zener diode is disconnected for the first experiments. no output power. The collector could be loaded by
The RF drive is now increased to 30 mW, more than adding a resistor across the inductor, which would
we would normally use with this small transistor. The reduce the collector voltage. Even with loading, an
base voltage exceeds 1-V peak, which causes the inductive component in the collector impedance will
collector voltage to drop to zero. The base voltage allow high voltages to be generated.
"tries" to stay on for more than half of the cycle, evi- The final experiment connects the Zener diode,
dence of charge storage, a phenomenon intrinsic to the producing the waveforms shown in Fig E. The collector
BJT. But when the base does stop conducting, the voltage is now clipped at the 24-V breakdown of the
collector voltage "rings up" to 18 V, well beyond the 5-V Zener diode. The base conduction duty cycle is still
supply. These results are in Fig C. Base voltage ringing high, a result of the high drive and charge storage. But
at higher frequency is evident. the transistor is now saved from damage.
The collector resonance of the last example is These experiments illustrate the effects of an induc-
eliminated by detuning the capacitor to a low value. The tive collector termination, Zener diode protection, and
collector now sees a predominantly inductive imped- variable drive. The experiments could be extended with
ance, resulting in the over 40-V peak signal of Fig D. other devices, more aggressive applied stress,
and loading that would allow DC collector current
to increase.

"proper" termination. It is not unusual to ply is always useful, if not vital, during all angles. The pad is. of course, removed
see the amplifier go into oscillations dur- experiments of this s o n . after the test.
ing the severe mismatch that happens with Consider p l a t i n g a pad between the
this transmatch experiment. The oscilla- transmitter and the transmatch. If we used,
tions should not be destructive at this for example, a 1-dB pad, the worst-case
A 10-W CW Amplifier
power level, so long as the transistor has a return loss would be twice the attenuation, While the 1.5-W amplifier is ideal for
modest heat sink and is protected against or 2 dB. The corresponding worst-case the seasoned Q R P operator, others may
excessive collector voltage. Tt is a good V S W R is 8.7:1 (see Eq 4.6.) "if the ampli- want a bit more power. Outputs of 10 to 20
idea to monitor the heat sink temperature fier can now withstand all possible adjust- W are interesting. A few <1B gain can m a k e
(by touch is good enough) during these ments of the transmatch, we say that the a big difference in results while still sport-
experiments. A current limited power sup- amplifier can withstand an 8.7:1 VSWR at ing and practical for portable operation.

Amplifier Design Basics 2.35

There are numerous inexpensive bipolar
TO RX
transistors that will provide this power in-
cluding many not normally used for.RF.
One should look for devices specified for
a peak current that exceeds twice the an-
ticipated level (1.5 to 2 A for this case),
collector breakdown voltages well above
the expected level (24 V here), and an F, at
least 3 to 5 times the expected operating
frequency. Power dissipation should equal
or exceed the planned output. A suggested
10-W amplifier is shown in Fig 2 . % .
The input resistance is expected to be
lower than for the 1-W amplifier, so we
drive the circuit from a lower impedance
source. This can be an auto-transformer,
as shown in Fig 2.96. or a 3:1 or 4:1 turns 7 MHz
ratio classic transformer. Binocular type
ferrite balun cores are excellent in this Fig 2.97—High efficiency amplifier after W7EL. T1=3-turn primary, 1-turn
secondary, #30 wire, on Fair-Rite 2843002402 Balun core. Count one turn on a
application, noting that each turn now con- balun core as a pass through both holes. L1=0.71 |iH= 131. on T44-6; L2= 1.05 (iH =
sists of one full pass through both holes in 191 on T37-6. L3=15 mH molded RFC. Q is a GE D42C9 plastic power transistor.
the core. Other wideband transformer con-
figurations are listed in the transformer
discussion in the Filter chapter. The input
can also be driven from a low Q L-C-C Tee
network like that used in the output,
designed for an impedance of a few Ohms.
A 10-W output calls for a resistance of
7.2 Q presented to the collector when Fig 2.98—Simple
HEXFET linear
Vcc= 12. (See Eq 2.42) This amplifier uses
amplifier for QRP
tuned circuitry in the form an L-C-C type rigs.
Tee network. This particular topology is
excellent in that component values are
usually practical, network Q can be kept
low for low loss, and once designed, the
network is easily "tweaked" for slightly
different impedances. A good design value
for Q is 2 to 3. The network between the
dotted lines in Fig 2.96 is used for imped-
ance transformation while the filter attenu-
ates harmonics.
The normal Tee network is modified
slightly; a fixed capacitor with a reactance
magnitude near the load resistance value
is placed al the collector. This kills high
frequency gain, helping to ensure VHF
stability. Silver mica capacitors are a good
choice for network capacitors with ceram-
ics for bypass and blocking elements.
A suitable test load is six paralleled
300-12, 2-W resistors. The drive is
increased slowly while monitoring the R F
output and collector current. The output
Tee network capacitors are tuned for maxi-
mum output at each power level. An oscil-
loscope is especially useful during such
experiments, allowing easy observation of
oscillations, should they occur. More
often than not, oscillations will occur at Fig 2.99—Dual band Direct Coupled HEXFET Amplifier after W7EL. This circuit
low frequencies, so a wideband 'scope is operates at 14 and 21 MHz. L1 is 7 turns on a T37-6 and is the inductor for an
not mandatory. This amplifier will prob- L-Network at 21 MHz. The 1NS367 Zener diodes protecting the FET drain add about 140
ably use no more than V«-W of drive, so the pF to the circuit and are a vital part of the network. The band-switch adds more series
builder may wish to add a pad if the driv- inductance for a 14-MHz L-Network. Both impedance transforming networks are
followed by low pass filters. R1,5 kQ, is adjusted for about 20-mA quiescent current in
ing transmitter delivers more than this. the IRF511, while R2, 5 kQ, sets the quiescent current in the VN10 at 40 mA. The keyed
The amplifier is set up for Class-C driver power supply is less than +12 and is varied to establish output power.

2.36 Chapter 2
o p e r a t i o n , a l t h o u g h it c o u l d b e m o d i Tied F i g 2 . 9 8 s h o w s an R F a m p l i f i e r u s i n g i n t e r e s t i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r the e x p e r i -
f o r c l a s s A B l i n e a r o p e r a t i o n w i t h little an I R F 5 1 1 o r t h e I R F 5 1 0 , p r e f e r r e d f o r menter. Although more e x p e n s i v e than
o t h e r c h a n g c r e q u i r e d . L i n e a r b i a s i n g is h i g h e r b r e a k d o w n . E i t h e r part h a s a low H E X F E T s , some vendors build parts
discussed below, " o n " r e s i s t a n c e of 0 . 6 £2, i m p o r t a n t f o r especially for R F power applications. A
e f f i c i e n c y . T h i s c i r c u i t is set up f o r an s e a r c h of t h e w e b c a n y i e l d n u m e r o u s d a t a
o u t p u t of a b o u t 6 W f r o m a 12-V s u p p l y .
An Enhanced Efficiency A 2:1 t u r n s r a t i o t r a n s f o r m e r g e n e r a t e s a
w i t h s u g g e s t e d e x p e r i m e n t s . S e e . for e x -
a m p l e , an i n t e r e s t i n g p a p e r by K 4 X U and
Amplifier 12-£2 d r a i n l o a d . T h i s c l a s s A B c i r c u i t will t h e r e l a t e d W e b site of A d v a n c e d P o w e r
An interesting and subtle amplifier from f u n c t i o n in e i t h e r C W o r l i n e a r S S B a p p l i - T e c h n o l o g y at w w w . a d v a n e e d p o w e r .
R o y L e w a l l e n , W 7 E L , is p r e s e n t e d in c a t i o n s . T h e bias s h o u l d b e a d j u s t e d f o r a com.19
F i g 2 . 9 7 . D u b b e d the ' • B r i c k e t t e , " it w a s q u i e s c e n t c u r r e n t of 100 m A o r m o r e f o r
i n t e n d e d to f o l l o w a 1.5-W o u t p u t , 7 M H z S S B while lower levels are suitable for
QRP transceiver. C W . T h e o u t p u t t r a n s f o r m e r is a b i f i l a r S S B Amplifiers
T h i s a m p l i f i e r u s e d an u n u s u a l t r a n s i s - w i n d i n g on a f e r r i t e c o r c and is s u i t a b l e f o r T h e b i p o l a r and F E T a m p l i f i e r s pre-
tor. a G E D 4 2 C 9 . T h e a v a i l a b l e d r i v e is a n y of t h e H F b a n d s . W e h a v e u s e d this sented can b e a d a p t e d for linear o p e r a t i o n
attenuated with a 3 - d B pad, which was c i r c u i t u p t h r o u g h 14 M H z . T h e F E T as s h o w n in F i g 2.100. B i p o l a r transistor
needed for stability. The original W 7 E L should reside on a modest heat sink. base bias should c o m e from a voltage
application used a 6-dB pad. The ampli- The H E X F E T amplifier uses a 1 0 - 0 source. If the m o r e typical current source is
fier contains the usual Z e n e r protection g a t e r e s i s t o r to p r e s e r v e H F s t a b i l i t y . A u s e d , the D C c u r r e n t c a n n o t e a s i l y
diode, but n o w with a 75-V breakdown. A f e r r i t e b e a d s h o u l d n o t b e s u b s t i t u t e d for i n c r e a s e with R F d r i v e as is n e e d e d f o r
peak c o l l e c t o r v o l t a g e of 65 w a s m e a s u r e d the r e s i s t o r . 1 8 Class AB operation. A voltage source
with this c i r c u i t , e v e n with V ( : ( ; =12.0 V . bias uses a d i o d e as a shunt " r e g u l a t o r , "
An interesting dircct-couplcd amplifier
T h e c i r c u i t t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e 5 0 - 0 load to F i g 2 - I 0 0 A . T h e d i o d e is b i a s e d with a
a p p e a r s in F i g 2 . 9 9 . T h i s circuit, a n o t h e r
a l o w e r v a l u e at t h e c o l l e c t o r is a s i m p l e resistor f r o m the s a m e s u p p l y that p o w e r s
c r e a t i o n of W 7 E L , u s e s a d c c o u p l c d
L - n e t w o r k . T h e r e s i s t a n c e p r e s e n t e d to the t h e a m p l i f i e r . T h e silicon d i o d e is in inti-
I R F 5 1 1 to g e n e r a t e an o u t p u t of 5 W at
c o l l e c t o r is h i g h e r t h a n e x p e c t e d , and is m a t e t h e r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w i t h the
e i t h e r 14 o r 21 M H z with a m e a s u r e d e f f i -
i n d u c t i v e , a l l o w i n g the high R F v o l t a g e s . o u t p u t transistor. S o m e d e s i g n s us a stud-
c i e n c y of a b o u t 7 5 % .
T h e net r e s u l t is a c o l l e c t o r e f f i c i e n c y of m o u n t e d d i o d e bolted to the P A transistor
8 5 % o r g r e a t e r w i t h a n o u t p u t of 7 to 9 W . h e a t sink. O t h e r s a t t a c h the d i o d e to t h e
W h a t b e g a n as a C l a s s C d e s i g n p r o b a b l y Higher Powers transistor with e p o x y .
n o w o p e r a t e s in C l a s s E. T h e m e a s u r e - H E X F E T s o f f e r an i n e x p e n s i v e and T h e B J T a m p l i f i e r is u s u a l l y b i a s e d at
m e n t s h a v e b e e n r e p e a l e d and c o n f i r m e d i n t e r e s t i n g r o u t e to h i g h e r p o w e r . W e h a v e tile q u i e s c e n t level r e c o m m e n d e d by the
w i t h s e v e r a l v e r s i o n s of t h e c i r c u i t , all built single b a n d C W amplifiers for output transistor manufacturer. A 10-W part
showing high efficiency. p o w e r s f r o m 10 to 5 0 W on m a n y of t h e m i g h t u s e an idling c o l l e c t o r c u r r e n t of 2 0
The adjustment procedure was similar H F bands. The inexpensive 1RF530 to 3 0 m A . A l a r g e r c u r r e n t s h o u l d f l o w
to t h a t p r e s e n t e d f o r t h e 10-W d e s i g n . H E X F E T is an e x c e l l e n t c h o i c e f o r the t h r o u g h R - b i a s with the d i o d e s e r v i n g as a
However, Roy kept increasing drive while b a n d s u p t h r o u g h 14 M H z . A 3 0 - W 7 - M H z shunt regulator. Increasing the resistor
adjusting the output network for increased C W a m p l i f i e r is d e s c r i b e d later. c u r r e n t i n c r e a s e s t h e s t a n d i n g c u r r e n t in
power and efficiency. T h e 1 R F P 4 4 0 a n d 1 R F P 4 5 0 h a v e been t h e a m p l i f i e r , o n e of the h a n d l e s a v a i l a b l e
T h e T / R s e r i e s - t u n e d c i r c u i t is a t t a c h e d u s e d in h i g h e f f i c i e n c y C W a m p l i f i e r s d i s - to the e x p e r i m e n t e r f o r i m p r o v e d I M D
to t h e c o l l e c t o r . A l t h o u g h t h e n e t w o r k s c u s s e d later. T h e s e p a r t s s h o u l d a l s o o f f e r p e r f o r m a n c e f r o m the a m p l i f i e r .
p r e s e n t a n i m p c d a n c c less t h a n 5 0 CI to the
r e c e i v e r , the m i s m a t c h is not a p r o b l e m at
7 MHz.

H E X F E T Amplifiers
P o w e r F E T s b e c a m e p o p u l a r in t h e l a t e
1970s. W h i l e s o m e m a n u f a c t u r e r s i n t r o -
d u c e d d e v i c e s s p e c i f i e d f o r R F , the m a r -
ket w a s d o m i n a t e d b y s w i t c h i n g a p p l i c a -
t i o n s . A m a j o r s u p p l i e r is I n t e r n a t i o n a l
R e c t i f i e r w i t h a l i n e of d e v i c e s c a l l e d
+V(TX)
HEXFETs.
T h e H E X F E T s are a v a i l a b l e as both N
and P c h a n n e l e n h a n c e m e n t m o d e p a r t s
with a g a t e t h r e s h o l d a r o u n d 4 V . T h e
t r a n s c o n d u c t a n c e of the typical N - c h a n n e l
d e v i c e is very h i g h , o f t e n r i v a l i n g that of a
b i p o l a r p o w e r t r a n s i s t o r at c o m p a r a b l e cur-
rents. W h i l e the input g a t e is a very high
Fig 2.100—Biasing schemes for linear amplifier operation of (A) bipolar transistors
i m p c d a n c e at D C , h i g h c a p a c i t a n c e at all
and (B) power FETs. The base RFC used with the BJT can have small reactance,
t h r e e t e r m i n a l s limits high f r e q u e n c y gain. for the input impedance is low. The diode is bypassed with a 500-nF electrolytic
H E X F E T s are o f t e n high v o l t a g e d e v i c e s , capacitor. The base resistor may or may not be needed. R-bias in (A) should have
a l l o w i n g a w i d e variety of s u p p l y v o l t a g e s . moderate dissipation, for the current may be high.

Amplifier D e s i g n B a s i c s 2.37
 Fig 2.1OOB shows F E T biasing for S S B . region. Second, transformer coupling tially in parallel for biasing. F o r this rea-
T h i s is generally simpler than with a B J T . between device inputs will prevent large son, and to help maintain R F balance, R F
for bias current is low. The F E T bias is reverse voltages on bipolar base-emitter power bipolar transistors arc often sold in
easily controlled with small transistors, junctions. One forward biased junction matched pairs. T h i s has become so com-
easing T / R switching problems. As with serves to clamp the reverse voltage on the mon that the price penalty is minimal.
bipolar transistor amplifiers, the F E T cir- other device. Finally, the balanced opera- The ease of F E T biasing includes push
cuits present a compromise between effi- tion will reduce even order harmonic and pull amplifiers, which is illustrated in the
ciency and linearity. Amplifier TMD can intermodulation distortion. practical circuit shown in Fig 2.101. This
be reduced w-ith higher standing currents, Negative feedback is often used with S S B linear amplifier, the work o f A A 3 X
although the heat sink requirements grow. Class A B amplifiers, usually in the form (now K 3 B T ) . uses a pair of IRF51 Is in a
Amplifier biasing methods are dis- of an ac coupled resistor between base and push pull circuit to develop an output of 30
cussed in more detail in the text by Dye collector, or gate and drain. Feedback sta- W PEP. The circuit uses a solid ferrite block
and Granberg. 2 0 Included are schemes for bilizes gain over frcqucncy. The negative for the output transformer. Fig 2.102 shows
temperature compensation. feedback is applied individually to each a sketch for the output transformer, T 3 .
Push-pull operation is common with device in a push-pull pair. Negative feed- Separate bias lines set up a quiescent
both F E T and bipolar linear amplifiers. back is sometimes extracted from a wind- current for each F E T . A D V M measuring
There are several advantages to this. First, ing in an output transformer or bias ele- total current during bias adjustment allows
two devices are used instead o f one, ment in a push pull pair. the two currents to be set equal to each
spreading the thermal load over a larger Push pull bipolar transistors arc essen- other. While matched transistors might be

To
IRF511 Low-Pass
Filter
T3

)
Biasl

JB
2:3
1:1:1

V-dd=28
Fig 2.102—Transformer detail for T3 of
the AA3X amplifier. The primary, A-B,
shown here as a single turn, but
Fig 2.101—An amplifier using a push-pull pair of IRF511s. This circuit, the creation actually uses two turns, two complete
of AA3X, is capable of up to 30-W output with Vdd=28 V on the lower HF bands. passes through the core. The secondary
Reduced output and gain are available at 14 and even 21 MHz. Input transformer T1 (also just shown as one turn) is 3 turns,
is 12 trifilar turns #26 on a FT50-43 ferrite toroid. T2 is 12 bifilar turns of #22 on a three complete passes through the
stack of two FT37-50 toroids. This amplifier was originally in QST, Hints and Kinks, core. The windings end on opposite
for January, 1993, page 50. 21 See reference and text for practical details. sides of the ferrite block, a BN-43-7051.

Fig 2.103—100-W BJT Amplifier. This circuit, originally

described in Motorola Engineering Bulletin, EB63, 22 is capable
.ow Pass Filtei of an output power of over 100 W from 3 to 30 MHz. Q1 and Q2
Outpul are matched MRF454s mounted to a large heat sink. L1 is a
piece of #18 wire loaded with 9 ferrite beads. Both trans-
formers have a 4:1 turns ratio with the winding, consisting of
T ferrite loaded brass pipe, attached to the transistors. The
one-turn windings are center tapped. The 4-turn input and
output windings are plastic covered wire wound through the
center of the tubes. Similar transformers could be built with
3/16-inch diameter brass tubing (available at hobby stores)
loaded with FB-77-63 Ferrite beads. T1 would use 4 while T2
would use 10 beads. A larger bead and tubing size would be
better for T2. The transformers used in our amplifier were
supplied with the kit from Communication Concepts, Inc. of
Beavercreek, Ohio. See QST advertisements for a current
address. CCI has several other kits for power amplifiers.

2.38 Chapter 2
desirable, K3BT reports that he has had initially applied, the relay was activated. though intended for differing applications.
good results with devices with severely But amplifier current started to grow Class-C amplifiers are designed by pick-
mismatched thresholds. Equal currents of before the output was properly terminated, ing a load resistance using Eq 2.42 and
about 20 mA per transistor are recom- causing the amplifier to draw excessive designing an output network to achieve
mended. This amplifier has been used on current. The power supply was current that load at the operating frequency. The
the amateur bands from 3.5 to 21 M H / . limited at 25 A. As the supply went into device is then biased for zero current with-
although the available output power is less limiting, the voltage dropped to 7 V before out drive. With the usual threshold, appli-
at the higher end. starting to recover. The relay then dropped cation of an input sine wave produces
The output transformer (3:2 turns ratio) out and the cycle repeated. The relay chat- Class-C operation.
presents a load of 22 Q between the two tered for about half a second before stabi- Linear amplifier design is similar. An
drains. The resulting load is lower than lizing. The RF actuated circuitry was output network is designed for the peak
might be desired for high efficiency, a eventually replaced with an electronic T/R envelope output, again with Eq 2.42. Mov-
common tradeoff with linear amplifiers system with diode switching. ing toward even lower load resistance may
favoring lower distortion. The K3BT T2, the output transformer, has a single enhance linearity at the price of efficiency.
amplifier should be built with a large heat turn between collectors with a 4-turn sec- The linear amplifier is biased for class AB
sink, especially if experiments are planned ondary. The 4:1 turns ratio transforms the operation. This begins with class A bias,
with variable bias currents. 5 0 - 0 load to appear as a 3.1-Q load, but usually allows device current to
Careful low impedance termination of col lector-to-collcctor. The load applied to increase with applied RF drive. While
the HEXFET inputs provides stability. The each collector is then 1.56 Q. Rearrange- efficiency at the peak envelope power is
power gain is still high enough to make the ment of Eq 2.42 shows thai an output of 58 poor, the normal voice has an average
parts very useful, even with the reduccd W should be available from each device at power well below the peak, providing a
gain related to the low source impedance. V r c =13.5 V for a net output of 117 W. useful compromise.
The stability problem is largely the result In spite of the T/R problems, the ampli- An amplifier discussed earlier (the Fig
of internal feedback within the FETs. fier is a recommended circuit. The 2.97 circuit by W7EL) featured improved
While extremely difficult with bipolar MRF454 is very robust, and has provided efficiency. It is interesting to examine the
transistors, it becomes possible with FETs us with classic power amplifier experi- networks that produced this result.
to neutralize the circuits, canceling the ence. We recommend modified bypassing Fig 2.104 shows a schematic and a
destabilizing effects of internal feedback. to use parallel capacitors of equal value. Smith Chart impedance plot for the output
These methods were common place with matching network the Beginner's Trans-
vacuum tubes, but have largely been
ignored with semiconductors. A neutral- A Look at some High mitter of Chapter 1. Frequency sweeps
from 3.5 to 21 MHz for this 7-MHz
ized push-pull 18-MHz linear power Efficiency Amplifiers design. The impedance at 7 MHz is nearly
amplifier using IRF-51 Is is included in All of the power amplifiers presented real at about 25 SI, providing the needed
Chapter 11. are conceptually simple, many using the load forClass-C operation. The impedance
A high power bipolar transistor ampli- same or similar schematic diagrams, even is capacitive for all other frequencies. This
fier is shown in Fig 2.103. This circuit was
originally described in a Motorola engi-
neering builletin, EB63 (ref 22), and was
offered in kit form from CCT. (www.
communication-coiicepts.com) The am-
plifier is capable of over 100 W of output
over the entire HF spectrum. A matched
pair of MRF454s is used with a 13.5-V
power supply.
This circuit is a classic, similar to many
of the output amplifiers in typical trans-
ceivers. Brass pipe transformers are used
at both the input and the output. Some
negative feedback is used, along with
capacitxvc loading to improve gain flat-
ness. This version of the amplifier has been
tested over the 2 to 30-MHz band and
found to operate as described in the appli-
cations note, although we did not measure
IMD. The circuit has been used exten-
si vely on the 40-M band. It performed well
as a SSB amplifier, being easily driven
by a 1,5-W QRP SSB transceiver. It has
seen more service following a 1-W CW
transmitter.
The original version of this amplifier
included an RF actuated circuit to control a
built-in T/R relay. The RF actuated scheme
was found to be completely unsuitable for Fig 2.104—Smith chart plot of the impedance "seen" by the collector of the 2N5321
either CW or SSB use. When RF drive was 2-W "Beginner's Transmitter" from Chapter 1.

Amplifier Design Basics 2.39

 z

Fig 2.106—S0-n Smith chart display of

impedance for a 400-W amplifier
operating at 13.5 MHz. See text.
Fig 2.105—Smith Chart plot for the Brickette of W7EL, shown in Fig 2.97. The
impedance is inductive until reaching the second harmonic. There Is a slight
change in the plot when additional C is added at the collector to account for the
Zener diode.

Fig 2.107—Diplexer, bandpass-bandstop type, used for Fig 2.108—Top view of 100-W bipolar amplifier. The board is
harmonic attenuation from a 7-MHz transmitter. The reader bolted to a large heat sink that is also the top of the module,
should consult the original QST article23 for details.

amplifier <7 M H z . 2 . 2 - W output, 12-voIl C l a s s - C design. Z b e c o m e s capacitive only- has paved the way f o r S S B with non-linear
supply) was stable and reproducible, but a b o v e the 2 n d h a r m o n i c . This amplifier has high e f f i c i e n c y a m p l i f i e r s . 2 4 T h e recent
had only 5 0 % e f f i c i e n c y . excellent e f f i c i e n c y (85 to 903-) at 7 to w o r k of greatest interest to the e x p e r i -
The contrasting amplifier was W 7 E L ' s 9 - W output (7 M H z , 12-V supply) and has menter e v o l v e s from the E E department at
" B r i c k e t t e " of Fig 2.97. T h e output net- been stable. California Institute of T e c h n o l o g y . - 5
work is also a jt-network. and the resulting C l a s s - E a m p l i f i e r s have b e c o m e of Fig 2.106 shows an example of a high
impedance plot is shown in Fig 2.105. T h e increasing interest in the past f e w years. efficiency Class-E amplifier. 2 6 The partial
plot differs f r o m the simple Class-C cir- Recent H E X F E T o f f e r i n g s f r o m Interna- schematic shows two modifications to the
cuit. T h e impedance has a real part of about tional Rectifier provide very high p o w e r simple pi-nctwork used in the other two cir-
17 Q n e a r the d e s i g n f r e q u e n c y , but is capability at modest price. W h i l e the cuits. First, the normal inductor is replaced
i n d u c t i v e for m u c h of the s w e e p . R L is amplifiers are now used only for digital by a scries LC. This provides the same
about twice that we would use for a applications (including C W , ) recent work inductive reactance at the 13.5-MHz

2.40 Chapter 2
 of the 13.5-MHz drive frequency of this
example. This amplifier provides an out-
put of 400 W with a drain efficiency of
86%. This circuit, which uses a 120-V
supply, could be adapted to the 20-meter
amateur band. The load impedance is
13.5+j 1 9 n a t the 13.5-MHz operating fre-
quency, bul is purely capacitive by the
Fig 2.109—A 1.5-W 7-MHz amplifier time the 2n<l harmonic is reached. Eq 2.42
using a 2N3866.
would predict an 18-Q load for this output
and V d d . This circuit is very similar to the
7 - M H z design presented in QST for May
1997."
Spectral purity is an issue with these
amplifiers. The resonant trap at twice the
operating frequency included in the
designs helps. One would normally insert
Fig 2.110—An RF power amplifier using additional low pass filters to attenuate har-
an IRF510 HEXFET. The output network monics. However, this normal low pass
is an LCC type Tee-network. Up to 10 W filter has an input impedance that is real
was obtained from this circuit. and 50 <2 at the operating frequency, but is
almost a short circuit at the harmonics. An
Fig 2.111—A high efficiency 7-MHz improved harmonic reduction filler form
design frequency, bul greater inductive re- amplifier (circuit of Fig 2.97), is shown in Fig 2.107. This circuit is called
actance at higher frequencies. This pre- a diplexcr and has the characteristic that
sents the needed load to the FET drain voltage across the device is close to zero. the input impedance is 50 fl at all frequen-
needed to allow the voltage to grow ("ring cies. Olher diplexers are used elsewhere in
The other modification is at the load end
the book.
up") to values much larger than the supply of the network. The usual parallel capaci-
and offer the phase control needed for effi- tor is replaced with a parallel-connected Fig 2.108 through Fig 2.111 show some
ciency. A Class-E amplifier is character- series tuned circuit (88 nH and 390 pF). of the design implementations described
ized by high current flowing only when the This circuit is resonant at the 2 n d harmonic in this section.

2.11 A 30-W, 7-MHZ POWER AMPLIFIER

While Q R P can be great fun, especially input C of the IRF530. A 10-Q, 1-W resis- trans-match with a peaked high pass char-
in a portable application, there are limes tor provides a wide band termination. acteristic is used. The combination emu-
when more power can make a large differ- The drain circuit is supplied with a lates the diplexer described earlier.
ence in station effectiveness. The ampli- +25-V source through an RFC ( L I ) made A T/R system is included to supply a
fier shown in Fig 2.112 is intended lo boost with a large p o w d e r e d iron loroid. The signal lo the receiver i n p u t As shown, ihis
the output of a Q R P rig to the 30 to 40-W exact value is not critical. The R F resis- system has a measured insertion loss of
level with an inexpensive H E X F E T . A tance that should be presented to the drain about 3 dB. the result of the low Q R F
moderate heal sink is used, allowing for a 30-W output is 10 fl. This is realized choke at 1.1 and the shunting effect of C I .
extended testing and operation. wilh T2, a bifilar wound ferrite trans- This loss of no consequence at 7 MHz.
The amplifier requires about I W of former. This part of the circuit is open to An adjustable bias is available for this
drive for full output. If more drive is avail- considerable experimentation for those so amplifier, provided by a P N P switch cir-
able, it may be dissipated in an input inclined. T2 is followed by a low pass fil- cuit keyed wilh a signal f r o m Ihe driving
attenuator. A 3.3-dB pad is shown in the ter for harmonic attenuation. Inductor L5 transmitter. A grounding signal is applied
figure. This is followed by T l , a bifilar is tuned for parallel resonance at 7 MHz. at J1 to turn on the PNP switch. F E T bias
wound ferrite transformer providing gate An attached resistor then provides a is adjusted al Rl (SI open) for a few mil-
drive for the FET. The low i m p c d a n c c termination for the amplifier transistor at liamperes of drain current with no R F drive
drive is needed to accommodate the high frequencies other than 7 M H z when a during key-down periods. The switching

Amplifier Design Basics 2.41

 gests stability p r o b l e m s . W e saw no such
p r o b l e m s with this amplifier.
Monitoring drain voltage with an oscil-
l o s c o p e ( 6 0 - M H z b a n d w i d t h ) revealed
+25v " I some disturbing characteristics. When C1
" JTT'J? L4 Pc=30B is absent, the drain voltage c o n t a i n e d
m
~ 0.32 C I , ^a extensive harmonic current, evident f r o m
-- 22 F I M T T
, -is--1— •-< P the f i n e structure a r o u n d the p o s i t i v e
Y J I J^Tl
, , . T " 1T 1T ^
_
560 680
J-
T
!•«/.»
peaks. While these h a r m o n i c s are blocked
f r o m the outside world by the low pass fil-
ter, they should be controlled or r e d u c e d
• ^V110T T = { T ® 1I" f
Li { 190 I at the F E T where they can c o m p r o m i s e ef-
(Alternative ( ai J j , ficiency. The low pass filter was tempo-
output Match) Jt/SM —
—
~ rarily removed f r o m the system, allowing
I !»> LC | ^H
the wideband output load to appear at poi nt
^ ^ 30 ft
300 " B " in the circuit. T h i s i m m e d i a t e l y
•f cleansed the signal at the drain, r e m o v i n g
I'T -T' the high f r e q u e n c y spikes. T h e low pass
J1 71-5 b i f i l a r t u r n s #22 on JSK-43-201 balur. cnr« filter appears as a large shunt capacitance
$ -rJ3.9K
idkj- at p l a n e B in the f i g u r e . T h i s load is
7?-lH b: f i l a r t-jrns #20 on FT-61-114
l » — i l l mi. B i a s - 11-S2S #18 on 1136-6 reflected through T 2 . allowing the trans-
12- 3.3 UH, 3 l « r 9 « l e c r i t e t o a d s , FE43-sin f o r m e r leakage i n d u c t a n c e to appear at the
^ n i r L3,L4,L6-l.luH, 17t #22, T5C 6 F E T drain. This is the load that will allow
15-16L #22, 'L'50-2 the h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y currents to flow.
17-15 UH molded RFC
IS
—
[R2 SlT1
s - Mica -.->n:pression ^~ . The ideal solution for this situation is a
u„
diplexed low pass output filter, mentioned
a b o v e . Sabin studied d i p l e x e r filters
and p r e s e n t e d his w o r k in QEX f o r
July/August, 1999. 2 7 T h e amplifier used
Fig 2.112—Schematic for the 30-W, 7-MHz power amplifier. See text for details.
with these filters was described in the N o v /
D c c 1999 £>£X; 2fl both p a p e r s are e x c e l -
lent and arc included on the book C D .
W c elected not to use a diplexer filter in
this amplifier. Rather, CI is included at
the drain. W i t h C I in place, the drain volt-
age goes up to about 60 V, well within the
F E T ratings. Although there is still distor-
tion in the drain w a v e f o r m , harmonic cur-
rents are not excessive.
Several t r a n s f o r m e r s t r u c t u r e s w e r e
Fig 2.113 —The tried at T2. T h e most interesting variation
30-W amplifier. replaced the wideband t r a n s f o r m e r with a
narrow band LC'C type T e e - n e t w o r k , also
shown in the figure. This circuit was
adjusted for m a x i m u m output while slowly
advancing drive power. Over 45 W of out-
put was available with this circuit. The
drain waveform was very clean, reaching a
peak of 75 V. C I was still present at the
F E T drain during this e x p e r i m e n t . The
T-network was designed to provide 10 fl to
the drain with a Q of 5. Experiments with
other networks will allow you to move over
the ill-defined border between class B or C
action r e m o v e s bias during rcccivc, pre- than the input drive.
operation toward class E. FETs with higher
venting amplifier noise f r o m o v e r w h e l m - Initial turn-on begins by terminating the
voltage ratings should be considered for
ing the receiver. T h e standing current for a m p l i f i e r in a 50-£2 load with at least 30 W
these experiments.
S S B operation can be a d j u s t e d to larger of dissipation capability. A current lim-
values, up to 1 A. M o n i t o r heat sink tem- ited p o w e r supply is attached. R F drive This circuit has been used in several
perature to be sure that it n e v e r b e c o m e s well below the required level is applied variations for years and on several b a n d s
too hot during transmit periods. while the output is monitored with an os- up through 14 M H z . H i g h e r b a n d s should
T h r o w i n g switch SI to the low power cilloscopc or R F detector. D r i v e is slowly- also be possible with e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . W e
position a l l o w s the p o w e r output to be i n c r e a s e d w h i l e e x a m i n i n g the o u t p u t have a l w a y s been i m p r e s s e d with the
d r o p p e d to levels from well below a watt w a v e f o r m s . Clean signals with smoothly- robust character of the dcvices. The typi-
up to 5 W , controlled by a knob on R2. This v a r y i n g levels should be seen with cal p o w e r supply used is a surplus o p e n -
s c h c m e works well even with an output less changes in drive. Any sudden c h a n g e sug- f r a m e linear regulated t y p e with 4-A

2.42 Chapter 2
 current limiting. Typical current is 2.5 A.
T h e use of slight f o r w a r d bias helps to
guarantee stability.
The present interest in Q R P operation is
g e n e r a l l y a p p l a u d e d as b o t h f u n and
worthwhile. However, many folks miss
s o m e exciting experimental r e w a r d s by an
overly strong a d h e r e n c e to a synthetic
5 - W limit. This amplifier is a chance to
e x a m i n e the other side of the p o w e r
switch. See Fig 2.113 and F i g 2 . 1 1 4 for
t w o views of the 30-W amplifier.

Fig 2.114—Inside the 30-W amplifier.

REFERENCES
1. W . H a y w a r d , Introduction to Radio 12. C. Trask, " C o m m o n B a s e A m p l i f i e r QEX. Jul. 1999, p 63.
Frequency Design, Prentice-Hall, 1982, Linearization U s i n g A u g m e n t a t i o n , " RF 20. N . D y e and H. G r a n b e r g . Radio
and A R R L . 1994. Design. Oct, 1999, p p 30-34. Frequency Transistors: Principles and
2. P. H o r o w i t z and W . Hill, The Art of 13. C. Trask. "Distortion I m p r o v e m e n t of Practical Applications. Butterworth-
Electronics, S e c o n d Edition. C a m b r i d g e Lossless Feedback Amplifiers Using H e i n e m a n n , 1993.
University Press, 1989. A u g m e n t a t i o n , " Proceedings of the 1999 21. J. W y c k o f f , "Hints and Kinks", QST,
3. P. G r a y and R. M e y e r , Analysis and IEEE Midwest Symposium on Circuits Jan, 1993, p 50-51.
Design of Analog Integrated Circuits, and Systems, Las Cruccs, N M , A u g , 1999.
22. T. B i s h o p , " I 4 0 W (PKP) A m a t e u r
Second Edition, Wiley, 1984. Vol 2, pp 951-954.
Radio Linear Amplifier 2-30 MHz",
4. IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical 14. V. K o r e n , " A N e w N e g a t i v e F e e d b a c k Communications Engineering Bulletin,
and Electronics Terms, A N S I / I E E E Std A m p l i f i e r , " RF Design. F e b . 1989, p p 54- E B 6 3 , M o t o r o l a S e m i c o n d u c t o r Products,
100/1984, P u b l i s h e d by I E E E and 60. Inc, Phoenix. AZ, Jul. 1978.
Distributed by John Wiley, 1984. 15. R. C a m p b e l l . " A N o v e l H i g h 23. See R e f e r e n c e 17.
5. See R e f e r e n c e 1. Frequency Single-Sideband Transmitter 24. R. C a m p b e l l . " A Novel High
Using Constant-Envelope Modulation", Frequency Single-sideband Transmitter
6. See R e f e r e n c e I. 1998 IEEE MTT-S International Using C o n s t a n t - E n v e l o p e M o d u l a t i o n . "
7. The ARRL Handbook for Radio Microwave Symposium Digest, 98.2. 1998 MTT-S International Microwave
Amateurs, A R R L , 1995, pp 17.5-8, 17.10, (1998 Vol II I M W S Y M ] ) pp 1121-1124. Symposium, Digest 9 8 . 2 . ( 1 9 9 8 Vol. TJ.
17.22-25. [ M W S Y M ] ) : p p 1121-1 124.
16. H. Krauss, C. Bostian, and F. Raab,
8. D . N o r t o n , "High D y n a m i c R a n g e Solid State Radio Engineering, Wiley, 25. See R e f e r e n c e 17.
Transistor Amplifiers Using Lossless 1980.
26. J . f . D a v i s and D.B. Rutledge, " A L o w -
F e e d b a c k , " Microwave Journal, May,
17. E. Lau, K. Chiu, J. Qin, J. Davis. K. Cost Class-E P o w e r A m p l i f i e r with Sine
1976, pp 53-57.
Potter, and D. Rutledge. " H i g h E f f i c i e n c y W a v e D r i v e , " I 998 MTT-S Inter-national
9. U. R o h d e , "Eight W a y s to Better R a d i o C l a s s - E P o w e r A m p l i f i e r s " QST, M a y , Microwave Symposium, Digest 98.2.
Receiver D e s i g n " , Electronics. F e b 20, 1997, pp 3 9 - 4 2 and Jun, 1997, pp 39-42. (1998 Vol. 11. [ M W S Y M ] ) : pp 1113-1116.
1975, p 87. 18. T e c h n i c a l C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , QST, 27. W . Sabin, " D i p l e x e r Filters for an H F
10. See R e f e r e n c e I. p 216. N o v . 1989. p 61. M O S F E T P o w e r A m p l i f i e r , " QEX, Jul/
11. W . C a r v e r , "A H i g h - P e r f o r m a n c e 19. R. Frey, " A 3 0 0 - W M O S F E T Linear Aug. 1999, p p 20-26.
AGC/1F S u b s y s t e m " , QST, M a y , 1996. pp A m p l i f i e r for 50 M H z , " QF.X, M a y , 1999. 28. W. Sabin, "A 100-W M O S F E T H F
39-44. pp 5 0 - 5 4 and " L e t t e r s to ihe E d i t o r , " Amplifier", QEX. Nov/Dec, 1999, pp 31-40.

Amplifier Design Basics 2.43

 CHAPTER

Filters and Impedance

Matching Circuits

Filters c o n s t i t u t e one of the m a j o r p e r f o r m a n c e and equipment cost. R C active and crystal filters. Filters can
blocks in a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s system and There are several ways of segmenting also be classified by the way they deal with
are especially i m p o r t a n t to the radio filters into groups. T h e usual s c h e m e seg- impulses of energy. T h e filters presented
experimenter. The performance offered m e n t s filters a c c o r d i n g to f r e q u e n c y in this c h a p t e r are generally " i n f i n i t e
by a filter m a y well d e f i n e the p e r f o r - response, such as low pass vs high pass. i m p u l s e r e s p o n s e " filters, or UR. Finite
m a n c e a n d / o r cost of a p r o j e c t . T h e O t h e r s m e t h o d s segment by the kind of impulse response filters (FIR) are detailed
e x p e r i m e n t e r w h o can design and build c o m p o n e n t s used. In that regard, this c h a p - in a later chapter e m p h a s i z i n g digital sig-
his or h e r o w n filters has control over that ter deals first with L C filters, and later with nal processing (DSP).

3.1 FILTER BASICS

A filter is, in the most general sense, a
circuit b l o c k that linearly m o d i f i e s the
nature of the signals applied to it. When
we say linear, we m e a n that the output is
a replica of the input, changed in ampli-
tude and/or phase. H o w e v e r , n o additional
frequencies appear.
T h e term domain refers to our e m p h a s i s
when d e s c r i b i n g and m e a s u r i n g a phe-
n o m e n o n . W h e n a filter is examined in the
f r e q u e n c y d o m a i n , we characterize the fil-
ter by the way it behaves with different
f r e q u e n c i e s . W e m a y then change f o c u s
and e x a m i n e the time domain response.
F o r e x a m p l e , w e m a y investigate the time
delay imposed u p o n a signal as it passes
through a filter. T h e D S P filter d e s i g n e r
has the ability to simultaneously e x a m i n e
and o f t e n control b o t h the time and f r e -
q u e n c y d o m a i n responses.
T h e r e s p o n s e of a filter is m e a s u r e d by
e x a m i n i n g the t r a n s f e r properties of the
circuit. T h e voltage transfer function is the
output voltage (usually across a termina-
tion) d i v i d e d by the input v o l t a g e that
caused the output. This is j u s t the familiar
voltage gain that we used with amplifiers. Fig 3.1—Low pass (liter characteristics showing the passband and stopband,
In the case of a filter, that " g a i n " is usually bandwidth, 3-dB cutoff, passband ripple, and Insertion loss. This filter has
a loss, a n u m b e r less than one, with a cor- approximately 0.5 dB IL at the frequency of peak response while passband ripple
Is also 0.5 dB. The vertical axis is the gain through the filter, output power Vs
responding negative d B value. available input power when the filter Is properly terminated. (Formally, the usual
Simple filters are built from mathemati- gain used Is the forward scattering parameter, S21.) Horizontal axis is frequency.

Filters arid Impedance Matching Circuits 3.1

 tional variations in gain within the pass-
band occur with some fillers; these varia-
tions are termed passband ripple.
A high-pass filter is similar lo the low
pass except that the regions are inter-
changed: the passband. the region contain-
ing desired signals, is now above the
Low Pass High Pass
stopband.
A bandpass filter is one that passes a
given region, often narrow, while reject-
Frequency Frequawy
ing most frequencies. The bandwidth of a
bandpass filter is the difference between
Bandpass Band-Reject two points 3 dB below a peak. A band-
reject filter is the opposite, a filter thai
passes most of the spectrum while reject-
ing a specified region. Finally, an all-pass
filter is one that passes all frequencies
applied to its input. The all-pass filter is
useful because it can alter the phase of sig-
Frequency Frequency nals passing through it without altering
signal amplitude. The various types (ex-
cept for the all-pass) are summarized with
Fig 3.2—The frequency responses of various filter forms. regard to frequency response in F i g 3.2.
Passive filters conserve energy; power
flowing into the input must go somewhere.
If input energy is at a frequency within the
tally ideal inductors and capacitors. Such filters is transducer gain. filter passband. that energy emerges at the
a filter, one without resistors, is called A low-pass filter is one that transfers all filter outpul where it can be used. ( A frac-
lossless. All o f the power applied to a input frequencies below a specified cutoff tion of the energy is lost in any real, passive
lossless filter is available at the output. frequency. The spectrum below the cutoff filter, being dissipated in the losses o f the
Real filters containing resistive elements, is called the passband while the region of inductors and capacitors that form the cir-
desired or otherwise, will suffer from some higher attenuation above the cutoff is cuit.) In contrast, energy in the filter stop-
loss. Loss in dB is a positive number, and called the stopband, A filter dissipates band is reflected. That is. an impedance
loss as a power ratio is greater than 1. some of the available power applied, mismatch is created by the filter elements
The traditional filters we use are classi- called insertion loss. The filler of Fig 3-1 such that power is not efficiently delivered
fied with regard to frequency domain re- has an insertion loss ( I L ) of about half a from the source, through the filter and to
sponse, illustrated with a low pass filter in dB at the highest frequency peak. I L is the output. Most L C fillers display this
Fig 3.1. This figure is a plot of filter gain about 0.1 dB at very low frequency. The property, allowing us to use input imped-
vs frequency. W e encountered several dif- cutoff frequency is usually defined as that ance match as another way to examine filter
ferent kinds of power gain in Chapter 2. frequency where the response is 3 dB less performance. The primary performance in-
The one usually used with radio frequency than the peak passband response. Addi- dicator remains the transfer function.

3.2 THE LOW-PASS FILTER—DESIGN AND EXTENSION

A low pass is afilter that passes frequen- tail can be found in Introduction to Radio ductors with one shunt capacitor. With
cies below a specified cutoff frequency Frequency Design' or numerous other proper design, this filter will have exactly
while attenuating those above. It is a vital texts. the same transfer function as that o f
component o f a l m o s l any communications A simple three-element low-pass filter Fig 3.3A. This is a common detail of fil-
system. The low pass is also the basis for is given in F i g 3 J . This circuit consists of ters: they often have dual forms.
other filter forms. Once w e have a low- a series inductor and a pair of shunt ca- W e can tell by inspection that both f i l -
pass filter designed, cataloged, and under- pacitors. The filter is driven with a genera- ters of Fig 3.3 arc low-pass circuits. The
stood. the properties and the component tor with a source resistance Rs. and is ter- series inductor is a short circuit at dc and
values can be extended to generate any o f minated in a load o f R L The source and has reactive impedance that grows with
the other basic filter types. One extension load are a vital part o f the circuit; the trans- frequency. Hence, it will inhibit the f l o w
changes the low pass into a high-pass cir- fer function depends upon having both of energy through the circuit more as fre-
cuit. Another modification changes the ends of the filter properly terminated. A quency increases. The same argument can
low pass to a bandpass. A band-reject fil- filler that is terminated in resistive loads at be made about the capacitors. They behave
ter is a direct result of transforming a high- each end. input and output, is called a as an open circuit at dc. However, as fre-
pass circuit, itself derived from a low-pass doublv-terniinated filter. Most of the L C quency increases, they show lower and
prototype. The practical application de- filters that are interesting to us will be dou- lower impedance, more effectively shunt-
tails of these methods will be presented, bly terminated. ing ihe energy flowing in the circuit.
although many mathematical details will Figure 3.3B shows another three-ele- A low-pass filter will have a number of
be ignored in this treatment. Analytic de- ment filter. This one uses two series in- elements equaling the order. The filters of

3.2 Chapter 3
 kind of error. This filter type allows ripples
of equal amplitude to occur within the
passband. Three transfer functions for
Chebyshev low-pass filters are shown in
Fig 3.6. The three circuits are all 5-pole, or
5th-order low-pass filters, now using a l
MHz ripple cutoff frequency. The circuits
have passband ripples of 1. 2 and
3 dB. Even though the three filters show
large ripples, they all show 0 dB loss at
points through the passband. The frequen-
cies are not a function of ripple value.
These filters were designed for ripple cut-
Fig 3.5—Butterworth filter transfer off frequency. That is. a filter with 1-dB
Fig 3.3—Three element, or 3rd-order functions showing the passband passband ripple will have the last point of
low-pass filters. details.
-1 dB response at the ripple cutoff fre-
quency. Chebyshev filters can be designed
for either a desired 3-dB cutoff, or a ripple
o 0 cutoff. Odd ordered Chebyshev filters
-10
1
V V
VV i fi
have zero attenuation at zero frequency
while even ordered versions will have adc
\\
/
-20 -1 v //

i
m -30 *i attenuation equal to the ripple. Stopband
£2 CD - 2
T) *
/ attenuation is a strong function of pass-
13 -40 i band ripple. The more ripple allowed
i within the passband, the greater the
-50 -3 i
i stopband is anenuatcd.
-60 i
t
t There are numerous other polynomial
-70 -4
0 1 2 3 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 types that form useful and interesting
Frequency (MHz) Frequency (MHz) low-pass filters. Some are of direct inter-
est for low-pass filters while others are of
Fig 3.4—Transfer function for low-pass greater utility as the beginnings of other
filters with order 3 , 5 and 7. Adding Fig 3.6—Chebyshev 5th-order low-pass
filter transfer functions showing filter types. For example, the Bessel filter,
sections will increase stopband
attenuation. passband ripples of 1,2, and 3 dB. also know as the max flat delay filter, is
These extreme ripple values are rarely often used as a starting point for bandpass
used, but illustrate the concepts. Note filters with minimum ringing. This will be
that there is a half cycle of ripple for discussed later with LC and quartz crystal
each filter element. bandpass filter design.
Fig 3.3 are 3rd-order filters. A low pass
with 5 elements is a 5th-order circuit and
offers greater attenuation in the stopband.
The component type must alternate as we
Low-Pass Filter Design
progress down the low-pass filter, going The design of practical low-pass filters
from series inductor to shunt capacitor and described as a Butterworth polynomial. begins with tables of normalized values.
so forth. If there were, for example, two Another popular shape is the Chebyshev. These component values, g(n). are either
series inductors next to each other, they There are many more. The ideal is a brick capacitor or inductor values for the «-th
would behave as one single inductor. (The wall low pass filter, an unattainable goal part in a low-pass filter with a 1 Q termi-
term "order" comes from the mathematics. with an absolutely flat response through- nation and a cutoff frequency of" l/(2ir) Hz,
A 5th-order low-pass filter has a transfer out its passband. and infinite attenuation While this is rarely a filter that anyone
function where the denominator is a 5th- in the stopband. The responses of Fig 3.4 would wish to build directly, it is a conve-
order polynomial, meaning that the fre- suggest that achieving the ideal is going to nient form for scaling to practical filters.
quency appears raised to the 5th power.) be difficult. Wanting to do as well as we It's also a mathematical simplification.
can with minimum difficulty, we accept Table 3.1 shows some g(n) values for a
Fig 3.4 shows response plots for three
some compromise. By picking different few representative low-pass filters. The
different low-pass filters. These circuits
compromises, we will end up with differ- Butterworth part of the table gives data in
all have a 3-dB cutoff frequency of 1 MHz,
ent filter shapes. terms of a 3 dB cutoff frequency, while the
but differ in the number of components.
These filters have order 3, 5 and ?. Odd- The Butterworth filter is one that is Chebyshev filter data are calculated on the
order pi filters are popular, offering maxi- designed to be maximally flat within the basis of a ripple cutoff.
mum performance vs the number of in- passband. (The slope of the transfer func- A practical low-pass filter is easily
ductors used. tion is to be zero at zero frequency.) This designed with data from Table 3.1.
is illustrated in greater detail with Fig 3.5. Design begins by picking a cutoff fre-
a repeat of Fig 3.4 showing only passband quency in Hz and a resistive termination,
Filter Shapes details. All of the filters are flat at zero in SI, for each end of the filter. The filters
All three of the filters analyzed in Fig frequency. Although the curves are that are designed from the table are doubly
3,4 used a Butterworth design. This refers smooth throughout the passband, attenua- terminated in equal values. Having pickcd
to the mathematical details that describe tion grows as we approach cutoff. the critical parameters, a low-pass filter
the filter; this one has a transfer function The Chebyshev filter allows a different has inductor and capacitor values given by

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.3

 can pick a number and position of turns as frequencies. The required passband is
s(")-R0
L(n). Et| 3.1 needed to realize a required value. But often no more than 10 or 20% in width. It
2 • ji- f capacitors tend to cornc only in standard is not necessary to do a good j o b at very
values. The non-standard values can be low f r e q u e n c i e s . Chebyshev or Butter-
synthesized with parallel combinations of worth filters may not be the best choices.
capacitors, although this often leads to An interesting, and often practical filter
c(«) = - • f
Eq 3.2
bulkier and more expensive circuitry than type is the almost unknown ullra-spheri-
desired, and parallel capacitors lead to cal low-pass filter. 3 - 4 An ultra-spherical
where gf/O is the n-th normalized value additional resonances. An alternative filter is like the Chebyshev to the extent
from the table. R 0 is the terminating resis- route is: that it has passband ripples. However, the
tance in £1. f is frequency in Hz, L(n) is the
n-th inductor in Henries, and C(w) is the • Design an initial low-pass filter.
H-th capacitor in Farads. • Analyze the filler to c o n f i r m that the
The first part can be an L or C. if the first desired response is realized. C o m p u t e r Half-Wave Filter
part is an inductor, the second one will be programs such as GPLA or ARRl. Radio
The popular half-wave filter is a
a capacitor, the third another inductor, and Designer1 work well. Other analysis pro-
very tolerant low-pass filter form.
so forth. Both forms generate the same re- grams are often found on the Web.
L and C have a reactance equal
sulting transfer function. • Substitute available capacitors for those to the terminating resistance. The
Consider an example, a 4-th order calculated in the design phase and analyze middle capacitor is twice that at
Butterworth low-pass filter. The normal- the results. the ends. This filter, a low pass, is
ized values from the table are • Adjust inductor values to " f i x " variations designed at the operating fre-
g ( 0 = 0 . 7 6 5 4 , g(2)=1.85, g(3)=1.85, and that might have occurred as a result of quency rather than a cutoff. This
g(4)=0.7654. L e t ' s design this filter for a using practical capacitors. filter will have a 3-dB cutoff that is
3-dB cutoff of 10 MHz with a termination about 40% above the design
of 50 Q at each end. The filter will begin Most low-pass filters, especially the frequency and only offers about
with an inductor. Hence. simple Butterworth and Chebyshev 25-dB attenuation at the second
harmonic. A 7-MHz half-wave
designs, are insensitive to small compo-
filter will use L=1.1 ^ H and
nent value changes. Slight adjustments
0.7654 • 50 C=450 pF when designed for
toward practical values will often have so
L(,) = = 0.609 • 10 R=50 Q. This filter will have a
little impact that there will be no need for
2 - jt- 10 • 10 6 phase shift of 180 degrees at the
additional adjustments. If a refined pro- operating frequency; hence, the
gram is used for design, it is easy to vary circuit name.
1.85 the filter order and ripple to obtain a
C(2) = = 5.889 10 desired response, especially in a low-pass
50 • 2 • jt- 10 • 10 6 filter.
The radio experimenter will often use a
L (3) = 1.472 • 10 low-pass filter at a transmitter output, for
a low pass will attenuate harmonics, the
predominant distortions created in the out-
C ( 4 ) = 2.436 • 10" put stages. An ideal low-pass filter, how-
ever, is not required. Rather, the need is
The resulting filter is shown in F i g 3 . 7 A for a filter that will attenuate harmonics 1
while the dual form, the variation and will pass a relatively narrow band of
beginning with a shunt capacitor, is pre-
sented in Fig 3.7B.

The filter example picked for Fig 3.7

was a special case, an even ordered de- 1.472 uH
0.609 11H
sign. As such, (he dual filter, which is the 50
one starting with the alternative compo-
nent type, is really the same filter, but with
580 1
Ihe input and output exchanged. If we had 244
J)F i 50
picked an odd order filter to illustrate the
pF
two filter types, we would have filter (A)
with more capacitors than inductors while
(B) would be dominated by inductors. 472 uH

The denormalization equations are

simple and easily programmed in a spread- 0.609 uH
580
sheet, a p r o g r a m m a b l e calculator, or in 50
pF
any popular computer language.
What might be the obvious route to a
filter design may not be Ihc most practical.
± (B)
The logical sequence calculates the val-
ues. purchases and or builds the compo-
nents. and then assembles the circuit. Fig 3.7—Two forms of a 4th-order, 50-Q, doubly-terminated, 10-MHz cutoff
Inductors are not a problem, fo^ the user Butterworth low-pass filter.

3.4 Chapter 3
Table 3.1
Normalized Values for Butterworth and Chebyshev Low-Pass Filters. These are used with the Low Pass and
High-Pass de-normalization equations. All of the data presented are for doubly terminated filters. Butterworth
filters are designed on the basis of a 3-dB cutoff while a ripple cutoff is used for the Chebyshev filters.

Type N 9(1) 9(2) 9(3) 9(4) g(5) 9(6) 9(7)

Butterworth 2 1.414 1.414
3 1 2 1
4 0.7654 1.85 1.85 0.7654
5 0.618 1.618 2 1.618 0.618
6 0.5176 1.414 1.932 1.932 .1414 0.5176
7 0.445 1.247 1.802 2 1.802
.01 dB Chebyshev 3 0.6292 0.9703 0.6292
5 0.7563 1.305 1.577 1.305 0.7563 1.247 0.445
7 0.797 1.392 1.748 1.633 1.748
0.1 dB Chebyshev 3 1.032 1.147 1.032
5 1.147 1.371 1.975 1.371 1.147 1.392 0.797
7 1.18 1.423 2.097 1.573 2.097

1.423 1.18

ripples are not necessarily of equal magni- with a 200-pF mica trimmer.
tude. The Chebyshev filter is a special case Fig 3.8C presents the result of a narrow
of the ultra-spherical. The transfer func- ultra-spherical filter. This circuit has a
tion for three variations of the ultra-spheri- peak 3-dB bandwidth of about 200 kHz at
cal filter is shown in Fig 3.8. All of these 10 MHz while offering 54-dB attenuation
5th-order filters are designed at the high- at the 2nd harmonic of the peak.
est peak frequency rather than at a cutoff While the ultra-spherical filters offer
frequency. Eq 3.1 and Eq 3.2 still apply. band-pass filter like performance with low-
The g(n) values arc shown in Tabic 3.2. pass stopband characteristics, they can also
Fig 3.8A shows what we might call a suffer from high loss with low-Q compo-
wide ultra-spherical filter, a circuit with nents. They should be analyzed or measured
about a 20% bandwidth for 0 2-dB varia- when applied to narrow band applications.
tion. yet having stopband characteristics
like those of a very high ripple Chebyshev
low pass. This example circuit was con-
High Pass Filters
figured for complete coverage of the The low-pass filter is the basis for this
3.5-4 MHz band. section; it is the cornerstone that supports
-10
Fig 3.8B shows a medium width ultra- all other passive LC filters. Occasionally,
spherical filter. The main virtue of this cir- a high-pass filler is required in a piece of
-20
no cuit is the extreme flexibility offered with equipment. A high pass has apassband that
regard to component value. The price of extends upward from a cutoff frequency.
-30 this is the need for an adjustable element in The stopband of a high pass is below the
the middle of the filter. This is especially cutoff.
-40 suited to junk box driven projects. The Once we have a set of normalized low
-50 • • -J • J— example is a filter for a 7-MHz transmitter. pass tables, designing a high-pass filter is
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 ? 8 9 1011 1213 14 The end capacitors might, in practice, be an easy extension. The conceptually easy
Frequency (MHz) 1200-pF silver mica while the middle ca- approach is a two-slep process: Having
!B) picked a cutoff frequency, a low pass of
pacitor could be a 1000-pF part paralleled

Fig 3.8—(A)We might call this a wide ultra-spherical filter, a circuit with about a
20% bandwidth for 0.2-dB variation, yet having stopband characteristics like those
of a very high-ripple Chebyshev low pass. This example circuit was configured for
complete coverage of the 3.5-4 MHz band. (B) A medium width ultra-spherical
filter. The main virtue of this circuit is the extreme flexibility offered with regard to
component value. The price of this is the need for an adjustable element in the
middle of the filter. This is especially suited to junk box driven projects. The
example is a filter for a 7-MHz transmitter. The end capacitors might, in practice,
Frequency (MHz)
be 1200-pF silver mica while the middle capacitor could be a 1000-pF part
paralleled with a 200-pF mica trimmer. (C) The result of a narrow ultra-spherical
(C) filter. This circuit has a peak 3-dB bandwidth of about 200 kHz at 10 MHz while
offering 54-dB attenuation at the 2nd harmonic of the peak.

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.5

 the desired order and shape is designed.
Table 3.2
Then, each low-pass element is replaced
Normalized Ultra-spherical low-pass filter data. with a high-pass one that has the same
reactance at the cutoff. Series inductors
Case 9(V 9(2) 9(3) 9(4) 9(5) are replaced with series capacitors; shunt
Wide U.Sp. 1.759 0.704 2.352 0.704 1.759 capacitors become shunt inductors.
Medium U.Sp. 2.717 1.087 2.56 1.087 2.717 Alternatively, the tables of g(n) values
may be used directly for high-pass filter
Narrow U.Sp. 3.456 1.382 1.787 1.382 3.456
design. The viable equations are then

g<2) g<4>

C ( n ) =
g(n). R V2.*.f * » "

L ( n ) = Et
2.*.f° S (n) >3"4

where g(«) are the normalized low-pass

elements from Table 3.1, R 0 is the termi-
nating resistance and f is frequency in Hz.
The inductancc value, L(«), is in Henrys
and capacitance, C(n), is in Farads.
As with the low-pass filters, once a high-
pass filter is designed, it should be confirmed
with some appropriate calculations and.
later, measured after construction.

Some Simple
Transf ormat ions
There arc several circuits that can be de-
signed with relative ease oncc a low pass or
high-pass filter is in place. Some will be dis-
cussed here, for they offer considerable flex-
ibility and opportunity lo the experimenter.
W e often need different terminations at
filter ends. A method for doing this is pro-
vided by the Bartlett's Bisection Theorem,
illustrated in the low-pass filter shown in
Fig 3.9.
The first filter, shown in Fig 3.9A, is a
symmetric 5 0 - 0 5th-order low pass. The
filler is a low pass with a 3-dB cutoff of
about 10 MHz. This filter is redrawn in
part B with the filter split in the mid point.
The two half sections are identical. We
wish to changc the output termination to
100 Q while preserving the same filtering
characteristics. The ratio of the new termi-
Fig 3.9—Low-pass filter illustrating Bartlett's Bisection Theorem that allows a nation, 100 £2, to the original 50 Q is 2.
termination to be changed to a new value. The filter is transformed by increasing
series elements (the L) by m=2 in the right
side. The shunt elements are decreased by
the same factor of m. This is illustrated in
Fig 3.9C with the final filter in Fig 3.9D.
The multiplier m can be any value greater
than 0. 5 This method is used later in the
book in the design of some filters for a
SSB transceiver.
The next filter modification that we con-
sider adds capacitors or inductors to a fil-
ter. This scheme is used in the design of
Fig 3.10—Changing an Inductor to a "trap" creates a frequency of very high elliptic, or Cauer-Chebyshev low-pass fil-
attenuation in the stopband. ters where adding components that create

3.6 Chapter 3
 0 r-vvv-i. 0 0
j 1.42* J_ J_ ZO.OO
dBSDiv.

l.tia 1.4M GAIN, m

<S-21>

R«f. S-21
0 1 2 3 4
•7 -T
919
Frequency (MHz)

i
(A)

r
With parasitic L and c .

FREQUENCY, MHz 20.00 MHr/Diu.

Ref = ideal Low Pass. Solid = with stray L and C.

Fig 3.11—The VHF performance of HF low-pass filters is significantly altered by

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
parasitic inductance and capacitance. The parasitic elements are modeled as being
larger than normal to illustrate the effects. Frequency {MHz)

(B)

Fig 3.13—Transfer functions for the low

pass and high pass (A) and the
49? pF bandpass and bandstop filters (B).
7M<jH
: 1585; i^OJSuH tWSpF:
attenuation at 14 MHz. Unfortunately, the
attenuation al the higher end of the
stopband. above 20 MHz. is not as good as

LP BP it was with the original low-pass filter; this

is typical of elliptic filters. Another disad-
vantage of the method is that component
losses have much greater impact than they
did without the traps, especially near the
\ 7
HP cutoff frequency. All of these changes arc
easily modeled with computer analysis.
Design tables are found in numerous stan-
dard filter texts. 6
88 uH
The trap characteristics we describe are
always present to one extent or another, even
when they are not featured. Assume we
needed a low-pass filter to follow a 7-MHz
transmitter. A 5ih-order circuit was designed
for a 0.2-dB ripple Chebvshev shape with
a 7.5-MHz ripple cutoff frequency. The
Fig 3.12—A low-pass filter (LP) is the prototype for the high pass (HP). The designed filter is the "ideal" circuit in
components in the low pass may be resonated to produce a bandpass (BP) filter Fig 3.11 with response shown as the "refer-
with a bandwidth equaling the original low pass. Similarly, the high-pass elements ence." The analysis is extended out to 200
are tuned to produce a bandstop filter (BS) with a 3-dB notch width equaling the MHz. The other circuit in the figure includes
bandwidth of the high pass. the "accidental" effects of parallel capaci-
tance across the inductors and inductance in
"trap" frequencies alters the stopband of a tance at the filter cutoff frequency. series with the capacitors. Both improve the
filter. This is illustrated in Fig 3.10 where This "elliptic" modification can be steepness of the rolloff. But they both con-
a low-pass filter is modified. The first in- extended by converting both inductors to tribute to a severely degraded VHF stop-
ductor. originally a l - | i H unit, is paralleled band attenuation.
traps and by adding series inductance with
with a 200-pF capacitor. The inductor is any or all of the shunt capacitors. The The next transformation we consider
reduced to 0.6 (iH so the LC combination modification shown leaves the passband resonates the elements of low pass and
will have approximately the same reac- almost unchanged, but increases the high-pass fillers. We begin by designing a

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.7

3rd-order low pass with a cutoff of 2 M H z . with the 2 - M H z b a n d w i d t h of the parent filter. A frequency of 12 M H z was picked
A similar 2 - M H z high pass is designed; low pass. T h i s m e t h o d is generally limited f o r this e x a m p l e . T h e s a m e restrictions
the filters are shown in Fig 3.12. Once (he to wide bandwidths, perhaps 2 0 % or more. that a c c o m p a n i e d the w i d e bandpass filter
low and h i g h - p a s s circuits are in place, Impractical c o m p o n e n t values are some- apply to this design.
each element is resonated. T h e three-ele- times a v o i d e d by terminating the filter in T h e transfer f u n c t i o n for the low pass
ment low pass m a p s into a 6 - c o m p o n e n t resistances greater than 5 0 £2. and high pass are given in Fig 3.13 along
bandpass filter. T h e new filter is centered A similar t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is applied to with the r e s p o n s e f o r the b a n d p a s s and
at the r e s o n a n c e f r e q u e n c y , here 8 M H z , the high-pass filter, resulting in a bandstop b a n d stop.

3.3 LC BANDPASS FILTERS

T h e L C b a n d p a s s filter is a critical func-
tion in d e t e r m i n i n g the p e r f o r m a n c e of a BW = Eq 3.6
typical R F system such as a receiver. A n
input filter, usually a b a n d p a s s , restricts
the f r e q u e n c y range that the receiver must
quency. T h i s Q is also that of the inductor
process. A later IF filter d e t e r m i n e s the
in a tuned circuit if the capacitor is lossless.
overall r e c e i v e r b a n d w i d t h . T h i s f i l t e r
T h e single tuned circuit is presented in
o f t e n uses crystals, a l t h o u g h L C filters
two d i f f e r e n t f o r m s in F i g 3.16. In the top,
were popular in older receivers. Audio fil-
a parallel tuned circuit consisting of L and
ters o f t e n use L C elements, although R C
C has loss modeled by three resistors. T h e
active circuits, or the c o m p u t a t i o n a l abili-
one labeled by R p is the parallel loss resis-
ties of digital signal processing add f u r t h e r
tance representing the non-ideal nature of
selectivity and c o n f i n e the noise to a de-
the inductor. (Another might be included
sired spectrum.
to represent capacitor losses.) But the L C
The L C filters we discuss in this section Fig 3.14—The amplitude of a chime's
ring after being struck by a hammer. is here paralleled by three resistors: the
arc narrow with a bandwidth f r o m 1 to 20 %
Units are arbitrary. source, the load, and the loss element. R p
of the center frequency. Even narrower fil-
would disappear if the tuned circuit was
ters are built with resonators with higher Q;
built f r o m perfect c o m p o n e n t s . T h e source
the quartz crystal is an example that will be
and load r e m a i n ; they r e p r e s e n t the R F
discussed later where bandwidths of less
world where a source resistance m u s t be
than a part per thousand are possible. T h e circuit is conductor resistance, including present if p o w e r is available and a load
basic concepts that we examine with LC that in the inductor wire. This resistance is resistance must be included if p o w e r is to
circuits will transfer to the crystal filter. higher than the dc value o w i n g to the skin be extracted.
effect, which forces high f r e q u e n c y cur-
E q 3.5 and E q 3.6 can be applied in sev-
Losses in Filters and Q rent toward the c o n d u c t o r surface. O t h e r
eral ways. If the resonator is evaluated with
losses m i g h t result f r o m the motion of
T h e key elements in narrow filters are only the intrinsic loss resistance (in either
m a g n e t i c r e g i o n s in an inductor core or
(uned circuits m a d e f r o m i n d u c t o r - series or parallel f o r m ) the resulting Q is
the m o v e m e n t of dielectric parts of a
capacitor pairs, quartz crystals, or trans- called the unloaded Q, or Qu. If. h o w e v e r ,
capacitor.
mission line sections. T h e s e r e s o n a t o r s the net resistance is used, which is the par-
share the properties that they store energy, An inductor is modeled as an ideal part
allel combination of the load, the source,
but they have losses. A c h i m e is an with a series or a parallel resistance. T h e
and the loss in the parallel tuned circuit,
example. Striking the c h i m e with a ham- resistance will d e p e n d on the Q if the
the resulting Q is called the loaded value,
mer p r o d u c e s t h e w a v e f o r m of Fig 3.14. A inductor was part of a resonator with that
Q l . If w e were w o r k i n g with the series
p a r a m e t e r called Q, f o r quality f a c t o r , quality. T h e t w o resistances are shown in
tuned circuit f o r m , the loaded Q would be
d e s c r i b e s the rate that the a m p l i t u d e Fig 3.1S.
related to the total series R.
d e c r e a s e s w i t h time a f t e r the h a m m e r C o n s i d e r an example, a parallel tuned
strike. The higher the Q, the longer it takes 0) • L
circuit (Fig 3.16 top) with a 2-^lH inductor
for the sound to disappear. T h e oscillator Scries
tuned to 5 M H z with a 5 0 7 - p F capacitor.
amplitude would not d e c r e a s e if it were Eq 3.5 A s s u m e the parallel loss resistor was
not for the losses thai expend energy stored R
Parallel = Q " «> • L 12.57 k Q . T h e unloaded Q calculated f r o m
in the resonator. T h e mere act of o b s e r v i n g
Equation 3.5 is 200. T h e unloaded b a n d -
the oscillation will cause s o m e energy to
The higher the inductor Q, the smaller width would be 5 M H z / 2 0 0 = 25 k H z .
be dissipated.
the series resistance, or the larger the par- A s s u m e that the source and load resis-
T h e c h i m e w a s an acoustic resonator, allel resistance is needed to m o d e l that Q . tors were equal, each 2 k£2. T h e net resis-
but the s a m e behavior occurs in electric It really d o e s not matter which c o m p o n e n t tance paralleling the L C w o u l d then be the
resonators. A pulse to an L C c a u s e s it is used. combination of the three resistors, 9 2 6 Q .
to ring; losses cause the a m p l i t u d e to T h e Q of a resonator is related to the The loaded Q b e c o m e s 14.7 with a loaded
diminish. T h e most o b v i o u s loss in an LC bandwidth of the tuned circuit by b a n d w i d t h of 339 k H z . T h e loaded Q is

3.8 Chapter 3
 tL(dB) = - 2 0 1.og| 1 - ^ = -

Eq 3.7

The Q of a tuned LC circuit is easily mea-

Fig 3.17—Simplified parallel tuned
sured with a signal generator of known out- circuit at resonance. The effect of loss
Fig 3.15—Inductor Q may be modeled put impedance, R 0 , and a sensitive detec- is illustrated.
with either a series or a parallel tor, again with a known impedance level,
resistance. often equaling the generator R 0 at 50 O.
The test-set is shown in Fig 3.18. The test
setup of Fig 3.18 uses equal loads of value
R 0 and equal capacitors to couple from the
R-source terminations to the resonator. Equal capaci-
V'.'—
tors. C I and C2 guarantees that each termi-
nation contributes equally to the resonator
C\j) = parallel load resistance. The voltmeter across
V 1 the load is calibrated in dB.
Fig 3.18—Test setup for measuring the
T o begin measurement we remove the Q of a resonator. The source and load
tuned circuit and replace it with a direct con- are assumed identical. The two coupling
nection from generator to load. The avail- capacitors are adjusted to be equal to
able power delivered to R 0 is calculated each other. The output signal is
after the voltage is measured. The resonator measured with an appropriate ac volt
meter, a high impedance oscilloscope,
is then inserted between the generator and or a spectrum analyzer.
load, and the generator is tuned for a peak.
The measured power is less than that avail-
able from the source, with the difference
Fig 3.16—Two simple forms of the
being the insertion loss for the simple filter.
single tuned circuit.
Capacitors C I and C2 are adjusted until the
loss is 30 dB or more. With loss this high, the sponse peaks often appear with frequency
intrinsic loss resistance of the resonator will separation becoming a measure of the cou-
dominate the loss. pling. This is illustrated with the circuit of
also called the filter Q. for it describes the The generator is now tuned first to one Fig 3.19. which results in the curves of Fig
bandwidth of the single tuned circuit, the side of the peak, and then to the other, 3-20.
simplest of bandpass filters. noting the frequencies where the response The f r e q u e n c y separation between
This filter has an insertion loss. This is is down f r o m the peak by 3 dB. T h e peaks is a measure of the coupli ng between
illustrated in Fig 3.17. which shows the unloaded bandwidth. 8F, is the difference the resonators. The utility of this param-
filter without the L and C, effects that can- between the two 3 dB frequencies. The eter is in the measurements that become
cel at resonance. We use an arbitrary open unloaded Q is calculated as possible. The filter designer needs only to
circuit source voltage of 2. The available generate a method for coupling to produce
power to a load is then I V across a resis- a desired frequency difference in order to
tance equaling the 2 - k O source. Tf the reso- realize a given filler. Such measurements
nator had no internal losses, this available Qu E q 3.8 (or calculations) are a vital part of build-
8F
power would be delivered to the 2 - k U ing filters with unusual tuned circuits, such
load. However, the loss R parallels the This method for Q measurement is quite as U H F helical resonators. A natural ex-
load, causing the output voltage to be universal, being effective for audio tuned tension of this measurement is a collec-
0.926 V, a bit less than the ideal I V. Cal- circuits, simple L C RF circuits, V H F heli- tion known as the Dishal Method. 7 T h e
culation of the output power into the 2 - k Q cal resonators, or microwave resonators. Dishal method is extremely useful in the
load resistance and the available p o w e r The form of the variable capacitors, C I adjustment of multiple resonator filters.
shows that the insertion loss is 0.67 dB. and C2, may be different for the various The method is discussed further in Intro-
This exercise illustrates two vital points parts of the spectrum, but the concepts are duction to Radio Frequency Design and in
that are general for all bandpass filters. general. Indeed, it is not even important Chapter 9 of Z v e r e v ' s text.
First, the bandwidth of any filter must how the coupling occurs. The Q measure-
always be larger than the unloaded band-
width of the resonators used to build the
ment normally determines an unloaded
Multiple Resonator
filter. Second, any filter built from real
value, but loaded values are also of inter-
est when testing filters.
Bandpass Filters
world components will have an insertion Bandpass filters with several tuned cir-
loss. The closer the Q of the filter cuit are designed with relative ease with
approaches the unloaded resonator Q, the Coupling careful application of some basic steps:
greater the insertion loss becomes. Coupling refers to the sharing of energy The resonators must have an unloaded
A parallel tuned circuit illustrated these between resonators. T w o resonators in a Q that is higher, usually by a factor of 3
ideas: the series tuned filter would have filter are generally tuned to exactly the or more, than the desired filter Q. which is
produced identical results. Generally, the same frequency. However, when an ele- f f / A f where f t is center frequency and &f
insertion loss of a single tuned circuit ment (L or a C) is attached to cause energy is bandwidth.
relates to loaded and unloaded Q by in one to be shared with the other, two re- A filter shape (e.g.. Buttcrworth or

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.9

0.2- dB Chebyshev, etc) is defined by the tuned circuits to set end section Q. Coupling the sidebar on page 3.14.
loaded Q of end resonators and by cou- between resonators is established with a Filter shape options arc available in the
pling between resonators. small valued capacitor between the "hot" sidebar DTC procedure. The Butterworth
These end 0 values and coupling values ends of the tuned circuits. The DTC in this is generally a good starting point, for it is
between resonators are obtained from nor- form is presented, with design equations, in easily realized with practical components.
malized tables o f * and q. Some values for
double and triple tuned filters are given in
Table 3.3
Bandpass filter design with normalized
coupling and loading uses k and q tables.
These are directly related to the normal-
ized g K values used for low-pass filter
design. The g K data is useful for quickly
estimating the insertion loss of virtually
any bandpass filter we might design. The
loss in dB is Measure
Output

Loss ( d B ) - 4 . 3 4 • — £ — • [ 1 *
Qu•B U J
Fig 3.19—Scheme for measuring and defining coupling between two tuned
where F. B. and Q, were defined above. circuits. C12 is either to or 20 pF while the resonators are both 1jiH paralleled
with 450 pF. "Probe" capacitors are 1 pF.
The g K values are the normalized low-pass
elements for the shape in question.
Assume that we wish to build a 4th order
bandpass filter with a O.I-dB Chebyshev
shape. The low pass parameters are
g 1 = 1.109. g2=1.306. g3=1.77, and
g4=0.818. The sum of the elements is then
5.003. If we were going to build this filter
at 144 MHz with a bandwidth of 5 MHz
and we had managed to build resonators
with QL:=500, wc would then expect an in-
sertion loss of 1.25 dB. This formula is
attributed to Colin.'-*
The sidebar equations may be used to
write a computer or calculator program for
designing these circuits. This can then be
combined with inductance calculations
(for the number of turns on solenoid or
toroids, for example) to generate tables of
filter designs. This has been done to form
Table 3A (see sidebar on page 3.14). The Fig 3.20—Separation of response peaks Indicating coupling between two
inductors used are all wound on toroid resonators. The solid line uses a 10-pF coupling capacitor while the dotted line
cores; the inductance values shown are uses 20 pF.
very close to actual values when the tor-
oids are wound with a single, evenly
spaced winding. The Q, values are Table 3.3
approximate, although they are typical of k and q Values for Two- and Three-Pole Filters
measured data. Larger wire size will
Passband Ripple, dB n k q
increase Q slightly. The data in the table Butterworth 2 0.7071 1.414
are calculated values, but are typical of 0.1 dB 2 0.7107 1.638
those we have built and confirmed on 0.25 2 0.7154 1.779
numerous occasions. 0.5 2 0.7225 1.9497
0.75 2 0.7290 2.091
1.0 2 0.7351 2.3167
Double-Tuned Circuits 1.5 2 0,7466 2.452
The double tuned circuit (DTC) can take Butterworth 3 0.7071 1.000
on many forms, all showing the same 0.1 3 0.6617 1.4328
basic shape around the pasiband so long as 0.25 3 0.6530 1.6330
they develop the same end section Q values 0.5 3 0.6474 1.8640
and the same coupling between resonators. 0.75 3 0.6450 2.0498
A familiar "top coupled" DTC uses a scries 1.0 3 0.6439 2.2156
1.5 3 0.6437 2.5169
capacitor to couple terminations to parallel

3.10 Chapter 3
 s

T h e Triple-Tuned Filter
While the ever-popular double-tuned
circuit is often adequate, there are many
cases where more performance is needed.
The third-order bandpass is a special case,
easily designed with the same equation
(and hence, software) used for a double-
tuned circuit. This possibility emerges if Fig 3.21—A triple-tuned circuit centered at 16.2 MHz with a bandwidth of 0.5 MHz.
you compare a double-tuned circuit with
the example triple-tuned circuit shown in
Fig 3.21. This particular filter is centered

GAIN, d
<s-ai>

C M =C0-2-C,, Eq3.9

Building a triple-tuned filter is no more

difficult than one with two resonators. If it
FREQUENCY, HHx 2.00 MHzXDiw.
is designed for a slightly wider bandwidth
than might be used with a 2-pole design, Double t r e f ) and Triple Tuned LC BPFs, 0.4 uH Qu*200
the filter is often easier to align, has simi-
lar insertion loss, and offers improved Fig 3.22—Response of triple and double-tuned circuits built with 0.4 mH inductors
stopband attenuation, the usual primary with Qy=200.
goal of bandpass filtering.
The design of higher order (N>3)
bandpass filters is similar to the DTC.
Coupling between resonators (numbered by Zverev. The values may also be calcu- The book CD includes a tutorial paper
m and n) is described by a normalized cou- lated in computer programs. Sometimes on the DTC. 1 3 That article outlines meth-
pling coefficient, k n m . The values will gen- one encounters tables of predistorted k and ods for experimentally realizing simple
erally differ for each pair of resonators. q values. Predistortion is a process to re- bandpass filters at any frequency. The
End loading, perhaps different for the two tain adesired filter shape, even with losses methods outlined there are easily applied
ends, is described by normalized end sec- present. 1 0 - 1 1 1 2 to VHF and microwave filters, including
tion q values, q, and q„ for a filter with n Some filters are mixtures between the those using transmission-line resonators.
resonators. Denormalization establishes forms presented. An example is presented Resonators can take on much different
loaded end Q values that are then estab- in Fig 3.24 where the familiar small cou- forms at higher frequency. One common
lished as with the DTC. The individual pling capacitor is replaced with a shunt and popular form is the quarter-wave-
parallel-tuned circuits are individually capacitor, usually large in value. A small length long resonator. This is built by
tuned to the filter center frequency with all value shunt inductor could also be used. forming a section of transmission line that
other parallel resonators short-circuited. A is just slightly less than 0.25 wavelength.
calculator or computer program written for One end is then short circuited while the
the design of double-tuned circuits may Filters at VHF and other is open circuited. The resonator Q
often he used, without modification, for Higher will depend upon frequency, geometry,
the design of higher-order filters. Bandpass filters arc sometimes easier and dielectric material. Air Cor vacuum)
The bandpass fillers examined so far to realize at VHF and above than at lower dielectrics offer highest Q. The conductiv-
used parallel tuned circuits. Scries resona- frequency, the result of higher available ity of the surface metal will significantly
tors may also be used. This variation is resonator Qu at VHF. Building an air-core affect Q. Copper surfaces are excellent,
shown in Fig 3.23 with the design proce- coil with a Q of even 200 at 2 MHz re- with silver being even better.
dure given in the literature. quires a considerable volume. However, Fig 3.25 shows a method for evaluating
With either form, values for normalised one with such a Q at 200 MHz can be very a transmission line resonator. This is a
k and q are obtained from a table of values small. This results from skin effect chang- schematic, yet practical scheme for build-
such as those published in the classic book ing with frequency. ing filter elements with, for example.

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.11

 Stopband Attenuation of Bandpass Filters
A 9-MHz bandpass filter required
for a mixer experiment was built with
available components. A triple-
tuned circuit was fabricated from
top-coupled parallel tuned circuits.
The filter was examined in greater
detail after the experiment was
finished. While the filter satisfied the
immediate need, the performance
was far from ideal. A deep notch
appeared in the stopband at about
11 MHz. Then what should have
been an ideal filter became a
disaster with a stopband attenuation
of only 40 dB at 40 MHz.
This behavior had been observed
earlier in a 7-MHz bandpass filter,
shown in Fig 3A. The circuit was
built on a scrap of circuit board
material that was then bolted into an Fig A—Bad filter—This bandpass filter performed well around the 7-MHz
aluminum box. The BNC connectors passband but had poor stopband attenuation. A very deep attenuation notch
at each end were "grounded* to the appeared at about 15 MHz.
board with short wires from solder
lugs under the connector nut. The
filter was excited with a signal
generator while examining the other
end with a spectrum analyzer. We
observed that the stopband attenua-
tion improved slightly when a screw
driver blade short circuited various
spots on the circuit board edge to
the aluminum box. This pointed
toward grounding as a major
problem with this filter.
A new 9-MHz bandpass filter was
then built. The components used in
the original, which was built like the
7-MHz filter "bad filter," were lifted
and used in the new one. But the
new circuit was fabricated in a box
built from circuit board material Fig B—Good filter—A box built from scraps of circuit board material produced
(Fig 3B). The walls were soldered to a response with good stopband attenuation.
the box floor, creating a cleaner
ground. One of the long walls was
initially left off, easing the filter
construction. Filter performance was
improved even before the 4th wall
was added. The wall was added and
the circuit was measured, revealing
a stopband null at 43 MHz. The
depth was at - 1 1 0 dBc, near the
limits of our measurement capability.
The response at 70 MHz, the top of
the spectrum analyzer range, was
- 8 3 dBc.
A single shield was added to the
filter that removed the null and
dropped the 70-MHz response to -
96 dBc. The filter is shown in the
photo "good filter."
The behavior observed is easily
modeled with the circuit of Fig 3C.
The stray coupling, related to ground
currents, is modeled by lifting all Fig 3C—The traditional bandpass filter is modified with a mutual inductor,
ground connections In the filter and raising the bandpass filter above ground. The resistance in series with the 1
jiH inductors represents Qu of 250 at 9 MHz.

3.12 Chapter 3
 -M-j

-60,

-120 + H
1.0MHz 10MHz 180MHz
DB{U(filout))
Frequencg

Fig 3D—The response of the ideal filter and that of the mutual coupling inductor are compared. The ideal response was
realized in measurement when one shield was added to the filter.

a t t a c h i n g t h e m to a c o m m o n induc- C l e a r l y , g r o u n d i n t e g r i t y is a vital a r e ideal, often far s u p e r i o r to

tor. An i n d u c t a n c e of o n l y 4 0 p i c o p a r t of a n R F circuit, e s p e c i a l l y a a l u m i n u m b o x e s , e s p e c i a l l y follow-
H e n r y ( y e s ; pH a n d n o t e v e n n H ) b a n d p a s s filter u s i n g high Q r e s o n a - ing o x i d a t i o n . P a i n t e d a l u m i n u m
produced coupling that m a t c h e d the tors. E n c l o s u r e s fabricated from b o x e s a r e e v e n worse. Clearly,
measured performance. The "before s o l d e r e d s c r a p s of circuit b o a r d measurements should always be
and after" transfer r e s p o n s e s a r e material or similar solid c o n d u c t o r performed.
s h o w n in F i g 3 D .

0,141-inch outside diameter semi-rigid Q is m e a s u r e d by d e t e r m i n i n g the 3 - d B ter f r e q u e n c y , a w o r k i n g f i l t e r can b e built

c o a x i a l c a b l e l i k e that used in m i c r o w a v e b a n d w i d t h . C e n t e r f r e q u e n c y m a y be ad- by p l a c i n g the t w o c l o s e e n o u g h to e a c h
systems. The cenier conductor is made j u s t e d by a d j u s t i n g line l e n g t h . o t h e r that the " h o t " e n d s are in c l o s e p r o x -
a v a i l a b l e at both e n d s . It is s h o r t e d with as Tf a b a n d p a s s f i l t e r is to be built with the i m i t y . T h i s s c h e m c w o r k s w e l l f o r filters
little i n d u c t a n c c as p o s s i b l e at o n e e n d . l i n e s , the end s e c t i o n l o a d i n g m a y b e real- f o r the 4 3 2 and 1 2 9 6 - M H z bands. T h e line
T h e n , a 5 0 - £ J g e n e r a t o r and a 5 0 - 1 2 load i z e d with the s c h e m e s h o w n in F i g 3 . 2 6 . s e c t i o n s m a y b e b e n t to fit a v a i l a b l e s p a c e .
with d e t e c t o r are l o o s e l y c o u p l c d to the T h e " g r o u n d e d " e n d o f the r e s o n a t o r is The transmission-line double-tuned cir-
" h o t " end o f the r e s o n a t o r . T h e c o u p l i n g a t t a c h e d to a c o a x i a l c o n n e c t o r in a g r o u n d c u i t j u s t d e s c r i b e d used s e m i - r i g i d c o a x i a l
c a p a c i t o r s m a y b e n o t h i n g m o r e than s m a l l p l a n e . T h e c e n t e r w i r e is a t t a c h e d to the cable. Another c o m m o n transmission line
pieces o f w i r e s p a c e d a s m a l l d i s t a n c e from c o n n e c t o r a n d a s h o r t is c r e a t e d w i t h a filter uses so-called hairpin circuits.
she high i m p e d a n c e end o f t h e r e s o n a t o r . small i n d u c t o r c o n s i s t i n g o f n o t h i n g m o r e M i c r o - s t r i p t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s are printed
T h e c o u p l i n g s f r o m the g e n e r a t o r and t o than a v e r y short w i r e . T h e wire length is o n c i r c u i t board m a t e r i a l in this filter. T h e
the d e t e c t o r should be on o p p o s i t e s i d e s o f a d j u s t e d to s e t end s e c t i o n Q . T h e l i n e l i n e s are e a c h a h a l f w a v e l e n g t h l o n g and
the line to r e d u c e d i r e c t i n t e r a c t i o n . T h e shield s h o u l d b e c a r e f u l l y g r o u n d e d very are b e n t into a " U " , o r hairpin shape. An
c o u p l i n g is a d j u s t e d f o r a h i g h i n s e r t i o n c l o s e to the c o a x i a l c o n n e c t o r . e x a m p l e o f a hairpin filter with t h r e e r e s o -
ios-> and the f r e q u e n c y is s w e p t until the O n c e p r o p e r end s e c t i o n Q is e s t a b l i s h e d nators is s h o w n in F i g 3 . 2 7 .
c e n t e r f r e q u e n c y is f o u n d . T h e u n l o a d e d and r e s o n a t o r s are t u n e d to the p r o p e r c e n - T h e d e s i g n o f t h e s e f i l t e r s is a s t r a i g h t -

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.13

 DTC Design
Pick a center frequency, F, and a bandwidth, B, both in Hz, Pick an inductor; it can be of essentially arbitrary
value, although a good "starting value" would be L=10/F where L is in Henry and F is still in Hz. The unloaded
inductor Qu should be approximately known. One must also pick normalized k and q values. For a Butterworth
shape, k=0.707 and q=1.414. For a filter with some passband ripple, but steeper skirts, use 0.25 dB Chebyshev
values of fcO.7154 and q= 1.779. The design equations are:

to = 2 - 7t - F

C0 = l / ( a T . I . )

k B
c, ; = co ~

q-F Qt
Q e - -
B • QL1 - q • F
1 1

>lRn Qh ~ R
n

C T = C 0 - C, - C12

Table 3A
Double Tuned Circuits using the sidebar circuit. All filters are doubly terminated in 50 Q at each end.
The core designators use the copyrighted numbering scheme of Micrometals, Inc.
F-MHz BW-MHz Core Turns L-uH Q-u C-end C-12 C-tune
1.85 0.1 T68-2 35 6.98 200 250 pF 41 pF 775 pF
3.55 0.1 T68-2 35 6.98 200 62 5.7 220
3.6 0.2 T68-2 35 6.98 200 93 11 177
3.9 0.2 T68-2 35 6.98 200 79 8.7 152
7.1 0.2 T50-6 17 1.156 250 56 8.7 371
7.05 0.1 T50-6 17 1.156 250 35 4.4 402
7.05 0.1 T50-6 20 1.6 250 30 3.2 286
10.1 0.1 T50-6 17 1.156 250 14 1.5 199
10.1 0.1 T50-6 10 0.4 250 20 4.4 597
14.1 0.2 T50-6 10 0.4 250 21 3.2 295
14.2 0.2 T50-6 10 0.4 250 34 6.3 271
18.1 0.2 T50-6 10 0.4 200 10 1.5 182
21.1 0.2 T50-6 10 0.4 200 6.1 1.0 135
21.25 0.5 T50-6 10 0.4 200 16 2.3 122
25 0.2 T50-6 10 0.4 200 2.9 0.57 98
28.2 0.4 T50-6 10 0.4 150 5.6 0.8 73
28.35 0,7 T50-6 10 0.4 150 9.8 1.4 68
50.2 1.0 T50-6 10 0.4 150 3.5 0.4 21
14.1 0.2 T50-6 5 0.1 200 38.7 12.8 1224
14.1 0.2 T50-6 7 0.196 200 27 6.5 617
14.1 0.2 T50-6 10 0.4 200 19 3.2 296
14.1 0.2 T50-6 15 0.9 200 13 1.4 127
14.1 0.2 T50-6 20 1.6 200 9.5 0.8 69
14.1 0.2 T50-6 25 2.5 200 7.6 0.5 43
14.1 0.2 T50-6 30 3.6 200 6.4 0.36 28.7
14.1 0.2 T50-6 35 4.9 200 5.4 0.26 20.3
Note: Only a couple of core types are needed to cover the entire spectrum from 1 8 to SO MHz. The last eight table entries describe the
same filter, a 14.1-MHz circuit with a 200-kHz bandwidth. The number of turns is allowed to vary, illustrating the freedom available to the
(liter designer. The builder with a computer program set up for design can vary Inductance and bandwidth to realize a desired tiller with
standard (and Junk-box available) component values.

3.14 Chapter 3
 Small Numeric Value Capacitors
Top coupled LC bandpass fillers often use
capacitors with small numeric value. These
are becoming increasingly difficult to obtain.
However, a simple substitution will provide
the same coupling, but with larger more
convenient values, picked with the equa- Pick CjjEjplCjK
tions shown. For example, assume a filter
design calls for a capacitor with C J K =1.2 pF. Then
The substitute network can use any value of
C S E R that is greater than 2.4 pF. Assume we
V ;
SER* - 2 C
J K " C SER
use series capacitors of 10-pF value. The rW c ' PAR""
SER SER - JK
parallel capacitor is then C P A R =63.3 pF. A
practical value would be either 56 or 68 pF.
The new network will have an equivalent
parallel component at each end; you must
reduce the capacitance that tunes the
resonators accordingly.

forward chore with a modern computer, tor is resonant at frequencies where the
although i t ' s a j o b for professional-level line is 1, 2, 3, etc wavelengths long.
microwave simulation software. Another popular structure for higher fre-
The total length of each section is 0.5 quencies is the helical resonator. These
wavelength for proper tuning. The two end were very popular for UHF FM mobile
sections are usually identical. The lengths radios of just a few years ago. A helical
of the end sections are 2(X4) + X5 while resonator is a section (usually one quarter
that for the middle section is 2(X4) + X3. wavelength) of line using a helical trans-
End section loading is determined by X2, mission line. A helical line is a solenoid Fig 3.24—Double-tuned circuit with a
essentially the spacing from the center of coil-like structure placed inside a shielded shunt capacitor for coupling between
enclosure. We can think of a wave as propa- resonators. This illustrates one of
the end resonators, a virtual ground point.
numerous bandpass filter topologies
Coupling between resonators is estab- gating along the wire at the speed of lighl. that are mixtures of the two methods
lished across the "gap" shown in Fig 3-27, Hence, the propagation velocity parallel to presented.
analyzed by considering the overlapping the axis is much less than that of light. This
sections as directional couplers. It is is a slow wave structure. Cutting a quarter
important for the computer analysis to in- wavelength section, grounding one end
clude the junctions to the 50-12 lines (Tee with the other open circuited, forms a reso-
junctions) and a proper model for the open nator. The usual helical resonator is just
line ends. The designer must also have under a quarter-wavelength long. The ex-
good information about the board material tra length required for resonance is com-
including loss, dielectric constant, and pensated by adding a small adjustable ca-
thickness between the pattern layer and the pacitor to the end. often nothing more than
ground foil below. a grounded melal screw close to the "hot"
end of the center conductor.
The hairpin filler is generally a lossy struc- Fig 3.25—A quarter wavelength of
ture when buill on conventional circuit board Numerous review articles have transmission line forms a resonant
materials used by amateurs. This material appeared describing the helical resonator tuned circuit.
generally has a loss tangent of .02, produc- and filters using them. Equations are often
ing resonator Q of 50. As such, narrow filters given for resonator dimensions, an impli-
are not possible. Hairpin fillers generally cation that they must conform to a well-
have 10 to 20 % bandwidth unless built on defined structure. Generally, there is much
some of the more exotic materials. greater freedom available to the builder. A
Hairpin filters have responses at har- helical filter may still work well if built in
monics frequencies. A half wave resona- a volume that is "too small."

Fig 3,26—Loading (coupling to the

"outside world") can be controlled with
small wire inductors.

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.15

 A casual glance may not reveal a true
identity. That is, a helical resonator with a Line Width
tuning capacitor looks like a shielded LC -1
resonator. However, the d i f f e r e n c e
becomes clear if wideband measurements
are done with loosely coupled probes like
the ones that have been described for Q X3
X1 Gap X4
measurement. Such measurements will Fig 3.27—Three
show a high Q at the fundamental fre- resonator Hairpin
quency and additional responses (also hav- 50 Ohm Line type bandpass filter.
Width
ing high Q) at 3. 5. and other odd harmon-
ics of the fundamental. In contrast, a pure
LC resonator will not show these
X2 ,
departures. If capacitance is added to a
helical resonator to decrease fundamental
frequency, the higher frequencies will not X5
move as fast. Slight capacitive loading
might move the first "spurious response"
to 4 FO with greater departure as loading
grows. Q remains high and excellent fil- usual tap point is very close to the such as (he Elliptic can be transformed to
ters can still be built. grounded end, often a small fracti on of one bandpass form to generate bandpass cir-
Helical resonators are coupled to each turn. Again, the loading may be adjusted cuits with transmission zeros next to the
other with a variety of methods, although to establish an end section loaded Q. passband.
the most popular is through apertures, or W e have only scratched the surface with Another variation injects a transmission
holes in the walls between adjacent reso- some filter types we have built. A detailed zero in a passband with no additional in-
nators. As with other filter types, the cou- review of the literature will reveal numer- ductors. This is realized by an additional
pling can be related to the frequency ous other filter topologies of interest. The coupling capacitor that couplcs energy
spread between peaks when the resonators bandpass filters presented here are trans- between non-adjacent resonators. This
are unloaded. End section loading is real- formed from simple low-pass filters, the method was used in a 144 M H z transceiver
ized in a variety of ways with hclical reso- so-called all-pole low-pass circuits with discussed later in the book. 1 4 There is a
nators. A small line from a coaxial con- nothing more than series inductors and great deal of work available to be done by
nector can be tapped onto the helix. The shunt capacitors. Other low-pass filters the curious experimenter.

3.16 Chapter 3
3.4 CRYSTAL FILTERS
N o element is m o r e intimately related to s a m e w a y , the r e s o n a n t f r e q u e n c y of a T a b l e 3.4 s h o w s s o m e measured repre-
radio receivers than the q u a r t z crystals quartz crystal is related to the crystal thick- sentative v a l u e s f o r s o m e j u n k - b o x
u s e d in filters. T h e early super- ness. T h e Q of a quartz crystal can be very- crystals. A crystal placed between a 50-£2
heterodynes of the 1930s obtained single- high, f r o m 10,000 to over o n e million. The signal generator and 5 0 - Q load s h o w s a
signal selectivity with a crystal filter using motions of a quartz crystal are transverse r e s p o n s e like that of Fig 3.30. If the
but one crystal, a practice that continued with the crystal vibrating parallel to the crystal was a simple series tuned circuit
through the 1970s. T h e use of high quality surface. This allows the Q and resonant without the parallel capacitor, C 0 . the re-
filters using a multiplicity of crystals be- frequency to be altered by surface effects. sponse would be a simple peak,
c a m e popular in the 1950s as S S B replaced T h e reader with an interest in the physics A crystal filter can be built with a single
classic A M as the r a d i o t e l e p h o n e m e t h o d of quartz crystals is referred to the classic crystal with the s c h e m e of Fig 3.31.
of choice. text by Virgil B o t t o m . 1 5 L - n e t w o r k s at each end t r a n s f o r m 5 0 CI to
T h e quartz crystal is modeled as the L C present 5 0 0 Q. at the crystal. T r a n s f o r m e r
tuned circuit shown in F i g 3 . 2 9 . L m and C n , T1 p r o v i d e s an o u t - o f - p h a s e voltage to
Crystal Fundamentals are termed " m o t i o n a l " parameters for they d r i v e a p h a s i n g c a p a c i t o r . This signal
A m o d e r n q u a r t z crystal is usually a relate to the mechanical motion of the crys- c o m b i n e s with the energy flowing through
r o u n d disc of single crystalline quartz with tal. T h e equivalent series resistance, E S R , the crystal parallel capacitance to control
metalization on each side. T h e metal f i l m s is an element representing losses; it is re- the position of the notch. T h e 10-pF ca-
serve to create (and sense) an electric field lated to the crystal Q. T h e final element, pacitor increases the e f f e c t i v e parallel C
within the quartz. T h e basic structure is CQ , is the parallel, or holder capacitance. of the crystal, m o v i n g the notch closer to
s h o w n in F i g 3.28. This C is a simple c o n s e q u e n c e of the crys- the peak while the 2 5 - p F c a p a c i t o r reso-
T h e b a s i s f o r the i n t e r e s t i n g circuit tal construction as a parallel-plate capaci- nates the ferrite transformer. Fig 3.32 and
properties of a quartz crystal is the piezo- tor. This value is the sum of the parallel 3 . 3 3 show the result of tuning the p h a s i n g
electric e f f e c t . T h i s e f f e c t is a material plate C (the dominant element) and some capacitor.
characteristic w h e r e an clectric field stray C related to the p a c k a g e h o u s i n g the C h a n g i n g the terminating L - n c t w o r k s
causes a mechanical displacement. The crystal. The parallel and the can alter the filter response. T h e b a n d -
mcchanical motion is at right angles to the m o t i o n a l c a p a c i t a n c e are r e l a t e d in the width will d e c r e a s e if the t e r m i n a t i n g
electric field in the quartz crystal. An elec- usual A T cut crystal. ( A T cut refers to the i m p e d a n c e is d r o p p e d . A link could be
tric field occurs when a voltage is placed crystallographic orientation of the crystal. used on T1 to replace the input L n e t w o r k
between t h e t w o m e t a l i z a t i o n layers M a n y of the crystals we deal with in radio while an output could b e terminated with
attached to the crystal. The opposite e f f e c t are A T cut.) T h e relation b e t w e e n capaci- another w i d e b a n d transformer. T h e modi-
also occurs; a mechanical motion gener- tors is approximately fied circuit would then function well with
ates an electric field. a wide variety of crystals. Bandwidth will,
T h e action of a quartz crystal w h e n sub- C« = 2 2 0 " C M of course, vary considerably as the corn-
j e c t e d to an electrical impulse is a n a l o g o u s
to striking a bell or c h i m e with a h a m m e r :
the e n e r g y of the impulse causes an oscil-
lation to occur, a ringing that dies out in
time. T h e resonant frequency of the chime
is related to m e c h a n i c a l d i m e n s i o n s . In the

Quartz
t Thickness

A J
I * / \ I
/
Wires —
-I \ T
Metal film
t

Fig 3.28—Cross section of a quartz

crystal.
Fig 3.30—Crystal in a 50-Q system with response. This crystal has a 5-MHz series
resonant frequency, L m =.098 H, Q=240,000, and C 0 =5 pF.

Table 3.4
Freq. MHz Lm, H Cm, pF C0, pF O ESR, Q
3.58 0.13 .0152 3.35 50,000 58
5.0 .098 .0134 2.275 240,000 12.8
Fig 3.29—Symbol and circuit model for 10.0 .020 .01267 2.8 200,000 6.3
a quartz crystal.

Filters arid Impedance Matching Circuits 3.17

poncnts arc changed. This filter type could a useful aid in determining bandwidth. Some experimenters have mounted the
even be used ahead of a receiver. A crystal is inserted in the test set pot in a panel and switched it into the
(Fig 3.34) and the generator is tuned for a circuit as needed. This may give inaccu-
peak output. Note the peak response rate results owing to stray inductance. The
Crystal Measurement amplitude and the frequency FO where it pot should be mounted to a suitable
and Characterization occurs. "dummy crystal" with short leads.
Earlier we swept an LC tuned circuit that Having measured peak response, A detailed analysis of the method
was loosely coupled to a generator and a remove 3-dB attenuation from the system, reveals errors. These can be reduced
detector. A bandwidth measurement pro- increasing the response. Tune the genera- substantially by shifting to lower measure-
duced a Q u . Loose coupling to a parallel tor upward until the response drops to the ment impedance.
tuned circuit occurred with a high imped- level of the previous peak and record the The test set of Fig 3.34 is complete, pro-
ance source and load. The crystal is a frequency. This is one of the - 3 dB fre- viding both motional parameters and Q
series tuned circuit and needs a low im- quencies. Repeat this step by finding the information. However, measurements
pedance environment for the loose cou- lower -3 dB point. The frequency differ- with this apparatus b e c o m e tedious.
pling required for measurements. We can ence, AF, is the 3 dB-loaded bandwidth in A simple crystal oscillator can provide
measure a crystal in the 50-£J system Hz for this test setup, which will be greater the motional parameters. This circuit.
shown in Fig 3.34. than the unloaded crystal bandwidth. Fig 3.35, includes a series capacitor that
The signal generator should be well Knowing AF. return the generator to the may be switched into the circuit to pro-
buffered and extremely stable. The input frequency of peak response. Remove the duce a frequency shift. Related equations
of the circuit shown begins with a 20-dB crystal and plug the 100-£2 pot into the test are included with the figure.
pad. compensating for mismatch. The load set. Adjust the pot for the same meter read- The required Q (J for filter applications
can be a 5 0 - Q terminated oscilloscope, a ing; remove the pot from the test setup and will depend upon the filter bandwidth and
spectrum analyzer, or a sensitive power measure its resistance with a digital volt- center frequency as well as on the filter
meter. (See C h a p t e r 7 or QST, June. 2001.) meter. This is approximately the ESR of shape and the number of resonators. A
A 50-Q, switched, 3-dB step attenuator is the crystal. reasonable rule of thumb for most filters
(LC and crystal) is that the "normalized
Q" must exceed twice the number of reso-
nators. Normalized q. q 0 . is defined as Q t ,

10 pF
Fig 3.31—A single
4.48UE 4.48UH crystal filter using
the crystal of Fig
3-30. T1 is 12 bifilar
turns #26 on a FT-
50-61 ferrite toroid.
This filter has a
3-dB bandwidth of
1.4 kHz.

5-30 pF

Fig 3.34—Simple test set for crystal

0 u
0
>/L \ . H. .
0
,» • * i \ S
measurement. The pad is a 20-dB, 50-Q
circuit. The output should be terminated

5DFJ* / ' V\ * - • , - */ ^ I 30pF |

in 50 £1. A maximum input power from
the generator would be about - 1 0 dBm,
. \ . - resulting in a maximum to the crystal of
-
*
V* "
* | «pF
/
* : +

| 13 pF | - 3 0 dBm. The 100-£1 pot is substituted

* • - \ * I I for the crystal for ESR measurement.
-Jl3pF | V See text. Approximate equations for
-I: • * *
; " xL 5 -16 i * • . X ^ 15
motional parameters are:
. \ +| 30 pF y . . .
* - + + + + •l; - 1.2 10° F
I 5pF I / i On " "

,.• AF R s
+ + + +
: '
. - • » i
AF
-30 30 CM =1.326 10
-t.335 5 5.005 -3C
1.935- 5 5.005

Fig 3.32—Response of the single Fig 3.33—Response of the single 19.1

crystal filter of Fig 3.31 when the crystal filter of Fig 3.31 when the -M
AF
phasing capacitor is at minimum value phasing capacitor is at maximum value
of 5 pF. The solid line represents the of 30 pF. The solid line represents the F= Crystal Freq in MHz, AF=BW in test
case of exact balance when the phasing case of exact balance when the phasing fixture in Hz, R s = ESR, equivalent series
capacitor equals the crystal C0. capacitor equals the crystal C0. resistance.

3.18 Chapter 3
d i v i d e d b y t h e filter Q, o r s m a l l lot ( p e r h a p s 10) of a g i v e n c r y s t a l p a r a m e t e r s f o r s e v e r a l c r y s t a l s to g u a r a n -
type. He or she can then measure them for tee that t h e r e is small s p r e a d b e t w e e n c r y s -
B
Qu Q a n d f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n . If r e s u l t s a r e t a l s . It is a l s o w o r t h w h i l e to m e a s u r e a f e w
F suitable, another order can be placed for a c r y s t a l s f o r Q y . T h e d a t a is then e n t e r e d
larger n u m b e r . T y p i c a l c o s t f o r t h e s e c r y s - i n t o a c o m p u t e r s p r e a d s h e e t w h e r e it is
A 5 0 0 H z b a n d w i d t h f i l t e r at 5 M H z tals is a r o u n d SI e a c h , so a b a t c h of 10 s o r t e d a c c o r d i n g to f r e q u e n c y , m a k i n g it
w o u l d h a v e f i l t e r Q of 10,000. If c r y s t a l c r y s t a l s is still m u c h less e x p e n s i v e than easy to select matched crystals for a filter.
Q , , = 100,000, q „ = 1 0 a n d t h e f i l t e r w o u l d ordering even one special crystal. H o w many crystals should be purchased
be p r a c t i c a l with 5 c r y s t a l s . C r y s t a l s s h o u l d b e m a t c h e d to w i t h i n 5 to m a k e o n e f i l t e r ? T h e a n s w e r is d i f f i -
G e n e r a l l y , t h e m o s t p r a c t i c a l w a y to t o 10% of t h e f i l t e r b a n d w i d t h to b u i l d c u l t , f o r it c o u l d vary a g r e a t d e a l w i t h the
b u i l d c r y s t a l f i l t e r s in t h e h o m e l a b b e g i n s effective filters. Hence, crystals for a c r y s t a l m a n u f a c t u r e r . G e n e r a l l y , the p u r -
with a l a r g e n u m b e r of e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i - 500-Hz wide C W filter should be matched c h a s e of 2 o r 3 t i m e s as m a n y c r y s t a l s as
cal c r y s t a l s . T h e s e c a n s o m e t i m e s b e f o u n d w i t h i n 25 to 5 0 H z of a n o m i n a l f r e q u e n c y . t h e n u m b e r of f i l t e r r e s o n a t o r s is a g o o d
at local s u r p l u s h o u s e s , o f t e n f o r very low The recommended measurement proce- start. M o r e is a l w a y s u s e f u l . A l a r g e r lot,
p r i c e s . E q u a l l y g o o d s o u r c e s are m a i l d u r e b e g i n s b y n u m b e r i n g and m a r k i n g ail p e r h a p s 100, a l m o s t g u a r a n t e e s a l a r g e
order catalogs selling microprocessor c r y s t a l s in a set w i t h s t i c k - o n labels. T h e s e l e c t i o n of f i l t e r s u s i n g m o s t of t h e c r y s -
c r y s t a l s . M e a s u r e m e n t s (by W 7 A A Z ) c o n - crystals are measured for oscillation fre- t a l s . L e f t o v e r c r y s t a l s w i l l b e u s e d in
f i r m e d that m a n y c r y s t a l b r a n d s o f f e r g o o d q u e n c y in t h e s a m e o s c i l l a t o r . If t h e o s c i l l a t o r s . It is r a r e l y p r a c t i c a l to b u i l d
Q y with a minimal frequency spread. But " G 3 U U R " o s c i l l a t o r is u s e d , b e s u r e y o u homebrew filters for already existing
this is c h a n g i n g , e v e n at this w r i t i n g . T h e s p e c i f y w h i c h s w i t c h p o s i t i o n is u s e d , and equipment.
experimenter might consider ordering a r e c o r d it in the n o t e s . M e a s u r e m o t i o n a l

Designing Simple
Crystal Filters
H a v i n g c h a r a c t e r i z e d a set of c r y s t a l s ,
we can now consider a filter design. The
+ 12V p r o c e d u r e will d e p e n d o n the q u a l i t y of
the filter to b e built. S o m e f i l t e r s a r e e a s y ,
while others may require extensive and
very c a r e f u l m e a s u r e m e n t as well as c o m -
p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n . B o t h e x t r e m e s will b e
discussed.
M o s t of the f i l t e r s w e will d i s c u s s u s e
the lower sideband ladder topology. An
e x a m p l e is p r e s e n t e d in Fig 3.36. T h e c r y s -
tals a r e s e r i e s e l e m e n t s in a l a d d e r . S h u n t
capacitors couple energy between adja-
c e n t c r y s t a l s . A m e s h is o n e loop of a lad-
d e r , o n e c r y s t a l a n d the t w o s h u n t c o u p l i n g
c a p a c i t o r s o n e i t h e r s i d e of it. A m e s h
c o u l d also b e a l o a d , a m a t c h i n g c a p a c i t o r ,
a crystal, and one coupling capacitor.
S o m e meshes includc a series capacitor to
tune the m e s h to the s a m e f r e q u e n c y as the
o t h e r m e s h e s in t h e f i l t e r .
T h e first m e t h o d p r e s e n t e d i g n o r e s the
Fig 3.35—The G3UUR method for measuring quartz crystal motional parameters A parallel crystal capacitancc. treating the
simple circuit to measure the motional parameters of fundamental mode quartz crystal as a simple scries L C circuit. This
crystals. A crystal to be evaluated is placed in the circuit at Y1 and oscillation is
s c h c m c is s u i t a b l e f o r s i m p l e C W f i l t e r s .
confirmed. The frequency is measured. Then the switch is thrown and the
frequency is measured again. Typical values are C p =470 pF and C s =33 pF. C m will ( A l t h o u g h w e t h i n k of n a r r o w f i l t e r s as
have same units as C s . Be sure that C s includes the stray capacitance of the b e i n g m o r e e x o t i c t h a n w i d e o n e s , it is
switch as well the circuit part. Then: g e n e r a l l y e a s i e r to build n a r r o w c r y s t a l
f i l t e r s . ) T h i s will b e i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h an
If
e x a m p l e , a 4 t h - o r d c r f i l t e r at 5 M H z w i t h
Cg « Cp a 400 Hz bandwidth and a Butterworth
then s h a p e . T h e n=A B u t t e r w o r t h is a s y m -
AF metrical filter with q,=q,,=0.7654,
C
M * 2 C
S ' k | 2 = 0 . 8 4 0 9 , k23=0.4512, and k M = 0 . 8 4 0 9 .
The crystals have a 5 - M H z ccntcr fre-
and
q u e n c y , a m o t i o n a l i n d u c t a n c c of 0 . 0 9 8
1 H, p a r a l l e l C of 3 p F , a n d Q l : of 2 4 0 . 0 0 0 .
N o r m a l i z e d Q is q 0 = 1 9 . 2 , so t h i s is a r e a l -
i z a b l e f i l t e r . C a l c u l a t i n g the m o t i o n a l C
where co=2tiF with F now in Hz. AF is the F difference observed when the switch is
activated. Example: Use capacitors mentioned above, 10 MHz crystal; F=1x10 7 , f r o m r e s o n a n c e at 5 M H z . w e f i n d
DF=1609 Hz, to yield L m =.0239H and C m =10.6 fF. (1000 fF = 1 pF.) C m = 0 . 0 1 0 3 3 9 p F . W e c a l c u l a t e the c o u -

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.19

pling capacitors with F i g 3.37A. T h e filter has yet to be tuned.
The filter would, otherwise, be finished if c = cv • CO" • R - + 1
0
Eq 3.14
c Cm • F we wanted to terminate in this resistance. Cf - of Rn~
Jk = T o illustrate the general case, wc will ter-
H i • k•,. • B • k • F • L„ minate in a larger value, 4 5 0 Q . C is 153 pF, R 0 is 4 5 0 £1, and R E is
A t e r m i n a t i o n R 0 will "look l i k e " a 309 £2 for this example.
Eq 3.11 smaller value R E if it is shunted with a The end m e s h e s are s h o w n , isolated
parallel capacitance, C E where from the other meshes, in Fig 3.37C while
where B is the b a n d w i d t h : F and B are both
the interior m e s h e s are s h o w n in isolation
in H z . S u b s t i t u t i n g , we f i n d C p =
in Fig 3.37D. T h e end m e s h e s have a net
C : i 4 =l 54 p F and C , , = 2 8 6 pF. T h e end ter-
minating resistance is given by (R series C of 76.7 p F while the interior ones
Eq 3.13 have a net series C of 100.1 pF. Both will
R • Cii" • Ro be d e t u n e d f r o m the n o m i n a l crystal
5 MHz, but the m e s h e s with the smallest
1 2-ii- U s i n g the values f r o m above, wc obtain capacitance will be detuned by the largest
- to • L an end capacitor of 47 pF, p r o d u c i n g the amount. T h e lower m e s h e s can be prop-
q-F Qu next v e r s i o n of the filter as s h o w n in erly tuned by added series C so that they
Fig 3.37B. O n l y filter tuning remains. have the s a m e net series C as the highest
Eq 3.12
The end m e s h e s . 1 and 4, are terminated frequency one. This will occur with a tun-
in a parallel R C circuit. T h e e q u i v a l e n t ing C of
The end resistance is 309 Q, yielding series R C consists of the original end
the p r e l i m i n a r y filler as shown in resistance, R F . and a capacitance C' where r'-High • vC \i,-!i
Eq 3.15
r Mesh - cHigh
Using C M e s h = 100.1 p F a n d C H i g h = 7 6 . 7
pF. a proper tuning capacitor is 328 pF. The
final filter circuit is shown in Fig 3.37E.
T h e c o m p u t e r g e n e r a t e d r e s p o n s e for
this filter is shown in F i g 3.38.

Return Loss(S-11)

Fig 3.36—Lower sideband ladder filter with four crystals. The four meshes are
labeled for reference in the discussion.

-800 -400 0 400 800 1200

F„= 5.00 MHz P^quency <Hz)

Fig 3.38—Response for the crystal filter

designed in Fig 3.37.

Accounting for Parallel

Crystal Capacitance
The quartz crystal model of Fig 3.29 is
generally an accurate one. C 0 has little ef-
fect in filters that are sufficiently narrow,
so was ignored in the previous
d e s i g n . T h e 5 - M H z C W filter just pre-
sented was designed for a 4 0 0 - H ? hand-
width with a Butterworth shape. T h e shape
is very close to an ideal Butterworth.
P r o b l e m s i n c r e a s e as the filter b a n d -
w i d t h s g r o w . This is illustrated with
F i g 3.39 which shows the response of t w o
Fig 3.37—Evolution of a bandpass filter showing the steps in the design. See text d i f f e r e n t 3-kl-lz b a n d w i d t h f i l t e r s u s i n g
for details.
3 . 5 8 - M H z T V color burst crvstals. T h e

3.20 Chapter 3
 solid curve is the response we would detailed design equations are given. The
like, designed with ideal crystals with zero corrections related to the effective induc-
parallel capacitance. C ( l =4 pF produces the tance are included in the program
other response. The filter bandwidth is too XLAD.exe. Both the program and the 1995
narrow and the attenuation is markedly in- QEX paper are included on the book CD.
creased. It is for this reason that this circuit The effective inductance is larger than
is named the lower sideband ladder filter. the norma! motional L by a factor of 2 or
Response distortion results because the more. This reduces the effective motional
parallel C 0 makes the series resonators capacitance by ihe same factor. Accord-
behave as if they had a larger motional L ingly. the coupling capacitors must be
than is measured. This effect is plotted in reduced by the same factor. The change
Fig 3.40 for the 5 - M H z crystals used in the also alters the calculation of end resis-
earlier CW filter design. The lower curve tance. The new terminations and reduced
shows the effect of a 2-pF parallel capaci- coupling capacitors will then alter the fil-
tance while the upper curve is for C 0 = ter tuning.
5 pF. Here. X is the ratio of L e f f to L m . The One can build symmetric filters if the
Fig 3.39—The response of two crystal horizontal axis in the curve is 5F, the o f f - effect of parallel capacitance is eliminated.
filters built from 3.58-MHz color burst
set f r o m the series resonant frequency. One way to do this parallels each crystal
crystals. One uses ideal crystals with
zero CO to produce a symmetrical T h e s e effects were discussed in greater with a large inductance. The value
shape. The other (with dashed line) detail in QEX for June. 1995, where required is one that resonates with C 0 ,
uses C0=4 pF crystals. forming a parallel trap that is then bridged
by the series resonant portion of the crys-
tal. An experimental filter was built to
examine this idea. The inductance used
was smaller than required for resonance,
so small trimmer capacitors were added.
The filter, built with 3.58-MHz color burst
crystals for a 3.5-kHz bandwidth, is shown
in Fig 3.41. The measured response is pre-
sented in Fig 3.42.
Crystal filters built with paralleled in-
ductors s u f f e r from degraded stopband
response. Although the p e r f o r m a n c e
around the filter center is as designed, it
degrades a few hundred kHz away from
center, necessitating the crystal filter be
supplemented with an LC bandpass.

The Min-Loss Filter of

Colin and other
Simplified Forms
A simplified non-mathematical scheme
Fig 3.40—X, defined as L efl /L m , is plotted for frequency offset, 8f, above crystal
series resonance in Hz. These 5-MHz crystals had parallel C of 2 and 5 pF. for building crystal filters uses the Min-
Loss circuit. This circuit is the result of
fundamental work by S. B. Cohn where he
described a family of coupled resonator
filters that achieved very low insertion loss
while maintaining good stopband attenua-
tion. 1 6 A really interesting property of
these filters was the fact thai they used
identical resonators that were coupled to
each other with equal values of coupling.
This means that all shunt coupling capaci-
tors in a Min-Loss crystal filter are equal.
If the filters arc designed without shunt
end loading capacitors, tuning is greatly
simplified. A Min-Loss type crystal filter
is properly tuned if

• all crystals have the same frequency.

Fig 3.41—Experimental crystal filter. • all coupling capacitors are of the same
Y1,2,3,4 = 3.58-MHz surplus color burst crystals. (Lm=0.117H, C0=4 pF)
value, C.
L = 151 nH, 48 turns #30 on FT-50-61 Ferrite toroid.(Amidon)
C-trim = 3-12 pF ceramic trimmer. See the referenced QEX paper for adjustment • series capacitors having the same capaci-
procedure. tance as the coupling C are placed in series

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.21

 with both end crystals
Butterworth Crystal Filter, 3.58 MHz • both terminations arc equal and properly
relaied to coupling.
03
-o
„- - 1 0 A crystal filter of this type, with five
Fig 3.42—Measured resonators, is shown in Fig 3.43. 1 7
-20 response for the This filter topology often appears with
filter shown in the n a m e "Cohn Filter," titled for the
0> Fig 3.41.
en original circuit theorist who contributed
-40 so extensively to our design methods.
Other filters have also appeared with the
® -50 Cohn name. Here we have divorced the
a:
0.0 2 0 4.0 6 0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 name from this simple crystal filter, for it
Relative Frequency, kHz is but one example f r o m C o h n ' s body of
work, a collection that is much richer and
more extensive than has been presented in
the amateur literature.
While most of the Min-Loss crystal fil-
ters we build are fabricated without design
(i.e., without any mathematical analysis),
A three element they may certainly be studied and designed
crystal filter at 10 on the computer. The normalized coupling
MHz. The metal coefficients and end section Q for this fil-
can crystals have ter type are approximately given by
small wires
soldered to them
that are then
grounded to the Jk ~ ~2 ' e X P I N J K
«3"16
foil.

EC, 3 . 1 7

where n is the number of resonators. These

values are tabulated for n f r o m 2 to 10 in
Table 3.5. (The first few points appeared
in the original Cohn paper, while k and q
for N>5 arc extrapolations via our above
equations.)
Three experimental
Shown in Fig 3.44A are transfer func-
crystal filters. The
top circuit uses 10 tion plots for two different fillers of this
crystals in a circuit type. The wider, lower loss one has 3 reso-
with equal coupling nators while the other has 8 crystals. Both
between resonators circuits were designed for 5 M H z with a
(Cohn). The bottom 500-Hz bandwidth using high Q crystals
filter is that from
with L m = 0 . 0 9 8 H. Part A of the figure
Fig 3.41.
shows close-in details while Fig 3.44B
shows the response to the - 8 0 dB level.
Part C of the figure shows the group delay
for the filter with 8 resonators. (More will
be said about group delay shortly.) All
three plots are c o m p u t e r generated re-

Table 3.5
N k q
2 0.707 1.414
3 0.63 1.587
Fig 3.43—Min-Loss 4 0.595 1.683
type crystal filter 5 0.574 1.741
with equal coupling 6 0.561 1.782
and simplified 7 0.552 1.811
tuning. 8 0.545 1.834
9 0.54 1.852
10 0.536 1.866

3.22 Chapter 3
sponses. although they arc in good agree- that this filter may have severe ringing if f r o m the o r d i n a r y . T h e r e are n u m e r o u s
m e n t w i t h m e a s u r e m e n t s on similar filters. built for narrow ( C W ) bandwidths. p h e n o m e n o n that tend to degraded perfor-
We h a v e built M i n - L o s s crystal filters up Although the t w o filters ( N = 3 and N=8) m a n c e and r e m o v e "crispness." One that
to 10th order. d e s c r i b e d in F i g 3 . 4 4 h a v e d i f f e r e n t can ruin an otherwise excellent receiver is
The data of Fig 3.44 illustrate the responses, they are r e m a r k a b l y similar an IF filter with excessive group delay. All
salient properties of the Cohn filter. The in c o m p o n e n t values. The N = 3 filter used filters have time delay, a truth that cannot
passband shape is smooth with minimal 146-pF capacitors and 181 - Q terminations be avoided. T h e filters that " s o u n d " the
ripple for the low order filters (N=3), but while the N = 8 filter used 168 p F best are those that have small delay for a
becomes distorted as the number of reso- and 155 Q . A filter designed with two or given bandwidth and, of greater import,
nator grows beyond five. The ripples on three crystals can be e x t e n d e d w i t h the behave like a transmission line with little
the passband edges near the skirts b e c o m e s a m e c a p a c i t o r values and terminations. variation in g r o u p delay over the passband.
extreme with wider bandwidth filters. The This b e c o m e s e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l f o r the The group delay of an eighth order Min-
N"=8 data of Fig 3.44B illustrate the excel- experimenter. Loss filter was presented in Fig 3.44C. T h e
lent shape afforded by the Min-Loss filter. T h e M i n - L o s s crystal filter has virtues delay was high, exceeding 10 miIliseconds
However, the lime domain performance as of low insertion loss and good skirts, but at in part of the passband. T h e group delay
depicted in the group delay plot suggests the price of p o o r p a s s b a n d shape with variation over the p a s s b a n d was also
h i g h e r orders. S o m e other filters o f f e r severe. This filter, although very selective,
similar non-mathematical simplicity and w o u l d p r o b a b l y not sound good, e s p e -
better passband p e r f o r m a n c e , with a g r o u p cially with noise pulses.
of crystals all at the s a m e f r e q u e n c y . Fig T w o 5 - M H z filters were designed for a
Ref. -21 - ~ " N 3.45 s h o w s such a filter. This design is a b a n d w i d t h of 5 0 0 Hz. cach with five
. \ Butterworth design at 10 M H z with nor-
\ \ crystals. One filter used a 0.1-dB ripple
// m a l i z e d p a r a m e t e r s of </=0.765. k r = Chebyshev response while the other used a
IJ \ k , 4=0.841, and k , , = 0 . 5 4 1 . T h i s filler "is
V linear phase response. The Chebyshev re-
designed with a pure resistive termination sults are shown in Fig 3.46 while the linear
/
\ at the e n d s (no shunt end capacitors.) T h e phase response is given in Fig 3.47. Both
/
\
a equations predict the end resistance and plots overlay group delay and gain. T h e
/
/ Gain the shunt capacitors. T h e series tuning ca- "ears" of the Chebyshev group delay plot
/ (S-21) pacitors are yet to be established. H o w - line up with the 3-dB edges of the pass-
-20
ever. the values arc clear f r o m inspection. band. so all delay variations arc heard. In
-200 0 200 400 600 700
Frequency (Hz) If the end capacitors are set to the value of contrast, the region of low group delay in
the center c a p a c i t o r (85 pF.) each mesh the linear phase filter extends well beyond
(A)
has the same capacitors in the related loop. the filter bandwidth edges. Both of these
0 filters have been built and tried in an
Design with the equations does not take
-10
the parallel crystal capacitance e f f e c t s into experimental C W receiver. The linear
-20
/ I
\ ef. S-21
a c c o u n t . This is d o n e with c u r v e s like phase filter was more difficult to build, but
those of F i g 3.40 that e s t a b l i s h an sounded much better. The skirts were steep
-30

§-40
•s II
\ increased e f f e c t i v e inductance value that in the Chebyshev, so it presented adequate
\ selectivity. We found the linear phase filter
s can then be applied with the equations.
-50 in need of more skirt selectivity. Although
j Gain A p p r o x i m a t e designs without the curves
-60
will still result in practical fillers at not shown in the figures, the Chebyshev
/ (S-21)
\
-70
/| \
the h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s (8 M H z and up)
although the bandwidth will be a bit nar-
filter group delay was 2.5 times as large as
the linear phase filter delay.
-1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500
r o w e r than the design values. W e have also had good results with an
Frequency (Hz)
intermediate filter shape, Ihe G a u s s i a n -
(B)
to-6 dB response. This is a filter with a
Ringing, Group Delay rounded peak shape for the top 6 dB. but
Group Delay Max GD = 12.33
and Filter Passband with steep Chebyshev-like skirts. Transi-
Shape tional filters (Gaussian-to-6 dB, Gaussian-
All serious receiver e x p e r i m e n t e r s have to-12 dB. linear phase, and m a x i m u m flat
their f a v o r i t e e f f o r t s , receivers with speci- delay) are slightly more difficult to build
than the M i n - L o s s , B u t t e r w o r t h . or

U
fications differing little f r o m others, but
with a "'crisp s o u n d " that sets them apart C h e b y s h e v filters, for they lack the sym-

-1000 -500
J 0 500 1000 1500
Frequency {Hz)
(C)

Fig 3.44—Min-Loss crystal filter

responses. A and B compare 3rd and
8th order filters in responses to - 2 0 and Fig 3.45—10-MHz SSB bandwidth filter using crystals with identical frequencies
- 8 0 dB. C shows the group delay for the and "easy" tuning. This filter has a Butterworth shape; the simplified tuning
8th order filter. method often works well with N=4 Chebyshev filters.

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.23

 Gain
r ~ ii
\
Group
Delay
I IV
Fig 3.46—Group delay and gain for a Chebyshev crystal filter. Fig 3.47—Group delay and gain for a linear phase crystal
The gain is plotted over a 20-dB range. filter. The gain is plotted over a 20-dB range.

ractrv of the traditional types. If the transi- review the w o r k of Carver 1 8 . Extreme selectivity always seems to bring
tional filters were commercially available, Intuition would suggest that a FIR some ringing. Generally, it is the less
they would probably be very expensive. (finite i m p u l s e response) filter, usually selective schemes with smooth peak shapes
On the other hand, they o f f e r a challenge realized with D S P , would have signifi- that always sound the best, without regard
that is well worth the e f f o r t for the ad- cantly reduced ringing. Some do, but some to the method used to achieve it, traditional
vanced e x p e r i m e n t e r . T h e reader should others still show significant ringing. hardware or digital signal processing.

3.5. ACTIVE FILTERS

While most receivers are super-hetero- a value of 1, 2, 5, and 10. A peak appears in
d y n e d e s i g n s with an IF. s o m e s i m p l e the response as A exceeds 2. The circuit pro- , C2 = A X C
s u p e r h e t s as well as virtually all direct vides a voltage gain of 1.7 when A=10.
conversion receivers obtain m u c h of their T h e filter has a t w o - p o l e B u t t e r w o r t h
selectivity from audio filtering. Audio fre- r e s p o n s e when A=2. F o r A < 2 and f o r
quency inductors have b e c o m e available equal R . the 3 dB cutoff f r e q u e n c y is given C|»'C*
in recent years, making traditional L C by
designs viable at low f r e q u e n c i e s . E v e n
prior to the arrival of those parts, some
builders had built audio filters with sur- A - 4 - A + 4
plus telephone toroids. Still, the most com- r Fig 3.48—RC active low-pass filter. The
c.o.
mon method f o r audio filtering uses R C op-amp is assumed to be powered from
active circuits. An R C active filter com- dual supplies around ground. Other
bines gain with resistors and capacitors to Eq 3.18 biasing schemes are presented later.
synthesize inductor behavior. The operational amplifier is configured
where A is the capacitor ratio, C2/C1. For for a non-inverting gain of 1. C2, the
feedback capacitor, is A x C1 where A is
example, with R = 1 0 k £ 2 , C l = . 0 1 | i F ( . 0 1 |iF
a value greater than 1.
The Low Pass Filler = 10 nF), and A=1 (equal capacitors), the
cutoff is 1024 Hz. Eq 3.18 can be solved for
F i g u r e 3.48 shows an active low pass fil- R for an arbitrary cutoff frequency.
ter form known as the voltage controlled
If A exceeds 2 the filter takes on a peaked
voltage source (VC.VS). It uses an opera-
response, it is then m o r e convenient to
tional amplifier configured as a non- Table 3.6
work with the peak frequency as a function
inverting amplifier, usually with a gain of A Voltage Gain A Voltage Gain
of R, C, and A, the capacitor ratio. If A>2,
one. T w o resistors and two capacitors com- 2.2 1.004 6.8 1.41
the peak frequency is given by 2.4 1.014 10 1.67
plete the circuit. Fig 3.48 shows part values
for the two resistors, here assumed equal, 3.3 1.088 22 2.4
3.6 1.12 33 2.9
and one capacitor. The other capacitor is a
•/a-2 3.9 1.14 47 3.46
multiple of the first. A representative set of Eq 3.19 4.7 1.22
responses is shown in F i g 3.49 where A has 2 • it- A • C • R

3.24 Chapter 3
 c o n n c c t c d f r o m the a m p l i f i e r o u t p u t to
ground. T h e resistor should pass a stand-
ing current of about 1 m A . Severe cross-
o v e r distortion will result w i t h o u t this
loading.
/ \
/ \ High-Pass Filters
Figure 3.52 s h o w s a V C V S type high-
p a s s filter. This circuit is the dual of the
low pass just discussed. It is designed with
equal valued capacitors. T h e resistors now
d i f f e r by a f a c t o r " A " . T h e usual filters
i have the g r o u n d e d resistor as the one with
\
\ \ larger value. Fig 3 . 5 3 shows the r e s p o n s e

, I h l
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 10 :
I
0
Frequency (kHz) — !
-10
V(4) V(14) V(24) V(34) L
-20
m -30 ;
-40
Fig 3.49—Response of the filter shown in Fig 3-48 with A=1, 2, 5, and 10. These -50
:
curves, and several others in this section, were generated with Super Spice from -60
: \
Compact Software. The solid line corresponds to A=1 while the highest peak is for -70
A=10.
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00
dB (V(12)) Frequency (kHz)

S o m e values of low pass voltage gain at this type is shown in Fig 3.50. Three two-
the response peak are tabulated vs A, the pole sections with A=2 are c a s c a d e d to Fig 3.51—Response for the cascade of
identical low-pass sections presented
capacitor ratio, in T a b l e 3.6. form a 6-pole filter suitable for SSB recep-
in Fig 3-50. This is a calculated result,
T h e r e are n u m e r o u s w a y s to d e s i g n tion. T h e response for this filter is shown in although we have built several similar
practical low-pass filters with the equa- Fig 3.51. The dip at low frequency results designs.
tions. A c a s c a d e of sections like those in f r o m the l-(lF input coupling capacitor.
Fig 3.48 w o u l d f o r m B u t t e r w o r t h or C a s c a d e s of p e a k e d l o w - p a s s filters
C h e b y s h e v filters of high order. E a c h ( A > 2 ) can be very useful. T h e gain can be
capacitor corresponds to one pole in the c o n s i d e r a b l e when several stages are cas-
response, one L or C in the traditional fil- caded. T h e s e filters take on a b a n d p a s s like
ter. G e n e r a l l y , each t w o - p o l e l o w - p a s s shape, o f f e r i n g an attractive r e s p o n s e f o r
section will d i f f e r f r o m the others in higher direct c o n v e r s i o n receivers intended f o r
o r d e r B u t t e r w o r t h or C h e b y s h e v filters. C W use.
For details, see the text by Johnson, et al. 1 -' T h e filter shown in Fig 3.50 is biased
Alternatively, several identical low-pass f o r single p o w e r supply o p e r a t i o n . This
sections can be cascadcd to form a useful s c h e m e is especially attractive with the
circuit. These filters are easy to analyze low-pass filler, for an entire chain of filter
Fig 3.52—Voltage controlled voltage
and design, and o f f e r excellent perfor- sections may be biased with only one source high-pass filter. The operational
mance, especially with simple direct con- divider. If L M - 3 5 8 or L M - 3 2 4 o p - a m p s amplifier is again set for a closed loop
version receivers. An example of a filter of are used, a pull d o w n resistor should be gain of +1.

Fig 3.50—Practical low-pass filter that can be built with common op-amps, such as the 741, 1458, 358, 324, 5532.

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.25

 T h e V C V S l o w - p a s s f i l t e r w i t h e q u a l r e s i s t o r s h a s a t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n of

H(s) = Eq 3 . 2 0
I + 2 • s • C • R + s" • C - • R"

w h e r e s is n o w t h e c o m p l c x ( L a P l a c c ) f r e q u e n c y , s=j(0 in the f r e q u e n c y d o m a i n . C is
the s h u n t c a p a c i t o r w h i l e A x C is t h e f e e d b a c k c a p a c i t o r . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g fre-
q u e n c y d o m a i n r e s p o n s e is

'out
" ,|7 ? l ? " > 4 4 4 4 -> T ) r\
V in y^l-8-Jt-f R -C •A + 16-jr -f R -C -A +16-JI >f R C ) Fig 3.54—Biasing method for high-pass
filter sections. A voltage divider creates
a synthetic ground at half of the single
Eq 3.21
supply.

2.0

1.5 / \

-
/ \

1.0

Fig 3.55—The 4x4 filter, a cascade of

^
-
four peaked low-pass sections (6.8 kft,
/ 10 nF, and 50 nF) followed by four
/
'/ / peaked high-pass sections (20 nF,
27 kQ, and 5.6 kft)

l i 11 II .
0.2 0.3 0.4 0 . 5 0 . 6 0 . 8 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
F r e q u e n c y (kHz)
V(4) V(14) V(24) V(34) c a s c a d e d with f o u r p e a k e d h i g h - p a s s s e c -
tions.
Fig 3.53—Transfer functions for four versions of the high pass section of Fig 3.52,
The resistor ratio varies, taking on values of A=1, 2, 5, and 10. The solid line
corresponds to A=1 while the highest peak is for A=10.
Active Bandpass Filters
A b a n d p a s s - f i l t e r s e c t i o n is s h o w n in
F i g 3 . 5 6 u s i n g an o p e r a t i o n a l a m p l i f i e r in
an i n f i n i t e g a i n m u l t i p l e f e e d b a c k circuit.
T h e I G M F B circuit is p r a c t i c a l w i t h c o m -
f o r f o u r d i f f e r e n t f i l t e r s , all w i t h 1 0 - n F m o n o p - a m p s s u c h as t h e 7 4 1 . 145S, and
c a p a c i t o r s and a 2 0 - k Q u n g r o u n d e d resis- - A) + • A2 - 4 • A + 4
5 5 3 2 . T h e t o p o l o g y is r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h
tor. T h e g r o u n d e d r e s i s t o r v a r i e s to set 2-n-C-R-A two equal valued capacitors and three
g a i n and p e a k i n g . T h e v a l u e s u s e d a r e 2 0 r e s i s t o r s . O n e of t h e r e s i s t o r s a l l o w s t h e
k Q . 10 k£2, 4 k O , and 2 k Q . user to s p e c i f y c i r c u i t g a i n as well a s c e n -
Eq 3.23
T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e h i g h - p a s s sec- ter f r e q u e n c y and Q o r b a n d w i d t h . T h e d e -
tion are m u c h l i k e t h o s e of the low p a s s . sign b e g i n s by p i c k i n g t h e s e v a l u e s f o r
T h e c i r c u i t b e g i n s to t a k e o n a p e a k e d re- T h e V C V S h i g h - p a s s s e c t i o n s d o not v o l t a g e g a i n K (a d i m e n s i o n l e s s ratio), Q,
s p o n s e w h e n A e x c e e d s 2. A p e a k e d h i g h h a v e a d c p a t h t h r o u g h t h e m that a l l o w s
f 0 in H z . and C in F a r a d s . T h e r e q u i r e d
p a s s will h a v e a p e a k f r e q u e n c y g i v e n b y t h e e a s y b i a s i n g a f f o r d e d by the low p a s s .
r e s i s t o r s are t h e n
A high-pass scction may be biased with
the m e t h o d s s h o w n in F i g 3 . 5 4 w h e n d u a l
1
p o w e r s u p p l i e s are n o t a v a i l a b l e . R, Eq 3 . 2 4
Eq 3 . 2 2
2-jt-C-R-^A-2 T h e h i g h p a s s and l o w - p a s s f o r m s m a y
b e c o m b i n e d in a c a s c a d e to f o r m b a n d p a s s
T h e r e is no p e a k if A < 2 . T h e p u r e h i g h filters with excellent stopband attenuation.
pass then has a 3 d B cutoff f r e q u e n c y given A n e x a m p l e r e s p o n s e is s h o w n in F i g 3.S5 R,
Eq 3.25
bv where four peaked low-pass sections are (2-Q2 -K)-«

3.26 Chapter 3
Fig 3.56—Infinite gain, multiple-
feedback (IGMFB) bandpass filter. This
topology is capable of moderately high
Q and gain with practical components.

Fig 3.58—State-variable audio filter for CW receiver applications. All op-amps are
741 or 1458. The op-amp pin numbers are not shown. The builder must also
connect the power supply line to the V c c point on the op-amps. This circuit was
inserted between the audio gain control and the output amplifier in a high
performance CW receiver.

Fig 3.57—Calculated gain in dB for

the IGMFB bandpass filter shown in
Fig 3-56. This version used the
resistor and capacitor values
several sections are to be cascaded. It is analyze the circuit with mathematics,
calculated in the text for Q=5 at 800
Hz with a gain at resonance of 2. The sometimes u s e f u l to provide a rotary much of the behavior is clear from inspec-
solid curve represents the nominal switch allowing the user the ability to tion. At very low frequency, the capacitor
response while the dashed curve select one of several outputs in a cascade. is an open circuit. The op-amp input
shows the result of tuning R2 to a Each section of a I G M F B filter can have a impedance is very high, so the input volt-
lower value. Changing R2 to a 1 I n -
Q as high as 10 or 20. age is also that appearing at the point
variable in series with a 560-Q fixed
resistor would produce a tunable Other bandpass circuit forms are also marked "E." The negative feedback
bandpass characteristic with suitable. An especially interesting one is action forces the inverting op-amp input
essentially constant gain and the so called state-variable filter, which to also be E. The only way for this to hap-
bandwidth. This tuning scheme works uses three operational amplifiers. The one pen is for the output to also equal E. At low
well only when R1>R2. This sweep
circuit will simultaneously provide low- frequency the output is in phase with the
was generated with Super-Star
Professional from Eagle Software. pass, high pass, and bandpass outputs. input and has the same magnitude for unity
Adding one more op-amp will even allow gain. In contrast, at very high frequency,
a notch filter function. An example is the capacitor is a short circuit. The op-amp
shown in Fig 3.58. This circuit is tunable
over the normal range used for CW notes
and has variable Q. The notch is not
included in the version that was built, but
2 Q could be added with the circuitry shown.
Eq 3.26 The reader interested in more informa-
tion on the state-variable filter should
examine the article by Howard Berlin. 2 0
where (O 0 =2x7txf 0 . Wc see f r o m Equation The state-variable filter is an especially
3.25 that the gain should be less than 2Q 2 . interesting circuit for those with a math-
For example, a filter using 22-nF capaci- ematical inclination, for the circuitry is an
tors with a center frequency of 800 Hz, a Q exact replication of the equations.
of 5, and a gain at resonance of 2 is built
with R l = 2 2 , 6 0 0 Q. R 2 = 9 4 2 Q . and
R3=90.4 k£2. The transfer function for this T h e All-Pass Filter Fig 3.59—Basic, single section all-pass
filter is shown in Fig 3.57. An especially interesting, but very filter. This circuit has unity gain at all
frequencies, but has a continually
The I G M F B bandpass filter must be simple R C active filter circuit is the
changing phase response. It is useful
biased with the method shown earlier for a all-pass of Fig 3,59. This circuit uses an for phase shift networks such as those
high pass filter if a single power supply is op-amp, a single section RC low pass fil- used for the phasing method of single
to be used. This filter form is ideal if ter. and a pair of resistors. Although wc sideband.

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.27

 applications. An unusual one is in a spe- earlier, will ring virtually forever when
cial bandpass filler, one with a finite subjected to a noise impulse. The long
impulse response. The basic, repeated ringing is evident from the mathematics; it
element in this filter is a delay element, is also evident from listening to such a fil-
shown in F i g 3.61. The delay arises f r o m ler. In contrast, the FIR filler has a impulse
a cascade of two all-pass networks. The response that is limited to the total delay of
RC in the all-pass is picked for 90 degrees the all pass structure. A filter like this one
of phase shift at 800 Hz. Hence, the cas- will still "color" noise, but that noise will
cade of two has 180° shift at 800 Hz. The not bring about the sometimes terrible
shift is less at lower frequency, but more at ringing that would occur with a cascade of
higher frequency. The circuit of Fig 3-61 high Q resonators. Note the rounded peak
behaves like a transmission line with shape; i t ' s similar to lhal found with fillers
Fig 3.60—Phase response for an length of one half-wave at 800 Hz. with the better time domain responses.
all-pass filter. The filter circuit shown in Fig. 3.62 is
The halfwave lines are repeated and cas-
caded to form a line that is. in this example, not completely impractical, although it is
4.5 wavelengths long at 800 Hz. shown in not recommended as a construction pro-
then behaves as ihe familiar inverting Fig 3.62. The line is tapped at each half ject. One of the authors built several FIR
amplifier (180 degrees of phase shift) with wave point. Because the line is built from audio bandpass filters in the late 1970s. In
unity gain. several operational amplifiers, the tap some, the signals from the taps had
The transfer function for this circuit is points are low impedance and can be unequal weighting, accomplished bv
loaded without interaction or other changing the summing resistors from each
adverse consequence, difficult with a real tap. The number of taps grew to impractical
TT , . , 1 - i • to • R • C extremes. (Don't ask!) Taps can be added
transmission line.
H Jt
( °) =
l + j.c».R.C E q 3.27 A sinusoidal audio signal at 800 Hz is as the delay length grows. The results were
applied to the input. The signal looks the mixed with the eventual conclusion that a
where u>= 2xjixf with f in Hz. This circuit filter of this type was not practical in simple
same at all points along the line except for
has an amplitude response of unity at all analog form. The experiments were, none-
changes in phase. Tf we extract two signals
all frequencies and a phase shift given by theless. among the most enlightening that
from two taps on the line that are separated
by one full wavelength, the two signals we have ever experienced!
will be in phase. If the two signals are A large number of taps is possible and
added, they will produce a signal that is completely practical today in FIR filters
°S Eq 3.28 twice the original. If, however, the two based upon digital signal processing. It is
taps are one (or three, or five,...) half wave- informative to continue the analogy.
where £2 = f / t 0 with fj, being the fre- lengths apart, the result is complete can- • A D S P audio filter begins by sampling
quency where ihe network, has a 90 degree cellation. for the two components are then the incoming signal. The incoming sig-
phase. f 0 is given by equal in magnitude, but out of phase. The nal is merely a voltage lhat changes with
cancellation can be turned into positive lime. Sampling means that the signal is
reinforcement if we add 180 degrees of captured at one i nstant i n ti me. This must
fo =
2-JR-C E q 3
-29 phase shift to one b e f o r e addition; this occur quickly and often, at least twice
results from an inverter. for every cycle for the highest frequency
The phase response of the network is Fig 3.62 shows a complete filter. All that our audio system will process.
presented in Fig 3.60 for the case of R = taps with even numbers are summed to- • E a c h sample is applied to an analog-
10 k Q a n d C=l() nF. gether in a summing amplifier U l . U 2 to-digital converter. The A to D provides
serves a similar role for signals f r o m odd a stream of data that can be processed. It
A common application for the all-pass
numbered taps. U3 inverts one resultant can be done in a high speed general pur-
network is to generate the audio phase
signal with the final output extracted from pose computer or in special circuitry de-
shift needed in a phasing type SSB
U4 as the sum of the two. A n output re- signed specifically for this task. The
receiver or transmitter. Examples are
sponse is digitized data is stored in computer
found in Chapters 8 and 9.
presented in F i g 3.63. memory.
This filter has a characteristic that dif- • Computer memory also contains data that
A FIR B a n d p a s s Filter fers from the typical audio filter, the finite was stored from earlier moments. Remem-
The all-pass filter serves as a frequency nature of the impulse response. The usual ber that we are sampling the signal at least
dependent delay element for a variety of bandpass audio filter, such as described twice per cycle for the incoming data we
wish to process. The memory has Ihe data
just sampled, that from one sample period
back, from two periods back, and so forth,
is* io<
extending into the past by a number of
"taps" commensurate with our ability to
store and process.
• At each interval in the process, we will
multiply each of Ihe slored numbers by
a constant, weighting the samples in the
same way that they are weighted by the
summing resistors in the analog filter.
Fig 3.61—Half wave transmission line emulator. They are then added together to obtain a

3.28 Chapter 3
 RC AcnVP Transversal Filter, 10 Taps

\\ :

1 1
\

1 \
J \V
vYl
\
\
D 03 1 15 2 25 3
Q
fohiw Fif^u MI

Fig 3.63—Transfer function of a 10-tap

FIR filter.

Fig 3.62—A Finite Impulse Response, or FIR bandpass fitter built from a cascade
of all-pass Alters. This filter has 9 taps. Op-amps U1 through U4 serve to add realization that filtering is a comparati%e
signals from the various taps. p r o c e s s ; a signal is c o m p a r e d w i t h a r e p -
l i c a f r o m an earlier p o i n t in t i m e . T h e
nature o f the c o m p a r i s o n is direct and clear
final result, • Data is eliminated f r o m m e m o r y at e a c h in the FIR filter. It is present in the s i m p l e r
• T h e digital output " w o r d " is applied to a step in the p r o c e s s . W e o n l y g o as far filters, b e it a s i n g l e l . C r e s o n a t o r o r c r y s -
D A C . a d i g i t a l - t o - a n a l o g c o n v e r t e r that b a c k in t i m e as o u r c o m p u t i n g p o w e r tal. o r an a c t i v e v e r s i o n with an identical
p r o v i d e s a signal that c a n be i n j e c t e d will a l l o w . f u n c t i o n . T h e signal c o m p o n e n t s f r o m ear-
into an a u d i o a m p l i f i e r and. e v e n t u a l l y , Among the s i g n i f i c a n t l e s s o n s that lier times vanish f r o m the r e s o n a t o r as they
headphones. e m e r g e f r o m a study o f F I R filters is the dissipate in the tuned circuit losses.

3.6 IMPEDANCE MATCHING NETWORKS

M o s t filters built f r o m inductors and q u e s t i o n d o e s not have a g o o d answer, f o r to transfer as m u c h p o w e r into this a m p l i -
capacitors were designed to a c h i e v e a w e did not ask the right q u e s t i o n . I m p e d - fier f r o m the s o u r c e as p o s s i b l e , w e will
desired frequency domain result: They a n c e s are d i r e c t i o n a l . A better q u e s t i o n strive f o r a c o n j u g a t e input match b y d e -
accepted an input consisting o f many fre- w o u l d have been, " W h a t is the i m p e d a n c e signing a suitable input network. O n e o f
quencies, but allowed only a few to emerge l o o k i n g into the a m p l i f i e r f r o m the plane many p o s s i b l e n e t w o r k s that will realize
at the output. Other LC circuits are marked b y A . " such a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is the L - n e t w o r k
designed f o r i m p c d a n c c transformation. An T h e c i r c u i t in the f i g u r e is a s i m p l e shown, transforming f r o m 50 d o w n to
impedance transforming or matching net- a m p l i f i e r o p e r a t i n g at, f o r e x a m p l e . 5 0 20 Q . If w e then add an inductance with
work is one that accepts p o w e r from a gen- M H z . T h e input i m p e d a n c e l o o k i n g into I O - i i reactance in series with the inductor
erator with one characteristic i m p e d a n c e , the b a s e is 2 0 - / 1 0 Q . This value w o u l d be o f the L - n e t w o r k , w c w i l l h a v e trans-
the source, and delivers virtually all o f that reasonable f o r an R F transistor biased to a f o r m e d the 5 0 - a s o u r c e to l o o k like the
p o w e r to a different impedancc. the load. f e w m A and operating at F j / l O . W i s h i n g desired 2 0 + / 1 0 n e e d e d b y the a m p l i f i e r .
Both source and load may be c o m p l e x with
both real and imaginary (reactive) p a n s .
Simple designs are performed at o n l y o n e
frequency. M o r e refined methods can
encompass a w i d e band o f frequencies.
3D UMS •VCC
I m p e d a n c e transforming n e t w o r k s g e n -

tl L-
Amplifier
erally h a v e f i l t e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s , e v e n if
they are not d e s i g n e d f o r that characteris- Input
tic. W e f o u n d earlier, f o r e x a m p l e , that a Matching
Ijgiut frtra
Network
m o d i f i e d l o w - p a s s filter c o u l d be termi- , „
nated in an i m p e d a n c e that d i f f e r e d f r o m
II OkK (Oj
Generator
the original design value, serving a
w i d e b a n d matching role.

28-]16
Directional Impedances
Consider point A in the circuit of
F i g 3 . 6 4 . A frequent question w e hear is. Fig 3.64—An amplifier with matching networks at input and output illustrating
" W h a t is the i m p e d a n c c at point A T ' T h i s directional impedances. See text

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.29

 We were careful to match the input, but like" a lower one, R ( .This bilateral nature is
will not seek a conjugate match at the out- a general characteristic of all lossless net-
L
put. This often occurs with, for example, works. The derivation of these equations is
power amplifiers where we present a spe- outlined in Chapter 4 of Introduction to RF | C2 ? C1 r R1
cific load. Z I 0 A D . to the collector in Design.^ R2
order to realize a well defined output We can define a network Q as the ratio
power. But this load will generally be of Ihe parallel resistance. R , in this
d i f f e r e n t than a c o n j u g a t e match to (he example, to the reactance of the parallel
amplifier output impedance, Z 0 U T . Al- element. That is, we treat the network as if Fig 3.66—Schematic and corresponding
though a conjugate output match may well it was a parallel tuned circuit. Network Q design equations for the popular
provide the highest gain and the maximum is related to the voltage transformation of ji-network.
output power for small signal conditions, the network, but is not always a good
that output load could produce limiting indicator of network bandwidth.
that constrains large signal output power. pi-network equations collapse to those for
Input matching resulted from a low-pass the L. Low Q values arc generally preferred
type L-network. An input blocking capaci- with the low impedances usually found
tor is an integral part of the amplifier. ^ s - "\/Rl • 1^2 —
F?1 Eq 3.30 with solid-state circuits, offering more
Output matching is performed with a high- practical component values and lower net-
pass type L-network. which serves double work loss. Higher Q tends to restrict band-
2 2
duty by providing a route for V c c to reach R1 Xs width. just as it would in a simple tuned
the transistor. There is no "perfect" match Eq 3.31 circuit. It also exacerbates the effects of
anywhere through the output. Recall also loss in the network L and C parts.
that changing the load presented to the As an example, we examine the same
amplifier will probably alter the input im- l()-£"2 load that must be transformed to 50
pedance. Q : we pick a network Q of 5. The results
o J i - i Eq 3.32
We often build transforming networks arc X C 2 = 1 0 n. XCI=4.SS Q. and X L =
that will present impedances for reasons 13.56 O. At 7 MHz, the respective compo-
olher than matching. Output loading for nent values are 2274 pF, 4 6 6 0 pF, and
p o w e r was mentioned. We sometimes 0.308 uH.
present impedances al the input of low Consider an example: We wish to trans-
A high-pass variant of the pi network is
noise amplifiers that will optimize noise form a 10-Q resistance to look like 50 Q at
also possible. The pi-network component
figure, usually d i f f e r e n t than those that 7 M H z . The series reactance, f r o m the
values may not be as practical as those in
provide best gain. We must be clcar in equations, is 20 Q and the parallel one is
some other circuits, especially when Q is
defining our goals when designing match- 25 Q. The low-pass form, the L-nctwork
high.
ing circuits, and exercise similar clarity with a series inductor, would use L =
when talking about such circuits. 0.455 [lH and 909 pF. The high-pass form
would use 0.568 |iH and 1137 pF. Both
networks o f f e r essentially identical per- R 2 > R,
The L, % and Tee- formance at the design frequency, but dif-
Networks fer in their filtering properties. The Q of
X/-.
Jk Eq 3.33
Perhaps the most common LC imped- this L-network is 2. Q is a characteristic of Q
ance t r a n s f o r m i n g network is the 1., so the L-network that is established by the
named because it uses two elements, one transformed impedances.
as a series element with the other as a par- Another popular network is the pi,
allel one, resembling the capital L on it's named because its three elements resemble
| Q + 1 - R2 /R,
side. Both L-network forms are shown in the Greek it. This network is shown in
Fig 3.65. The lower value resistor. R j , is low pass form in Fig 3.66. Again, R, is
transformed by adding a series reactance. restricted. Q • R 2 *r R-| • R 2 / X g
The higher value, reactive impedance, is Q is now a network parameter that the
E
resonated at one frequency with a parallel designer must pick. It can take on a wide <3-35
rcactancc. yielding a load that looks like a variety of values, although they are
real impedance of value R 2 • bounded. The lowest Q allowed is defined
The same equations apply if we wish to by Eq 3.32, presented above for the Although less common, a very practical
transform a higher resistance, R 2 . to "look L-network. If vou used this value, the and useful network is the Tee using two
capacitors and one inductor. Component
values are practical and loss is low. espe-
cially for the low impcdanccs found with
solid state circuits. The design begins by
picking a network Q.
The T-network has the same minimum
Q as the pi network, which is the Q of the
L-network given by Eq 3.32. The Tee
circuit is shown in Fig 3.67. Intermediate
variables, A and B. are used in these calcu-
lations.
Fig 3.65—L-Network with design equations when R 1 < R 2 . We pick the same example used before

3.30 Chapter 3
 is a quarter of a wavelength long with a
characteristic impedance Z„ given by Copper

4 Dielectric
f
- • R, Eq 3.41
>
Copper
>t
If, for example, we wished to transform
a 10-Q load to appear as 50 U at 7 MHz,
we would use a line with a characteristic
Fig 3.67—LCC type Tee-network impedance of 22.4 Q. The length would be Fig 3.68—Microstrip transmission line
and design equations. X/4 at 7 MHz. about 25 ft in cable with a shown in cross section. The dielectric
material is the insulated portion of a
velocity factor of about 0.7. This charac- printed circuit board. The lower
teristic impedance is impractical, but could conductor is usually a solid ground
with R, = 10. R, =50. and Q=5, be approximated with parallel sections plane. The drawing is not to scale.
The resulting reactance values become of higher impedance lines. (Line with
=88.12. % =102.5. and X, =50. all Z 0 = 2 5 Q can be purchased.) Transmis-
in il. At 7 MHz. these values correspond sion line transformers are sometimes prac-
to 258 pF, 222 pF. and 1.137 }iH, respec- tical at this low frequency, especially in variation that the experimenter can build
tively. These components are especially antenna systems where the lines are without etching in the July 1981 QST.2}
practical for both input and output net- needed anyway. Coaxial transmission Another practical transmission line
works of RF power amplifiers if mica com- lines can be coiled with virtually no form is a simple twisted pair of insulated
pression variable capacitors are used. impact on their behavior so far as the fields wires. Wire insulated with plastic often
within the line. The quarter wavelength produces lines with a characteristic imped-
lines arc often called "Q-Sections." A ance around 100 Q. Enameled #24 wire
R2 ^ R j will produce line with an impedance near
transmission line need not have a X/4 to
Eq 3.36 serve as a transformer. A Smith Chart is 50 Q when tightly twisted.
B = R, • (Q2 + l )
often used for the design of these elements. A variation on the quarter-wave line
Transmission lines become more prac- matching uses synthetic transmission lines.
tical circuit elements at higher frequen- Here, a transmission line is replaced by a
a - I J L - 1 Eq 3.37 cies. One printed line form is microstrip. pi-network using inductors and capacitors.
1r2 shown in Fig 3.68. The lower conductor is A sidebar earlier in this chapter discussed
a ground plane on the back of a circuit the half-wave filter, a variation of this cir-
board while the upper conductor is a cuit. Fig 3.69 shows a synthetic quarter-
X L = Q • R1 Eq 3.38 wave example, the same case considered
printed run. Electric field lines between the
conductors are found in the dielectric as earlier at 7 MHz. Transforming from 10 to
well as in air. Hence, these transmission 50 Q occurs with a 22.4-12 line.
xCl» Eq 3.39 lines have a velocity factor part way
Q-A
between that of air and that of the higher Powdered Iron Toroid
A R , Eq 3.40
dielectric constant insulator.
Microstrip is versatile, for it can be
Inductors and
designed for about any characteristic Transformers
impedance in the 10 to I00-S2 region, or Inductors are realized with many struc-
more. The wider lines have lower Z () . tures. ranging from straight wire pieces to
Increasing the inductor, then adding a
Robert Wilson, KL71SA and Hal Silver- solenoid and toroid coils. The solenoid is
series capacitor that cancels the added
man, W3HWC, in "Wire Line—A New easy to wind and can exhibit high Q. espe-
inductive reactance, may modify all the
and Easy Method of Microwave Circuit cially at VHF. However, the magnetic field
networks described. The modified net-
Construction," described a wonderful of a solenoid extends well outside the coil
works are more easily adjusted and can
provide narrower bandwidth.
We often view k or T-networks as back
to back L-networks. transforming from a 051 uH
nominal impedance to another, and then AW
back. This has the effect of increasing 1017 pF
overall circuit Q or selectivity. Cascaded
1017 pF
L-networks can have the opposite effect
of decreasing selectivity, an extremely
powerful tool when building circuits to 0 25 wavelength

>
function over wide bandwidth." 50 Ohms

The Transmission Line ~L

as a Transformer
Transmission lines have well known
impedance transforming properties. A ter-
mination of value R, is transformed to a Fig 3.69—A synthetic quarter wavelength line is formed at 7 MHz with three equal
new value. R , . bv a transmission line that reactance values of Z„ of a Q section.

Fitters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.31

dimensions, leaving it free to couple to
other circuit elements in close proximity,
including conductive walls that can alter 5t:15t
Q. In contrast, the toroid inductor has most
(but not quite all) of its magnetic field con-
fined to the core interior, allowing a toroid 50
to be mounted directly against a ground
plane with minimal change in
•WV
inductance or Q. The Q available for low 450 Ohms
volume coils is generally much higher for
toroids up through 30 MH7..
Toroids arc more difficult than sole-
noids lo wind, creating apprehension
a m o n g beginning experimenters. It is. 4
however, straight forward, even if time /
consuming.
1 volt
Toroid inductance is almost exactly pro-
portional to the square of the number of
volts
turns, Fig 3.70—Circuit illustrating the transfer characteristics of an ideal transformer.

L = K • n2 Eq 3.42

A c o m m o n core is the T30-6 f r o m

Micrometals with inductance constant. K,
of 3.6 nH/t 2 (nano-henry per turn squared.)
Various manufacturers use other units that
can be related directly to the K we find con-
venient for RF parts. A coil with 15 turns
evenly wound around most of this core has
a predicted inductance of 810 nH, or 0.81
p H . Generally, the highest Q will result
when the cores use the largest wire that
will fit in one layer. It is important for Q,
Fig 3.71—Method for connecting windings that allows coupling coefficient to be
and especially for temperature stability, calculated. This method is general and can be applied with powdered iron or ferrite
that the wire be lightly wound against the core transformers. The results become less accurate when coupling is strong, and
core. A more temperalure-stable coil can it is not unusual to calculate fc>1. This is usually an indication of capacitance.
often be built with a wire size smaller than
that producing the highest Q.
Micrometals, Inc copyrights the usual cores is +/-5%. The accuracy is usually portion to the turns ratio and impcdance to
toroid numbering schemc, illustrated here better as inductancc and core size grow. transform with the square of the turns ratio
with T30-6. The - 6 indicates a specific The windings were then compressed to in an ideal transformer. Hcncc, a 50-12 gen-
core material or "mix," while the 30 indi- cover only 60% of the core, increasing erator attached to the 5-turn link should
cates an outside diameter of 0.30 inch. A inductance to 1.039 LtH. This 15 to 20% provide three times the voltage across the
manufacturer or vendor catalog might list increase is typical and offers a convenient 15-turn winding with the combination
the inductance constant for the T30-6 as 36 means for adjustment. looking like a 4 5 0 - Q source to the follow-
p H per 100 turns. T h e user can convert This inductor can be used directly in ing circuitry, as shown in Fig 3.70. If it
these constants to whatever form he or she impedance matching networks, or as part was terminated in a 4 5 0 - Q load, the im-
prefers. of a L/C filter. The reader should consult pedance match looking into the link should
A toroid is wound by counting the num- the extensive data available from Amidon be perfect. This transformer might be used
ber of passes through the center hole. Inc. This is found at an excellent Web site, to match between a 50-12 amplifier and a
While solenoids can have a fractional num- www.amidon-inductive.com/. 450-Q, 10-MHz crystal filter.
ber of turns, this does not happen with tor- A c o m m o n impedance matching net- But, these ideals are not realized. First,
oids. A single turn on a toroid consists of work uses a powered iron inductor with a the impedances are highly reactivc. T h i s is
the wire passing through the hole just one sccond winding, forming a transformer. remedied by tuning the secondary with a
time. The inductor we just described was modi- parallel capacitor, 244 p F at 10 MHz. This
We built the inductor mentioned by fied by adding a 5 turn link of #26 wire on brings the voltage gain nearly up to the
winding 15 turns of #28 wire over about the remaining bare portion of the core. The predicted 3 when the output is terminated,
90% of a T30-6 core. Using an Almost All measured inductance was 206nH. This is but impedance match is still poor. This is
Digital Electronics L/C Meter IIB. the much higher than the 90 nH the formula a result of less than ideal coupling.
inductance was measured as 872 nH. 8% would predict, but the coil is severely com- The coupling coefficient is easily mea-
above the prediction. Part of the difference pressed. (Even with the 5 turns spread over sured with the same instruments used to
was probably the result of slight bunching the complete core. L=121 nH.) The 15 measure inductance. This is shown in
of some of the turns. The permeability tol- turn winding L was unchanged at 1039 nH. Fig 3.71. L | and L 2 are the 5 and 15 turn
erance normally associated with these W e expect RF voltage to increase in pro- windings and are measured with the other

3.32 Chapter 3
winding open circuited. The two windings the behavior in Fig 3.72. colors, simplifying transformer construc-
are then connected as shown in Fig 3.71 Inductor current increases without tion. (Multifilar® parallel banded magnet
and the composite inductance values are bound in the ideal, lossless case. Losses, wire from MWS Wire Industries.)
measured as L_ and L.. The coupling coef- resistance within the wire and the battery, The dots on the transformer schematic
ficient is then given would limit the current to a finite, but large are useful. An increasing voltage at one
level in a practical circuit. dot produces an increasing voltage at the
Consider now a modified structure. The other. Current entering the A dot equals
(L - L J single winding inductor is replaced with a
pair of windings, shown in Fig 3.73. that are
that leaving the B dot. This behavior arises
because the magnetic field vanishes within
very close together. The wires, although iso- the core. If the primary (A A") had N p turns
lated from each other, occupy virtually the while the secondary (BB') had N s turns,
same space and see essentially the same the currents would obey the more general
This method was presented by Bill
magnetic field. If we left the second winding boundary condition that
Carver, W7AAZ. in the January. 1998
(BB') open circuited, voltage from A to A'
issue of the QRP Quarterly.1* When the
builds up in the same way that it did with the N p • Ip = N s • Is Eq 3.44
method was applied to the test transformer,
simple inductor. Measurement across either
we measured L + =1533 nH and
winding will show the same voltage profile. Bifilar winding and the use of a high
L =872 nH, leading to a coupling coeffi-
But, no current flows in BB' when it is open permeability magnetic material produce
cient of fc=0.357. The input VSWR exceeds
circuited. tight coupling, approaching k= I. Coupling
2:1 for this transformer, even when tuned
The behavior changes when we repeal is measured for a ferrite transformer with
and properly terminated.
the experiment with a load at BB'. As the the same method outlined for a powdered
Ideally, all inductors should be mea-
voltage builds, load current will begin to iron design, Fig 3.71. Strong coupling
sured after they are wound. While
flow. Transformer action begins. The cur- means that all of the magnetic field lines
the traditional tuned transformer is still a
rent in the second winding will generate a created by the primary also couple into the
practical component, it may require more
magnetic field, just as that in the primary secondary. In a practical transformer,
design effort than an impedance transform-
winding did. But the field from the sec- some of the primary field loops out from
ing network built from discrete
ondary is in a direction opposite to that the core, only to return without communi-
elements.
from the first winding. Because the net cating with the secondary.
magnetic field has been reduced (nearly) The transformer is often modeled as an
The Ferrite Transformer to zero, current flow is determined by R, ideal one with added components, shown
the external load. in Fig 3.74. The ideal transformer has
The powered iron core transformer dis-
cussed above had to be resonated to func- The transformer described (Fig 3.72). a voltage ratio proportional to the
tion as desired. Even after tuning, it with the two wires in close proximity, is turns ratio and a current ratio defined by
suffered for a lack of coupling. Both prob- said to be bifilar. Bifilar windings are Eq 3.44. L p is the primary inductance, the
lems are overcome with higher inductance, often twisted. One manufacturer supplies value we would measure if the primary was
which occurs with the much higher perme- Multifilar® wire with strands of differing examined without a secondary termina-
ability found in ferrite cores. The toroid is
the most common form, but balun cores,
with their binocular shape, are also popu-
lar. Most of the powered iron cores we use
have initial permeability under 10 while
typical ferrites show |ii values between 40
and 5000.
Recall the classic inductor, a component
that "tries" to maintain whatever current is
flowing at any instant. It is the dual of the
capacitor, which does not allow voltage to
change instantly. Consider a switch that
connects a battery to an inductor. The in- Fig 3.72—Principles
ductor current is zero before the switch of an ideal inductor,
closed, so it must be zero immediately with waveforms.
afterward. There is no restriction on the The current would
voltage. The voltage impressed on L grow lineally
forever in an ideal
changes quickly, soon reaching the battery
component.
value. The current conserving characteris- Resistance
tic of the inductor is a result of the magnetic establishes an
field. When the switch is closed, current ultimate value.
begins to flow. But as soon as the field starts
to build up, the changing magnetic field
generates an electric field (hence, a volt-
age) that opposes the electric effect that
caused the current in the first place. This
is a non-rigorous statement of Faraday's
Law, one of Maxwell's equations. The
inductor is shown with curves illustrating

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.33

 Fig 3.74—A transformer model.

highest frequency, and loss resistances lar winding, with one wire as primary and
small with respect to the source and load. the other as a secondary. A pair of wires
Inductance of windings on ferrite cores is also forms a transmission line. As such, it
proportional lo the square of the turns, can operate as a transmission line trans-
although the higher permeability of ferrite former such as a Q-scction according to
produces dramatically higher "k" c o n - Eq 3.41. Even if it is not a proper X/4
stants for use with Eq 3.42. For example, length, it will still transform the
the popular FT37-43 ferrite toroid has k of impedance seen at one end from that pre-
Fig 3.73—Current flow in a bifilar
wound transformer. about 360 n H r 2 . Core loss can be modeled sented at the other. The transmission line
as a parallel resistance, which is also pro- properties persist if the line is wound in
portional to the square of «. although this the shape of a coil, including a toroid. But
formulation is not in general use. the structure then assumes a different
Examples of practical transformers are extended behavior, summarized in a clas-
found throughout the text. A wonderful sic paper by Ruthroff. 2 7
treatment of the modeling of this "simple" The simplest ferrite transmission line
component is presented by Clarke and transformer is that shown in Fig 3.75. This
Hess. 2 5 A more complete review of trans- structure, formed with a bifilar winding on
former modeling is presented by Chris a toroid was at one time called a balun. A
Trask.- 6 We generally use powdered iron balun is a structure that generates a bal-
toroid cores for high-Q inductors with anced voltage from one that is single
good temperature characteristics while ended. This connection does not f o r c e
fcrrites are relegated to low-Q wideband such balance and is, hence, not strictly a
transformer application. However, this balun, even though it does perform some
distinction is not required. Some pow- of the isolation chores that we might ask
dered iron cores are suitable for wideband of a balun. Perhaps a better name is isola-
transformers while some ferrites have ex- tion transformer. T r a n s f o r m e r action,
cellent Q at HF. A good example of the described above, does force equal currents
later is - 6 3 material from Fair-Rite Prod- in the two windings, so this circuit is some-
ucts Corp (www.fair-ritc.com), often pro- times also called a current balun.
ducing Q values of several hundred at HF. The isolation transformer is labeled AB
at one end of the winding while the other

RF transformers can be built by placing

Ferrite Transmission end is A'B'. Wires A and B are not attached

ferrite beads over brass tubing that Line Transformers to each other, a useful detail to keep in
mind when winding such transformers
forms a single turn winding. Circuit The example presented above to illus- without wires of differing color. Viewing
board material connects the tubing
trate basic transformer action used a bifi- this structure as a transmission line, cur-
ends with a short at one end. A multiple
wire winding is then threaded through
the middle of the tubing, guaranteeing
tight coupling.
~ ~ ! • K n 50
(J3)
input ^ R-L
f 1
tion. The L-leakage is the inductance
accounting for lhe magnetic flux that does (A)
not pass through both windings. R1 and
R2 account for losses. The transformer is
a bandpass circuit with L p presenting a
short at dc and very low frequency; L-leak-
input
age. a series element, presents a high
impedance at high frequency.
A practical transformer will have a pri-
mary inductance with a reactance at least 5
times the terminating resistance at the low Fig 3.75—Part A: Basic isolation transformer using a transmission line on a ferrite
frequency limit and a leakage inductance toroid. This structure has some balun like properties. Part B shows a balanced
reactance less than 1/5 the resistance at the load connected to a single-ended drive while C shows polarity inversion.

3.34 Chapter 3
rent at point A' is delayed from that at A. The isolation transformer of Fig 3.75 twice the current that one transformer
However, the ferrite core and traditional has a single ended input. The single ended winding carries, resulting in a true balun.
transformer behavior would force equal drive will appear as a balanced output on for it forces equal, but out of phase volt-
current through a winding, and indeed, in a balanced load such as that in part B. In ages to appear between the ends. This is a
the other winding. this sense, it is a balun structure. However, 4:1 impedance transforming balun.
if the load becomes unbalanced, as in Fig The same structure is reapplied in
3.75C. the input may still be applied to the Fig 3.77. The transformer forces twicc the
termination. current to flow in the output as at the input.
It is instructive to mentally connect the The isolation properties of the transmis-
two wires at one end (A and B) together, sion line transformer are used to parallel
doing the same thing at the other (A' and an output with a "direct connection" to the
B") end. The result is an inductor. Several input. This circuit now serves an unbal-
turns on a high permeability ferrite would anced-to-unbalanced role. This circuit is
produce considerable inductance. This is used for transforming from 50 Q down to
termed a common mode inductance. Sepa- the 12.5-Q input on a RF power amplifier.
rating the wires, a load placed across We also saw it used extensively to cause a
one end. A'B'. is then seen differentially 5 0 - n load to look like 200 Q at the collec-
(between A and B) at the other end. This tor of a feedback amplifier.
structure is often called a common mode These wideband transformers may be
Fig 3.76—A 4:1 step-up balun choke for common mode signals at one end viewed as either transmission line circuits
transformer. are isolated from the other by the large or as conventional transformers. Their
inductance, while differential signals are operation is consistent with either set of
not impeded. boundary conditions. The transformers are
The isolation properties of this structure designed with about A/8 to XJ4 of trans-
1 A A' 2i allow us to drive one end while treating mission line at the upper frequency of the
V... _ _
•uuuu I the other end as if it were a separate gen- circuit. The characteristic impedance of
erator. An isolation transformer (Fig the line is consistent with line behavior
• • n m n _ 1 >R 3.75C) can produce a polarity reversal. for the terminations considered. If, for
B Brb example, we built a 4:1 step down from 50
It is useful (o connect the output of an
isolation transformer in series or parallel to I 2 f l u s i n g F i g 3.76. Z 0 should be 25 fi.
4:1 Step Down wilh the input. An interesting example is This could be realized by paralleling two
shown in Fig 3.76 where a load is con- 50-Q windings on the core. A 50-Q wind-
Fig 3,77—A single ended impedance nected between the input and the inverted ing consists of a tightly twisted pair of #24
step down transformer. output. The composite input will carry enamel wires.
The transformer of Fig 3.78 i s a true 1:1
balun. The termination impedance is that
seen at the input, but the circuit creates
two voltages that are equal in magnitude,
but out of phase.
A useful slep down circuit for high
luuuu"^." power single ended amplifiers is the 9:1
(Two Cores) circuit of Fig 3.79. This transformer uses
two cores to drop from 50 il down to about
6 il. Series connections at the input side
drive parallel ones at the output. A similar
series/parallel circuit is presented in
vi j •n m n ; 31 R Fig 3.80 where two cores form a balanced
to balanced 1:4 impedancc ratio step up
9.1 Unbalanced Transformer transformer.
Numerous other kinds of transmission
Fig 3.79—Illustration of a 9:1
unbalanced transformer. line transformer can be built, some almost
diabolic in their cleverness. The reader
is referred to Motorola Applications
Note AN-593 2 * for further interesting
r~UUULr examples.

Some Multiple Port

Networks
All of the networks presented in this sec-
_ n r m
(Two Cores) tion have used but two ports, an input and
4:1 Balanced to Balanced Tranformer an output. There are. however, several
multiport networks that are of special
Fig 3,78—A 1:1 Impedance ratio true Fig 3.80—A 4:1 balanced-to-balanced interest to the radio amateur. The first is
balun transformer. transformer. the so called "Splitter/Combiner" shown

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.35

 energy available is proportional to the
energy flowing f r o m the " i n p u t " to the
"output." A fourth is the " r e f l e c t e d "
coupled port with energy proportional
to that flowing from the "output" to the
"input." Fig 3.85 shows a schematic rep-
resentation of a directional coupler, which
is also a practical topology in microstrip
form. Part B of Fig 3.85 shows a wideband
variation using ferrite transformers. 3 0 A
practical version of the wideband coupler
using three transformers was designed by
Fig 3.83—Phase shift network for RF Roy L e w a l l e n " and is included on the
phasing in simple SSB equipment. book CD.
Fig 3.81—An in-phase splitter/combiner
The directional coupler is extremely
network. Use 10 blfllar turns on a FT-37-
43 ferrite toroid for the HF spectrum. useful f o r a variety of applications. When
used with a power meter or spectrum ana-
lyzer, reflected energy is a measure of the
impedance at the output port, leading to
popular in-line power meters such as the
two outputs receive drive f r o m a single
W 7 E L design. But the coupler can also be
input. This circuit, a diplexer, is similar to
used to inject signals on a line. The cou-
a crossover network used in audio sys-
pling value is the power ratio between the
tems. Frequencies below a cutoff pass
output and the coupled ports and is l / N 2
through the inductor and are dissipated in
f o r the ferrile version. Most directional
the related termination. Signals above cut-
couplers have coupled energy that is in
off pass through the capacitor to the
phase with the output. The microwave lit-
related resistor. The L and C arc picked
erature abounds with interesting couplers.
with regard to the source impedance such
that there is always a perfect impedance A coupler is also characterized by
match presented to the generator. If the directivity. Assume that the thru path is ter-
cutoff f r e q u e n c y is f, then the related minated in an open (or short) circuit and a
angular frequency is to c =2jtf. Then, the L power P I is measured in the reflected port.
and C for a perfect match are If the main path is now loaded with a per-
fect match, the reflected power will drop to
1 P2. The ratio of P1 to P2 is called the direc-
Eq 3.45
Fig 3.82—First-order low-pass/high- C =- tivity. We consider directivity with a num-
to c (o t • • K
pass diplexer. ber of bridge circuits in Chapter 7.
The diplexer is applied where mixers Directional couplers can be built with
(e.g., diode rings) must be terminated in a lumped components, even at VHF. A
wideband 50 U to minimize distortion. lumped element example with - 2 8 dB cou-
in Fig 3.81. This circuit, using nothing The diplexer shown is an especially simple pling with 20-dB directivity at 144 MHz
more than a bifilar winding on a ferrile one where each arm is a one pole low pass is included in a design discussed later in the
toroid, accepts energy f r o m a single gen- or high pass filter. Nic Hamilton, G 4 T X G , book and included on the book CD. That
erator with a 2 5 - n characteristic imped- has described high order low pass high design is a quadrature coupler, dis-
ance and supplies that energy to two pass diplexers. 2 9 A third-order example of cussed b e l o w . T h e r e are numerous refer-
outputs, each with a 50-£2 impedance, A this design is shown in the diplexer ences in the literature to directional couplers.
50-£2 input can be transformed down to sidebar. Diplexers can also be built with See, for example, Andre Boulouard. 3 3
25 £i with any of the matching schemes combinations of band-pass and bandstop The twisted-wire quadrature hybrid
presented above. Variations of this net- networks, also summarized in the sidebar. directional coupler is a very useful variation.
work use transmission lines or L-Net- An interesting, yet simple phase shift This circuit was described by Reed Fisher,
works, T h e IOG-Q resistor absorbs excess network is shown in Fig 3.83. A generator W2CQH.M Fisher's QST article is in-
power that becomes available when one of drives two one pole filters that are termi- cluded on the book CD-ROM. Also see. 36 -' 7
the two output ports is miss-terminated. A nated at their output in open circuits. The For information on distributed couplers.
common application splits the output of a two capacitors, equal in value, are picked s e e . 3 8 - 9 This is a 3-dB coupler, for the
local oscillator chain to drive two mixers. to have a reactance at one frequency equal coupled output is below the input by 3 dB,
The circuit isolates the two outputs. This to R. the resistor value used in each arm. producing two outputs of equal strength. The
circuit is called a 3-dB hybrid transformer, The phase difference for this network is ci rcui t is cal led a quadrature coupler because
for the power in each output, neglecting 90 degrees at all frequencies. However, the there is a 90-degree phase difference
losses, is 3 dB below the input, while two output amplitudes are equal only at between the two output ports. A HF varia-
Hybrid refers to transformer-like circuits the design frequency. tion, built for the 7-MHz band, is shown in
that provide isolation between two of three An especially interesting four-port cir- Fig 3-84.
ports. Hybrids were used in early tele- cuit form is the directional coupler. T h e The design equations f o r the coupler are
phones to isolate the microphone f r o m the coupler has an input and output, usually identical to those presented for the
earphone. with low loss between them. A third is diplexer. Eq 3.45. However, in this case,
Fig 3.82 shows a three port circuit where called the "forward" coupled port, for the the capacitance is the total C in the circuit.

3.36 Chapter 3
 Input
50 Port 1 Output
W l r «
+45 degrees
0 degrees Ohm
Load

50 Ohm / ^ N Reflected 50 Ohm

Out, Termination ' C o a l e d Port v r ^ Temination
j Fonrard
Port 4 -4r C o a l e d Port

V=0
-45 degrees

Fig 3.84—Quadrature coupler for 7 MHz.

: T2 ~ Reflected

2
-vvv
Hybrid 1 Fig 3.85—Part A shows a general schematic for a directional
3
coupler while B presents a wideband version using ferrite
core transformers. The coupling on B is 20 dB owing to the

i
10:1 turns ratio used. This is a practical circuit if wound with

(A)
FT37-43 or FT37-75 cores. A single binocular core can be
used for both transformers.

Fig 3.86—Some applications for quadrature hybrids. Identical

amplifiers (A) or filters (B) are combined to form termination
insensitive linear circuits. The extra terminations required
are shown in the circuits.

This must he halved to build the circuit. As

Fisher points out. the c a p a c i t a n c e of the
tightly w o u n d b i f i l a r pair (12 p F in his
example) is m e a s u r e d and r e m o v e d f r o m
the calculated C b e f o r e construction. T h e
inductance is that of the t w o windings in
parallel, essentially the same as that of a
single w i n d i n g on the core of interest.
Fisher used a l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y ferrite
core, while wc have generally used p o w -
dered iron cores, o w i n g primarily to avail-
ability. Small p o w d e r iron cores such as
the T25 in the -6. -12, or -17 materials are
suitable through 150 MHz.
At the design f r e q u e n c y , the circuit is a
3-dB coupler, providing equal p o w e r at
port 2 and 4. H o w e v e r , the coupling is
different at o t h e r f r e q u e n c i e s . T h e very
interesting p r o p e r t i e s of the q u a d r a t u r e
hybrid are s u m m a r i z e d :

1. There is power transfer f r o m port 1 to 2.

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.37

 Typical diplexer 2. Power is transferred f r o m port 1 to 4.
Third order Low Pass High configurations and 3. There is no power transfer from port 1
equations.
Pass Diplexer to 3 when all ports are properly termi-
nated.
4. There is no reflected power back out
of port 1, again with proper termina-
tions.
5. The phase difference between ports 2
and 4 is 90 degrees.
= 50 F
at alj. The characteristic of greatest interest
will depend upon the application. The
phase difference is important in the con-
struction of phasing-method SSB equip-
ment. However, it is the isolation f r o m
reflection problems, item 4, that leads to
some of the more subtle applications. T w o
L and C values shown are reactance examples, each using a pair of couplers,
at the cutoff frequency. are shown in Fig 3.86. In part A, two
amplifiers are combined, while in B, two
fillers are combined. In both cases, the two
elements must be identical. However, the
networks to be combined need not be
Bandpass-Bandstop Diplexer impedance matched for a good match to
exist at the input. For example, the two
amplifiers could be F E T circuits that have
c an L network at the input. Such a circuit
produces a very poor input i m p e d a n c e
L
-Wv • f—Wr R=50 match, but an excellent noise figure.
50 C J- 50 Alternatively, two conditionally-stable
amplifiers can become an unconditionally
stable circuit when imbedded in quadra-
ture hybrids. This balanced scheme is
attributed to Engelbrechl and
1. Pick cutoff frequency F and Kurokawa. 4 0 - 4 1 - 4 2 A termination insensi-
Q (from 1 to 10) tive crystal filter is described in Chapter 6
where quadrature couplers are applied.
2. (0 = 2~1C -F
The circuit of Fig 3.86 is narrow band-
T 50-Q width with identical output amplitudes at
3. 1J« C =-
only one frequency. However, the band-
width can be extended to an octave by cas-
cading two identical quadrature hybrids
with a pair of pi-networks between. This
P
F
R2 <u2-C, topology, with related design equations, is
shown in Fig 3.87.

REFERENCES
1. W. Hay ward. Introduction to Radio Filters Using Ultrasperieal Polynomials," 9. G. Matthaei, L. Young. E. M . T. Jones,
Frequency Design, Prenticc-Hall, 1982; IEEE Transactions on Circuit Theory, Vol Microwave Filters, Impedance-Matching
A R R L . 1984. Also see The ARRL CT-13, No. 4, Dec, 1966, pp 364-369. Networks and Coupling Structures,
Handbook, 1995 or later editions. 5. T o r t o r e l l a , R F D e s i g n , M a r / A p r , 1983. McGraw-Hill, 1964.
2. GPLA accompanies Introduction to 6. Zverev, Handbook of Filter Synthesis, 10. See Reference 6.
Radio Frequency Design (see Ref. I) as a Wiley. 1967. 11. A. B. Williams, Electronic Filter
D O S program. GPLA 2002 is a Windows Design Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 1981.
7. M. Dishal, "Alignment and
version included on the book CD. ARRL
Adjustment of Synchronously Tuned 12. W . Hayward, Introduction to Radio
Radio Designer was formerly available
Multiple-Resonant-Circuit Filters," Elect. Frequency Design, ARRL, 1994, Ch 3.
from ARRL.
Commun., Jun, 1952, p p 154-164. 13. W. Hayward, "The Double-Tuned
3. W. Hay ward. Ham Radio Magazine,
8. S. B. Cohn, "Dissipation Loss in Circuit: An Experimenters Tutorial," QST,
Jun, 1984,'p. 96.
Multiple-Coupled-Resonant Filters." Dec, 1991, pp 29-34.
4. D. Johnson and J. Johnson, "Low Pass I'roc. IRE. Aug, 1959, pp 1342-1348. 14. R . L a r k i n , " T h e D S P - 1 0 : An All-Mode

3.38 Chapter 3
2-Meter Transceiver Using a DSP IF and 24. W. Carver, "Measuring Capacitors Quadrature Hybrids." IEEE Transactions
PC-Controlled Front Panel, Part 1 Q S T , and Inductors." QRP Quarterly. Jan. on Microwave Theory and Techniques,
Sep, 1999. pp 33-41. 1998. p 37. Vol. MTT-21.No. 5. May. 1973. pp 355-
15. V. Bottom. Iniroduciitm to Quartz 25. Clarke and Hess. Communications 357.
Crystal Unit Design. Van Nostrand Circuits: Analysis and Design. Addison- 35. R. Fisher. "Twisted-Wire Quadrature
Reinhold, 1982. Wesley. 1971.' Hybrid Directional Couplers," QST. Jan,
16. S. B. Cohn. "Dissipation Loss in 26. C. Trask, "Wideband Transformers: 1978. pp 21-23.
Multiple Coupled Resonators", Proc IRE. An Intuitive Approach to Models. 36. J. D. Cappucci and H. Scidcl. US
Aug. 1959. Characterization and Design," Applied Patent 3.452.300. Four Port Directive
17. W. Hayward. "Designing and Microwave and Wireless. Nov. 2001. Coupler Having Electrical Symmetry
Building Simple Crystal Filters", QST. 27. Ruthroff. "Some Broad-Band with respect to Both A*es, issued Jun 24.
Jul. 1987, pp 24-29. Transformers", Proc. IRE, Aug, 1959. 1969.
18. Carver. K60LG. "High-Performance 28. N. Dye and H. Granberg. Radio 37. J. D. Cappucci and H. Seidel, US
Crystal Filter Design," Communications Frequency Transistors: Principles and Patent 3,452,301, Lumped Parameter
Quarterly, Winter. 1993. Practical Applications, Butterworth- Directional Coupler, issued Jun 24, 1969.
19. D. E. Johnson, J. R. Johnson, and H. Heinemann, 1993. Ch 10. 38. B. M. Oliver. "Directive Electro-
P. Moore. A Handbook of Active Filters, 29. Hamilton, "Improved Direct Magnetic Couplers." Proc. IRE, Oct,
Prentice-Hall, 1980. Conversion Receiver Design", Radio 1954.
20. H. Berlin, "The State-Variable Communications, Apr, 1991, Appendix. 39. S. B. Cohn. "Shielded Coupled Strip
Filler," QST. Apr, 1978, pp 14-16. 30. W. Hayward. Introduction to Radio Transmission Line." MTT, Oct, 1955.
21. W. Hayward, Introduction to Radio Frequency Design. ARRL, 1994, Ch 4. 40. K. Kurokawa. "Design Theory of
Frequency Design. ARRL. 1994, Ch 4. 31. R. Lewallen, "A Simple and Accurate Balanced Transistor Amplifiers." Hell
QRP Directional Wattmeter," QST, Feb. System Technical Journal, Vol. 44. No.
22. G. L. Matthaei, "Tables of Chebyshev
1990. pp 19-23. 36. 10, Oct. 1965. pp 1675-1698.
Impedance-Transforming Networks of
Low-pass Filter Form." Proc IEEE. Aug, 32. R. Larkin. "An 8-Watt. 2-Meter 41. R. S. Engelbrecht and K. Kurokawa,
1964. pp 939-961. 'Brickette'." QST. Jun. 2000. pp 43-47. "A Wideband, Low Noise. L-band
Balanced Transistor Amplifier." Proc.
23. R. Wilson and H. Silverman. "Wire 33. A. Boulouard. "Lumped-Element
IEEE. Vol 53. Mar. 1963. pp 237-246.
Line - A New and Easy Method of Quadrature Couplers," RF Design. Jul.
Microwave Circuit Construction." QST. 1989. 42. R. S. Engelbrecht, US Patent
Jul. 1981, pp 21-23. 3.371.284. High Frequency Balanced
34. R. Fisher. "Broadband Twisted-Wire
Amplifier. Feb 27. 1968.

Filters and Impedance Matching Circuits 3.39

 CHAPTER

Oscillators and Frequency

Synthesis

Almost all of the Amateur Radio equip- promised by LO systems that suffer from A frequency synthesizer offers outstand-
ment we build will contain at least one cxccss phase noise, effectively limiting the ing thermal stability and frequency accu-
oscillator. It may be a simple crystal con- receiver dynamic range. While quiet os- racy. A synthesizer using a handful of inte-
trolled circuit, a tuned LC variable f r e - cillators, those with low phase noise, can grated circuits, each containing hundreds
quency oscillator, or even a direct-digital be built using traditional methods, these of transistors, is less expensive to manu-
synthesizer, a circuit that provides an out- circuits often lack the thermal stability of facture than a high quality mechanically
put similar to what we might expect from a synthesizer. tuned LO system. Tt is more reliable, owing
a simpler circuit. A basic oscillator might Beyond their practical importance, os- to a reduced number of moving parts. Fre-
be a simple one tuned by a mechanical cillators are extremely interesting circuits. quency synthesis is not, however, the an-
variable capacitor. Alternatively, it might An effective oscillator can be built with a swer to all of the LO problems presented to
be voltage controlled. Combinations of all single transistor. Yet. this simple, primi- the experimenter. Some PLL synthesizers
of these are possible and are common in tive circuit will include both positive feed- are burdened by excessive phase noise.
modern communications equipment. back. causing oscillation to start at the Those using DDS, while quieter, emit spu-
The local oscillator (LO) is a critical desired frequency, and negative feedback rious outputs, often in profusion. Both use
part of any communications system. Mod- that maintains operating amplitude con- an excess of digital circuitry that can often
ern transceiver performance is often com- stant with time. corrupt a receiver environment.

4.1 LC-OSCILLATOR BASICS

Oscillators may be classified in a num- is applied to the amplifier input. But, the with a switch or otherwise altered so that
ber of ways. One categorizes the circuit by amplifier output is routed back to the input the circuit is not oscillating. The switch is
the dcvices used for the active clement and of the tuned circuit. then opened, restoring resonator function-
the resonator, such as the bipolar transis- Assume that the circuit has a power sup- ality. The amplifier is operational with
tor, crystal controlled oscillator and the ply attached, but through some means or normal operating bias applied; hence, it
JFET LC oscillator. One can also classify another the resonator is short-circuited generates noise. The noise present at the
oscillators according to a historic circuit
form, such as the Colpitts or Hartley. An
oscillator can be classified by the active
device configuration, such as common-
emitter. Finally, it can be classified ac-
cording to the method used during design,
such as a negative resistance oscillator.
The first question we ask (or should ask)
is if an oscillator will indeed oscillate when
power is applied.
Fig 4.1 shows a block diagram of an
Fig 4.1—Block diagram of an oscillator. Part A shows the basic oscillator while
oscillator. The circuit is segmented into part B illustrates the method used for analysis. This analysis can be applied to
two elements: a resonator or tuned circuit, either LC or crystal oscillators, or even circuits using RC filters to replace the
and an amplifier. The tuned circuit output resonator. Amplifier input and output is labeled with "i" and "o."

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 4.1

input is amplified to appear at the output
with greater amplitude. This noise is spread
more or less evenly over a wide bandwidth.
The amplifier output is applied to the tuned
circuit where it is filtered and phase shifted.
The resulting signal emerges where it is
again applied to the amplifier input. For
each frequency, the signal that has tra-
versed the amplifier-resonator loop
emerges with a new amplitude and new
phase. If the amplifier has a net gain at the
resonator center frequency, the signal at
that frequency is larger after having tra-
versed around the circuit. It will continue
to grow with each round trip.
There will be one unique frequency
where there is no net phase shift as energy
Fig 4.2—Colpitts (A) and Hartley (B) oscillators. The versions at (C) and (D) have
at that frcqucncy traverses the loop. This
the ground removed, allowing any of the three FET terminals to be grounded. The
eventually establishes the oscillator oper- bias is eliminated from the last two circuits. Although illustrated with FETs, bipolar
ating frequency. Energy at frequencies transistors are often used.
above and below the center carrier fre-
quency will be shifted further in phase
with each trip around the loop, eventually
emerging 90 degrees away where it no
longer contributes to Lhe power.
We have just described oscillator starl-
ing . Oscillation will begin if the signal grows
in amplitude with each pass around the loop
and if the phase is the same as it was in the
beginning. These arc the so-called Bark-
hausen criterion. They are measured or ana-
lyzed with the system in the Figure. The loop
has been broken at " X " in part "a" of the
Figure. A signal source and a load are
inserted that allow the gain to be measured,
shown in part "b." 1
The amplitude cannot continue to grow
without bound. Something must occur
within the circuit that will reduce the over-
all gain to the level just needed to maintain Fig 4.3—-The Colpitts (A) evolves into the Clapp (B) and then the Seiler (C). The
a stable amplitude. This usually occurs Vackar oscillator at (D) is yet another variation on the Colpitts where the base is
driven from a lower impedance, achieved with a capacitor tap across one of the
through currcnt or voltage limiting, with usual "Colpitts Capacitors." These oscillators can be designed with either FETs
current limiting generally preferred. (Au- or bipolar transistors.
tomatic gain control can also be used.)
Biasing details usually establish limiting
and set oscillator operating level. A high
operating level is generally desired. uses capacitors. greater-than-unity, zero phase shift start-
We rarely analyze starting in an HF os- The Hartley and the Colpitts oscillators ing gain.
cillator we wish to built for a project. of Fig 4.2 A and B use a source follower The Colpitts circuit (Fig 4.2A) may not
Rather, we merely build and examine the amplifier. This distinction is an arbitrary be as intuitive. Detailed circuit analysis
oscillator to sec if there is an output. one, as is illustrated with the two varia- will show that driving the capacitive tap
tions of Fig 4.2 C and D, which are drawn with a low impedance source will produce
without a ground. The ground and biasing the required voltage step up in the com-
The Colpitts and can then be inserted as needed by the posite tuned circuit. Indeed, a similar
Hartley Circuits designer. analysis shows that the same action occurs
While there are numerous named LC The operation of the Hartley is often in the Hartley oscillator even if there is no
oscillators, they can generally be catego- explained with t r a n s f o r m e r action. T h e magnetic coupling between the two induc-
rized as Colpitts or a Hartley variations source follower of Fig 4.2B has a high in- tor sections. Transformer action is not re-
with both circuits named for their inven- put and relatively low output impedance, quired! A Hartley is easily built with two
tors, early radio pioneers f r o m the Bell and a voltage gain close to I. The ampli- separate coils, an occasionally useful
Labs of the 1920s and 1930s era. The basic fier output signal is applied to the tap on variation.
forms arc shown in Fig 4.2, A and B. The the tuned circuit. Transformer action then The Hartley oscillator with positive
only difference between the two is in the increases the voltage that appears at the feedback resulting from inductors can
means for feedback. The Hartley (B) uses gate. Breaking the loop at either the FET have an advantage over the Colpitts: If it is
a tapped inductor while the Colpitts (A) gate or source will show the required tuned with a variable capacitor with mini-

4.2 Chapter 4
 C l a p p o s c i l l a t o r , a l s o c a l l e d a series tuned
C o l p i t t s . T h e C l a p p starts w i t h a C o l p i t t s
circuit, but replaces the usual inductor
with a larger o n e . T h e n , the e x t r a i n d u c -
t i v e r c a c t a n c c is r e m o v e d w i t h a s c r i e s
capacitive reactance. Part C shows yet
another variation, the Seiler, where a
C l a p p is m o d i f i e d . T h e C l a p p i n d u c t o r is
r e p l a c e d by a s m a l l e r o n e p a r a l l e l e d with
a c a p a c i t o r . T h e C l a p p is c a p a b l e of
greater e n e r g y storage than a similar
C o l p i t t s w h i l e t h e S e i l e r a l l o w s the a c t i v e
d e v i c e to be well d e c o u p l e d f r o m the r e s o -
n a t o r . T h e s e t h r e e a r e a n a l y z e d in g r e a t e r
d e t a i l in Introduction to Radio Frequency
Design, C h a p t e r 7.
This Hartley Oscillator is mounted in a stamped box. A vernier drive is attached to
A final v a r i a t i o n s h o w n in Fig 4 . 3 D is
the capacitor shaft and is fixed to the box with a single bolt that prevents rotation.
Spade lugs allow a lid to be attached to the box. t h e V a c k a r . In t h i s c i r c u i t , the C o l p i t t s
c a p a c i t o r a t t a c h e d to the b a s e is e x p a n d e d ,
a l l o w i n g the b a s e to b e d r i v e n f r o m a
mal f i x e d c a p a c i t a n c e , it will p r o d u c e a The Colpitts oscillator has several popu- l o w e r s o u r c e i m p e d a n c e . T h i s w o u l d pro-
w i d e r t u n i n g r a n g e t h a n is easily r e a l i z e d lar v a r i a t i o n s s h o w n in F i g 4.3. T h e first v i d e e x c e l l e n t d e c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n the
with a C o l p i t t s . T h e r e is n o o t h e r f u n d a - c i r c u i t ( A ) is t h e b a s i c C o l p i t t s . n o w s h o w n a c t i v e t r a n s i s t o r and t h e r e s o n a t o r . T h e
m e n t a l a d v a n t a g e of o n e o v e r t h e o t h e r . w i t h a b i p o l a r t r a n s i s t o r . Part B s h o w s the V a c k a r is d i s c u s s e d later in g r e a t e r d e t a i l .

4.2 PRACTICAL HARTLEY CIRCUITS AND OSCILLATOR DRIFT

COMPENSATION
A g o o d o s c i l l a t o r is t h e r m a l l y and m e - t h r o u g h the 2 . 7 - p F b l o c k i n g c a p a c i t o r
c h a n i c a l l y s t a b l e in f r e q u e n c y and h a s l o w c h a r g e s it. T h e a v e r a g e d c v o l t a g e on the
n o i s e . W e ' l l l o o k at the stability i s s u e s in 2.7 2N4416 tank side of t h e c a p a c i t o r m u s t b e z e r o , f o r
this s e c t i o n , l e a v i n g n o i s e f o r later, and pF the coil is at dc g r o u n d . H e n c e , the c h a r g e d
will i l l u s t r a t e the i d e a s with p r a c t i c a l cir-
-€5 c a p a c i t o r c a u s e s an a v e r a g e n e g a t i v e volt-
c u i t s s u i t a b l e for d u p l i c a t i o n .
T h e f i r s t c i r c u i t w e e x a m i n e is a s i m p l e
L C H a r t l e y o s c i l l a t o r s u i t a b l e as a L O in
1^250
PF
1 Meg
V JlN+148 I' a g e to a p p e a r at the F E T gate. T h i s n e g a t i v e
bias b u i l d s t o w a r d F E T p i n c h o f f as oscilla-
tor a m p l i t u d e i n c r e a s e s . If the o s c i l l a t o r o p -
the H F s p e c t r u m . W e h a v e u s e d this cir- e r a t i n g level c h a n g e s d u r i n g t u n i n g , the
cuit in a p p l i c a t i o n s f r o m I t o 5 0 M H z , a n d n e g a t i v e bias will c h a n g e , a l l o w i n g F E T
have breadboard variations that extend g a i n to c h a n g e a s n e e d e d to m a i n t a i n a
f r o m a u d i o to 3 G H z . T h e 7 - M H z c i r c u i t nearly c o n s t a n t o u t p u t . T h i s a u t o m a t i c g a i n
p r e s e n t e d in F i g 4 . 4 uses a J F E T . Fig 4.4—Practical 7-MHz Hartley c o n t r o l ( A G C ) action is m u c h like the lim-
G e n e r a l l y , an i n d u c t o r with r e a c t a n c e oscillator. iting that also o c c u r s in the H a r t l e y . L i m i t -
of a r o u n d 1 0 0 i i o f f e r s a g o o d s t a r t i n g ing will o c c u r on a e y c l e - l o - c y c l e b a s i s
p o i n t in d e s i g n , a l t h o u g h this is very n o n - around 1 pF, so any series capacitor with w h i l e the A G C r e s p o n d s to an a v e r a g e
c r i t i c a l . T h e t a p p o s i t i o n is s i m i l a r l y a s i m i l a r o r s l i g h t l y l a r g e r s i z e will do. level. The A G C o f f e r s a coarse control,
u n c r i t i c a l ; start w i t h a t a p u p f r o n t g r o u n d T h e oscillator of Fig 4.4 uses o n e large l e a v i n g the limiting to set the final level.
by a b o u t 2 0 % of the n u m b e r of t u r n s . variable capacitor f o r tuning. A typical cir- T h e voltages described are easily
If t h i s o s c i l l a t o r is built with no f i x e d cuit will use c o m b i n a t i o n s of fixed and vari- observed with a high-speed oscilloscope
c a p a c i t a n c e o t h e r t h a n stray v a l u e s , a f r e - able capacitors, c o n f i g u r e d to tunc a n a r r o w w i t h a 10X p r o b e . E v e n a h i g h q u a l i t y
q u e n c y r a n g e a p p r o a c h i n g 4:1 c a n b e e x - r a n g e with the variable element. T h e e q u a - p r o b e will l o a d t h e H F o s c i l l a t o r t a n k ,
p e c t e d . M u c h of t h e c a p a c i t a n c e in the t a n k tions are s h o w n in a sidebar. c o m p r o m i s i n g accuracy, but qualitative
is f i x e d f o r n a r r o w t u n i n g r a n g e s . All f i x e d T h e g a t e d i o d e is o f t e n d e s c r i b e d as a d e t a i l s can still be seen.
c a p a c i t o r s s h o u l d be NPO t y p e s . NPO is an " c l a m p i n g e l e m e n t , " f o r it d o e s not a l l o w T h i s o s c i l l a t o r n o r m a l l y o p e r a t e s with a
a b b r e v i a t i o n f o r negative positive zero, a the g a t e to b e c o m e m o r e p o s i t i v e t h a n 5 to 2 0 - V p e a k - t o - p e a k s i g n a l o n t h e t a n k .
c a p a c i t o r t y p e w i t h a c a p a c i t a n c c that d o e s about 0.6 V. H o w e v e r , the p r i m a r y f u n c - It c a n b e e v e n h i g h e r if a n e x t r a s h u n t
not c h a n g e w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e c a p a c i - tion is a d e t e c t o r to s u p p l y the F E T with c a p a c i t o r is u s e d at t h e g a t e , m i m i c k i n g
tor b e t w e e n t h e h o t end of t h e r e s o n a t o r n e g a t i v e bias. A signal v o l t a g e p r e s e n t on that d e s i g n f e a t u r e in t h e V a c k a r o s c i l l a -
and the F E T g a t e s h o u l d h a v e a s m a l l C the tank circuit c a u s e s d i o d e current w h e n t o r . T h e p h a s e n o i s e c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e
v a l u e . T h e i n p u t C of the F E T is t y p i c a l l y the a n o d e is p o s i t i v e by 0.6 V. T h e c u r r e n t H a r t l e y o s c i l l a t o r of F i g 4 . 4 a r e g o o d .

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 4.3

 Upper Frequency

1 i
J-.-WChx^CMU,)

Lower Frequency

\ Tc
Fig 4.5—Squeeging in a Hartley
oscillator, an on-and-off mode where
- r ^ u the oscillator Is not functioning except
during short periods. The vertical scale
shows the gate voltage. Extreme values
of blocking capacitor and bias resistor
1 are required to produce this behavior in
" 1 i the FET Hartley oscillators.
/
C
V = CKM ° r CMX
2 - l- y

C C J C
1 2 V when tank Q u = 30. the gate resistor was
increased to values much larger than 1 M O .
Minimum and Maximum Frequency
and blocking capacitors of 200 p F or more
1
were used. 2
!•*• I - I C , * - The supply voltage used with this oscil-
C lator should be larger than the magnitude
Cj CjtCjjl i 1 * Cmavf
of the FET pinchoff. A supply of +5 is high
enough for a 2M44I6 with pinchoff of
luntogRa^: F
max mw - 3 V. The supply should be regulated and
come from a moderately low de impedance.
Example with C in pF, L in uH and F in kHz: In one experiment, we built this oscillator
C„i.-10 C„-MS with a 6-V Zener diode with a 3.9-kQ
resistor fed from a 12-V supply. The high
C,-100 Cj-100 C J«I7~ I.J Ret: OSl, H o t , H § 1 p?l
resistance value was picked for overall ef-
F_; =6S89 AF»44J
ficiency. The oscillator would not start. DC
voltmeter measurements showed that the
A simple resonant circuit is tuned with parallel capacitors as shown in the top
section. The tuning range is controlled by the ratio of the variable capacitance FET only had 1 V on the drain. The FET
to the fixed one. was trying to draw a current of l dS5 . leading
to excessive drop across the 3.9-kQ resis-
tor. A smaller (470-Q) dropping resistor
Often an available variable capacitor has greater capacitance than required
solved the problem, but at the cost of higher
for a desired frequency range. While plates can sometimes be removed, a
power consumption. A better solution is a
better solution embeds the variable capacitor in a network of fixed capacitors.
100-Q drain-decoupling resistor supplied
The evolution of this network is s h o w n in the middle section. The variable, C v
by a dc emitter follower with the base ref-
and C 2 are paralleled to form the equivalent C 2 v . This is then placed in series
with C i for the equivalent C 1 2 v . This is paralleled by C 3 to form the total erenced to a Zener diode paralleled by a
capacitor, C N E T . The overall frequency is calculated from the usual resonance large electrolytic capacitor. A small charg-
relationship. The equations are shown, with capacitors in Farads, inductance ing current can then be used, maintaining
in Henrys and frequency in Hz. efficiency. Three terminal regulator ICs
There is considerable flexibility available to the designer, afforded by also work well in this application. This is
picking C , and C 2 values. S o m e combinations with C^ much smaller than the one of many examples where extra cir-
variable capacitor can produce highly nonlinear tuning. cuitry improves efficiency.

Temperature
although not the ultimate. (Phase noise is Experiments were performed to examine Compensation
discussed later in this chapter.) the effcct of resistor and blocking Generally, the most important character-
The 1-MI2 resistor represents a load on capacitor values, and un loaded resonator Q. istic of oscillators built for radio applica-
the tank. It also discharges the series block- If extreme values (long time constant) were tion is frequency stability. Stability relates
ing capacitor. If a smaller resistance is used with degraded tank Q. the oscillator to a change in frequency other than the
used, the blocking capacitor will discharge could become amplitude unstable, produc- desired ones that occur with tuning. This
more quickly. The energy to maintain bias ing a phenomenon callcd squegging. A change, or drift, occurs in two forms. One
comes from the RF envelope, further load- sketch of the observed gate voltage is shown is the warm up drift occurring when an os-
ing the resonator. Resistor values around in Fig 4.5 for an oscillator using a 2N4416 cillator is first turned on and allowed to
1 M£2 are generally optimum. FET. This unusual behavior was observed operate at constant temperature. The sec-

4.4 Chapter 4
 drift! The heat source was only operated
intermittently after the 25-minute mark to
maintain chamber temperature. Oscillator
drift continued as the internal components
came up to temperature.
Measurements are simpler when the
tested oscillator is only a small board with
low thermal mass, capable of quicker
temperature changes.
Thermal frequency stability depends on
the resonator coil and all related capaci-
tors. Most oscillators wc built use toroid
inductors wound on SF ( - 6 ) material. A
newer material with a - 7 designation is
reported to be slightly more stable. The
- 6 material has a permeability of about 10
and a temperature coefficient of induc-
tance (TCL) of +35 parts per million per
degree Celsius (C). This means that an
inductor of 1 micro-henry will increase by
35 pH (i.e.. 0.000035 |aH) when the tem-
perature increases by 1 degree C. Tem-
perature coefficients are generally speci-
fied in normalized, dimensionless form,
(parts per million) allowing convenient
scaling. The normalized rate of change of
simple environmental chamber. The heat was turned on at 10 minutes, it was frequency. TCF. is related to all of the
cycled off and on after 25 minutes to maintain an approximately constant
temperature. The chamber lid was removed and a cooling fan was turned on at 46 components in the oscillator resonator. If,
minutes. for example, a tank consisted of two paral-
lel capacitors and an inductor, the tempera-
ture coefficient of frequency is related to
that of the components by

ond is the drift with changing temperature. possess- All that is needed is a simple en-
Both effect*. arc thermal in origin, but the vironmental chamber with a thermometer.
warm up drift is caused by temperature The chamber is built from an inexpensive !!_!-= =
F 2
changes in individual components result- Styrofoam box. A light bulb is placed in-
ing from heating by the circulating currents side the box along with the circuit being C,L C,
TCI. - T C c l • - + TCC2 —
within ihe circuit. Warm up drift is nor- tested. A small fan stirs the inside air to CT0T CTOT _
mally small compared with the drifts thai complete the chamber. Temperature is
occur when an oscillator is subjected to measured with an integrated circuit in- Eq 4.1
even a modest temperature change. tended for this purpose. Leads supply
Thermal drift may be of little conse- power to the IC and route a dc signal out of where C ( and C 2 arc the capacitors with
quence when equipment is built and used the chamber for measurement with a temperature coefficients TC C) and TC r -,.
in a typical home environment where room DVM. An oscillator to be tested is placed TCL is the temperature coefficient of the
temperatures are stable. But the oscillator in the chamber with cables routed to the inductor, and TCF is the temperature coef-
that was "rock solid" during home opera- outside for power and for frequency mea- ficient of frequency of the oscillator in
tion may become a very poor performer surement. The oscillator is turned on for a normalized pans. C T O t ' h e total capaci-
when subjected to portable environments. while before the heat source is applied, tance, C|+C 2 . The negative sign arises
The most extreme examples we have providing a measure of warm-up drift. because an increase in L or C leads to
encountered occurred when we look equip- Heat is then applied, causing the tempera- decreasing frequency. The factor of one
ment on mountaineering trips. The temper- ture to increase. half comes from the square root relation-
ature at the summit of a glacier clad, cloud Data for a 7-MHz Hartley oscillator is ship of frequency to L and C.
covered mountain can be below freezing, shown in Fig 4.6 where frequency and cham- Consider a 7-MH/ example, using a
even in mid summer. But the temperature ber temperature are plotted vs time. The os- 2-|iH inductor carefully wound on a T50-
can quickly shoot up when the clouds blow cillator was operated for 10 minutes before 6 toroid. Assume TCL is +50 ppm/'C.
away for a few minutes, only to plummet applying the 60-W heat source, producing a slightly worse than the quoted material
downward as soon as the clouds return. It's typical I50-Hz warm-up drift. Chamber performance, which will be explained
important to design for these extremes if temperature immediately started to increase later. Initially assume that the inductor is
they might be encountered. While not as when the heat source was turned on. The paralleled with 250 pF of perfectly
severe, drift problems are common even frequency did not respond immediately, for non-drifting NP0 capacitors. The only part
when we arc on the flatlands. the oscillator was housed in a moderately that will drift will be the inductor. From
Oscillator temperature compensation is light container. When frequency began to Eq 4.1, the 50 ppm/°C will produce a TCF
surprisingly easy, requiring little equip- drop, it moved about 5 kHz for a 15°C tem- of -25 ppm/ 8 C. or - 2 5 Hz per MHz. The
ment beyond the simple frequency counter perature increase. The external heating 15-dcgrcc shift of Fig 4-6 would then pro-
and DVM that most experimenters already induced drift was over 30 times the warm up duce a frequency change of -2.6 kHz.

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 4.5

 We now replace che single capacitor istics. A more temperature stable coil is
with two, a 150-pFNPO ceramic and a 100- produced with a wire size that is smaller J-310 +8 Reg
pF polystyrene. The nominal frequency than that producing maximum Q. The Q
remains 7.118 MHz. Assume thai the NPO degradation is usually not large.
capacitor is not perfect, having a TC of +5 Temperature coefficients are themselves
ppmTC. The poly cap has TC = -150 ppm/ temperature dependent. An oscillator that
°C. The TCF for the circuit is has been compensated at one temperature
may not be as stable at temperature
extremes.
2 [ 250 250J Another subtle problem has to do with
stress built into the wire during the wind-
Eq 4.2 ing process. We first observed this while
temperature testing bandpass filters built
This oscillator has a much improved from toroids. The filter frequency would Fig 4.7—A Hartley oscillator using
TCF of +3.5 ppm per degree C. This is source bias and two inductors. The
change as temperature increased, but larger Inductor Is 17 turns on a T50-6
3.5 H/ drift per MHz of observed fre- would not come back to the original fre- toroid. The smaller one is 10 turns on a
quency per °C. A 10-degree C temperature quency when the circuit returned to room T30-6, Output can be extracted from the
rise would produce a 245-11/ frequency temperature. However, a second excursion source or directly from the resonator
increase, a very stable VFO. The stability to high temperature and back would pro- with a capacltive tap and appropriate
results from the use of a combination of duce the expected return. Evidently, the buffering.
parts with temperature coefficients that first excursion to high temperature (85 °C)
cancel each other. and back relieves the stresses left in the
The temperature coefficient of fre- metal during winding. W7EL has dropped
quency, TCF, is reduced from that of the There are. however, some variations that
coils into boiling water after winding: sub-
compensating capacitor to half the ratio of should also be considered. Fig 4.7 shows
sequent cooling produces a more stable
the compensating capacitor to the total an oscillator without ac coupling into the
inductor.
resonator C. Capacitors with a tempera- gate, removing the AGC action of earlier
None of the temperature stability and oscillators. The amplitude is determined
ture coefficient of - 7 5 0 ppinTC arc rcadi ly
compensation arguments relate to oscilla- by more traditional current limiting. The
available. They can be placed directly
tor topology. There is nothing that will FFT in the example has a pinchoff voltage
across a resonator or in series with a NPO
make one type more stable than another so of - 3 V. The source resistor places the
capacitor for compensation. If capacitor
long as the circuit does not degrade tank Q source at a positive potential, even before
CI has a known TC. but is placed in series
from improper limiting. The compensation oscillation has started. As oscillation
with an NPO capacitor. C2. the resulting
methods described here for the Hartley builds, follower action causes the source
TC of capacitance is given by
apply equally to other circuits presented voltage to reach large positive values. The
later. Capacitor variability makes it diffi- gate also reaches positive values, but is
C,
cult to predict and control stability, encour- always offset below the source. During
T C =
~(c + c ) ' T C c i Fq4,3
aging the serious builder to measure his or part of the cycle, the gate-source voltage
her VFO. drops to or below pinchoff: the greater
For example, if we place a 47-pF ca- Powdered iron toroid cores ( - 6 and - 7 the fraction of each cycle spent in this con-
pacitor with TC o f - 7 5 0 ppm/°C in scries material from Micro-Metals) produce dition, the greater will be the gain reduc-
with a 10-pF NPO capacitor, the result is stable and reproducible inductors if care- tion, which establishes the final
8.2 pF with a TC of - 1 3 2 ppm/°C. fully wound. Some other coil forms may operating level. With a 2.2-kO source
Although polystyrene capacitors can be produce stable coils, although the reader resistor, the gate signal was 11 V peak-to-
used for compensation, they are not ideal. should not trust poorly documented testi- peak. This dropped significantly when the
The TC of - 1 5 0 ppm/°C is not a precise monials (lore) regarding slug tuned forms source R was increased to 10 k£2.
number. The TC itself has a tolerance of or other schemes that are not easily dupli- The oscillator of Fig 4.7 has an addi-
+/-50 ppm/X'. allowing a polystyrene ca- cated and quantified. tional unusual feature: The usual tapped
pacitor to have a TC ranging from - 1 0 0 to The most stable oscillators are built coil is replaced with two isolated coils.
- 2 0 0 ppm/'C. This variability is common, from collections of components that all This has the advantage that the circuit is
even among NPO capacitors. For example, have low drift. A really bad component easily band-switched, a sometimes-messy
one of the best commonly available NPO can be compensated, but only over a nar- problem with tapped inductors.
capacitor types is one with a so-called COG row temperature range.
characteristic, where the G designates a TC
The "Huff 'n Puff"
Drift measurements in a measured, vari-
tolerance of +/-30 ppm/ 1 'C able temperature environment are much
Our example used an inductor TC thai more meaningful than mere warm up drift Frequency counter circuitry can be used
differed from the published value for the measurements. A suitable chamber can be to stabilize a moderately good oscillator,
powdered iron core. The difference relates built at very low cost in an evening. The achieving nearly the stability of a synthe-
to the way the core is wound. If a large chamber is described in a paper included sized oscillator. 4
wire is hand wound on a toroid, with the on the book CD. ' This scheme uses normal frequency
wire size picked to fill the core to produce counter circuitry such as that in Fig 4.8. A
highest possible Q, there is a good chance
that the wire will gap away from the core Variations on the
stable crystal oscillator is the foundation.
The result is divided with a large counter,
for part of each turn. This leaves unsup- Simple Hartley a straightforward operation with CMOS
ported loops that can expand or contract The oscillator described has been a long circuits such as the 4060 or similar indus-
with heat, producing ill-defined character- time favorite among QRP experimenters. trial timer parts. The division is extended

4.6 Chapter 4
 cating a count o f 4, 5. 6, or 7. T h e n e g a t i v e
e d g e of T is detected and used to trigger a
D - F l i p - f l o p that m e m o r i z e s the result. The
s a v e d digital 1 c a u s e s Q o f the F F to be at
5 V. This signal is applied to the input o f an
o p - a m p integrator circuit w h i c h generates
an output that ramps d o w n w a r d , bul at a
very low rale. T h i s s l o w l y c h a n g i n g volt-
age c a u s e s the V F O frequency to decrease.
T h e f r e q u e n c y g o e s d o w n s l i g h t l y as a
result o f the applied signal. F i n a l l y , after a
f e w c y c l e s o f c o u n t i n g , it w i l l h a v e
d r o p p e d e n o u g h that the s i g n a l h e l d in
m e m o r y b e c o m e s a logical zero, resulting
in an integrator input o f 0 V. T h i s n o w
c a u s e s the o p - a m p output to a g a i n ramp
upward, s l o w l y i n c r e a s i n g the f r e q u e n c y .
T h e o v e r a l l e f f e c t o f the a d d e d c i r c u i t
e l e m e n t s is to f o r c e the o s c i l l a t o r to n e v e r
be at a f i x e d , e x a c t f r e q u e n c y , but to m o v e
( h u f f i n g and p u f f i n g ) b e t w e e n t w o f r e -
q u e n c i e s . T h e s e t w o r e f e r e n c e s are 4 0 - H z
apart for our e x a m p l e , s o c h a n g e s are not
n o t i c e d in normal a p p l i c a t i o n s . Greater
r e s o l u t i o n is a v a i l a b l e w i t h a shorter c o u n t
or l o n g e r s a m p l e period.

W e n o w a l l o w a s l o w thermal drift to
occur. T h i s has the e f f e c t of altering the
t i m e w h e n w e reach o n e o f the transition
fig 4.8—This scheme uses normal frequency counter circuitry. A stable crystal f r e q u e n c i e s . H o w e v e r , the drift w i l l b e
oscillator is the foundation.
c a n c e l l e d s o l o n g it is w e l l under 4 0 Hz in
a 0.2-sccond window.
A F E T s w i t c h is placed a c r o s s the inte-
grator ti m i n g capacitor. T h i s F E T is turned
to p r o d u c e a square w a v e w i t h a p o s i t i v e f r e q u e n c y 3 0 0 H z a b o v e 5 . 0 M H z . and is on w h e n the o s c i l l a t o r is tuned.
half period o f l e n g t h T . A s s u m e T = 0 . 1 thermally stable with no drift o f it's o w n . T h e H u f f 'n Puff s c h e m e can be extremely
s e c o n d . A w e l l - b u f f e r e d s a m p l e o f the In a 0 . 1 s c c o n d period the 8 bit counter useful for adding stability to a circuit that is
V F O is a p p l i e d to a c o n d i t i o n i n g a m p l i f i e r input will s e e 5 0 0 . 0 3 0 transitions, s o it will already reasonably solid. Il is a wonderful
f o l l o w e d by a g a t e c o n t r o l l e d by the tim- o v e r f l o w again and again. W h e n the gate tool for the experimenter, for it can be added
ing s i g n a l T . This a l l o w s l i m i n g data to signal terminates at the end o f the period T, to an already existing design. Several ex-
reach a c o u n t e r f o r 0.1 s e c o n d . L e t ' s the 8 bit counter w i l l have o v e r f l o w e d a perimenters have e x p a n d e d the basic s y s t e m
j s s u m e the oscillator to be stabilized has a total o f 6 2 , 5 0 3 times and will e n d the pe- in recent times. 5
riod with a l o g i c I in the output digit, indi-

4.3 THE COLPITTS AND OTHER OSCILLATORS

O n e o f the m o s t popular o s c i l l a t o r cir-
cuits a m o n g radio e x p e r i m e n t e r s has b e e n
C o l p i t t s in o n e o f its m a n y f o r m s . T h e
b a s i c circuit, a l o n g w i l h s e v e r a l o f its
d e r i v a t i v e f o r m s , w a s p r e s e n t e d at the
b e g i n n i n g o f the chapter. S o m e practical
variations are p r e s e n t e d here.
Fig 4.9 shows a simple Colpitts
oscillator using a junction FET. Although
very s i m p l e , this circuit is c a p a b l e o f e x -
c e l l e n t p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e variation s h o w n
operates at a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 . 5 M H z w i t h a
Fig 4.9—Two versions of a Colpitts oscillator. The variation at B is more tolerant of
c o m m o n drain JFET. A d d i t i o n o f a vari- FET variations. The lower noise versions of this oscillator have larger C with
able c a p a c i t o r and trimmer to this circuit reduced L values.

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 4.7

 The frequency stability will depend upon the
criterion outlined earlier. That is, if quality
NPO capacitors a n d - 6 o r - 7 toroid inductors
are used, reasonable stability is predictable.
Temperature compensation can be applied
to further improve the performance.
A subtlety haunts the bipolar Colpitts
circuits o f Fig 4 . 1 0 in the form o f ill-de-
fined limiting. The circuit will nearly
always oscillate. However, i f the 3 . 3 - k O
emitter bias resistor is reduced, the transis-
tor will go into saturation at the negative
extreme o f the collector voltage waveform.
This action extracts energy from the tank
and dissipates it in the transistor saturation
Fig 4.10—Colpitis oscillators using bipolar transistors. Although these circuits resistance. This can severely degrade the
were designed around the 2N3904 (NPN) and 2N3906 (PNP), transistor type is not loaded tank Q. compromising phase noise
critical for general-purpose applications. The 2N5179 is a good general-purpose and thermal stability. The emitter degen-
choice for V H F applications. T h e PNP has the advantage that the tank Is at ground, eration decreases starting gain and helps to
removing the bypass capacitor of the NPN tank from the frequency-determining
establish current limiting as the mechanism
loop. T h e PNP is also handy when varactor diode tuning is planned.
determining operating level. Transistor
saturation is easily detected with a high-
speed oscilloscope.
A simple Colpitts should be built with
high capacitance and low inductance, stor-
ing the greatest energy in the resonator. But
there is a practical limit to this trend. Even-
tually. stray inductance o f the capacitors
and the wiring in the lank, including by-
pass capacitors, will all contribute to the
overall L in greater proportion. The stray
inductance generally has a considerably
lower Q and poorer stability than that o f a
powdered iron toroid inductor.
F i g 4 . 1 1 shows a Seiler oscillator using
a bipolar transistor. T h e values shown are
for 5 - M H z operation, with reactance at the
operating frequency shown in parenthe-
ses, allowing scaling. A s mentioned
earlier, the S e i l e r can be analyzed as a
variation of the Clapp, which is the famil-
iar "series tuned" version of the Colpitts.
This circuit has some very useful charac-
teristics. First, the Colpitts capacitors (the
Fig 4 . 1 1 — A Seller oscillator for 5-MHz operation. T h e values shown In parenthesis
180 and 4 3 0 - p F capacitors providing the
are reactances, allowing the circuit to be scaled to other frequencies. Transistor
type is not critical, although the circuit works well with a 2N3904. in-phasc feedback from collector to emit-
ter) are large compared with the 3 3 - p F cou-
pling capacitor to the inductor. T h i s
decouples the active d e v i c e , including
will drop it down into the 4 0 - m c t c r band. parasitic capacitance, from the rest o f the
Colpitis oscillators and variations is usu-
The circuit uses a source resistor to set op- tank. S e c o n d , current limiting is well
ally the J F E T (owing to reduced low fre-
erating level. In the variant with diode established with this circuit. (Computer
quency noise), bipolar versions are still
clamping, the source resistor may be analysis shows that the transistor slays
popular and effective. Bipolar Colpitis os-
replaced with a c h o k c . although the nega- well away from saturation when the
cillators are shown in F i g 4 . 1 0 . T h e
tive feedback at low frequency from the 1 0 0 - f i degeneration is used.) Even
familiar form is that in A using an NPN
resistor is believed to improve phase noise though the current is small in this circuit,
transistor. T h e PNP version ( F i g 4 . 1 0 B ) i s
close to the carrier. While shown with a about 1 mA, the signal voltages can be
convenient, for the dc grounded collector
J - 3 1 0 F E T . F E T type is not critical. The quite high. W e measured over 10 V pk-pk
removes the need for a good bypass
J 3 1 0 used for the measurements on this across the inductor. T h e collector signal
capacitor that becomes part o f the fre-
oscillator had a pinchoff voltage o f - 3 . 1 V is much smaller at 2.5 V peak-to-peak.
quency-determining resonator.
and l(j S 5 of 37.5 mA. The circuit draws just Output can be obtained from the junction
The two oscillators presented in Fig 4 . 1 0
over I mA during operation. The R s value o f the Colpitis capacitors.
are designed for operation near 7 MHz. Like
may require adjustment i f built with a low any o f the circuits presented, they can be The Colpitts oscillators presented have
gain J F E T . scaled to any frequency within the H F and all operated at the lower end o f the H F
While the preferred device for HF low V H F spectrum, and even down to audio. spectrum. The Colpitts and Hartley can

4.8 Chapter 4
Fig 4.12—A Colpitts VHF oscillator, L1 is 50 nH, 3 turns of
#22 bare wire. It is initially wound on a 1/4-20 machine screw
as a former. The bolt is then removed. The varactor diode is
attached to a tap (approximately center) on the coil in order
to reduce the tuning sensitivity. The diode tunes the
oscillator by 4 MHz around 134 MHz with a voltage from 5 to
12. L2 is a 2.7 nH RFC. The trimmer capacitor allows the
circuit to tune from 71 to 153 MHz. Power output is -2 dBm to Fig 4.13—Negative resistance one-port oscillators for
a 50-Q termination. application at HF and VHF. See text for discussion.

b o t h b e s c a l e d f o r o p e r a t i o n at m u c h
h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s . S h o w n in F i g 4 . 1 2 is a 330 +12
V H F Colpitts oscillator. This circuit was
o r i g i n a l l y set up a s a v o l t a g e c o n t r o l l e d
l o c a l o s c i l l a t o r in a S S B t r a n s c e i v e r at
144 M H z . It c a n , h o w e v e r , b e set u p f o r a
wide f r e q u e n c y range by spreading or
c o m p r e s s i n g t h e t u r n s o n the c o i l , w h i c h
uses an air d i e l e c t r i c .
N u m e r o u s o t h e r o s c i l l a t o r f o r m s are
available for wide frequency range appli-
cations. T h r e e arc s h o w n in F i g 4.13. T h e
first b i p o l a r circuit (Fig 4 . 1 3 A ) is a p r i m i -
tive v a r i a t i o n of t h e s c h e m e u s e d in the
Motorola M C - 1 6 4 8 . The version shown
uses N P N transistors with a n e g a t i v e sup-
ply. T h e s a m e c i r c u i t will w o r k w i t h a
single positive p o w e r supply with P N P
transistors such as the 2 N 3 9 0 6 . T h e oscil-
lator is a o n e - p o r t t y p e w h e r e t w o n o n -
i n v e r t i n g a m p l i f i e r s , an e m i t t e r f o l l o w e r
and a c o m m o n - b a s e , a r e c a s c a d e d . T h e out-
put is r e t u r n e d to the input with a s h u n t -
t u n e d circuit a t t a c h e d at the c o m m o n point.
This s c h e m e can b e built on the b e n c h and
m a d e to f u n c t i o n o v e r an e x t r e m e l y w i d e
f r e q u e n c y r a n g e . L o w Q tank circuits are
f a v o r e d . T h i s circuit s u f f e r s f r o m very low
stored t a n k e n e r g y , the result of v o l t a g e
clipping by t h e transistors.
T h e s e c o n d circuit uses J - F E T s in a varia-
tion of the s a m e t o p o l o g y . T h i s circuit, simi-
lar to o n e u s e d in the H P - 8 6 6 2 synthesized
generator 6 , d o e s not s u f f e r f r o m the voltage
limiting f o u n d with the simple bipolar ver-
sion. T h e circuit s h o w n in Fig 4 . 1 3 B is o n e Fig 4.14—The Vackar circuit shown is identical to the Seller circuit presented
that w a s b r e a d b o a r d e d f r o m available c o m - earlier except for the choice of component values.

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 4.9

 e s s e n t i a l l y the s a m e c i r c u i t w i t h t h e
g r o u n d p o i n t s h i f t e d f r o m t h e s o u r c e to
t h e d r a i n . T h e i n d u c t a n c e v a l u e is s l i g h t l y
l o w e r in B t h a n in A . f o r v a r i a b l e c a p a c i -
t o r C v c o n n e c t s to g r o u n d in B. If t h e c a -
p a c i t o r h a d b e e n r e t u r n e d to t h e F E T
s o u r c c in B. the L v a l u e w o u l d be the s a m e
as at A f o r 7 - M H z r e s o n a n c e .
T h e V a c k a r c i r c u i t i n F i g 4 . 1 4 B is i d e n -
tical to the Scilcr c i r c u i t p r e s e n t e d e a r l i e r
e x c e p t f o r the c h o i c e of c o m p o n e n t v a l -
u e s . T h e u n i q u e c o m p o n e n t in the V a c k a r
is t h e l a r g e c a p a c i t o r a c r o s s t h e F E T
g a t e - s o u r c e . T h i s c o m p o n e n t is c r i t i c a l ;
i n c r e a s i n g the v a l u e will d r o p t h e s t a r t i n g
g a i n to the point that, o s c i l l a t i o n will not
Fig 4.15—This figure shows a variant of the Vackar oscillator with a Hartley theme. c o m m e n c e . A d e c r e a s e in i n d u c t o r Q will
The source and gate are both tapped down on the resonator as a means of
h a v e a s i m i l a r e f f e c t . T h e d e c o u p l i n g be-
isolating the tank from the resonator.
t w e e n r e s o n a t o r a n d F E T is n e a r o p t i m u m
in t h e V a c k a r . P a s s i v e c o m p o n e n t t e m -
p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s will still d o m i n a t e
ponents. W i t h an inductor consisting of 20 the r e s o n a t o r . thermal stability.
turns on a T 5 0 - 2 toroid. the circuit operated F i g 4 . 1 4 s h o w s the V a c k a r o s c i l l a t o r . F i g 4 . 1 5 s h o w s a v a r i a n t of the V a c k a r
at 5.34 M H z with 2 0 - V peak-to-peak on the Part A is a J F K T a d a p t a t i o n of a v a c u u m oscillator with a Hartley theme. The
tank. C h a n g i n g the resonator allowed opera- t u b e d e s i g n a p p e a r i n g in t h e 5th e d i t i o n of s o u r c e and g a t e a r e b o t h t a p p e d d o w n on
tion u p to 2 0 0 M H z . the RSGH Radio Communications Hand- t h e r e s o n a t o r as a m e a n s of i s o l a t i n g t h e
F i g u r e 4 . 1 3 C s h o w s a third v e r s i o n of book w i t h c o m p o n e n t s c h o s e n f o r 7 - M H z tank f r o m the r e s o n a t o r . T h i s c i r c u i t is a
t h i s o s c i l l a t o r t h a t w a s b u i l t , this t i m e o p e r a t i o n . 7 O u t p u t is e x t r a c t e d with a h i g h d i r e c t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h a t of F i g
using 2 N 3 9 0 4 bipolar transistors. Again, i n p u t i m p e d a n c e b u f f e r a t t a c h e d to t h e 4 . 1 4 B and is o f t e n u s e d at V H F f o r l o w
the s i g n a l w a s 2 0 - V p e a k - t o - p e a k a c r o s s o s c i l l a t o r d r a i n . P a r t B of t h e F i g u r e is noise oscillators.8

4.4 NOISE IN OSCILLATORS

S o m e m e n t i o n has a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e by a f a c t o r of 10, the b a s e l i n e will f u r t h e r T h e r e is o f t e n a sign d i s c r e p a n c y in these
r e g a r d i n g oscillator noise. W e d o n ' t tradi- increase by 10 d B . W e c a n n o t d e s c r i b e the d i s c u s s i o n s , r e q u i r i n g c a r e on the part of
tionally think of n o i s e when d i s c u s s i n g os- noise w i t h a s i m p l e " d B m l e v e l . " R a t h e r , the reader.)
cillators. H o w e v e r , n o i s e is present in any noise is s p e c i f i e d a s a p o w e r d e n s i t y , t h e R e c a l l t h e e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n of o s c i l l a -
practical electronic circuit; the oscillator is p o w e r that w o u l d a p p e a r in a 1 - H z b a n d - tor s t a r t i n g . (Fig 4 . 1 ) W i d e b a n d n o i s e at
ccrtainly no e x c e p t i o n . I n d e e d , e x c e s s L O w i d t h . If w c apply a w i d e b a n d noise s o u r c e the a m p l i f i e r input port w a s a m p l i f i e d , b u t
noise is t y p i c a l l y the d o m i n a n t p h e n o m - to a s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r set to a resolution w a s then f i l t e r e d in a r e s o n a t o r . T h e " s i g -
e n o n l i m i t i n g the p e r f o r m a n c e of m o s t b a n d w i d t h of 10 k H z and the r e s p o n s e n a l " w i t h i n the b a n d w i d t h of the r e s o n a t o r
transceivers in the late 1990s t i m e f r a m e , c o m e s up to the - 6 0 d B m line, w e say is t r a n s f e r r e d w i t h little a t t e n u a t i o n a n d is
that t h e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y of n o i s e is a g a i n a p p l i e d to t h e a m p l i f i e r i n p u t . W i t h
Before discussing oscillator noise, we
- 1 0 0 d B m / H z : t h e 1 0 - k H z b a n d w i d t h is a f e w " t r i p s " a r o u n d the loop, t h e signal
should consider some R F measurements.
" 4 0 d B w i d e r " than a 1 - H z w i d e filler. has g r o w n to the p o i n t that l i m i t i n g be-
A s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r ( S A ) is the i n s t r u -
Recall that 10*Log( 10,000) = 40. g i n s . As l i m i t i n g o c c u r s , t h e net g a i n
m e n t n o r m a l l y u s e d to e x a m i n e r a d i o fre-
q u e n c y s i g n a l s . T h e S A is e s s e n t i a l l y a If a c a r r i e r w a s a l s o p r e s e n t in the n o i s y around the loop diminishes, eventually
c a l i b r a t e d , s w e p t r e c e i v e r , usually w i t h - display described, we might make refer- s t a b i l i z i n g at u n i t y , t h e l e v e l n e e d e d to
out audio output. Signal strengths are dis- e n c e to a carrier lo noise ratio ( C N R . ) ( W e s u s t a i n a m p l i t u d e - s t a b l e o s c i l l a t i o n , but
p l a y e d on a C R T o r s i m i l a r s c r e e n . W h e n u s e the t e r m " r a t i o , " f o r w c a r e e x a m i n i n g n o m o r e . U n i t y g a i n o c c u r s at t h e r e s o n a -
a s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r is a p p l i e d t o a s p e c - the ratio of p o w e r . H o w e v e r , w e c a l c u l a t e tor c e n t e r f r e q u e n c y (or v e r y c l o s e to it)
t r u m a n a l y z e r , a r e s p o n s e is n o t e d at t h e this with a simple subtraction, for the w h e r e the net p h a s e s h i f t is z e r o d e g r e e s .
f r e q u e n c y of t h a t c a r r i e r . C h a n g i n g t h e p o w e r v a l u e s are a l r e a d y in a d B m for- C o n s i d e r the g a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s at f r e -
a n a l y z e r b a n d w i d t h will h a v e little i m p a c t m a l . ) If the c a r r i e r w a s - 1 5 d B m with the q u e n c i e s c l o s e to b u t s l i g h t l y r e m o v e d
as w e o b s e r v e t h e c a r r i e r . T h e a m p l i t u d e is n o i s e at - 6 0 d B m w i t h a 1 0 - k H z b a n d - f r o m the carrier. For example, suppose we
u n c h a n g e d . It is s p e c i f i e d a s a p o w e r in w i d t h , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d e d to - 1 0 0 d B m / b u i l d an L C o s c i l l a t o r o p e r a t i n g in t h e
d B m . ( S e e C h a p t e r 2 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n of H z . w e w o u l d say t h e C N R w a s 85 d B c / a m a t e u r 2 0 - m e t e r b a n d w i t h a loaded tank
dBm.) H z . with d B c s t a n d i n g f o r d B with r e s p e c t Q of 100. T h e 3 - d B b a n d w i d t h will then b e
N o i s e is d i f f e r e n t . If strong, w i d e b a n d to a carrier, ( W e u s u a l l y talk of C N R , c a r - 1% of 14 M H z . o r 1 4 0 k H z . S i g n a l s
n o i s e is a p p l i e d to a s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r , it rier to n o i s e ratio, r a t h e r t h a n N C R , n o i s e 7 0 k H z on e i t h e r s i d e of t h e c a r r i e r are
will c a u s e the b a s e l i n e to r i s e . If w e to c a r r i e r r a t i o , f o r the c a r r i e r is m u c h a t t e n u a t e d by 3 d B a n d s h i f t e d in p h a s e by
increase t h e s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r b a n d w i d t h s t r o n g e r t h a n the n o i s e a n d is the l o u d e r . + o r - 4 5 d e g r e e s . S i g n a l s c l o s e r to the

4.10 Chapter 4
 Fig 4.17—A spectrum analyzer output
showing two s i g n a l s with identical
amplitude. The peak at the left is
"perfect," having a vertical spike shape.
12MHz 14MHz The width represents the spectrum
Up(out)
Frequency analyzer bandwidth. The right hand
signal has noise, which appears a s a
modulation on either side of the carrier.
Fig 4.16—An example circuit of an amplifier followed by a resonator. The The flat horizontal line is the
amplitude and phase responses are s h o w n v s frequency. background noise level of the spectrum
analyzer.

c a r r i e r h a v e less p h a s e shift and less than sizer. If the S A b a n d w i d t h is i n c r e a s e d , t h e T h e p h a s e n o i s e of an o s c i l l a t o r c a n

?-dB a t t e n u a t i o n . T h i s b e h a v i o r is illus- n o i s e will i n c r e a s e . T h e r e s p o n s e to the be p r e d i c t e d w i t h the e q u a t i o n s g i v e n
trated with the a m p l i f i e r and r e s o n a t o r of c a r r i e r p e a k , h o w e v e r , will not c h a n g e . A in the s i d e b a r . '
Fig 4.16. p h o t o g r a p h e d s p e c t r a l d i s p l a y is a l s o C o n s i d e r a t y p i c a l e x a m p l e , an a v e r a g e
A l t h o u g h a m p l i f i e r g a i n in an o s c i l l a t o r shown. 1 4 - M H z o s c i l l a t o r . It u s e s a l o a d e d r e s o -
» l i m i t e d , n o i s e is still p r e s e n t . T h a t n o i s e T h e s p e c t r u m of an oscillator with n o i s e n a t o r Q of 100. tank c a p a c i t a n c e of 100
» i l l still b e a m p l i f i e d and f i l t e r e d in the is s h o w n in g r e a t e r detail in a sidebar f i g - p F , t r a n s i s t o r n o i s e f i g u r e of 10 AB. a n d a
resonator. E a c h t i m e a b u r s t of n o i s e e n - ure. A w i d e b a n d n o i s e f l o o r e x i s t s w i t h i n p e a k t a n k v o l t a g e of 4 V . A n a l y s i s w i t h
e r g y p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e r e s o n a t o r , it is the osci llator f e e d b a c k path. T h e n o i s e then the sidebar equations shows a wideband
shifted in p h a s e a n d a t t e n u a t e d . N o i s e very g r o w s at f r e q u e n c i e s w i t h i n t h e l o a d e d p h a s e noise f l o o r o f - 1 6 2 d B c / H z a n d , at
close to t h e c e n t e r m u s t t r a v e l a r o u n d the b a n d w i d t h of the o s c i l l a t o r r e s o n a t o r . 10 k H z , n o i s e of - 1 4 6 d B c / H z .
ioop s e v e r a l t i m e s b e f o r e it is p h a s e s h i f t e d
iiid a t t e n u a t e d e n o u g h to d i s a p p e a r . S i g -
nals f u r t h e r f r o m t h e c a r r i e r will d i s a p p e a r
» i t h f e w e r p a s s e s a r o u n d the l o o p .
T h e noise arises f r o m t w o sources. O n e is
the w i d e b a n d n o i s e of the transistor. T h e Carrier Power
other noise starts at a l o w e r f r e q u e n c y . T h i s
baseband signal m o d u l a t e s the c a r r i e r to
generate s i d e b a n d s in the s a m e w a y that a
Sow f r e q u e n c y sine w a v e might m o d u l a t e a
(noise sidebands)
carrier to g e n e r a t e discrete sidebands. T h e
modulation h a p p e n s within the circuit non-
linear amplifier, a nonlinearity that is a l w a y s
Noise spectrum of
present in a self limited oscillator. an oscillator based
N o i s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an o s c i l l a t o r is upon the work of
u s u a l l y phase noise, a v a r i a t i o n in f r e - (noise floor) D.B. Leeson.
q u e n c y o r p h a s e . A m p l i t u d e n o i s e is also .fo
p r e s e n t , b u t it is u s u a l l y m u c h less t h a n the Q
p h a s e v a r i a t i o n , a r e s u l t of l i m i t i n g . A l s o ,
oscillators arc o f t e n u s e d w i t h m i x e r s w i t h
Kfo-cv
limiting c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h r e g a r d t o L O 2 Ps 2 Q 1f M
p o w e r , f u r t h e r r e d u c i n g t h e i m p a c t of
amplitude noise. 9Ehere k = Boltzman's constant
A s k e t c h e d s p e c t r a of an o s c i l l a t o r o b - T = absolute temperature ir. Kelvin
F = noise f a c t o r ( r a t i o , not d3)
served in a s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r is s h o w n in Ps =
Power flowing in through the resonator
F i g 4.17. T h e l e f t p e a k r e p r e s e n t s a p e r f e c t fo = c e n t e r frequency of r e s o n a t o r
fit = o f f s e t or "modulation" frequency
signal, o n e w i t h o u t n o i s e . T h e r i g h t p e a k Q = Loaded r e s o n a t o r Q
c o n t a i n s e x c e s s n o i s e s i d e b a n d s t y p i c a l of Vj. = peak voltage across r e s o n a t o r
C = capacitance of resonator
that f o u n d in a n o i s y o s c i l l a t o r o r s y n t h e -

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 4.11

 contain the same change, the same phase impedance then loads the resonator, de-
or frequency noise. The phase noise is just grading Q.
an instantaneous change in frequency of • The transistors used in an oscillator
one of the oscillators. should have low noise at both the operat-
While our illustrations have presented ing frequency and at baseband. This is
oscillator noise as viewed in a spectrum important because low frequency noise
analyzer, few analyzers are good enough to is heterodyned up to the operating fre-
actually do this measurement for the local quency in a working oscillator to modu-
oscillators we need in our HF and VHF late the carrier. For this reason,
Ssectrum analyzer plots from two
oscillators. The left is especially noisy, transceivers. Like receivers, spectrum ana- MOSFETs and GaAsFETS. normally
;-sducing noise sidebands where the lyzers have limited dynamic range. Con- perceived as low noise parts, are not as
s ;nal merges into the noise floor. The sider the oscillator mentioned earlier w ith a desirable in oscillators as quiet bipolar
; - t e t oscillator (right) lacks these phase noise density of-146 dBc/Hz 10 kHz transistors or JFHTs.
» i cess sidebands, allowing the signal from the carrier. 146 dB is the difference
•: go all the way down to the noise floor • The better oscillators are often those
s«t by the spectrum analyzer. The left between the carrier and the noise if ana- without excessively large starting gain.
-ace was produced with an Epson lyzer bandwidlh is I Hz. If we used a more This places less demand on limiting
53-8002 Programmable Oscillator practical bandwidth of I kHz, the carricr to within the oscillator. The operating cir-
i 26 MHz) while the right trace came noise ratio is still 116 dB. An analyzer ca- cuit is closer to a linear amplifier which
"om a 7-MHz crystal controlled pable of looking at this carrier and the noise has less tendency to mix low frequency
cscillator. al Ihe same time would need a dynamic noise up to modulate the carrier. Emitter
range greater lhan 116 dB. This is close to or source degeneration is often a useful
the present state of the art. Oscillator noise modification.
measurements for typical oscillators (at An excellent example of a low noise
HF) must use modified methods. An ex- oscillator is shown in Fig 4.18. This oscil-
The Effects of Phase ample will be given later. lator was originally designed by Linley
Noise Gumm, K7HFD, and is a good example of
a simple circuit that functions well. It fea-
\i first glance, phase noise sounds like Designing Quiet tures excellent phase noise performance
-soteric detail thai probably has little
ipact on practical communications. This Oscillators and high output power.
generally true. Few oscillators are so Many of ihe methods used to design The circuit was designed specifically for
<>isy that they hamper normal communi- good LO systems are implicit in the high stored resonator energy and high
.ations in a band occupied with weak to Leeson design equations presented in the power. Total emitter current is 28 mA. or
average signals. But things change dra- earlier sidebar. Some rules are: 14 mA per transistor. The emitter RF
matically when a local station shows up on • Use moderately low noise transistors in choke converts the 47-12 emitter R into an
a band or when a contest starts with atten- low noise circuits. constant current source.
dant stronger signals. • Use a high Q resonator so that the noise
Assume that a receiver uses an ideal fil- sideband width is low. It is haded Q that
ler (pcrfcct skirts) with a bandwidth of is important. A high unloaded Q that is
500 Hz. The receiver uses noiseless oscil- degraded by the circuit does little good.
lators. Even if a very strong noiseless car- If an oscillator is built with a loaded Q 10 Regulated
rier is applied to the receiver, a listener close to the unloaded Q, the insertion
will hear a strong response when the re- loss through the resonator will be high, 3 1 (turns ratin)

f
ceiver is tuned to it, but nothing as soon as which increases operating gain and in- T1
the receiver is luned away. creases noise. (This effect was treated in
Consider now a carrier with noise, per- the filter chapter.) This degrades the
haps keyed with "CQ" so we can recognize wideband noise floor.
it. As the receiver tunes toward the keyed
carrier, we first hear some keyed noise. The
noise grows in strength as we get closer to it.
• The goal is a high carrier-la-noise ratio,
which is enhanced with a high carrier.
Hence, the best oscillators are those op-
—w 0
JH'Ji04 ] _ [
until finally the carricr is within the receiver t~ 01
erating with high stored energy in the
passband. producing a clean, crisp note. The resonator. This means high power. Even
noise re-appears on the other side, symmetri- with 8 or 10-V power supplies, it is not
cal with the first side. unusual to find oscillators with
We can't always put the blame on "the over 50-V peak-to-peak across resona-
other guy.'' Assume that the keyed carrier tor components. High energy also re-
applied to the receiver is noiseless, but that sults from high capacitance in simple
we now use a noisy oscillator as the I-O in resonators.
our receiver. The perceived result is ex- • Limiting characteristics are critical in an Fig 4.18—Low Noise 10-MHz Oscillator
actly the same as we heard before with the oscillator, with current limiting being designed by K7HFD. L 1 is 1.2 (iH,
noisy CW signal. The effect that we hear is preferred. The circuit should operate in a consisting of 17 turns on a T68-6 toroid
called "reciprocal mixing." way that allows the transistor current to core. The tap Is at 1 turn from the
drop to zero over part of the cycle to limit grounded end while the link is 2 turns
This result is expected. The IF response
wound over L1. The link must be
is the difference (or sum) frequency of the gain. Less desirable voltage limiting oc- properly phased for oscillation.
LO and the RF signal. Any frequency curs when a low impedance is creatcd Although not shown, ferrite beads were
change in either one will cause the IF to over part of an operating cycle; that low used on both bases and collectors.

4.12 Chapter 4
 Frequency
Counter Fig 4.20—Crystal
oscillator used for
receiver reciprocal
Spectrum
mixing
Analyzer
measurements. C1
Crystal is adjusted for a
Filter power output of
- 1 0 to -20 dBm.
Fig 4.19—System used to measure
phase noise in the K7HFD oscillator.

carrier by 156 dBc/Hz. Even though this

circuit was originally built and tested in
the early 1970s timeframe, it still holds its
own with modern equivalents.
Other oscillator circuits, many of them
relatively simple, also offer good phase
noise performance. For example, the
simple Hartley circuit of Fig 4.1, has been
measured several times. Versions operat-
Fig 4.21—Easily built example of a noisy ing at 5 MHz often indicate phase noise of
oscillator that the reader can construct The circuit of Fig 4.21 is especially
- 1 5 0 dBc/Hz at 10 kHz spacing. Rohde
to observe phase noise. It is instructive bad for phase noise. This can be buiit
to evaluate this circuit with the design as a simple experiment that will allow reports that computer simulations suggest
guidelines offered earlier to see just you to hear the results in a station this Hartley topology will have degraded
why this is such a poor oscillator. receiver. performance closer to the carrier. 1 0
The Hartley oscillator results were mea-
sured indirectly by measuring a crystal
oscillator with a receiver using the Hartley.
A differential amplifier with heavy base duces a peak collector signal of 3.3 V. This A typical circuit used for the testing is shown
drive will behave as a limiting switch. The transforms to a base signal of 1.6 peak V; in Fig 4.20. This circuit can be used with a
total current will oscillate between the two the signal across L I is similarly calculated crystal filler 10 kHz away from the oscilla-
transistors with one collector, and then the as 56 V peak-to-peak. These values arc all tor. or with a crystal notch filter at the oscil-
other conducting the total current. The significant. The low collector impedance lator frequency. Assuming the crystal oscil-
high standing current is further increased establishes current limiting with no chance lator to be perfect, all phase noise observed
with an output autotransformer, yielding of voltage limiting. The restricted base is attributed to the receiver LO. Even with-
a measured 10-MHz output power of drive guarantees that emitter-base break- out the assumption, observed results will
+ 17 dBm. down will not occur. bound the L O performance. The crystal fil-
The peak current in the T1 primary also A crystal filter, shown in the system of ter is required because of the limited
appears in L2, the 2-turn "tickler" link coil Fig 4.19, was used to evaluate the oscilla- dynamic range of the typical receiver. The
over L I . The load presented to the transis- tor noise. The outboard filter had a 3-kHz loaded Q of a crystal, the "tank" in a crystal
tor by the link comes from the transistor bandwidth and skirts that were steep oscillator, can be a thousand times higher
base and the intrinsic loss of 1.1. Neglect- enough to provide over 50-dB rejection to than that of a typical LC tank. The resulting
ing the transistor for the moment, the signals 10 kHz away from the filter center. phase noise is often quite low. in line with
unloaded resonator Q is about 250 for a The oscillator was tuned to the filter cen- Leeson's equation.
T68-6 core wound with heavy wire. At 10 ter and the power reaching the analyzer Fig 4.21 shows an oscillator at the other
MHz. the e f f e c t i v e parallel resistance was measured. The LO was then tuned 10 extreme. This 15-MH/. circuit is rich in
across LI is about 18 kO. This value is kHz away. The attenuation in the analyzer phase noise. It is well worth building and
diminished by the square of the turns ratio could then be reduced enough to measure applying to a general coverage receiver to
to present a 250-12 load to the collector. the noise response. The K 7 H F D circuit observe first hand just what a noisy oscil-
The signal current through this load pro- produced phase noise that was below the lator will sound like in a receiver.

Oscillators a n d Frequency Synthesizers 4.13

4.5 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS AND VXOS
One of ihe most common oscillator circuit is actually a Clapp oscillator vari- merely be eliminated.
forms is that using a quartz crystal as the ant. With the components shown, the cir- Output can be extracted with an emitter
resonator. They may be ordered from a cuit will function with fundamental mode follower driven by Q l ' s emitter. The signal
number of sources for modest cost with crystals from about 2 to 20 MHz or more. on the base of Qi is often about the same
only a short manufacturing delay. A crys- Transistor type is not critical with the ubiq- magnitude, but is spectrally cleaner. It is also
tal cross-section, symbol, and an equiva- uitous 2N3904 being a good choice. If the possible to insert a small resistor (100 £1 or
lent circuit are shown in Fig 4.22 Crystals crystal is specified for a "load capaci- so) in the Ql collector and to use the devel-
were also discussed in the filter chapter. tance" of 32 pF, the oscillator can be ad- oped signal voltage as an output. While well
A typical crystal oscillator circuit is the justed to the exact frequency wi th C1. This isolated from the resonator, the collector sig-
Colpitis shown in Fig 4.23, It is the series will occur when the total loop capacitance nal is usually very rich in harmonics.
LC of the crystal model, Fig 4.22. which is 32 pF, which is approximately the series Fig 4.24 shows another scheme for ex-
now serves as the "inductor" in this cir- equivalent of the two 470-pF capacitors tracting an output signal. Here. CI be-
cuit. Owing to the series motional C, this and CI. In many applications CI can comes a selected, fixed capacitor in series
with the crystal. It is no longer convenient
to adjust the frequency with CI, for the
capacitance will vary both F and output
voltage. However, an output obtained in
I Thickness
this manner can be extremely clean with
all harmonics being over 50 dB below the
desired output. Phase noise is also low
V\ with this topology.
Metal ^ilm A popular and especially simple crystal
oscillator is the Pierce circuit shown in Fig
C-,
4.25. If the circuit is redrawn with the
ground shifted to either the base or the
H L
« C u ESR collector, we see that this is yet another
version of the Colpitts. This circuit func-
Fig 4.22—Cross-section, symbol and tions well with a wide variety of crystals
model for a quartz crystal. from 2 to 20 MHz or even higher. The cir-
cuit generally operates at the crystal fun-
damental. Output is easily obtained with a
follower from either the collector or base.
1" If C1 is lifted from ground, a direct output
of a few milliwatts is available.
1 * ^' ±
T-;
Another Colpitts variation is presented
in Fig 4.26. This oscillator is capable of 10
Fig 4.25—Pierce type crystal oscillator. to 25-milliwatts output and can function at
C I can be as little as 10 to 20 pF. Vcc either fundamental or overtone frequencies
2.2K can be from about 3 up to 15 V, C T U N E ,
5
4?0 (explained below). The circuit uses the
often omitted, is a trimmer with a
""J r maximum of 50 or 100 pF. relatively high base-emitter capacitance of
the transistor as part of the capacitive feed-
Fig 4.23—Typical Colpltts crystal back needed for oscillation, again as a
oscillator. Power output is low. Extra Colpitts variation. External C3 vanishes
amplifiers are usually used to Increase +12v except for the 1.8 and 3.5-MHz bands
power to the level needed to drive a where values of 330 and 200 pF can be
ring mixer or function in simple used, respectively. C2 varies from 100 pF
transmitters.
at 3.5 and 7 MH/. to 22 pF at 28 MHz and
LI j output
10 pF at 50 MHz. LI uses a toroid with a
reactancc of about 250 U. The output link
is 10 to 20% the number of turns on LI.
This is a very robust oscillator that takes
io* k CI 1 little experimentation to get going.
A crystal overtone is a different operat-
ing mode for an AT-cut quartz crystal. Any
crystal will display a fundamental reso-
nance as well as overtone responses.
Sometimes the crystals are manufactured
^330 >.2K
in a way that will substantially enhance
470
one mode over another. A general model
Fig 4.26—General purpose power for a quartz crystal including overtones is
oscillator for use from 2 to 70 MHz. shown in Fig 4.27. The model presented
Fig 4.24—Method for extracting low Q1 is a 2N3904 or similar medium F T
device. See text for component value so far included only the fundamental
noise, low distortion output from a
crystal oscillator. discussion. mode, related to N=1 in the figure. But

4.14 Chapter 4
 Fig 4.28—Butler
oscillator for 100 MHz,
L=25 nH. This is formed
with a 1.7 inch piece of
#22 enameled wire
wound in the threads of
a 6-32 machine
screw.(3.3 mm dia, 12.6
turns/cm) The wire ends
are stripped and 3 turns
are wound on the screw,
which is then removed.
C1 and R1 form a
Fig 4.27—More detailed model for a 2-22pF _L 50 ohm network to suppress
quartz crystal. All motional inductance UHF oscillations at 500
values are identical, with motional load to 1000 MHz. The
capacitance scaling with frequency. suppression circuit
See text. generates a UHF load
that is largely absent at
the operating frequency.

other odd h a r m o n i c modes are also

possible. (Even order harmonics are nol
consistent with the mechanical boundary
conditions needed so support oscillation.)
An oscillator operating at an overtone
must include additional frequency depen-
dant circuits that will select the desired
overtone. Simple fundamental mode cir-
cuits. such as those presented, will empha-
size the lower frequencies where starting
gain is higher. The circuit of Fig 4.26
included a tuned circuit peaked at the
operating frequency. A Butler oscillator. The circuit of Fig
Fig 4.28 shows a popular and effective Fig 4.29—An oscillator designed by
4.28 is breadboarded here without the
overtone circuit, the Butler oscillator. This inserting a crystal in series with the
crystal. Instead, a 51 -Q resistor Is
feedback path of a Hartley LC oscillator. placed in the crystal position. This is
circuit is essentially an LC Colpitts oscilla-
The ground point is then shifted to the a useful way to test the oscillator.
tor with a quartz crystal inserted in the feed- tap on the coil. The version shown is
back path. The LC tank should have a set up for 10 MHz operation, but tuning
loaded Q from 10 to 20. A Q that is too low can be shifted to other frequencies.
could allow oscillation at the wrong over- Eliminating the tuning capacitors and shifted, placing ground at the coil tap. This
tone, while a Q too high will make tuning replacing the transformer with one
puts one end of the crystal at ground, or
using a ferrite core also works well.
difficult. An excellent method to align this connected to a trimmer. This circuit func-
Y1=10 MHz fundamental;
circuit replaces the crystal with a resistor L1=30t T 50-6, tapped at 7 turns and 6 tions well as either an overtone or funda-
equaling the equivalent scries resistance turns for the link. mental mode oscillator with low phase
(ESR) of the crystal. Tf ESR is unknown, noise and moderate output. The circuit
use a 33-Q resistor in place of third over- functions well (fundamental mode only) if
tone crystals and a 56-12 for 5th overtone will provide an output of 10 mW to 50 £2. the tuned output transformer is replaced
crystals. The oscillator is adjusted for the The load is part of the design; if the load is with a ferrite t r a n s f o r m e r . "
proper operating frequency with the resis- ill defined, use a 50-iQ pad at the oscillator
tor in place. The resistor is then replaced output. Never try to adjust the oscillator
with the crystal with no additional adjust- without the load in place. The Butler oscil- The VXO
ment needed. Most overtone circuits, in- lator generally exhibits excellent phase The crystal oscillators shown so far have
cluding the Butler, can be used for funda- noise. Although a t r i m m e r capacitor in often included a trimmer capacitor for fine
mental mode operation by proper series with the crystal will allow some fre- frequency adjustment. If the tuning range
adjustment of the tuned circuit. quency adjustment, it is much less effec- can be made larger, the circuit can be used
This circuit is sometimes "neutralized" tive with overtone crystals than with f u n - as a high stability substitute for a variable
by placing an inductance in parallel with damental mode parts. Never try to adjust frequency LC oscillator, taking on the
the crystal. The value resonates with CO, oscillator frequency with the crystal by descriptor VXO. A typical V X O circuit is
the crystal parallel capacitance. Tf C0=3 changing collector tuning, for that could shown in Fig 4.30.
p F for the 100-MHz crystal of Fig 4-28, cause the circuit not to start when power is The circuit of Fig 4.30 was built and
the inductance would be 0.84 mH. Be sure first applied. tested with numerous crystals f r o m our
that the inductor used has a self-resonance The Butler used a Colpitts as the basis. junk box. Crystals at and above 14 MHz
well above 100 M H z . W e have generally Fig 4.29 presents a useful variation of this could typically be tuned by 0.1% of the
found that this inductor can be eliminated circuit that begins as a Hartley with the marked frequency when I .=0. with the bot-
from the circuit. crystal in the feedback path from the coil tom frequency being close to the marked
The Butler oscillator shown in Fig 4.28 tap to the emitter. The ground point is then crystal frequency. For example, a crystal

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 4.15

 +5 Reg.

74BC04 NC

NC

+11 dBm
\ 1 2 0.1 Output

Fig 4,31—Adding HCMOS inverters can substantially flatten the output of a VXO.
Fig 4.30—Basic VXO circuit. C2 is
Output filtering will be required.
typically twice C1, which is
100 pF at 10 MHz and higher, doubling
for 7 MHz. L is determined by
experiment. C v can be about any
variable capacitor, but should be one
with small minimum capacitance.
L may = 0,2.7 (iH or 5.4 jiH.

marked 14060 kHz tuned from 14059.0 to

14070.4 kHz (11.4-kHz shift) with CI and
C2 of 100 and 200 pF, Adding inductance
moved the bottom of the range downward
with a much smaller change in the upper
edge. L=5.4 |iH produced 14053.0 to
14068.4 kHz (15.4-kHz shift.) In another
example, an 18-MHz crystal shifted 13.3
kHz with no inductance, but shifted over
25 kHz when 3.7 jiH was added. 5.4 jiH in
that circuit produced unstable operation,
emphasizing the need for experimentation.
In some cases a variety of crystals were
available f r o m different manufacturers, all Fig 4.32—Two VXO circuits of interest to the experimenter. That at A is known in
Japan as the Super VXO, and is the creation of JA0AS and JH1FCZ. The circuit at
at approximately the same f r e q u e n c y . B uses a quarter wavelength of transmission line while that a C is the lumped
Results varied only slightly. Larger values element equivalent.
for C1 and C2 were required for oscilla-
tion at 7 M H z and lower.
With even greater added inductance, the
lower frequency drops further and the C M O S inverter is added as an output ter wavelength of transmission line to con-
range expands. However, stability also buffer. The circuit shown provides an out- vert a crystal series resonance to appear at
degrades. Eventually, if oscillation is put of + 11 to +12 d B m for a total current the collector as a parallel resonance. The
maintained, it may not be crystal con- of around 35 mA. The output is very rich alternative version of this circuit uses a
trolled. Experimentation and careful in harmonics, so low pass filtering will lumped element equivalent for the trans-
analysis can both pay large dividends. often be required. Different numbers of mission line. The real virtue of this scheme
With zero or only modest added induc- parallel inverters may be used to control is that the troublesome crystal parallel ca-
tance. the frequency stability of a V X O is output power. The square waveform at the pacitance is absorbed into the "line." The
nearly as good as the original oscillator. inverter output can also be useful for performance of this circuit can be truly
This makes the circuit especially attrac- frequency multiplication. outstanding, although the circuit can be
tive for narrow tuning range equipment T w o V X O circuits are shown in Fig 4.32 difficult to adjust. In one experiment we
such as V H F / U H F CW and SSB rigs. that are of special interest to the experi- were able to tune a 7-MHz crystal by a range
Extreme tuning nonlinearity is common menter. One adds a second crystal, pro- of over 100 kHz. The circuit has problems
with most V X O circuits. Most of the fre- ducing almost double the tuning range of that present challenge to the designer/
quency shift tends to be compressed at the the same circuit with one. The crystals builder. The Q of the equivalent parallel
high frequency (low C) end of the range. should be closc in frequency, but need not resonator varies dramatically over the tun-
This effect is so extreme that it is very dif- be an exact match. We encountered this ing range, making it difficult to maintain
ficult to implement a predictable shift for circuit in the worldwide web where it is clean limiting in the transistor or to obtain
use in, for example, a direct conversion known as the "super V X O . " 1 2 The two an output with a stable amplitude. 1 3
transceiver. elements in parallel behave like one crys- The Hartley theme circuit presented ear-
The typical V X O suffers f r o m consider- tal. but with twice the motional and fixed lier (Fig 4.29) is especially well suited to
able variation (unflattness) in output capacitances and half the motional induc- V X O applications, especially when built
power with tuning. The V X O of Fig 4 30 tance. T h i s is the direction needed for with f e n i t e transformers. This topology is
can vary by nearly 10 dB. This is relieved greater "tunability " used in a 28-MHz V X O transmitter pre-
with the circuit shown in Fig 4 3 1 where a The second V X O of Fig 4.32 uses a quar- sented in Chapter 12.

4.16 Chapter 4
4.6 V O L T A G E C O N T R O L L E D OSCILLATORS
The oscillators presented so far have
used mechanical variable capacitors for |J1 7 8 L 0 5
tuning. The other traditional tuning scbcmc
is inductivc. the permeability-tuned oscil-
lators of Collins fame. Both depend on
well-cnginecred mechanical designs, a de-
sirable, but disappearing characteristic.
The voltage-controlled oscillator is replac-
ing the "simple" mechanically tuned oscil-
lator of the past. That oscillator is then used
as part of a frequency synthesizer. In a few
cases, the VCO is used "open loop," with-
out synthesis.
The dominant component used for volt-
age control of oscillators of concern in this
text is the varactor diode. Any diode will
exhibit a capacitance. When the diode is
reverse biased, the capacitance will vary
inversely with the applied voltage. The
reverse biased diode is inserted in a V C O
circuit to become the tuning element in that
oscillator.
Figure 4.33 shows a 7 - M H z voltage
tuned oscillator. This circuit was designed
to serve as the main control for a direct
conversion transceiver. (Described lateras
the Western Mountaineer.) Q1 functions
a s a h i g h C C o l p i t t s oscillator. Inductor L I
is resonated with the 470-pF Col pi u s ca-
pacitors and C I , a fixed capacitor of over Fig 4.33—A varactor tuned 7-MHz oscillator with a restricted tuning range of about
600 pF. The value was hand picked for 60 kHz. Temperature compensation is provided with D2, a sense diode. L1=12
turns #26 on a T30-6 toroid, L2 is a 15-(iH RF choke.
resonance, with only a small. 10-pF trim-
mer for final adjustment.
Earlier measurements with a small en-
vironmental chamber had established the
tuning diode temperature c o e f f i c i e n t at
5 V as +442 p p m / ° C . This is generally
quite severe, over ten times worse than
NPO oscillator components.
This oscillator was initially built with-
out the diode, stable operation was con-
firmed, the diode was added, and environ-
mental chamber measurements were done.
The tuning diode D l , a Motorola MV209,
was temperature compensated with a sec-
ond diode, D2. The sense diode is placed in
the same thermal environment as the tun-
ing diode. The complete oscillator and its
buffer are shielded from the rest of the cir-
cuitry, for the oscillator runs at the same
frequency as the transmitter PA in this rig. Inside view of the 14-MHz VCO.
The diode standing current is adjusted by-
picking R l , generating the needed voltage
change with temperature. R l = 1 0 k Q
sense-diode biasing and serves as the sup- ity, phase noise, and tuning linearity. This
worked well in our circuit, but should be
ply for the tuning controls. occurs with low timing voltage and is
picked with the environmental chamber for
The op-amp, U2, combines two tuning usually detected as a decrease in V C O
individual applications. This compensation
controls and an offset voltage while pro- output.
scheme was suggested to us by WA7TZY.
viding a regulated tuning voltage. The cir- The final temperature coefficient realized
The oscillator supply is regulated with cuit is configured to maintain at least 4.3 V with this oscillator was about 2 ppm/°-C. The
U l . a 78L05 three-terminal regulator. The on the tuning diode. In many varactor- transceiver has appeared to be "rock solid"
original Zener regulation was unstable tuned oscillators, R F voltage will be recti- during field operation, including winter
with temperature, adding extra complica- fied by the diode, allowing conduction snowshoeing treks.
tion. The regulated voltage also provides during part of the cycle, degrading stabil- A 14-MHz V C O is shown in Fig 4.34.

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 4.17

 lower noise than a smaller number of
X T n/FT higher-capacitance diodes.
J310 The phase noise of this oscillator was
33/5150 measured using a 14-MHz single conver-
100K CI 100/OT0 sion superhet receiver with extensive
pM »
crystal filtering. The V C O was battery
100 ——
~ T J3XQ powered with the battery also biasing the
31 J-iUUft
J-100K * varactor. which was filtered further with a

I011
f5.6/HFi 100-jiF capacitor. The signal was attenu-
5n/FT '••210 | jlSOK
NPO ]2.2K _L 1K
ated to - 3 1 dBm and applied to the re-
ceiver input through a step attenuator.
Tune EB104
Line Audio output was monitored with an
dual LI: 16t #26 T30-6
varactor HP3400A true-RMS voltmeter with
1 uH riorn.
receiver ACSC set off. The audio noise out-
put in the meter was noted 5 kHz away from
Fig 4.34—14-MHz VCO for use in synthesizer experiments. L=16 turns on a T30-6
the carrier. The receiver was then tuned to
toroid coated with Q-dope to reduce micro-phonic effects.
the carrier and the step attenuator was
increased until the response was the same
as observed with the noise. Additional
VCO Tuning Curve
attenuation of 110 dB was required to reach
this response. The noise bandwidth was
Fig 4.35— 500 Hz. producing a measured CNR of
Frequency vs - 1 3 7 dBc/Hz. It is not clear if this noise
control voltage for
comes from the VCO or from the receiver
14-MHz VCO. An
* F average sensitivity VFO, but this value is a useful "worst case"
for this circuit limit. No phase noise could be detected at
/ over the 2 to 10 V 10 kHz offset. No outboard crystal filler
range is 30 kHz/V.
ISM
/
/
was used for this measurement, placing us
al the limit of what we can measure with
this setup.

Voltage tuning with diodes tends to

c o m p r o m i s e noise and stability perfor-
V,
mance. However, reasonable results are
Tuning Voltage
available if the tuning range is kept small.
An attractive scheme uses varactor tuning
over a small range with PIN diode switch-
ing in larger frequency steps. PIN diode
A J310 F E T w a s used with source resistor tuning characteristics f o r this oscillator capacitor switching is illustrated in a trans-
biasing. T h e varactor diode was a surplus are shown in Fig 4.35. The circuit is built ceiver ( T h e Lichen) offered in Chapter 6.
B B I 0 4 , similar to the Motorola MV104. in a Hammond 1590A enclosure with co- The reader working on a synthesizer for
The Toshiba 1SV103, used in some axial output and feedthrough capacitors a high performance (wide dynamic range)
imported equipment, might be a suitable for p o w e r and tuning. A 6 5 - p F plastic receiver should review the extensive
substitute. T w o individual varactor di- trimmer provides coarse tuning. literature on voltage controlled oscillators.
odes can also be used. T h i s oscillator The use of back-to-back varactor diodes Numerous methods are available to design
can be set u p for a wider frequency range is common in V C O s . f o r it reduces the these circuits. It is o f t e n the varactor
by picking C I . Over I M H z of tuning effects of rectification of the oscillator sig- diodes that ultimately limit noise perfor-
was available with C I = 1 0 0 pF. C I was nal. It is also common to see many diodes mance. Noise supplied to the diode on
dropped to 33 p F for a reduced range. The operated in parallel. This topology shows tuning lines can also compromise perfor-
mance.'4

4.7 FREQUENCY SYNTH

Virtually all of the local oscillator sys- A PLL for frequency synthesis in its capacitor. More often i t ' s an operational
tems used in modern communications simplest form is shown in F i g 4.36. The amplifier offering low frequency gain as
equipment now use frequency synthesis in first component is a voltage-controlled well as filtering properties. The low pass
one form or another. T w o circuit types oscillator characterized by a tuning sensi- filtering is needed to remove signal com-
dominate synthesis: the phase-locked loop tivity in H/.IV. This sensitivity usually ponents coming from the phase detector.
(PLL) and direct-digital synthesis (DDS). varies over the tuning range. The next The dc from the detector and loop filter
The two schemes are often used together. component is the phase, or phase differ- must be of the proper magnitude to drive
The Huff "n Puff scheme described earlier ence detector, a circuit that provides a dc the V C O tuning line. Because this is a
is a frequency lock method and is not usu- output proportional to the phase difference negative feedback system (a type of servo
ally the basis for synthesis. T h e reason is between two RF inputs. The third element loop.) the phase of the feedback signal as
that frequency lock allows frequency is a "loop filler." In its simplest form, this it moves through the loop to eventually
errors, which are absent in PLL or DDS is (for a second order loop) a single pole reach the V C O must be tailored for loop
synthesizers. RC filter with a couple of resistors and one response.

4.18 Chapter 4
 A PLL that is " l o c k e d " forces the VCO
io be at exactly the same frequency as the
reference. If the r e f e r e n c e is tuned, the
VCO will follow, maintaining not only the Reference
^ame frequency but a p h a s e relationship
that depends on the characteristics of the
detector. If the loop d y n a m i c s are " w r o n g , " VCO
ihe V C O may not respond smoothly to a • Phase Loop
change in the reference f r e q u e n c y . In the » Detector Filter
extreme, the loop can oscillate.
We begin our discussion of the P L L with
an experiment to evaluate a Mini-Circuits
SBL-1 mixer operating as a phase detector.
Most of us have no easy way to accurately
Fig 4.36—Basic Phase Locked Loop.
measure phase, but wc can do things to
infer it. In this vein, we first characterize a
piece of coaxial cable, a 2 5 - f o o t length
available in a h o m e lab. A "half w a v e "
balun was fabricated f r o m the cable, shown
in Fig 4 . 3 7 A . T h e two balanced output
points were attached to 100-Q resistors 20 dB Pad
with the junction attached to an R F spec- I
RF-in to,
trum a n a l v / e r . T h e signal generator was
tuned until a null was found at 12.88 MHz.
This occurs when the cable is a half wave-
length long, p r o d u c i n g 180 d e g r e e s of
phase shift b e t w e e n the two ends. A half
wavelength in f r e e space at this f r e q u e n c y
38.2 feet, so the velocity factor of our
; o a x is 0.65. which is about what we would
expect. T h e phase delay in the coaxial cable •'l k• « T o DVM
RF-in (O)—^-aaa, • * ( / X
* ill be directly proportional to cable length
m d to f r e q u e n c y . W e k n o w the length and
frequency that yield a phase shift of 180
•Jegrees. so wc can calculate the phase for 10 dB Pad
any arbitrary f r e q u e n c y . 68
The c h a r a c t e r i z e d coaxial c a b l e is n o w
used in the test set of Fig 4 . 3 7 B . T h e signal | 1 0 0 | X
1 0 OS'
g e n e r a t o r o u t p u t is d i v i d e d in a p o w e r 1 25'coax
»plitter c o n s i s t i n g of three 5 1 - f t resistors.
This p r e s e r v e s a 5 0 - Q e n v i r o n m e n t while
equally splitting the input power. O n e sig- Fig 4.37—Part A characterizes the phase shift in a section of coax cable that is
nal is applied directly to the S B L - 1 L O then used in part B to evaluate a SBL-1 as a phase detector.
port. T h e o t h e r is a t t e n u a t e d by 10 d B ,
phase shifted with the cable, and applied
to the m i x e r R F port. T h e output w a s low
pass filtered with a s i m p l e RC filler and
measured with a digital voltmeter. T h e sig-
S B L - 1 as a P h a s e D e t e c t o r
nal g e n e r a t o r a m p l i t u d e w a s a d j u s t e d to 200
p r o d u c e the s p e c i f i e d +7 d B m L O drive
150
level. T h i s overall circuit is f a m i l i a r as a
delay-line d i s c r i m i n a t o r . 100
A q u i c k tuning of the signal g e n e r a t o r
£
>
50
\
s h o w e d that the o u t p u t w a s z e r o at 6.4
- 0 \
MHz. w h e r e coax p h a s e shift is 90 degrees. X
Data w a s taken o v e r the 3 to 10-MHz spec-
trum to generate a plot (Fig 4 . 3 8 ) s h o w i n g
I
a
-50

-100
N
\
output voltage as a f u n c t i o n of phase. T h i s o
s
is close to a straight line over a w i d e p h a s e -150
range, with the d e p a r t u r e at low angles ~200
resulting f r o m a signal g e n e r a t o r output 20 40 60 SO 100 120 140 160
decrease near 3 M H z . (We used a m o d e s t
P
drive at the m i x e r R F port; the m i x e r is
Phase, degrees
a p p r o x i m a t e l y linear to R F drive at this
level.) E x a m i n a t i o n of the data in Fig Fig 4.38—Dc output vs phase for a SBL-1 operated as a phase detector.

Oscillators arid Frequency Synthesizers 4.19

4-38 shows thai the slope (phase gain) is does occur, even with a slight frequency other. With a diode ring phase detector,
- 2 , 9 6 millivolt per degree, or - 0 . 1 7 V/ difference. Consider two input signals, a the locked oscillator will differ from the
radian. Repeating these experiments with reference and a VCO, separated by 1 kHz reference by 90 degrees. A sidebar shows
other cable lengths show that this circuit and applied to the phase detector, which is a practical PLL with a diode ring phase
responds to phase rather than frequency. the same topology as a mixer. The mixer detector.
Having characterized the phase detec- will produce 1-kHz currents. T h i s low Other mixers, including the popular
tor. we can now build a phase locked loop. frequency component will generate side- Gilbert cell, work well as a phase detector.
We will use the 14-MHz VCO described bands about both the reference and the The most popular phase detectors use digi-
earlier (Fig 4.341. an oscillator with an V C O . T h e s e components appear in the tal circuits. Fig 4.40 shows a c o m m o n cir-
average tuning sensitivity of 30 kHz/V mixer output. One of the V C O sidebands cuit. a so-called phase-frequency detector.
with the available voltages when we use a is now directly on top of the reference, This digital circuit is fed with digital volt-
12-V bench supply. A general-purpose producing a dc component that will pass ages to the clock inputs of two data
signal generator is the "reference" in the through the loop filter where it can be flip-flops. The D - F F is a topology that
loop shown in Fig 4.39. The SBL-1 details amplified and move the V C O toward a transfers the level on the Data input to the
arc shown to emphasize the dc isolation locked condition. A similar sideband is on Q output when a clock transition occurs.
properties of the ring and transformer top of the V C O frequency. The data, in this circuit, is j u s t a logic 1.
windings. An operational amplifier in- Analysis like this offers some explana- for the D input is tied to the positive power
creases the relatively low output of the tion. albeit sketchy, of a related phenom- supply. A N A N D gate resets both D-FFs
detector to drive the VCO tunc port. The enon called injection locking. This occurs when both have a high Q output. If the two
L M 3 5 8 used was available for the experi- when an external signal is applied to an inputs are signals at the same frequency
ment: a better choice would be an OP-27 operating oscillator. If the signal is strong and are in phase, the output will be a very
or similar low noise part. enough, it can causc the oscillator to move narrow spike, defined by the logic speed.
The loop w a s originally tested while frequency until it becomes locked to the If, however, there is a phase difference,
running the phase detector at the low injected frequency. The same modulation the Q related to the first F F triggered will
R F port level used for measurements. sidebands are created within the oscillator stay positive for a short period, producing
Although phase lock was possible, perfor- and operate in much the same way. an output with a net dc component.
mance was poor. Increasing the levels to Although these modulation processes This circuit will also compare frequen-
+ 7 d B m at both mixer p o n s produced more arc powerful, they are restricted. A simple cies. If one frequency is higher than the
robust behavior. The circuit is initially P L L will have a well-defined pull-in range other, the dc average of the two outputs
turned on without seeing any indication of where capture is possible. 1 5 will, a f t e r filtering, cause the V C O to
"'lock." An oscilloscope was used to moni- Tliis experimental loop w a s designed sweep toward equal frequencies. Even if
tor the op-amp output, which came up f o r a closed loop bandwidth (open loop this detector is not the primary phase de-
to about 4 V, the level set by the 3.9-kil/ unity gain frequency) of 2 kHz with a tector in a PLL. it can still serve to com-
2 . 2 - k l i voltage divider. T h e signal gen- damping factor of 5, parameters deter- pare two frequencies, a handy feature in
erator was then tuned. Lock was achieved mined by the choice of the resistor and some applications.
when it passed through the VCO resting capacitor values of the loop filter. Al- The digital phase frequency detector
frequency. The VCO will then track the though we pick loop filter components, the uses digital logic. However, the simple
reference over the full o p - a m p output parameters describe the overall P L L and loops discussed so far have dealt with ana-
range. not just the op-amp and related parts. log signals. An analog signal is easily con-
Intuition suggests that achieving lock This seemingly simple circuit is useful, verted to digital form with the circuit
would be difficult, that both signals would not only as an illustration of the concept, shown in Fig 4.41, The 10-kU and 4.3-kO
have to be al the same frequency before but as a way to obtain two signals that have resistors form a voltage divider with a volt-
phase lock can ever be realized. But lock a well-defined phase relationship to each age gain of a b o u t ' / j . But. to be active, the

Re£. i n . VCO. i n .
+7 dBm SBL-1 +7 dBm Input.
#1
Curp'jt
n
•

1 1
1
1+12 Fig 4.39—Phase
* • -
locked loop using
L " =
fl2v OOu the phase detector.
to rnpi-L.
22K 112

Jr —vv- 3 j^LMSSS
Cutout
2 . 2K? 100
0.22 47K _L 47K T
To VCO
470
=" 36K 0.22
Fig 4.40—Phase frequency detector
using digital integrated circuits.

4.20 Chapter 4
A Practical Frequency Multiplying PLL LO System without a Loop Filter
The phase locked loops we have described are second a lower frequency crystal controlled oscillator. The harmonic
order loops, ones with a capacitor in the loop filter that signal should be between -40 and 0 dBm at the desired
alters loop response. A simpler form for loops is possible, frequency.
a first order circuit. This occurs when we take the dc A dual op-amp provides the rest of the control for the
output from a phase detector, perhaps with some amplifi- system. U1A is a unity gain voltage follower driven by a
cation, and apply it directly to a VCO. This is exactly the 10-turn 2-ki2 pot. The output signal, from 0.3 to 6 V, is
sort of negative feedback used when we control the gain applied to the diode ring in a way that this level also
of a simple op-amp by connecting the output to the input reaches the VCO. Note that this is not easily realized with
through a resistor. The circuit is stable so long as the gain all ring mixers. Phase detection occurs in the diode ring,
before feedback is inverting. The second order loop, with creating a dc signal that is added to the applied dc bias.
its additional capacitor, introduces the possibility of a This is then differentially amplified with a voltage gain of
delay between an output error and the signal reaching the +11 in U1B and routed to the VCO.
amplifier input to correct that error. The system is generally very easy to use. The 10-turn
An analogy may be appropriate: A rider proceeding pot Is merely tuned until a lock is obtained, producing
down a hill on a bicycle controls direction with a first order stable output signals in the receiver. A chart of the
feedback loop. The VCO represents the bicycle handle- various frequencies vs the setting of the 10-turn control is
bars; a direction error is corrected with immediate kept, allowing an easy return. The capture range (how
feedback applied to the handgrips. The second order loop close you must tune the 10 turn control to achieve lock) is
places springs between the rider's controlling hands and about 100 kHz if the corresponding input is at -10 dBm,
the handlebars, effecting a delay in the feedback. The but drops to 10 kHz for a -30 dBm input. The reference
system with springs might be smoother on a gentle hill, spurious responses in the output at plus and minus 1 MHz
but clearly needs much more effort on the part of the were at
designer. The consequences of failure are dramatic. -60 dBc when the loop was locked.
We had built a VHF transceiver (described later in the This circuit should be built over ground plane with
book) tuning from 52 to 53 MHz that receives most relatively short leads in the RF areas. The U310 common
modes. While normally used with microwave transverters, gate amplifier is critical. While the gain is low, the reverse
we wanted to also use this for casual HF reception. We isolation is very good, needed to prevent 1-MHz energy
needed a stable LO that would operate in the 48 to 70- from reaching the VCO where it can create sidebands.
MHz area that could drive a mixer to convert HF signals to The amplifier is built by drilling a hole in the ground foil for
VHF. The needed LO could take on frequencies that were the FET and soldering it in place. This is possible with the
multiples of 1 MHz. This was done with a first order phase U310, for the gate is attached to the metal can. A J310
locked loop, shown in Fig 4A. The basis for the LO is a could be substituted if caution is devoted to keeping the
pair of off-the-shelf modules from Mini-Circuits: a POS- circuit stable. Such circuits are discussed in Chapter 6.
100 voltage controlled oscillator tuning from 50 to 100 Capacitor C1 is a VHF bypass that filters the dc coming
MHz and a SBL-1 serving as a phase detector. from the phase detector. The value is small enough that it
The VCO output is split with most of the energy routed to does not impact loop performance.
a coaxial output for mixer use. A sample is applied to a The greatest virtue of this circuit is its tolerance to
common gate amplifier, Q1, and then to the SBL-1 phase experimental changes. Because there are no loop filter
detector with a level of about +7 dBm. The RF input to the components to pick, there is little design to be done. Yet
phase detector, the "reference" for the loop, is a harmonic of the resulting performance can be excellent.

SBi-l
Phase Det. VCO 02 POS-lOO Internal
bottom view Details
Reference U3 SBi~l

#h - If
bottom Isolation
-4« to • Amp.
G1
-71
RF i

' r fr*

— *

nnB i/Bi/io

f l : 4 bifilar 'urns as EV43-2401 (prritf bead

111: HE55«

Fig 4A—A first order PLL allowing a VHF VCO to lock to harmonics of a 1-MHz input.

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 4.21

 A One-on-one Tracking and is also very stable.
Phase-locked Loop Good long-term stability measured over
periods of seconds to minutes is but one
The PIX scheme becomes more trac- virtue. Another is short-term stability, the
table when a mixer is added to the system, cycle-to-cycle behavior that we have char-
shown in Fig 4.42. The frequencies acterized by phase noise content. The
are those used in a practical VFO. a noise of the 1 5-MHz reference oscillator
circuit designed for a two-band output. A is transferred to the VCO within the band-
14-MHz VCO is mixed with a 12.5-MHz width of the phase locked loop. Outside
crystal oscillator and the down-converted the loop bandwidth, the phase noise is
output is selected with a low pass filter. dominated by the intrinsic performance of
The result is applied to a phase-frequency the VCO.
detector. The reference for the detector
The astute reader is certainly posing a
comes from a stable, free running
question at this point: Why a PIX? Why
1.5-MHz oscillator. The detector output
not merely mix the 1.5-MHz VFO with the
is filtered in the "loop filter" with the dc
12.5-MHz crystal oscillator to directly
output controlling the VCO.
generate the desired 14-MHz signal? The
The most obvious virtue of this system question is a good one. as is the method. A
Fig 4.41—An analog signal Is easily is stability; the VCO has the frequency sta- direct heterodyne approach, which will be
converted to digital form with the bility of the two oscillators in the system. discussed in a later chapter, is ideal. How-
circuit shown here. The 10-kH and 4.3- The 12.5-MHz oscillator is crystal con-
k n resistors form a voltage divider with
ever. if the output is to be spectrally clean,
a voltage gain of about 1/3. But, to be
trolled and quite stable. The free running the filter at 14 MHz must be a good one.
active, the transistor base must be 1.5-MHz VFO operates at a low frequency The up-conversion process will generate
biased at about 0.7 V. an image at 12.5-1.5=11 MHz. This must
be well suppressed. There are other higher
order mixing products that can also com-
promise the performance.
transistor base must be biased at about 0.7 14 MHz
V. Hence, the feedback loop holds the col- Another virtue is low cost. The LC filter is
lector close to 2 V. which is between a logic a relatively expensive circuit. A direct het-
0 and l for TTL and for CMOS running at erodyne system would be even more diffi-
5 V. This circuit will function with RF sig- cult and expensive if the frequencies were
nals o f - 3 0 dBm from a 50-Q generator, or changed to. for example, a 13.5-MH/ crys-
even less, depending on frequency. tal oscillator and a 0.5-MHz VFO. But. the
The normal phase-frequency detector PLL for the new scheme would be virtually
outputs comc from Q! and Q2*. unchanged. Notice in Fig 4.42 that there arc
(Q2*=Not 02.) Q2* is shown as Q2 with no bandpass filters in the system, not even
a bar above it in the schematic shown in Fig 4.42—A practical one-on-one or simple ones. A very simple low pass filter
Fig 4.40. During phase locked operation. offset tracking PLL. picks the down-converted product.
Q1 and Q2 are both low between clock
pulses. So. Q2* will be high. When Ql
and Q2* voltages are analog added with
an op-amp. the result is a signal at half of
the digital supply. Even when both make
transitions together, the net result is the
same as the resting state so long as there is
no phase difference. This balance helps to
suppress spurious pulses from the dctcc-
tor. This detector suffers from gain that
drops with zero phase difference. More
refined phase-frequency detectors use
logic schemes that generate a gain that is
constant at all phase differences.
The phase frequency detector output is
sampled data. A sample occurs once per
cycle and then disappears. The averaged
dc component is extracted and applied to
the op-amp that follows. The primary
function of the loop filler is to attenuate
the high frequency part of these pulses. In
contrast, the output of a diode ring phase
detector is continuously present, so long
as there is sine wave excitation. But when 11, 13t T37-6
clipping occurs at both inputs, which is T l , 10 b i f i l a r t u r n s , FT37-43
common, the data begins to take on
sampled characteristics. Fig 4.43—VCO for the 14-MHz tracking loop.

4.22 Chapter 4
 The P L L still has filtering properties. A P N P guarantees an operating level that pass is a peaked (ultra-spherical) design,
Jetailed analysis will show that the loop never forward biases the tuning diode. A offering greater than normal harmonic
t e h a v e s like a single tuned circuit at the b u f f e r increases the output to +2 dBm. attenuation. A band-switch sclects the
• i " 0 frequency with a bandwidth equal- There are no large bypass capacitors appropriate output. Even though the 7-
j the loop bandwidth. This tracking within the shielded VCO. for the +12-V MHz circuitry continues to operate when
•t r moves along with the output, trans- supply is keyed. the 14-MHz band is in use, the 40-meter
: _ n n u the characteristics of the reference The V C O output drives a passive power output is still 70 dB below the desired out-
"its the V C O output. This filtering charac- splitter where the two applications are put. The 0-dBm output was used to drive a
teristic is not available to one building the isolated, shown in Fig 4.44. One path two stage, 1-W power amplifier. This was
s » r e conventional heterodyne system. routes 14-MHz energy to Q3 where it is low pass filtered and used on the air for
Schematics are presented for a practical amplified to a 2.5-V pk-pk level to serve Q R P activity, or applied to a FET power
implementation of the system of Fig 4.42. as the L O for Q4, a dual gate M O S F E T amplifier for more aggressive efforts.
i design we used for a 10-year period. T w o mixer. The 12.5-MHz signal is generated The 1.5-MHz output f r o m Fig 4.44 is
-j«put frequency bands were available: 7 with Q5. The level reaching the mixer is applied to the phase frequency detector,
:o 7.1 and 14 to 14.2 M H z . The 14-MHz adjusted to prevent overdriving the mixer. shown in Fig 4.45. This then drives a loop
•utput was also frequency doubled to pro- The mixer output is filtered in a 1.7-MHz filter using a L M 3 0 1 op-amp. The loop
duce a 28-MHz signal. The basic circuit is low pass filter. was designed for a 10-kHz loop band-
i 14-MHz PLL, but the output is digitally The other splitter output is applied to Q6, width. The reference V F O (not shown) for
Avided to produce the 7-MHz component. a stage providing 14-MHz output. Some the phase detector was a J F E T Hartley
The 14-MHz V C O is shown in Fig 4.43. energy is "stolen" at the emitter to dri ve Q7 buffered with a M O S F E T .
A 2N3906 P N P ( Q l ) oscillator is tuned and U l , a D-flip-flop operating as a Keying and timing details, although not
with a M V 2 0 9 abrupt junction varactor divider. The resulting square wave is fur- shown, are critical in this system. The
diode. The grounded collector facilitates ther buffered in Q8 and is low pass filtered V C O was keyed with a "'+12T" voltage
diode biasing. The emitter current in the to produce a clean 7-MHz signal. The low that started as soon as the key was pressed.

L3 TO
Power
^ — @ phase/f req.
Splitter
Dst

0 dBm
Output

,L5: 3uH, 32t #28, T37-6

Fig 4.44—Mixer section for the tracking PLL.

Oscillators arid Frequency Synthesizers 4.23

 L:»W - -
Phase-frequency detector using L S - T T L
logic. This circuit is shown in Fig 4.45.

m e m w h e r e signals w e r e s p a c e d at 10-kHz
Fig 4.45—Phase-frequency detector and loop filter for the tracking PLL.
intervals. It w o u l d not. a s s h o w n , b e very
u s e f u l as a general p u r p o s e L O .
Modifications could improve resolu-
tion. F o r e x a m p l e , increasing R to 2 0 0 0
produces a 1-kHz reference. N ranging
f r o m 9 0 0 0 to 9 5 0 0 would then c o v e r the
desired r a n g e in 1-kHz steps. (A m e a n s of
pulling the 2 - M H z crystal oscillator by a
m e r e 2 2 2 Hz would then generate all L O
f r e q u e n c i e s within the d e s i r e d range.)
G e n e r a l l y , 1 0 0 - H / resolution p r o d u c e s
u n d e r s t a n d a b l e S S B w h i l e 10-Hz s t e p s
yield natural s o u n d i n g v o i c e s . But d i v i d -
ers of 9 0 , 0 0 0 or 9 0 0 . 0 0 0 are i m p r a c t i c a l ,
e v e n t h o u g h they are easily a c h i e v e d with
digital logic.
C o n s i d e r the 1 - k H z s t e p s y s t e m w i t h
N = 9 0 0 0 to 9 5 0 0 . T h e d c t e c t o r r e f e r e n c e
f r e q u e n c y is 1 - k H z , the s t e p value. T h e
Fig 4.46—A single loop Divide-by-N PLL. loop filtering (plus b a l a n c e e f f e c t s ) m u s t
p r o d u c e c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n u a t i o n at
1 k H z . G e n e r a l l y , a s y s t e m with a I - k H z
step w o u l d use a loop b a n d w i d t h of 100
C a r e f u l listening and examination with an where direct division w o u l d p r o d u c e the H z or less. T h e d c f r o m the loop filter
o s c i l l o s c o p e s h o w e d that p h a s e lock was desired outputs. includes a small 1 - k H z c o m p o n e n t that
fast and a l w a y s occurred b e f o r e a signal f r e q u e n c y m o d u l a t e s the V C O carrier at 1
w a s applied to the a n t e n n a . A " h o l d - o f f '
circuit w a s i n c l u d e d that p r e v e n t e d t h e
Divide-by-N Phase k H z . T h e s p e c t r u m is a carrier with I - k H z
s i d e b a n d s . T h e s e would b e t r a n s m i t t e d if
keying v o l t a g e f r o m r e a c h i n g t h e p o w e r Locked Synthesis t h e L O w a s part o f a transmitter. If part of
a m p l i f i e r until the key had b e e n d o w n f o r T h e most c o m m o n scheme f o r f r e q u e n c y a receiver, the contaminated L O would
5 m i l l i s e c o n d s . T h i s w a s applied only on synthesis is the divide-bv-N P L L F i g 4.46. c a u s e a strong signal to be received in a
initial k e y c l o s u r e s . V O X - l i k e circuitry A crystal oscillator at F x is divided by a c o u p l e of e x t r a f r e q u e n c i e s , albeit at re-
then m a i n t a i n e d the s y s t e m in t r a n s m i t (usually) f i x e d integer R . p r o d u c i n g a duced strength.
m o d e ( V C O on and T / R relay c l o s e d ) f o r r e f e r e n c e signal at the phase frequency de- T i m i n g p r o b l e m s o c c u r w h e n N is
half a s e c o n d o r so. T h i s system w o u l d b e tector at F x / R . T h e V C O is divided by a i n c r e m e n t e d t o t u n e such a s y n t h e s i z e r .
c o m p r o m i s e d if the V C O locking had not p r o g r a m m a b l e integer, N. T h e d i v i d e d W h i l e the N c h a n g e is i n s t a n t a n e o u s , the
been q u i c k . V C O must also appear at F x / R , so F V = N F X / result is not. A filter with 100-Hz b a n d -
A n u m b e r of c h a n g e s would be i m p l e - R. Consider an example: W e wish to build width is c a p a b l e of c h a n g e in a t i m e c o m -
mented if this system w a s rebuilt today. a synthesizer for the 9 to 9 . 5 - M H z range. m e n s u r a t e with 1/B w h e r e B is the loop
The dual-gate mixer would be replaced W e divide a 2 - M H z crystal oscillator by b a n d w i d t h , here 10 m i l l i s e c o n d s . T h e ef-
with a b a l a n c e d circuit. T h e o p - a m p would R = 2 0 0 to generate a 10-kHz reference. N fect can be a " c h i r p y " sound with tuning.
b e c o m e an u p - t o - d a t e alternative, such as must be set to 9 0 0 to p r o d u c e a 9 - M H z sig- T h e r e is y e t a n o t h e r p r o b l e m , a degra-
the O P A - 2 7 . H i g h speed C M O S w o u l d nal. Increasing N causes F v to increase in d a t i o n in p h a s e noise. T h e P L L with a
r e p l a c e the L S - T T L used. F i n a l l y , t h e 10-kHz steps, r e a c h i n e 9.5 M H z with d i v i s i o n - b y - N is a f r e q u e n c y multiplier.
V C O would run continuously without N=950. A s s u m e , f o r e x a m p l e , that 1 - H z c h a n g e s
k e y i n g , but w o u l d o p e r a t e at a d i f f e r e n t T h i s s y s t e m w o u l d w o r k well a s a trans- the r e f e r e n c e at t h e d e t e c t o r . W i t h
f r e q u e n c y . T h i s c o u l d b e 28 o r 5 6 MHz c e i v e r local oscillator ( L O ) in an e n v i r o n - N = 9 0 0 0 , that i - H z shift b e c o m e s a 9 - k H z

4.24 Chapter 4
t i n t t in the V C O . If w e think of t h e 1-H/. l o a d e d in t h e c o u n t e r , b e g i n n i n g t h e c y c l e a v a i l a b l e f o r p h a s e locked l o o p s . O n e ex-
a r f e r e n c e s h i f t as a n o i s e , t h e r e s u l t a f t e r a n e w . T h i s o v e r a l l c i r c u i t will d i v i d e b y a m p l e is the M o t o r o l a M C 1 4 5 1 7 0 , w h i c h
f r e q u e n c y m u l t i p l i c a t i o n b y N is a n o i s e t h e n u m b e r l o a d e d at J A to J D ( 0 to 15) p l u s i n c l u d e s p r o g r a m m a b l e N and R dividers,
i n c r e a s e b y 2 0 L o g ( N ) d B . 7 9 d B f o r this 2. S e v e r a l 7 4 H C 1 9 3 s c a n b e c a s c a d e d to p h a s e - f r e q u e n c y d e t e c t o r , crystal oscilla-
case. C l e a r l y , P L L s y n t h e s i z e r s w i t h l a r g e realize large divisors. The 7 4 H C 7 4 forces tor, a n d digital c o n t r o l and m e m o r y
V ihould be avoided. t h e o u t p u t to b e s y n c h r o n o u s with the in- c i r c u i t s . 1 6 T h i s IC f u n c t i o n s up to 160
P L L s y n t h e s i z e r s a r e still p r a c t i c a l . put clock. M H z , r c c c i v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s as a 16-bit
W i t h l a r g e f r e q u e n c y s t e p s , p e r h a p s 10 M a n y P L L f r e q u e n c y s y n t h e s i z e r s use a serial w o r d . W h i l e the use of a this chip
kHz o r m o r e , t u n i n g s e e m s i n s t a n t a n e o u s p r e s c a l e r , a d i v i d e r that d i v i d e s b y a f i x e d s i m p l i f i e s a s y n t h e s i z e r , it o f t e n m e a n s that
• title k e e p i n g r e f e r e n c e s i d e b a n d s well amount before reaching programmable a m i c r o p r o c e s s o r o r c o m p u t e r m u s t be
suppressed. G a p s b e t w e e n steps can be c i r c u i t r y . T h i s r e d u c e s the c o m p l e x i t y of p r e s e n t in e q u i p m e n t using s u c h a synthe-
Silled in w i t h s c h e m e s u s i n g a d d i t i o n a l t h e p r o g r a m m a b l e p a r t s , but h a s the d i s a d - sizer. T h e M C I 4 5 1 7 0 and the Na'tional
P i t s . V X O t u n i n g of t h e r e f e r e n c e , o r di- v a n t a g e of m u l t i p l y i n g t h e s y n t h e s i z e r L M X 1 5 0 1 A are used in a s y n t h e s i z e r on
rect digital s y n t h e s i s — a m e t h o d that w e s t e p s i z e by the p r e - s c a l e v a l u e . the book C D , the D S P - 1 0 t r a n s c e i v e r .
• ill d i s c u s s later. T h i s d i f f i c u l t y is e l i m i n a t e d w i t h a vari- T h e f r e q u e n c y multiplication and the
N u m e r o u s s c h e m e s are available for a b l e m o d u l u s p r e s c a l e r , a c h i p that d i v i d e s resulting phase noise degradation between
programmable f r e q u e n c y division, limited by o n e of t w o d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s , d e p e n d i n g t h e r e f e r e n c e and t h e V C O is a f u n d a m e n -
!?> the e x p e r i e n c e of t h e d e s i g n e r s . O n e is on the status of a c o n t r o l pin. F o r e x a m p l e , tal p r o p e r t y of a d i v i d e - b y - N s y n t h e s i z e r
ta n in F i g 4 . 4 7 . T h e i n c o m i n g s i g n a l is t h e M o t o r o l a M C 1 2 0 1 5 is a d i v i d e by that c a n n o t b e a v o i d e d w i t h " i m p r o v e d "
digitized a n d a p p l i e d to the d o w n c o u n t i n g 3 2 / 3 3 : it d i v i d e s t h e i n c o m i n g f r e q u e n c y d e s i g n . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , it is b e c o m i n g
c i o c k i n p u t of a n U p / D o w n c o u n t e r , a b y e i t h e r 3 2 o r 33. E x t r a c i r c u i t r y is re- c o m m o n f o r m a n u f a c t u r e r s of P L L inte-
" - J H C 1 9 3 . T h e state of t h e c o u n t e r d e c r e - q u i r e d in t h e p r o g r a m m a b l e p a r t of t h e grated c i r c u i t s t o s p e c i f y t h e p h a s e n o i s e
m e n t s b y 1 with e a c h c l o c k p u l s e . W h e n it s y n t h e s i z e r to a c c o m m o d a t e p r e s c a l e r of t h e i r ICs at the p h a s e d e t e c t o r . S p e c t r a l
r e a c h e s 0, t h e " b o r r o w " line g o e s l o w . T h i s p r o g r a m m i n g , b u t t h e p r o g r a m m a b l e cir- n o i s e d e n s i t y in the - 1 6 0 d B c / H z r e g i o n is
t» fed to the d a t a i n p u t of a D - F F . W h e n the c u i t r y is r e l a t i v e l y s l o w , e a s i n g d e s i g n and c o m m o n . T h e f i n a l s y s t e m d e s i g n is then
Q of that p a r t g o e s l o w , t h e " l o a d " c o m - reducing power. d e g r a d e d b y 2 0 L o g ( N ) . It will be e v e n
s i a n d o n the ' 1 9 3 is e x e c u t e d , c a u s i n g the Numerous commercially manufactured w o r s e if o t h e r n o i s e s o u r c e s c o m e i n t o
data o n t h e " j a m " i n p u t s , J A to J D , t o b e L S I (large-scale integration) chips are p l a y , s u c h as a p o o r V C O .

A VXO Extending
Synthesizer
A s i m p l e P L L s y n t h e s i z e r with a s i n g l e
l o o p c a n b e u s e d in c o n j u n c t i o n with a
V X O for numerous special applications.
This could be a divide-by-N design like
that of F i g 4 - 4 6 , o r a m o d i f i e d d e s i g n that
i n c l u d e s a m i x e r , s h o w n in F i g 4 . 4 8 . T h e
c r y s t a l o s c i l l a t o r ( V X O ) n o w s e r v e s as t h e
L O f o r a m i x e r and as a d i v i d e d p r o g r a m -
mable clock for the phase detector. T h e
s t e p size is n o l o n g e r u n i f o r m , a c o n s e -
Fig 4.47—A simple programmable divider. See text. q u e n c e of t h e v a r i a b l e r e f e r e n c e d i v i d e r .
H o w e v e r , t h e s c h c m e is c a p a b l e of p r o -
d u c i n g very s m a l l steps w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y
EP O u t p u t high r e f e r e n c e f r e q u e n c y .
C o n s i d e r an e x a m p l e : A 6 . 8 9 2 - M H z
o s c i l l a t o r is p l a c e d in the c i r c u i t of Fig
4 . 4 8 with N r a n g i n g f r o m 3 2 to 6 4 . S o m e
(but n o t all) o u t p u t f r e q u e n c i e s , s t e p sizes,
a n d r e f e r e n c e f r e q u e n c i e s a r c g i v e n in
T a b l e 4.1.
The reference frequency varies accord-
i n g to the crystal f r e q u e n c y d i v i d e d b y N
while the step size varies with F x ' N 2 . Con-

Table 4.1
N VCO Output Step Size Hef. Freq.
32 7 1 0 7 . 7 kHz 6 . 5 kHz 215.4 kHz
33 7101.2 6.3 208.9

63 7001.7 1.74 109.4

Fig 4.48—A simple PLL synthesizer featuring frequency steps much smaller than 64 7000.0 1.68 107.7
the reference frequency.

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 4.25

 1
0.8

0.6

0.1
v
d o.a

(i
Tlj
i -0.2
-0.4
-0.6

-0.8
Fig 4.50—Measured output of a direct
-1 digital synthesizer using the Analog
Devices 9831. Measurements were
performed with a Tektronix 494A
spectrum analyzer set for a center
Fig 4.49—A sine wave is generated in DDS with a stepped approximation. Both the
stepped, or "sampled" waveform and the desired sine wave result are shown. frequency of 7.0 MHz. The signal is at
7.1 MHz. This DDS device uses a 10-bit
D-to-A converter and the manufacturer
reports similar spurious responses.

verting the crystal oscillator to a V X O fills At time zero, the desired, output sine wave 7.1 MHz was synthesized for this example,
the gaps. When this is done, it may not be will have zero amplitude. But 25 nS later, it producing spurious outputs over a wide
necessary to use all possible N numbers. will have an amplitude calculated by insert- spectrum. Other examples produced spurs
Synthesizers of this kind are useful as a ing 25 nS into the equation, 0.454 V. At 50 confined to li mited regions. There are even
means of extending ihe range of a V X O lo nS. the signal will be 0.809 V, and so forth. some "sweet spots," output frequencies
cover a larger band. However, they are One could plot these values against n lo that are virtually free of spurs'
best used with an independent frequency obtain the usual sine wave. However, this Limited D A C accuracy is a c o m m o n
counter that provides readout. A practical is not what you would see when examining reason given to explain spurs in a D D S
project using this scheme is given else- the DAC with a high-speed oscilloscope. synthesizer. While this is usually domi-
where in this chapter. A practical, general- Rather, you would see a line that is flat and nant. it is not the only source of spurs. The
purpose counter is also presented.' 7 level for 25 nS. It would then jump almost analysis presented above assumed a per-
instantaneously to 454 millivolts and re- fect D A C and still generated spurs. The
main there for another 25 nS. At 50 nS it very stair-step waveform of Fig 4.49 is an
Direct Digital Synthesis would j u m p to 0,809 V. and so on. This approximation 10 a more ideal sampling
DDS. or direct digital synthesis is very behavior is shown in Fig 4.49 where a sine waveform reconstruction. 1 8
powerful and is easily implemented with wave is sampled about 10.7 times percyclc. The wideband phase noise in Ihe output
special, large-scale integrated circuits. If wc had used an even 10 samples for of a DDS synthesizer is often very low,
The concept is deceptively simple: Digi- cach cycle of the sine wave being gener- comparable with the best Divide-bv-N
tal approximations to values for a synthe- ated. the lowest frequency in the overall PLL systems. However, this is of little
sized sine wave are calculated or looked- signal would be that of the output. The consequencc if the noise is merely
up f r o m memory. These values arc loaded only distortion would be harmonics. Con- replaced by a family of coherent spurious
into a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) sider a slightly different case, one where responses.
with a new value being periodically gener- wc use 10.333 samples for cach cycle of Most current commercial transceivers
ated after a fixed sample time. the final oscillation. Three cycles of the use a combination of PLL and D D S tech-
A typical DDS IC might be clocked with output waveform would then be generated nology. Unfortunately, it is very difficult
a 40-MHz crystal oscillator. This signal with 31 samples. There is a longer peri- to gain even a basic understanding of these
serves as a clock for updating the output odic character to the overall waveform that systems from the sketchy manuals. Rohde
with a new sample that will persist for 25 would create spurious outputs at one-third described an excellent example of a dual
nanoseconds (1/40 MHz) until the next the output frequency. All harmonics of the technology synthesizer. 1 9 That design
update arrives. To illustrate the operation, low frequency are also available. The used DDS to generate a 10.7-MHz signal
assume we want to generate a 3-MHz sine spurs become more numerous as the peri- that was tunable in small sleps. The result
wave with a 1 V amplitude. This is given as ods become longer. was bandpass filtered with a 10-kHz wide
Fig 4.50 shows the measured output of crystal filter and then frequency divided to
V = sin (2 x irx f x t ) f = 3 MHz an Analog Devices AD-9831 residing on a 100 kHz where it served as the reference
demo-board f r o m Analog Devices. The for a PLL controlling a 75 to 105-MHz
Eq 4.4 part used a 25-MHz clock. An output of VCO.

4.26 Chapter 4
4.8 T H E U G L Y WEEKENDER, MK-II, A 7-MHZ VFO T R A N S M I T T E R
The "Ugly Weekender" is a viable The VFO is buffered with a keyed dual- tor voltage between modules. This com-
project for both the beginner and the sea- gate MOSFET amplifier, Q2. A JFET ponent was eliminated in the single
soned builder. The major feature, and the source follower driving a feedback ampli- compartment version.
source of the name, is the construction fier would also provide the needed The output power amplifier, Q9, an
method outlined in Chapter 1. This section 10-milliwatt output needed to drive the ever-reliable 2N3866 with a small heat
describes a version of that transmitter frequency doubler. sink, is shown in Fig 4.52. Numerous other
that uses frequency doubling to achieve The 2X-frequency multiplication
improved oscillator isolation. occurs with a pair of diodes, as discussed
The transmitter (Fig 4.51) begins with a in greater detail in Chapter 5. The doubler
3.5-MHz variable frequency oscillator. output is selected with a single tuned
The familiar Hartley topology is used, al- circuit. A 10% bandwidth double tuned
though others would work as well. The circuit would be a better choice in this
oscillator, Q l . runs continuously to avoid position. The power lost in the passive fre-
repeated warm-up drift, oscillating a few quency multiplication is regained with a
kHz above the normal frequency, but is buffer amplifier using Q6 and Q7.
shifted to the desired frequency during The 7-MHz output from Q7 is applied to
transmit intervals. The VFO is tempera- a 500-fi drive control with output to a
ture compensated with a combination of keyed feedback amplifier, Q8, shown in
NPO and polystyrene capacitors in the Fig 4.52. The keying voltage is derived
3.5-MHz tank circuit. The combination from Q4, an integrating waveform shap-
was picked and confirmed with repeated ing circuit.
temperature runs in a home-built environ- A feed-through capacitor in the two box Outside view of " U g l y Weekender"
mental chamber. version of this circuit routes the Q4 collec- transmitters for 7 (left) and 3.5 MHz.

LI,36t #22, T68-6

tap at 8t.

3.5 MHz

0.22 +12 Keyed to Driver

""VII Key
u J
T1 15t with 5 bifilar turn output, FT37-43.
T2 45t #28, T50-2, 5 turn links(2).
T3 15t #28 on FT37-43, 4 t link.
L6 15t FT37-43
Fig 4 . 5 1 — V F O and frequency multiplier for the Mk II Ugly Weekender.

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 4.27

 Inside view of a single board version of the 7-MHz trans-
mitter. A receiving converter is at the rear (left) of the box.

The VFO portion of the transmitter, including diode

frequency doubler.

The power amplifier for the 7-MHz

version.

TT7
parts will function in this position with
circuit details discussed in Chapter 2. T4,T5: 10 b i r i l a r turns #26, r t Y I -
Output power is just over two watts with 1,2: 34" #22, T68-6
the drive control at maximum. A T/R sys- L3,M: 16- #22, T50-6, 1.1 111!
tem is included for QRP applications. L5: 15 uH molded
Q5 is a transistor switch that generates a
grounded line when the key is pressed.
This signal is timed to hold for a short Fig 4.52—Driver and power amplifier portion of the Mk II Ugly Weekender.
period after the key is opened to control an
electronic transmit-receive switch with a
100-W power amplifier sometimes used
with this exciter.

simpler solution was sought, one that was transistor conditioner that drives a gate
A Digital Dial usable without special programming skills. controlled by the counter time base. For
The frequency counters wc see in the This circuit uses a small number of 100 Hz resolution, the gate must be "open"
amateur literature are either general-pur- readily available, inexpensive integrated for 10 milliseconds. However, this design
pose lest instruments or special designs, circuits, including the four-LED displays. has an extra divide-by-10 to suppress last
intended as a readout for a receiver or The design was intended to be cheap digit flicker, so a 100-mS count window is
transceiver. This unit falls into the later enough for repetitive use in a variety of used. After the counting is finished and
category, but it could be expanded to serve projects. The approximate S10 parts cost the gate is closed, a "strobe" signal is ap-
general applications. included the time base crystal, but did not plied to ICs that remember the counted
We wanted this design to use standard include a PC board. 2 0 result and decode it to a format suitable to
parts. Excellent special purpose counter This counter avoids multiplex methods, drive the 7-segment light emitting diode
chips are available, but they are often expen- which are prone to RF noise generation. displays. This is followed by a pulse that
sive and difficult to find. Micro-processors, Frequency resolution is 100 Hz. resets the counters to zero, ready for the
such as the popular PIC and Basic Stamp Figure 4.53 shows a functional block next cycle.
Series, can be configured as counters, while diagram for the frequency counter. Sig- The time base, shown in Fig 4.54, be-
serving all related display chores. But a nals to be counted are applied to a single gins with a crystal controlled bipolar tran-

4.28 Chapter 4
 Fig 4.53—Block diagram for counter.

A clean way to fabricate an LC oscillator uses a Hammond

1590B box, offering excellent shielding. DC enters through a
feedthrough capacitor and RF leaves on coaxial cable. This
oscillator used a differential capacitor, but only one side is
connected.

this d e s i g n . M o s t of the s y s t e m u s e s " H C "

high-speed CMOS parts. T h i s a l l o w s t h e
c i r c u i t to f u n c t i o n to 50 M H z or b e y o n d .
-511oo :>

3 . 2 768 MHz
MHz I, J .
Ik
lk >
| T~ '
Ullb
lr Ul — •2
HC4060
—
Y0 _T6
(gate)
H o w e v e r , t h e r e is n o n e e d f o r h i g h s p e e d
in t h e d i s p l a y f u n c t i o n , s o the d e c o d e r
drivers use the slower standard C M O S

4H
5-60 n <* HC390 HC4060 parts. U s i n g s l o w e r p a r t s h e r e s h o u l d h e l p
n

(strobe) to m i n i m i z e R F n o i s e and c u r r e n t c o n -
09 U3
13 11 sumption. We used c o m m o n cathode,
•A/W HC13 8
39K 13 3 seven segment LEDs, type M A N 4 7 4 0 .
G9

r
12 E a r l y v e r s i o n s of t h i s c o u n t e r u s e d only
14 2
T OS t w o d i g i t s of d i s p l a y , s h o w i n g o n l y 0 to 9 9
2N3904 k H z . W h i l e this w o r k e d well as a digital
6 I
Q!
s u b s t i t u t e f o r a m e c h a n i c a l d i a l , it b c c a n i e
f r u s t r a t i n g in s o m e a p p l i c a t i o n s . W e
found ourselves wanting more resolution,
i n c l u d i n g a digit to the right of t h e k H z
decimal placc. A more complete display
w i t h d i g i t s to t h e l e f t a l l o w s c o m p l e t e
Fig 4.54—Time base portion of frequency counter. e l i m i n a t i o n of m e c h a n i c a l d i a l s in m a n y
systems. The lower current two-digit for-
mat is a v a i l a b l e b y e l i m i n a t i n g the r e l a t e d
4 5 1 1 d r i v e r s a n d L E D s in t h e d e s i g n p r e -
s i s t o r o s c i l l a t o r o p e r a t i n g al 3 . 2 7 6 8 M H z . t i o n e d w i t h Q 1 w i t h t h e r e s u l t i n g logic- sented.
T h e c r y s t a l is a r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , o f f - t h e - a p p l i e d to U 4 A , part of a q u a d N A N D g a t e Total current depends upon the digits
s h e l v e part. T h e o s c i l l a t o r is d i v i d e d b y w i t h o t h e r s e c t i o n s s e r v i n g as i n v e r t e r s . b e i n g d i s p l a y e d . W i t h 5 - M H z i n p u t sig-
2> 5 in U 1 and U 2 . a p a i r of 7 4 H C 4 0 6 0 T h e o u t p u t is then c o u n t e d b y U 1 1 a, U 5 , n a l s , c u r r e n t w a s a b o u t 80 m A w h e n t h e
" t i m e r " I C s , r e s u l t i n g in t h e d e s i r e d 100- and U6, 7 4 H C 3 9 0 dual d e c a d e c o u n t e r s . d i s p l a y r e a d " 8 8 8 . 8 " , d r o p p i n g to 3 0 m A
millisecond gale window. Further division T h e s e drive the decoder drivers, U7 with "111.1." T h e sensitivity was excel-
in U 2 p r o v i d e s a c h a i n of a d d i t i o n a l 100 through U 1 0 . using 451 IB decoder-driver lent w i t h a 5 - M H z . i n p u t , c o u n t i n g r e l i a b l y
m S w i n d o w s . T h e s e are d e c o d e d in U 3 to I C s . T h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n will d i s p l a y k H z w i t h an i n p u t of less than - 4 0 d B m f r o m a
g e n e r a t e s t r o b e a n d reset p u l s e s . to t h e l e f t of a d e c i m a l p l a c e a n d t e n t h s of 5 0 - 0 g e n e r a t o r . T h e c o u n t e r c o n t i n u e s to
T h e rest of t h e c o u n t e r is s h o w n in Fig a k H z t o the right of t h e d e c i m a l p l a c e . f u n c t i o n to o v e r 5 0 M H z , b u t r e q u i r i n g
4.55. T h e signal to be c o u n t e d is c o n d i - W e h a v e u s e d I C s f r o m t w o f a m i l i e s in higher R F drive power.

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 4.29

 Fig 4.55—Input circuit, counter detail,
and display portion of frequency
(Far Righs) counter.
4.9 REGARDING COUNTER ACCURACY

" "v Minple counter described above is measured. Clearly, this would be a good frequencies. If the crystal frequency is
- of good accuracy so long as the application for a microprocessor. changed, the " d i a l " can still be exactly
-'-:! and the oscillator components arc A simple counter that would still be accu- right for one frequency. It might not be too
i .~ The capacitor in series with the rate over a wide frequency range could be far off at others that are close.
should be adjusted to producc the built with circuitry much like that in Fig4.55. Consider an example, a 7 - M H z trans-
r-.'r count when a known frcqucncy is even if the IF is "unfriendly." The simple up ceiver using a crystal filter at 1.98 M H z .
. • - led to the counter input. counters would be replaced with presetable The V F O will then be tuned to 5.02 M H z
" counter as shown is suitable for use up-down counters. Instead of resetting the when the transceiver is at 7.000 M H z .
- •- -imple direct conversion transceivers counters to zero at the end of each cyclc, the Using the counter with the standard
-jperhet systems where the intermedi- counter would be loaded with an appropri- 3 . 2 7 6 8 - M H z crystal would produce a
i.-equency is an even multiple of 100 ate digital word that causes the LO counting count of " 2 0 . 0 " instead of the desired
i - • The "dial" then functions accuratcly to producc the right readout. "00.0." If the clock crystal was changed to
- ' -n the LO alone is counted, cxccpt for It is possible in some applications to 3.2899 M H z . a 13.1-kHz difference. the
' . .eft most digit. If a "less friendly" IF is obtain reasonable results over a narrow count would be proper at 7 MHz. The error
, - J. other schemes must be applied. The tuning range merely by changing the crys- at 7.1 M H z would be 0.4 kHz. This may be
-jl transceiver might have several inler- tal frequency. This counter uses a clock tolerable for some applications.
• . Jiate frequencies, all of them with oscillator of 3276.8 kHz. That value is di- There are several options available to
•--••en values. The corresponding oscil- vided by a fixed value to produce a lime the builder wanting to use a microproces-
TV including BFOs or carrier oscilla- window that drives the counting gate. The sor controlled counter. Simple units are
'•. could all be counted. A mixture of up final count is the number of cycles that available in kit form, ready for installation
, -J down counting might be required with pass through the gate during the time in- in Q R P rigs and the like, with references
• - various oscillators, depending upon the terval. The display is a number that is a found on the web. Some examples are also
the final frcqucncy is calculated or constant multiplied by the ratio of the two included on the book CD. 2 1

4.10 A GENERAL PURPOSE VXO-EXTENDING FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZER

Fig 4.56 shows the block diagram for a A, B, C, and D in Fig 4.57. The four inputs be hard-wired by the user to establish this
unique frequency synthesizer. Although are connected to logic 0 (ground), logic 1 frequency.
this example was built for 14 M H z using (+5 V), or to the outputs from U4. Some The Up/Down commands are buffered
an off-the-shelf TV color-burst crystal in possible variations are shown in Table 4.2. with U6. Grounding an input line (P9 or
•he VXO at 14.318 MHz, the system can The frequency determining up-down P10) will cause an up or down pulse to
be adapted for many other applications. counter, U3 and U4, may also be loaded appear at U3. A ground c o m m a n d on J8
VHF examples are given later. This with an often-used setting, such as a rec- also causes the "calling f r e q u e n c y " to be
example used the V X O design presented ognized calling frequency. Each line must loaded. The user may wish to add more
m Fig 4.30. The VCO used with the syn-
thesizer is that of Fig 4.34, which can be
scaled to other frequencies.
We only discuss the synthesizer circuits
in detail here. The V C O provides the
needed output. It will usually be split in a
hybrid with one component used in an in-
tended output while the other drives the
synthesis circuitry. A level o f - 6 dBm is
needed by the synthesizer at both the VCO
and the VXO inputs.
The programmable frequency divider is
a version of the circuit shown in Fig 4.47
using two 74HC193 chips, allowing divi-
sion by up to 258. The detailed circuit is
shown in Figs 4.57 and 4.57A. The divi-
sion ratio is derived from two more
74HC193 chips, now operated as an up-
down counter. Pulses to the "up" or the
"down" inputs increment or decrement the "Calling
frequency by one step. The user must es- Frequency"
tablish the division range, controlled by
four hard wired points below U2, marked Fig 4.56—Block diagram for the VXO extending synthesizer.

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 4.31

Table 4.2
Available A B C D
States
2 to 258 U4 U4 U4 U4
2 to 130 U4 U4 U4 0
66 to 130 U4 U4 1 0
34 to 66 U4 1 0 0

interface circuitry to the Up/Down lines;

standard C W keyer circuits work well, as
does a keyer paddle or an computer mouse
as an input device.
The V X O and V C O are both applied to
mixer U7, an NE-612. The low frequency
output is low pass filtered and impedance
transformed with a pi-network using L I .
In the example, a 200-kHz signal is trans-
formed from 1.5 k O to 500 fl with the pi
network formed by L I , C18. and C19. The
600-(iH inductor consists of 22t #26 on a
FB43-6301 ferrite bead. The low pass fil-
ter components will change with other
applications. The low pass filter output is
amplified and conditioned for digital lev-

n r
up 74HC74
vxo Input 74HC193 Eor 74HC193 Bor
(13
Load Load D «
U2 U5a
© JO J3 11 JO J3 IT 3
a_L tLS tl (10 19 J14 a_L|15 II 110 p _SJ

to ue
4D, +5
pin 3

+5 12 13

Q3Car 74HC74
so Q3
13 Up
74BC193 n U5b
Dwn load
U4
11 JO J3 a +5
j O T T s |l HO P J l ' « . 22K
: Ext. Load

P10 1 - .1
100K (x8)

+5
mf
Ext,Data
i

5 +5
» J8

;i.5K

300 rnV pp
600 uH,
r
0.1 ferrite bead,
HE612 1
U7 0.1

: si .001
2| 2L .001
10%
10%

Fig 4.57—Schematic for the experimental synthesizer. See text for details.

4.32 Chapter 4
els with Q2 and Q3.
Two programmable jumpers arc provided
at J-PD1 and J-PD2. While pin 3 of U8 is
normally driven from U5 in applications
with the crystal below the VCO frequency, it
may change to drive from Q3 in other sys-
tems. The frequency schcme shown has the
crystal above the VCO. A VCO tuning po-
larity may also require a change.
The loop filter uses a premium op-amp,
the OPA-27. This fast, low noise part is ideal
for this application. The four input resistors
are all 47 while the feedback elements
are 10 k£2 and 1.0 jiF for the 14-MHz
example. All of these components are sub-
ject to changc with other applications and
are marked TBD in the schematic for "to be
determined." They arc picked with the
PLL computer program that accompanies
Introduction to Radio Frequency Design.
Phase lock loops must be designed with
some care and component values arc not well
suited to casual selection.
The 14-MHz version of this design is
summarized in the equation sheet of F i g
4.58. The programming sets N for values Frequency synthesizer installed in a Hammond 1590BB box. Coaxial inputs are
from 34 to 66 with some frequencies listed from the VCO and reference VXO. All input/output lines are attached to
in the table. The design equations use a feedthrough capacitors.

XC-Low Pass
Phase
Frecjuency
LC-Low Pass i > Detector

O j Divide iiyN
7
FX ' X
TF
'v-M'-s)

L -2CCC0 M -13CI
For this variation, wo will start \\ath an existing, available rock Also, for this variation, we wll use Let M^rnax.and L~_cwtreq Then. X
a eiystal that is ABOVE the output This changes the equation
5-10 (VXO range) N "66,'M 13J
H 139 X = 1432J (VXOfreq)
•AtTN) = (l - i j 6 FCM) ™ - (k^M) S(Ni = r. r: :r. - nxo:
mcn'I -: i*

Divide by Out Freq F Step Rs! rreq

dsj' F Step Ref Frerj Zi < M Freq6 M steo
N D(H) RfK) WH) = freq snrftfromVXO tuning Out Free
43 13966 875 8735 35S.125] 9 75 F(H) D(!i) h'J M j i It

« 14CQ6J63 5.C91 29S.438 j 9.752

56 I4M9196 d£SS 255.8041 ? 221
££ 14101 372 3 i/U. m 828
n 1*126 042 2 725 191.958 ?261
30 1*145.938 2.213 179.063 ? 375
ss 1-4162.2; 6 1.820 162.784 ?.88<s
ge ] £175721 1.532 149.219 i m
1G4 1418726 1.312 13774 9.904
132 ! <13 57.092 ! !32 12V 002 9.911
•20 '4205.625 0.987 U0375 ;9.917
128 14253 0S6 0 568 tit 514 i? 922
Fig 4.59—Summary of available frequencies and
characteristics for a 20-MHz "VXO extender." The result will
Fig 4.58—Summary of available frequencies and be frequency doubled where it then serves as the LO for a
characteristics of the 14-MHz "VXO extender." This 50-MHz transceiver based upon a 10.0-MHz IF. This data was
data was generated with MathCad 7.0. generated with MathCad 7.0.

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 4.33

minus sign for this ease, for the crystal is ceiver with a 10.0-MHz IF. The synthe- for direct phasing at 144 M H z . Nearly one
abo\ e the VCO. sizer operates in the 2 0 - M H z range with a full M H z of range is available at the
The synthesizer board is housed in a 19.847-MHz VXO. It is then frequency 2-meter band.
milled aluminum box (Hammond 1590BB) doubled and filtered to provide a 300 kHz T h e " V X O Extender" is an experimen-
* iih either coaxial cables or feedthrough range at 4 0 M H z . The circuit could also be tal synthesizer, something of a departure
capacitors f o r all interfaces. T h e V X O and adapted for 25-MHz operation: frequency f r o m the normal schemes in use. The
the VCO are each housed in individual doubling would then allow use with a method is one that provides relatively
milled boxes (Hammond 1590A.) While 6-meter phasing transceiver. small step sizes with much higher refer-
it is possible to include both digital and A similar version could be built for the ence frequency, but at the price of uneven
RF/analog circuitry on a single board, the two-meter band where an injection fre- step size.
isolated and shielded approach is less quency of 1 4 4 - 1 0 = 1 3 4 M H z is needed. Single loop synthesizers can be config-
prone to spurious responses and is recom- An especially useful scheme would use a ured in a more traditional foimat with mod-
mended. synthesizer operating at a tenth of this est step size while still being used for
Once the boards are functioning and frequency, 13.4 MHz. If N varies from 66 general-purpose applications. For example,
checkcd out, the system is turned on with to 130. the required V X O would operate the Elecratt K2 CW/SSB transceiver uses a
relative ease. An oscilloscope senses the at 13.298 M H z . The synthesizer output single loop synthesizer with 10-kHz steps.
dc on the control line while the V C O would be multiplied by 5 with a 74HC04 The "clock" is a voltage controlled crystal
course tuning is adjusted. and bandpass filtering, followed by a X2 oscillator that is then driven by a DAC. al-
Fig 4.59 shows a design for the diode multiplier and 134-MHz filter. The lowing all gaps to be filled in with small
6-meter band. It is intended to be used in I0X scheme leads to simple frequency steps. Clever firmware on the part of the
a mono-band super-heterodyne trans- counting. The system can also be adapted designers remove tuning ambiguities.

REFERENCES
1. W Havward, Introduction to Radio Makhinson. Communications Quarterly. Theory and Design, John Wiley & Sons.
Frequency Design. Chapter 7. Prentice- Spring. 1999. p p 9-17. 1976.
Hall. 1982: R. Rhea, Oscillator Design 9. D. B. Leeson. " A Simple Model of 16. CMOS Application-Specific Standard
and Computer Simulation, Second Edi- ICs, Motorola Inc. Publication DL130/D.
Feedback Oscillator Noise Spectra," Proc.
tion, Noble Publishing, 1995. 1991. p p 5-101. Data sheet has a good set
IEEE, Vol 54, Feb. 1966. pp 329-330.
2. For a discussion of the squeeging prob- of references. Sec also design equation
10. U. R o h d e . personal correspondence
lem, see Clarke. IEEE Transactions on page.
with author.
Circuit Theory. Vol CT-13, No. 1. Mar, 17. W. Hayward, "Variations in a Single-
11. W. Hayward, "Variations in a Single-
1966. Loop Synthesizer," QST, Sep, 1981, pp
Loop Frequency Synthesizer," QST, Sep,
3. W. Hay ward, "Measuring and Compen- 1981, pp 24-26. 24-26: Talbot. "N-over-M Frequency
sating Oscillator Frequency Drift." QST, Synthesis, " RF Design, Sep, 1997.
12. h t t p : / / w w w . q s l . n e t / 7 n 3 w v m /
Dec, 1993. pp 37-41. 18. E.O. Brigham. The Fast Fourier
supervxo.html
4. K. Spaargarem, "Crystal Stabilized Transform. Section 5.4, " S a m p l i n g
13. W.S. Mortley. " F r e q u e n c y - M o d u -
V F O . " RadCom, Jul. 1973, pp 472-473. T h e o r m . " Prentice-Hall. 1974. pp 504-
lated Quartz Oscillators for Broadcasting
5. J. M a k h i n s o n . "A Drift-Free VFO.*' 510.
Equipment," IEEE Proceedings. P a n B,
QST. Dec. 1966, pp 32-36; K. Spaargaren, May. 1957. pp 239-249: W . S . Mortley. 19. U. Rohde. "A High-Performance Hy-
"Frequency Stabilization of L C Oscilla- "Circuit Giving Linear Frequency Modu- brid Frequency Synthesizer." QST. Mar.
tors." QEX. Feb, 1996. pp 19-23. lation of Quartz Crystal Oscillator," Wire- 1995, p p 30-38.
6. U. Rohde. Digital PLL Frequency Syn- less World. Oct, 1951, pp 399-403: V. 20. This circuit is similar to one described
thesizers Theory and Design, Prentice- Manassewitsch. Frequency Synthesizers: by G. Adcock, G4EUK, "A Simple Fre-
Hall, 1982. Theory and Design, Third Edition. John quency Counter for D C Receivers." Sprat
Wiley & Sons, 1987, pp 401-405. 73, Winter, 1992/93, p 10.
7. "The R F Oscillator". Radio Communi-
cations Handbook, Sixth Edition, RSGB, 14. See, eg, U. Rohde. Digital PLL Fre- 21. For the ultimate, high performance
1994, p 6.36. quency Synthesizers: Theory and Design, circuit, see W. Carver. "The M o d u l a r
8. U. Rohde, Digital PLL Frequency Syn- Prentice-Hall, 1983: U. Rohde and D. P. Dial," Communications Quarterly,
thesizers Theory and Design. Prentice- Ncwkirk, RF/Microwave Circuit Design Spring. 1998, pp 35-44. See also N.
Hall. 1982: U. Rohde, "Designing Low- for Wireless Applications. Chapter 5, John Heckt, "A PIC-Based Digital Frequency
Phase-Noise Oscillators," QEX. Oct. Wiley & Sons, Inc.. 2000. Display," QST. May, 1997. p p 36-38; and
1994, Fig 15, p 10: H. Johnson, personal 15. F.M. Gardner. Pltaselock Techniques. D. Benson. " F r e q - M i t e — A program-
correspondence with author: " D e m p h a n o Second Edition. Wiley. Apr, 1979: V. mable Morse Code Frequency Readout."
- A Device for Measuring Phase Noise." J. Manassewitsch. Frequency Synthesizers: QST, Dec. 1998. pp 34-36.

4.34 Chapter 4
 CHAPTER

Mixers and Frequency

Multipliers

5.1 MIXER BASICS

Nearly all of the equipment we build placed in the circuit, measuring source
- .it least one miser. Even the simplest RF ( i n p u t ) voltage for each. This allowed us to form a
I F
- j a conversion receiver uses a product (output) curve of drain current vs gate-source volt-
."i-ciur, which is one form of mixer. Fig age. Fig 5.4. The data scatter (the bumps)
? 1 -hows the block-diagram symbol for a resulted from thermal effects at higher cur-
- er A mixer is a three-port circuit with rent levels. The smooth curve is calculated
LO(input)
•• input signals and one output occur- for an ideal JFET with a - 4.2 V pinchoff
; .:i a frequency that is the sum and/or and l n s s = 4 5 m.A. These parameters pro-
. '.rcncc of the two input frequencies. duced a good fit to the measured data over
\ c input, the local oscillator (or conver- most of the range.
•n oscillator) is usually much stronger Fig 5.1—Block diagram element for a
mixer. This exercise provides a mathematical
• jii the other, the RF input. The output in model, something to use to study the mix-
typical receiver applications is called an ing process. A 150-Q resistor provides the
intermediate frequency, or IF. for it is iv aa desired bias that sets the source voltage at
often part way between a higher inpul fre- 2 V. about half way between full currcnt
quency and baseband. While this historic Dram and pinchoff.
relationship docs not always apply to mod- i v-ssa i l J ^ L I Fig 5.5 is a modification of the smooth,
jni syslems. the IF term remains 3+RF \ .. n=r t 1 modeled data. The zero voltage point has
We begin our examination of mixers (oHi ; 1 D ' ainCu "*" s l been shifted to the middle of the graph.
a ith an experiment designed lo analyze a Ilie bias point choscn with the 150-Q
BFC <; " I t
'imple mixer with the goal of extracted source resistor. The voltage is ihe actual
understanding. What arc (he dcvicc char- value appearing at the gate in Fig 5.2. The
acteristics that allow mixing (difference total current has been split into three seg-
and sum frequencies) and what are the Fig 5.2—Basic JFET mixer with LO and ments. The first is a constant, the bias cur-
resulting signal levels'? Are there undes- RF applied at the gate. The drain will rent with no signals present. The second is
ired output signals'? then have all available outputs. It can be the linear term, a straight line. The third is
tuned to emphasize one mixer product.
Our experimental mixer is the single a parabola. The three components add to
IFHT circuit of Fig 5.2. Both local oscilla- form the previous curve.
tor and RF are applied at the gate. While —'WV-f- We now consider each of ihe three curve
+v-aa 1 0 J _

X
this may not be the most common scheme, segments by themselves as signals are ap-
it lends itself to analysis. plied to the mixer input. The bias is a fixed
Examination begins with (he bias circuit value: the fixed current does not depend on
of Fig 5.3. Our goal is to model the FET and any applied signal. This is evident in the bias
ro then bias it half way between pinchoff curve in Fig 5.5. which is flat.
and full drain current. The Fig 5.3 circuit is I he linear term becomes more useful. If
built without a "test" resistor, producing a we apply a sine wave to the gate that causes
source voltage of 3.74 V. (These are actual the voltage to oscillate between 0.5 and 0.5
measured results with a J310 FET.) The V.a 1 V peak-to-peak swing, the current w ill
FET current is very low owing to the high vary by about 11 mA peak-peak. A high im-
\alue source resistor, so the FET pinchoff pedance in the drain allows the signal cur-
voltage will be close to -3.74 V. Test resis- rent to develop an output voltage. This is the
tors from 10 kU down to 15 U were then Fig 5.3—Biasing setup for FET modeling. characteristic we seek when we use the JFET

Mixers and Frequency Multipliers 5.1

 Calculated
4
E
Measured 7
A
c
S
a

J310

-i -35 -3 "2J -2 -li

-0 i 0 0.5
Gate-Source Voltage
Gate Voltage

Fig 5.4—Curve fit of data for FET modeling. The bumps are Fig 5.5—The FET current Is split Into three components: a
the result of thermal effects In data, while the smooth curve fixed bias, a linear term and a parabola.
Is calculated.

as an amplifier. applied to the parabolic curve, the result is 5,1

Consider the linear curve when two sig- a product of two sine waves. Multiplica-
nals arc applied to the input: T w o sine wave tion is the reason our mixer symbol. Fig
voltages ai the gate produce two sine wave 5.1. uses a large multiply sign. High school
currents, but nothing more; no mixing trigonometry identities convert the prod-
occurs as a result of the linear term. There is uct of two sine waves into sine waves at
also no distortion. This is the behavior we the sum and difference frequencies, the
intend when we speak of linearity. mixing result that we seek. The sum is
It is the parabola that becomes interest- often called the upper sideband, while the
ing. taking us beyond amplifier behavior. difference is the lower sideband, terminol-
A low amplitude gate signal causes no ogy left over f r o m modulation theory.
current, for the parabola is zero every- Most of the circuits that we call modula-
where near 0 V. But current flows as the tors are actually mixers. The power ampli-
fier in a classic amplitude modulated (AM) Fig 5.6—J FET mixer with a wideband
signal grows. Moreover, it is distorted. output termination using a 5:1 turns ratio
This is evident: for a positive excursion transmitter operates as a power mixer. The transformer. LO power is applied to the
will produce the same positive current that circuit traditionally called a "modulator" source, but this still results in LO
is generated by a negative excursion. A is really just an audio power amplifier. between the source and drain, making
large amplitude sine wave will produce Fig 5.6 shows a practical version of the this circuit the equivalent of Fig 5.2.
two output current pulses per cycle as the circuit we have designed. We use a 1-V
signal swings both positive and negative local oscillator signal at 10 MHz with R F
about the bias point. Wc have built a fre- amplitude of 0.2 V at 14 MHz. The drain is T a b l e 5.1
quency doubler. terminated in 50 £1 by way of a wideband
Freq. Power Description
Wc now apply the sum of two signal transformer with a 5:1 turns ratio, result- (MHz)
voltages to the gate. Again, the bias curve ing in a drain load of 1.25 k£2. The calcu- 4 - 8 dBm Lower Sideband mixed
produces nothing. The linear curve will lated output powers for all frequencies (down converted) output
generate two response currents, each a appear in T a b l e 5.1. These are very close 10 +18.9 Amplified LO
to those measured when we built the cir- (feedthrough)
replica of the input, but nothing more. No
14 5 Amplified RF
mixing occurs from the linear response. cuit with the F E T we had characterized.
(feedthrough)
But the parabolic curve generates interest- The calculations are in the Mathcad file 20 -0.1 Frequency doubled LO
ing results. Not only do we see each input mentioned earlier. 24 -8 Upper Sideband mixed
frequency doubled, but we now see sum The two converted, or mixed outputs at (up-converted) output
and difference products. This is not evi- 4 and 2 4 M H z have equal amplitudes, 28 -28 Frequency doubled RF
dent directly from the curves, but follows which are much less than the amplified R F
directly f r o m the related mathematics. output. T h e amplified LO is a large signal,
This is available on the book C D as a close to the maximum possible from a J310 Generally. F E T mixers (including those
Mathcad file, mixerJfetl.mcd. A file is F E T with a 12-V supply with the drain using M O S F E T s ) will have an optimum
also available ( m i x m a t h . p d f ) that can be impedance used. This mixer topology is conversion gain that is below the amplifier
viewed even if the reader does not own normally built with a tuned output. Tuning gain by 12 dB when the same terminating
Mar head. would eliminate the large drain voltage at impedances are used.
The two-component input uses one part, the 10-MHz L O frequency. This would The JFET example presented is but one
the "local oscillator," at a higher level than then allow a larger L O power to be used, of many devices that will producc mixing
the other, the "RF." When this term is which would increase conversion gain. action. Mixing usually arises f r o m nonlin-

5.2 Chapter 5
ear device behavior. Mixing can also be input impedances presented to the local cycle, and off for the rest. W h e n on, virtu-
produced in a system with time-dependent oscillator, making drive difficult. Emitter ally all of the R F power available can be
parameters. But. an ideal linear amplifier degeneration reduces drive power, but can delivered to a load at the IF port. But when
will never produce mixing. Even-order compromise noise figure. We have not per- the switch is off, none of the power can
curvature in a device characteristic is the formed careful measurements on this mixer. reach the load. With the R F reaching the
nonlinearity needed for mixing. F i g 5.8 shows a mixer using a single I F load only half of the time, the voltage
The simple single ended JFET mixer of diode. Such mixers were once very com- developed across the load f r o m the R F
Fig 5.6 becomes a practical circuit when the m o n . especially for microwave applica- generator is only half as high as it would
drain is tuned. But, it suffers from the wide tions. They have largely disappeared in be if present all of the time. Accordingly,
spread in FET characteristics, making it dif- modern times. the mixer has a 6-dB loss. F i g 5.9 shows
ficult to use in a "plug-and-play" mode. A T h e usual diode mixer has no bias w a v e f o r m s for a single diode switching
builder really needs to examine the FET to applied, but the L O signal is large enough mode mixer.
determine pinchoff and I D S S . to establish that it causes the diode to conduct. When Switching mode mixers are extremely
bias, and to pick the right LO level. The fol- the diode conducts, it looks like a small common, with most of the mixers wc use
lowing procedure may be used: resistance, allowing current to flow as the in communications operating in this way.
(1) Build the mixer with a 100-kQ source result of the applied RF. We envision the These mixers are typically passive and use
resistor. Measure the source voltage to diode as a switch that is controlled by the no power supply; they o f f e r n o gain. The
approximately establish the pinchoff. LO. The switch is "on" for half of the LO diode mixer of Fig 5.8 uses a series switch,
(2) Place a small resistor or even a short
circuit across the source resistor to in-
fer I D S S . (optional)
(3) Find (mathematically or experimen-
tally) a source resistor that sets the dc
source voltage at half the magnitude
Fig 5.8—A simple diode
of the pinchoff. mixer. RF and LO inputs
(4) Apply 1.0 power f r o m a low Z source generate an IF output,
and increase L O amplitude until the but the output is rich in
peak voltage approaches the dc bias signal feedthrough.
value. In the J310 example, the opti-
mum L O signal would be nearly 2-V
peak, or 4-V peak-to-peak. A high-
speed oscilloscope is required.
The low impedance L O drive allows the
FET to "look like" the source is grounded
for R F input signals. Similarly, the R F
tuned circuit should be one where the gate
looks back into a low impedance at the L O
frequency.
The single J F E T mixer, when carcfully
done, is capable of excellent performance.
We have measured 4 to 6-dB N F with in-
put intercepts (third order) from 0 to +10
dBm with a 2 N 4 4 1 6 . The J310 is more
difficult to drive owing to the increased
'DSS> t > u l ' s capable of higher IIP3.
A bipolar transistor can be operated as a
single-ended active mixer, shown in Fig 5.7.
Lowest distortion will result from higher
standing current, but this produces very low

Fig 5.9—Time domain waveforms for a single diode switching mode mixer. The IF
output at any instant Is the RF input if the LO voltage is positive, but 0 when the
Fig 5.7—Simple bipolar mixer. LO Is 0 or negative.

Mixers and F r e q u e n c y Multipliers S.3

 BE i n ci LI
14 MHz Receive
Filter Mixer 3.6 KHz IF Filter
Fig 5.11—Partial

(O^
n block diagram of i
14-MHz receiver.
The IF is 3.6 MHz,
produced with a
10.4-MHz local
- Bias
oscillator.
Fig 5.10—Switching mode mixer using a
single FET. Although a J F E T is shown,
the mixer can also be implemented with
a bipolar transistor, a MOSFET. or a
GaAs FET. This circuit typically has a
conversion loss of 6 dB. Input intercept
(third order) can be from 0 to +20 dBm,
depending on the FET type. LO energy
at the RF port is typically reduced by 10
to 15 dB. Operating frequency will circuits, are illustrated by the system of ally reasonable impedance match of the
dictate the components in the diplexer
Fig 5.11. a CW receiver for 14 M H z with 3.6-MHz bandpass filter. But all
filter, C1 and L1. See text.
I0.4-.WH/. L O and 3.6-MHz IF. 24.4-MHz energy is generally reflected by
the IF filter. That energy can get back into
IMAGES, SIDEBANDS, SUMS AND the mixer "output" where it might be
DIFFERENCES reconverted back to 14 MHz. but in a dif-
hut shunt switches also work well. KETs The example receiver mixer is preceded ferent phase than the original signal where
and bipolar transistors can be used in by a 14-MHz bandpass filter that ideally it can alter conversion gain and distortion
switching mode mixers. passes only frequencies close to the performance. These problems are espe-
Fig 5.10 shows a single FET as a shunt 20-meter band. The 10.4-MHz L O drives cially insidious with the popular diode ring
switch mixer. Sieve Maas presenled this the mixer to produce an IF output at the mixers. It is for this reason that we often
circuit in detail in a 1987 paper. 1 We have 3.6-MHz difference between the R F and see extra resistive pads used with such mix-
used this mixer extensively in integrated L O frequency. 14 - 1 0 . 4 . ers. They are often used in all three ports,
form in GaAs integrated circuits 2 The FET Temporarily remove the input bandpass Active mixers such as the FET discussed
often has a bias applied to the gate, a nega- filter and attach a wide range signal gen- earlier are much less prone to this problem.
tive voltage equaling the FET pinchoff. The erator at the receive mixer RF input. There Assume that the incoming 14-MHz
1.0 is typically a sine wave with a peak is now also a response at 6.8 M H z . for signal is modulated, containing a single
value equal to or just over the pinchoff. All 10.4 - 6.8 = 3.6. The response to a 6.8- upper sideband at 14.002 MHz. W e ana-
three ports are terminated in 50 Q . but the MHz input is called the image response. lyze the behavior of the sideband by con-
LO presents a severe mismatch. The con- We evaluate the receiver, now with the sidering it to be an independent signal, it
figuration shown is a down-converter with bandpass filter reconnected, by attaching a will be mixed down to IF without any dis-
an IF below the RF and LO. Up-eonverters signal generator to the input. Tune the gen- turbance from the original carrier. The
exchange the RF and IF ports. erator to 14 MHz. deactivate receiver AOC. sideband ends up at 3.602 MHz. still above
The diplexer filter. C I and LI in and measure the receiver output signal. the 3.600-MHz carrier appearing at the IF;
Fig 5.10, isolates the IF from the RF port. This measurement works best with a mod- it is still a USB signal.
The capacitor is a single element high pass est input signal, perhaps -100 dBm. Note Our receiving mixer would function
filter while the inductor is a low pass cir- the audio output, then tunc the generator to just as well if we used a 17.6-MHz LO,
cuit. A common application might use an 6.8 MHz. Increase the generator level until 3.6 MHz above the input. An upper-side-
TF much lower than the RF. One can then the receiver output is identical to the origi- band at 14.002 MHz applied to such a
calculate a '"crossover" frequency that is nal. The ratio of generator power levels is receiver would produce an IF response at
the geometric average of the IF and RF. L I the receiver image suppression. 3.598 MHz. now below the 3.6-MHz car-
and C I are then picked to have a reactance It is straightforward to build a bandpass rier. Sideband inversion has occurred. This
at the crossover equal to the terminations. filter at 14 M H z that will suppress possibility should be investigated in any
Higher order diplexer filters, will be needed 6.8-MHz signals by 100 d B or more. Early SSB system. The analysis is equally valid
if the IF and R F are closer. A bandpass/ receivers, the old instruments now sought when a carrier is suppressed. Sideband
bandstop diplexer can also be used. by collectors, used intermediate frequen- inversion is often a practical advantage to
cies near 5(H) kHz. allowing 14 MHz to be the builder/designer. For example, a popu-
received with a 13.5-MHz LO. The image lar crystal filter form is the lower sideband
Mixer Specification and response would then be at 13.0 MHz. It ladder with greater stopband attenuation on
Measurement was difficult to obtain significant (by mod- one side than the other.
We now examine mixers in more detail, ern standards) suppression of 13 MHz in a
seeking the properties needed to specify 14-MHz filter. ISOLATION
and understand mixers for use in a com- The receive mixer example has two We are always concerned about the out-
munications system. inputs: 10.4 and 14 MHz. We use the put at one port of a mixer as signals are
Chapter 2 included some vital, yet less 3.6-MHz difference output response. But applied to the others. F o r example, we
common specifications for amplifiers the mixer output will also contain a might ask how much L O signal appears at
including noise figure and I M D . T h e s e sum response. 10.4 + 14 = 24.4 MHz. The a m i x e r ' s R F port. This w-ould be impor-
phenomenon, which also occur in mixer 3.6-MHz response is terminated in the usu- tant in a r e c e i v e r we d o n ' t want a large LO

S.4 Chapter 5
s i g n a l t o b e r a d i a t e d , f o r the m i x e r R F port they a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h p o r t - t o - p o r t iso- F = n•L ± m • R Eq 5.1
m a y b e a t t a c h e d to the a n t e n n a w i t h m i n i - l a t i o n . w h i c h can b e e n h a n c e d w i t h bal-
mal f i l t e r i n g . E v e n w i t h o u t r a d i a t i o n c o n - a n c e d c i r c u i t s , a m e t h o d d i s c u s s e d later.
s i d e r a t i o n s . i s o l a t i o n can b e i m p o r t a n t . If w h e r e n a n d m are i n t e g e r s . T h i s s p u r i o u s
e x c e s s i v e L O w a s p r e s e n t , it c o u l d b e SPURIOUS RESPONSES r e s p o n s e , o r spur g e n e r a t i o n r e l a t e s to
r e f l e c t e d b y a f i l t e r to r e - a p p e a r at the h a r m o n i c s created within the mixer, e v e n
C o n s i d e r the t r a n s m i t t e r a p p l i c a t i o n
m i x e r R F p o r t w h e r e it w o u l d be c o n v e r t e d w h e n the i n p u t s are f r e e of h a r m o n i c s . T h e
s h o w n in F i g 5 . 1 2 . In this e x a m p l e , w e
to p r o d u c e a d c o u t p u t c o m p o n e n t . T h i s u p p e r p a r t of Fig 5 . 1 4 p r e s e n t s w h a t w e
w a n t to build a 7 . 1 - M H z t r a n s m i t t e r that
c o u l d , in s o m e m i x e r s , a l t e r t h e b i a s to w o u l d see if n and m w e r e a l l o w e d to take
w o r k s w i t h an e x i s t i n g r e c e i v e r u s i n g a
change the mixer properties. on v a l u e s f r o m 0 to 7 with t h e b a n d p a s s
5 - M H z IF. T h i s will be a c c o m p l i s h e d by
filter m i s s i n g . T h e l o w e r d i s p l a y is even
I s o l a t i o n is e a s i l y m e a s u r e d f o r a m i x e r mixing the signal f r o m a 2 . 1 - M H z L O with
m o r e e x t r e m e , a l l o w i n g v a l u e s of n a n d
that is n o t a l r e a d y i m b e d d e d w i t h i n a p i e c e that f r o m a 5 - M H z crystal o s c i l l a t o r . T h e
m u p t h r o u g h 15. ( T h e s e d a t a w e r e g e n e r -
of e q u i p m e n t . If y o u a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h , o u t p u t is f i l t e r e d with a b a n d p a s s f i l t e r t o
a t e d with Spurtune.exe, a program distrib-
for example, L O to R F port isolation, p r o d u c e the d e s i r e d o u t p u t .
uted with Introduction to Radio Frequency-
a p p l y L O at a k n o w n level w h i l e e x a m i n - T h e ideal output response f r o m this mixer,
Design.)
ing the o u t p u t at the R F port b y a t t a c h i n g a s s u m i n g that the o u t p u t filter is r e m o v e d , is
it to a s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r o r m e a s u r e m e n t that s h o w n in F i g 5.13. T h e desired s u m T h e s e uncalibrated displays arc dis-
r e c e i v e r . T h e L O p o w e r at t h e R F port will p r o d u c t at 7.1 M H z is a c c o m p a n i e d by a c o u r a g i n g . U n d e s i r e d o u t p u t s in s u c h
be l o w e r ( w e h o p e ! ) t h a n that a v a i l a b l e d i f f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e at 2.9 M H z . abundance would discourage anyone from
f r o m the L O s o u r c e . T h e d i f f e r e n c e is t h e e v e r u s i n g a m i x e r in a t r a n s m i t t e r ! F o r t u -
The ideal is rarely realized. Fig 5.14 shows
s u p p r e s s i o n . T h i s will d e p e n d o n m i x e r n a t e l y , n o t all s p u r i o u s r e s p o n s e s a r e of
what we might actually see. This is a result of
t u n i n g in c i r c u i t s s u c h a s t h e 3 F E T e q u a l m a g n i t u d e . T h e s p u r s t e n d to get
harmonic responses. Specifically, the output
described earlier. O f t e n we hear folks talk- w e a k e r as t h e total o r d e r ( n + m ) i n c r e a s e s .
of a mixer excited by an L O at L M Hz, and R F
ing a b o u t " m i x e r b a l a n c c " in dB, U s u a l l y , F u r t h e r s u p p r e s s i o n c a n o c c u r with s o m e
at R M H z will be at F M H z .
s p u r s as a c o n s e q u e n c e of b a l a n c e t h a t
m i g h t be u s e d in the m i x e r .
S p u r s are also less with s o m e system
a r c h i t e c t u r e s o v e r others. F o r e x a m p l e , if
? MHz Filter the t r a n s m i t t e r c o n s i d e r e d here u s e d a
1 2 . 1 - M H z L O instead of 2.1, the o u t p u t s of
Fig 5 . 1 5 result.
A s p u r r e l a t e d to o r d e r " m " f o r the R F

2.1
KHz
LO

Fig 5.12—Mixer section of a 7-MHz transmitter with a 2-MHz

LO and a 5-MHz crystal "carrier" oscillator.

J 2.3 MHz [

0,0000 frequency — 15.0000

7x7 |

Fig 5.13—Idealized mixer output for the circuit of Fig 5.12

without the output filter.

0.0000 frequency 15.0000

I 7.1 MHz

illi il lil li it ill il lllllllllll) 111 III' I I- 11111 frequency 15,0000

0,0000 frequency 15.0000

Fig 5.14—Mixer outputs with a variety of orders allowed, ri Fig 5.15—Spur spectrum for the same transmitter, but with a
and m to 7 in the upper curve and 15 in the lower. 12.1-MHz LO. Spur orders through 7 are shown.

Mixers and Frequency Multipliers 5.5

will generally have a strength proportional port impedances are usually high with ac-
to the "m th" power of the input at the R tive mixers, but related to other port termi-
mixer port. Hence, decreasing the R F nations with switching mixers. That is, the
input by 1 dB will drop a m-order spur by impedance seen at the IF port equals the
m dB. Mixer overdrive should be judi- value presented to the RF port.
ciously avoided. The worst possible cases
are those where the IF is related to the NOISE FIGURE
output bv a small integer. IF = k X RF. or Mixers all exhibit noise that can be char-
!F = RF/k. acterized by noise figure. The measurement
is similarto that of an amplifier. A wideband
LO DRIVE LEVEL resistive termination at 290 K is first pre-
Most commercial mixers arc specified sented to a mixer input and the noise output
with regard to LO drive level. For is noted. Then, a stronger but known noise
example, the typical diode ring mixer is source is applied to the input, again while DSB Hoise Figure Heasurement
specified for +7 dBm. This is not the power observing output noise. The "noise gain" is
that is actually delivered to the mixer port. compared with normal available power gain Fig 5.16—Scheme for measuring mixer
Rather, it is the power available to a 50-U to infer a noise figure. noise figure. The upper circuit
termination from the source that will even- The procedures, both for definition and determines the usual single sideband
tually drive the mixer. Oscilloscope NF. The lower applies noise a] two
for measurement, are nearly identical to
frequencies and establishes what Is
examination of the LO drive to a diode ring those used with an amplifier. T w o differ- often called double sideband noise
shows a severely distorted signal with less ent mixer noise figures are available figure. The bandpass filter eliminates
amplitude than the original sine wave driv- during any given measurement, as shown any image response from the mixer
ing a pure 5 0 - f i load. Many of the mea- in Fig 5.16. with the difference being the input. DSB noise figure Is typically
surements we do with RF applications are image-stripping filter. (An image-strip- 3 dB lower than the desired SSB noise
substitutions rather than the familiar in-situ figure.
ping filter is one that prevents an image
measurements of analog electronics. f r o m reaching the input of a mixer.) Single
Various mixers behave differently as sideband noise figure is the desired param-
L O power is varied. A small change in L O eter, f o r most systems use fillers to
power makes almost no detectable differ- eliminate the image. Care is required to input or output intercept to be calculated.
ence with the typical diode ring. In con- guarantee that SSB N F is measured, for Gain is a constant for small signals, but
trast. the JFET studied earlier will show noise figure is defined only for a single eventually decreases as the R F level in-
output decreasing almost linearly as LO signal case. creases. A useful parameter is the avail-
drive drops. Passive mixers usually have a noise fig- able RF input power where the gain is
ure equaling the numeric value of the loss. below the small signal value by I dB.
CONVERSION GAIN (OR LOSS) Hence, the usual diode ring wiih a 6-dB Most mixer manufacturers specify their
Mixers are all characterized by a con- conversion loss will have a noise figure of mixers by an input intercept value. This is
version gain, meaning that we examine the 6 dB. or just a bit more. in direct contrast lo the amplifier folks who
converted output power vs that available focus on the output. Both forms are fine,
to the R F port. The method of specifying INTERMODULE TION DISTORTION so long as the reader understands what is
the gain will vary slightly. A diode ring AND GAIN COMPRESSION being specified.
mixer, a passive circuit, might be speci- While noise figure limits the weakest Implicit in a mixer input intercept speci-
fied with a loss, with 6 dB being a typical signal a mixer can proccss. inter- fication is an impedance. The usual speci-
value. Active mixers such as the JFET con- modulation distortion and gain compres- fication uses 50-£2 terminations at all ports,
sidered earlier will be specified by power sion usually define strong signal behavior. and those terminations are wideband ones.
gain in a well-defined circuit, or perhaps I M 0 measurement is the same as is used This usually implies that the mixer was
by a conversion transconduetance. with an amplifier, cxcept that the output driving the input of a spectrum analyzer
Terminal impedance is specified for a signals are observed at the converted fre- during the measurement, an instrument
mixer. Most passive mixers show an R F quency. T w o R F signals or tones are com- with a good 50-Q input impedance at all
input impcdance that equals the IF termi- bined in a suitable hybrid circuit with the frequencies. This occurs when the ana-
nation while the JFET mixer at the begin- result applied to the mixer being tested. The lyzer is set for at least 10 dB of input at-
ning of this chapter shows a nearly open output tones are then observed at the mixer tenuation. This becomes very important
circuit as the input impedance at the gate, output frequency, along with the distortion with switching mode mixers where a poor
or a low impedance at the source like that products. An intermodulation ratio is es- output termination can destroy otherwise
of a common gale amplifier. Output (IF) tablished by the measurement, allowing an excellent 1MD performance.

5.6 Chapter 5
5.2 BALANCED MIXER CONCEPTS
Some intrinsic mixer problems can be Generally, balance improves isolation be- behaving as switches, to turn on during
reduced or eliminated when circuits are tween ports that have differing termination the positive half of the LO cycle. The
modified by adding balance. Consider forms, differential vs single ended. diodes are off for the other half cyclc. This
Fig 5.17, part A. where we start with the The mixer of Fig 5.17, pan C, is a singly mixer is configured as a down-convener;
familiar JFET active mixer. Local oscilla- balanced circuit because balanced cir- a higher frequency RF signal is applied to
tor energy is applied at the source. FET cuitry is used in but one place. the diode junction through C, while lower
gate-source capacitance couples the The JFET balanced mixer could use frequency IF energy moves from the junc-
source voltage to the gate, degrading LO other connections to obtain similar tion to the IF port.
to RF isolation. Connecting a spcctrum results. For example, a transformer caus- It is instructive to examine the trans-
analyzer to the RF port reveals consider- ing differential LO energy to be applied to former action in greater detail. LO power
able LO energy at the RF port. the sources, while keeping single ended causes, at one instant, a positive voltage at
The term balance implies symmetry, a RF at the gates improves LO to RF isola- a dot on the transformer. But a positive
circuit with two sides or parts. A circuit tion. It would also aid LO to IF isolation, voltage on one dot causes a positive signal
becomes a balanced mixer through dupli- but would not improve RF to IF isolation. on the other. The windings are wired to
cation, shown in Fig 5.17. The duplication A variation of the previous mixer might generate the polarities shown, one positive
presented in part B did not improve LO to use a drain transformer at the IF port,
RF suppression, but that in C does. The shown in Fig 5.18. A basic mixer, Q l . is
sources in C are in parallel, but the two duplicated in Q2, with a differential output
gates are differentially driven. LO energy connection through the transformer. The
transferred to the gate of the first FET is LO is still single ended, but is now a cur-
If-out
exactly duplicated by that at the second rent from the drain of Q3 applied to the
FET, resulting in gate voltages that are in sources of Q l and Q2. Although RF is
phase. But the transformer gate connec- applied only to the Q1 gate, this is a differ-
tion results in no net current, and no LO ential excitation, for Q l and Q2 are a dif-
frequency signal at the transformer pri- ferential pair. As such. RF at the Ql gate
mary. The LO to RF port isolation is now causes RF signal currents in Ql and Q2
excellent. Practically, one might expect a that are equal, but out of phase. Balance in
30-dB improvement with balance. this mixer improves LO to IF suppression
The reverse, RF to LO isolation is also (single ended to differential ports), but
improved. A signal applied at the RF port does not help RF to IF isolation.
results in gate voltages that are out of The active balanced mixers presented
phase. But the sources are paralleled, are all assumed to be built from identical
resulting in reduced output at the LO port. transistors. Although best when the cir-
RF to IF isolation is similarly improved, cuits are fabricated in integrated form,
for the drains are paralleled. However. LO they can still be practical with discrete
to IF isolation is not altered. LO is applied devices. Fig 5.18—A JFET balanced mixer with
single ended LO and differential IF
as an unbalanced or single-ended signal, Fig 5.19 shows balanced diode mixers. ports. This mixer is similar to a bipolar
with IF extracted form a similar single- Part A presents a simple, yet very useful classic, the RCA CA3028A. The RF and
ended connection. There are no balanced two-diode mixer circuit. LO is applied to a LO ports can be Interchanged with little
currents that can produce any cancellation. transformer and causes the diodes, now performance difference.

Mixers and Frequency Multipliers 5.7

.ind the other negative al one instant in trated in F i g 5.20 showing the t w o L O former, T2. communicates the 1F termina-
time. The diodes arc identical, with polarities. Diodes d 1 and d2 conduct with tion through to the RF port without
matched on-resistance. Voltage divider d3 and d4 off in part A. T r a n s f o r m e r impedance transformation. The trans-
.iction then causes the junction to be at action generates a low impedance connec- former used at T 2 is often thought of as
ground, or zero L O voltage. Even when the tion between the diode junction and the T1 having a 4:1 impedance ratio, and it can
LO polarity reverses, the identical diode center tap. Bold lines in Fig 5.20 empha- certainly function this way in some appli-
reverse capacitancc values generate zero size the current that now flows as a result cations. But this is not consistent with the
LO voltage at the junction. L O to RF and of applied RF. Part B of the figure is the figure. Rather, one half of the center-
LO to IF suppression are both enhanced. same, exccpt for an opposite L O polarity. tapped secondary carries current for each
I he L and C values form a diplexcr fil- The diode ring mixer essentially creates a polarity of the LO. The inactive side has
ler (see Chapter 3) in Fig 5.19 A. The usual direct connection between the R F input, voltage across it from lransformer action,
crossover frequency used is the geometric through the RF transformer T2, to the IF but no current other than that needed to
mean of the RF and IF, the square root of load. However, the polarity of the connec- charge stray capacitance. (Care must be
f R ! . f| K ). Then, if the R F and IF imped- tion changes in synchronism with the exercised whenever transformers with
ances arc 5 0 0 . 1 . and C are picked to have applied L O . This process is called com- more than two wi ndings arc used with non-
'II £2 of reactance at the crossover fre- mutation: the diode ring is the classic- linear devices.)
quency. More complicated diplexer filters example of a commutation mixer.
Time domain waveforms for a commuta-
may be needed if the IF is not small with Fig 5.20 reveals another interesting tion mixer are shown in Fig 5.21. The LO
regard to the RF. property of this circuit: The R F trans- does no more than to commute polarity of
Diode L O current is established by the
diode characteristics and the source
impedance provided by the L O system.
The open circuit voltage must be high
enough to cause the diodes to turn on.
Greater available LO power produces
higherdiodecurrenl, which means that the
diode on resistance is lower and conver-
moii loss is lower. Hot carrier diodes are
normally used in mixers of this sort, for
ihev usually turn on with less voltage than
j silicon junction type. The absence of a
junction eliminates charge storage effects,
allott ing quicker diode turn-off. improv-
ing L'HF performance. This mixer is still
very practical at H F with silicon switching
diodes such as the I N 4 I 4 8 . The diodes in
a mixer should all be matched for voltage
drop when forward biased to a few mA.
The local oscillator essentially causes the
diodes to switch on and off. This combines
with the transformer behavior to generate
low impedance between the transformer
center tap and the diode junction when the
diodes are conducting. The impedance is
high when the diodes arc o f f . This behavior Fig 5.19—Evolution of diode mixers. Parts A and B show narrow and wideband
is extended to form a wideband mixer with versions of a two-diode mixer. The mixer Is expanded to 4 diodes in part C, a
the circuit of Fig 5.19B. circuit offering a better termination for the LO generator. These evolve into a diode
The mixers in parts A and B of Fig 5.19 ring, doubly balanced mixer in part D.
present a poor load to the L O generator,
for L O current only flows on half of each
cycle. The addition of two more diodes.
Fig 5.19C. provides a load on both halves
of the L O waveform. With this connec-
tion. the L O action can be thought of as a
square wave.
These three mixers (Fig 5.19. parts A.
B, and C) arc singly balanced with differ-
ential connections only at the LO port. But
they evolve into a doubly balanced mixer
in Fig 5.19D, which is labeled with LO
polarity. During the polarity shown, diodes
dl and d2 conduct while diodes d3 and d4
arc open circuit. The diode roles inter-
change when the L O polarity changes.
The switching action is further illus- Fig 5.20—Diode ring commutating balanced mixers. See text for discussion.

5.8 Chapter 5
 MF
at) o
WWWWVl

m m

Fig 5.21—Waveforms for a diode ring commutation mixer. Fig 5.22—FET ring mixers using MOSFETs. The circuit at A is
The RF and LO signals are those seen when the sources are that originally describe by Oxner while that at B is a
examined into resistive loads. The IF signal is merely the RF minimum transformer topology,
waveform, except that the polarity is reversed when the LO
is negative.

the RF signal appearing at the IF port. some measurements we saw conversion

Field effect transistors can also be used loss under 6 dB with large area monolithic
in switching mode commutation mixers as CiaAsFETs. but IMD was not as low as
shown in Fig 5.22. Part A is a doubly bal- observed with the MOSFETs. 4
anced FET ring described by Ed Oxner of The variation in Fig 5.22 part B uses
Siliconix. 3 Oxner's mixer originally used only one transformer. Performance is
an integrated array of MOSFETs. the similar to the other ring, although the
Siliconix SD890I. Many quad analog intercepts are usually not quite as high.
switches are also suitable in this applica- The passive FET mixer using shunt
tion, although one should use those featur- FETs, Fig 5.23A, can also be exlended
ing low on-resistance MOSFETs. Discrete with balance. Duplicating the circuit with
MOSFETs will also function in this cir- differentia] LO and TF, but a single ended
cuit. A detailed analysis shows that exactly RF results in a singly balanced mixer. Fig
the same commutation action occurs in this 5.23B. Typical LO to RF isolation is 40
mixer as we saw with the diode ring. dB, even at low microwave frequencies.
Oxner's mixer is an excellenl per- Balance is an extremely powerful and
former. offering third order input inter- general design tool that can often be
cepts in excess of +30 dBm. This low IMD applied to enhance port-to-port isolation.
occurred with a conversion loss of aboul 8 If any mixer is lacking in. for example.
to 9 dB. The mixer functions well at HF, LO-to-RF isolation, placing two of them
but degrades significantly at VHF. The in a balanced pair will often enhance iso-
FET ring mixer can be extended to higher lation by another 30 dB. with a bonus of a
frequencies with other technologies. In 3 dB increase in 11P3.5
Fig 5.23—Evolution of the Maas mixer
where balance improves LO to RF
isolation.

Mixers and Frequency Multipliers 5.9

5.3 SOME PRACTICAL MIXERS

The Gilbert Cell

By far the most popular integrated mixer pk-pk at pin 6) with the test circuit sion gain dropped to 14 dB at this level in
circuit available is the Gilbert Cell, named of Fig 5.27. Early Signetics data recom- our measurements.
for Barrie Gilbert of Analog Devices. Gil- mends a minimum I.O of 200 mV peak- Both the RF and IF p o n s were floating
bert developed a "four quadrant" multi- peak. - 1 0 dBm in our test circuit. Conver- in the lest circuit, allowing balanced drive
plier circuit as an extension of a circuit
presented earlier by Jones in US Patent
3.421.078 issued in 1966. The revised cir-
cuit is described in more detail in the text
by Gray and Mevcr. 6
The Gilbert Cell is based upon the sim-
pler mixeT circuit shown in Fig 5.24. RF
drives the base of QI to produce the com-
bined dc and R F current that is then
applied to the common emitters of a dif-
ferential amplifier. Q2 and Q 3 . 1 . 0 energy
applied differentially to the dif-amp bases
causes the RF to be toggled from one col-
lector to the other. The IF termination is a
balanced load, usually created with a
transformer. This topology improves RF
to IF and 1.0 to RF isolation, for the RF
input is single ended while the IF output
and LO input are differential. This circuit
was available from RCA in 1C form as the
CA3028A. This mixer suffers from poor
LO to IF isolation, for differential drive
at the bases of Q2 and Q3 produce directly
amplified responses at the differential
collectors.
The Gilbert Cell in rudimentary form,
shown in Fig 5.25, contains a pair of these
differential amplifier mixers. RF is
applied to the lower differential amplifier,
Q1 and Q4, producing two currents con-
taining dc bias and the RF signal. These
drive the emitters of identical differential
pairs that are switched by the same LO
signal. The Q3 and Q5 collcctor currents
are in phase with each other with regard to
LO drive: Q2 and Q6 share the other
phase. However, one of the two output
collector connections is "twisted" before
attachment, producing a connection that
cancels LO appearing at the IF. Port to port
isolation is now excellent for all
combinations.
Most Gilbert Cell mixers arc integrated.
The popular MCI496 and similar devices
have been replaced with ICs that include
internal biasing resistors. The most popular
of these is the NE-602 shown in Fig 5.26.
This version includes load resistors as well
as input biasing. One can actually measure
the collector resistors with an Ohmmeter: the
RF input resistors do not really appear to be Fig 5.24—The basic bipolar differential
there, although network analyzer measure- amplifier mixer that is the basis tor the
ments show the resistors to represent a good Gilbert Cell. This mixer can be built with Fig 5.25—Fundamental Gilbert Cell mixer.
model. The test circuit of Fig 5.27 was fab- a CA3028A. or fabricated from discrete The collector load is sometimes realized
transistors. The 2N3904 would be with resistors, although this will degrade
ricated to evaluate the NK602 suitable for HF applications. Biasing intercepts, for internal load resistors
The conversion gain for this mixer was resistors (not shown) set the 02 and Q3 absorb power that would otherwise be
20 dB with LO drive of 0 dBm (632 mV bases at approximately mid supply. available to an external load.

5.10 Chapter S
 I +5V

iH"
RF 4:35t | 1 35:4t i p

NE602

*2\: or
NE612

6
± i 3 7
I
LO(0^ i 0.1
> Tl:35t#30, 4t l i n k FT37-61
I > 51
1 T2:35t#30, 4fc l i n k FT-50B-43

-=r

Fig 5.27—Test circuit used to evaluate the performance of the

NE602. Most measurements used a 14-MHz RF, 19-MHz 0-dBm
LO, and an IF of 5 MHz. The output 1 dB bandwidth extended
from 0.5 to 10 MHz with the transformer shown. The RF port
impedance match was a return loss of 19 dB while that at the
IF was 15 dB. The internal oscillator was not used in these
experiments.

in balanced loads. This balance could be The mixer was biased lo either 5 or appear in the wideband IF output with both
altered experimentally by bypassing one 15 m A with most experiments performed about 14 dB below the respective input
r n d of tile transformer. Bypassing pin 2 at the higher level. Single-ended drive is levels. Numerous other spurious outputs
r e d u c e d gain by 2 dB and degraded the used for both RF and LO inputs, slightly are present, all expected mixer spurious
itipui impedance match. A similar exer- compromising porl-to-porl isolation. responses. Most would be lower in magni-
cise at the output (pin 5) degraded gain by Fig 5.29 shows the IF port output spectra. tude if the circuil was actually integrated.
t d B . Of greater import, unbalanced ter- Conversion transducer gain for this circuit This circuit had a third-order input inter-
mination at either port degraded port-to- was 18 dB (15 mA. P - L O = 0 dBm, F - L O cept of +11 dBm with 15-mA bias and
port isolation. Balanced RF drive will also = 10.4 MHz and R F = 14.3 MHz.) Increas- 0-dBm L O power.
alter producl detector performance. ing LO drive by 10 dB made no difference Decreasing the standing currentto 5 mA
Our best I M D performance resulted in gain, but a drop to - 1 0 dBm produced a produced a l P 3 i n = - 2 dBm, with 16-dB
iiith a single ended RF drive. IP3in was 1-dB gain decrease. RF and 1.0 signal gain, still dramatically better than the
then - 1 7 . 5 dBm with conversion gain o f
!» dB and 0 dBm L O drive.
Single sideband noise figure was mea-
sured at 7 dB f o r this test circuit. This
measurement was realized with a i 5 - M H z
iow pass RF filter and a 19-MHz LO.
We usually think of the Gilbert Cell as
m integrated circuit. However, there is
Ql-Q6=
nothing fundamental to preclude building 2N3904
rhese mixers in discrete form. A discrete
Gilbert Cell mixer built from 2N3904 tran-
sistors is shown in Fig 5.28. No special
transistor matching was used, although all
transistors came from the same bag with
identical manufacturer and date codcs.
The chance is reasonable that they came
f r o m the same silicon wafer.
The circuit presented some VHF oscil-
lation difficulty when power was initially
ipplied. Although the problems occurred
M VHF, L O harmonics mixed with the
VHF signal lo produce a low frequency
output that moved in frequency as our
hand was moved closc to the circuit. The
frequency could also be tuned with chang-
ing supply voltage. The oscillations were
.oppressed with the 10- and 3 6 - Q resis- Fig 5.28—Gilbert Cell mixer built with discrete transistors. A resistor (300 or 62 £2)
tors included in Fig 5.28. at the bottom sets the bias current for the overall circuit.

Mixers and Frequency Multipliers 5.11

 appears similar 10 another discontinued T1
part, the TL442. The Toshiba TA735SP is
still in production and could be a viable
replacement in new designs. (Thanks to
JG1EAD and JA3FR for information on Japa-
nese parts.) There is ample challenge avail-
able to the experimenter.

Dual Gate MOSFET Mixers

J F E T mixers were discussed earlier. A
related device is the metal oxide silicon
field effect transistor, or M O S F E T . While
the usual JFET is a depiction mode device,
the typical M O S F E T is an enhancement
mode part. See the References chapter of
any recent issue of The ARM. Handbook
for definitions and further information.
M O S F E T s were, at one time, often built
with two gates with that closest to the
source termed "gate I." W h e n one of the
gates is forward (positive) biased with
respect to the source, the device behaves
much like a J F E T with the remaining gate
as the controlling element. These devices
Fig 5.29—Output spectrum observed with the mixer of Fig 5.28. See text for
are often modeled as a cascode connection
details.
of single gate FETs. Mixers can, of course,
be built with MOSFETs, for they exhibit
NE602. A diode noise source was used to ine the work of Trask. 7 the same quadratic transfer characteristic
measured DSB noise figure of 10.8 dB. Some of the integrated Gilbert Cell mixers seen with the JFET.
This extrapolates to a SSB NT of 13.8 dB. that were once popular (e.g., MCI496. Fig 5.30A shows a mixer type that was
Degeneration (22-SI resistors in the NE602) are becoming difficult to find. The very popular f r o m the mid 1960s until
emitters of Q 5 and Q6) was needed in the topology remains popular and is often found about 1990. This circuit uses a dual gate
R F input stage to reducc 1MD However, as part of a larger, multiple function IC. Some M O S F E T . an insulated gate topology with
this degraded the noise figure. Gilbert Cells are available internationally, two parallel gates. A rule-of-thumb is that
Although the main tool ased to improve although design data is sometimes difficult a dual gate FET will display a narrow band
IMD performance in a Gilbert Cell is to to obtain. One example is the SN169I3P, conversion transconductance of ' h the gm
increase current, feedback can also be from Texas Instruments Japan. This device expected f o r an amplifier biased at a simi-
applied. The experimenter should exam- is slated for discontinuation at this writing. It lar current with similar terminating imped-
ances. (This guideline is consistent with
more refined analysis.) Traditional dual
gate M O S F E T s required an L O drive of
about 5 V pk-pk at gate 2 to realize opti-
mum gain.
Dual gate M O S F E T s . although still
available, are not as abundant as they once
were. The alternative mixer of Fig 5.30B
uses a cascode-connected pair of JFETs in
a similar circuit. T h i s connection was
evaluated f o r noise figure, gain, and inter-
cept. The 2N5454 F E T s from our j u n k box
are similar to the popular 2 N 4 4 I 6 . TIS-
88. M P F - 1 0 2 , 2 N 5 4 8 5 . 2 N 5 4 8 6 , and many
other components; any of these parts
should perform well in this topology. Our
initial attempt with this circuit presented a
stability problem with an oscillation
occurring at the resonant frequency of the
input circuit. This was observed with a
power meter attached to the IF output. The
oscillation was eliminated when R1 was
inserted across the transformer primary. A
Fig 5.30—Part A shows a mixer using a dual gate MOSFET. Best gain occurs with broadband IF output transformer is wound
around 5 V pk-pk at gate 2 for LO injection. The mixer at B uses a pair of JFETs in on relatively low loss type 61 ferrite core
a cascode connection. This mixer is easily fabricated with nearly any available
JFET type. See text with a turns ratio to present a good output

5.12 Chapter5
 is low and intercepts are generally high,
making it the best choice when dynamic
range is critical. The lack of gain is not, in
itself, a problem. It is important to use the
ring with care if best performance is to be
realized.
Probably the most critical characteristic
of a diode ring, and most other switching
mode mixers, is the need to carefully ter-
minate the IF port. A proper termination
(usually 50 12) means that output energy-
available from the mixer is absorbed. If
power is reflected from the IF, it then
impinges back upon the mixer IF port
where it can be reconverted back to the
RF. or to image frequencies. Reconverted
components can then exit the mixer RF
port where they are yet again available for
absorption or another reflection. With
each reflection can come phase shift and
distortion.
Fig 5.32 illustrates the termination
problem. A diode ring is used in a 14-MHz
Fig 5.31—Schematic for a low noise 10.1-MHz converter.
receiver where a 10-MHz LO converts the
desired signal to a 4-MHz IF. But the mixer
output also contains a 24-MHz signal. The
match to 50 £2. An alternative winding the LO injection. Hence, noise energy mixer is terminated in an IF amplifier with
would allow matching to a crystal filter. within the LO system at the 4-MHz IF and the first selectivity appearing after the
The mixer shown, biased for 3.4 mA at 12 at the 10.1-MHz RF does not reach the amplifier. Typical amplifiers have an
V, has a measured conversion gain of 8 dB mixer output. The same mixer with a input impcdance that varies with fre-
with a noise figure of 10 dB and IIP3 of +5 wideband LO drive circuit will usually quency. Even if the amplifierinput is close
dBm. There is no balance in this circuit, so have a noise figure closer to 10 to 12 dB. to 50 CI at 4 MHz. it probably will not be
LO and R F energy is available at the IF We did not measure IMD with this circuit. 50 £2 at 24 MHz as well. The 24-MHz com-
port. This mixer is used in a simple The traditional dual gate M O S F E T ponent will then be scattered from the
superhet receiver appearing later in the mixer biased for 5 mA at about 10 V will amplifier input back to the mixer output
book. have OIP3 of around +20 dBm. The input where it can participate in further conver-
Many dual gate MOSFETs show very intercept will be this value reduced by the sions. all undesired.
low amplifier noise figure with values of conversion gain. The best dynamic range The mixer needs to be properly termi-
1 dB being common. They can also func- for mixers of this sort will occur when the nated for any and all signals that emanate
tion well in mixer applications. Fig 5.31 impedance presented to gate I (RF input) from it. Assume the rccciver is tuned to
shows a receiving converter with a mea- produceslowcrgain. Lowerimpedanccs will 14.00 MHz, but a strong signal appears at
sured NF of 6.6 dB and a conversion gain also alter noise figure. The advanced experi- 14.01 MHz. That signal, once translated
of 22 dB. This circuit needed an LO of menter (the one willing to measure and to the IF. is probably out of Ihe crystal fil-
14.1 MHz to convert 10.1 MHz to 4 MHz. optimize results) can expcct outstanding per- ler passband. It will (hen be reflected by
An available 7.05-MHz junk box crystal formance from either mixer in Fig 5.30. the filler and returned to the amplifier
was used with a frequency doubler. The output, possibly creating excess distortion
oscillator provides 10 mW to drive the there. If the amplifier uses negative feed-
passive diode doubler. The single tuned Diode Ring Mixers and back. the poor output termination for the
circuit then increases the voltage to the Related Circuits 14.01-MHz signal will be reflected back
required level. This mixer has a low noise The diode ring has become the work- to the amplifier input, creating an
figure because gate 2 "sees" a low imped- horse for the communications industry. improper termination for the mixer.
ance at all frequencies other than that of Although the mixer has loss, noise figure The obvious question that arises when a
good impedance match is specified is
"How good'.'" Generally, we look for an
IF termination that is belter than a 2:1
VSWR. or a 10-dB return loss. This match
is easily measured in the home lab with a
14 MHz IN 4 MHz return loss bridge, signal generator, and
Fig 5.32—A 14-MHz
receiver front end sensitive detector. The detector could be a
illustrating the spccial receiver, a spectrum analyzer,
Bandpass F i l t e r problems of power meter, or even an oscilloscope (sec
terminating a diode Chapter 7). The match should be exam-
ring mixer.
ined over a wide frequency range, and with
a signal level low enough to guarantee that
the tcrminaling circuitry is not overdri ven.

Mixers and Frequency Multipliers 5.13

 6 dB pad

Fig 5.34—Post
mixer amplifier
using a medium
power, high F-t
bipolar transistor.
See text.

tarns, FT37-43

input mismatch. The amplifier will nor- impedance is very close to 50 £1 and is
mally yield an input match (return loss) fairly flat through the HF spectrum. Typi-
better than 10 dB. Good input match and cal OIP3 is +41 dBm if the attenuator is
modest intercepts are found only with high not part of the measured circuit. The 6-dB
Fig 5.33—A post mixer amplifier using a
junction FET. A high FET is current, which happens only with fairly attenuator decreases the overall output
required such as the J310. See the text high 1 D S S FETs. intercept to +35 dBm. The gain is 21 dB,
for transformer discussion. A favorite amplifier of ours (Fig S.34) dropping to 15 dB with the 6-dB pad.
for terminating a switching mixer is a This particular amplifier uses the feed-
bipolar transistor feedback amplifier fol- back resistor for transistor biasing, so
lowed by a 6-dB pad. Negative feedback is changing circuit elements will alter bias-
In many situations the IF port termina- used to set the gain and to stabilize the ing as well as feedback. Altering feedback
tion requirements may be relaxed if the input and output impedances. This circuit with constant bias current will maintain the
match is improved at the RF port. Gener- was discussed in detail in the amplifier output intercept while changing the gain.
ally. distortion and gain measurements chapter. The output termination on a feed- Input intercept will change accordingly.
wiJl reveal the problems. The aggressive back amp will strongly influence the input Noise figure for the amplifier of Fig
experimenter can build the instrumenta- impedance. As such, one should avoid 5.34 will vary with transistor type and bias,
tion needed for these measurements. driving a crystal filter directly with such an but values of 5 dB are typical. Careful mea-
Ideally, the best amplifier for terminat- amplifier. The filter impedance changes surements on one version of this circuit
ing a switching mode mixer is one with rapidly with frequency, especially in the showed lower N F with reduced current,
excellent reverse isolation and a frequency region at the passband edges. What may be offering some DR optimization.
invariant ( " f l a t " ) input impedance. The a fine termination in the passband becomes An attenuator at the input of a feedback
amplifier must have good distortion prop- an open or short circuit in the skirts and amplifier will generate stable port imped-
erties. for it is often subjected to an entire stop band. The resulting mixer termination ances as well as good output intercept.
band full of signals. The noise figure may cause severe IMD problems. However, the input pad degrades noise fig-
should be low. for it will add directly to These problems are largely avoided by ure.
the mixer loss to set the noise figure look- placing a 6 dB pad in the amplifier output. Some receiver designs (with high level
ing into the mixer. Finally, the gain should This then guarantees an amplifier with a mixers) demand amplifiers with higher
be high enough to compensate for mixer stable, frequency independent input imped- intercepts. This is possible with higher
loss and loss in the filter that will follow, ance to terminate the mixer. It also guaran- current. However, the output pad compro-
but not a lot more. Excess gain means that tees a good source impedance for the crystal mises efficiency. A better solution uses
the signals become too large, stressing the filter, another vital consideration. two feedback amplifier stages with attenu-
following filter (crystal filters can be dam- The amplifier of Fig 5.34 uses a transis- ation between. The impedances are stable
aged by excessive signals, and can gener- tor usually specified for RF power or Com- and noise figure and intercepts are main-
ate their own LMD) and stressing the dis- munity T V service. They are bipolar tained.
tortion properties of the amplifier. devices with a I W or better output capa- There are some situations where no
A grounded gate J3I0 JFF.T amplifier bility and with an F x that is at least 10 times amplifier is required. It is still important to
suitable for post mixer applications is the highest frequency IF where they will maintain the proper mixer terminations.
shown in Fig 5.33. This circuit has good be used. The 2N3866and 2N5109 are both An example might be the front end of a
reverse isolation, so a crystal filter may be available at this writing and work well in spectrum analyzer, shown in Fig 5.35. The
driven directly. The output transformer this service. Many other parts are suitable. first mixer is preselected with a low pass
determines gain. A drain impedance o f Paralleled 2N3904s or similar plastic- filter and produces a first I F of 1.5 G H z .
about 1200 Q yields a gain o f about 10 dB. cased devices are also suitable and are The pad in the mixer output stabilizes im-
W e measured a third-order output shown later. The amplifier in the figure pedance in both directions, ensuring mixer
intercept of +28 dBm for this amplifier uses a bias emitter current of 50 mA and a and filter performance. The second mixer
when biased for i j = 14 mA. A noise figure collector termination of 200 £1, provided produces a 50-MHz IF where an amplifier
o f less than 3 dB is possible with a slight with a bifilar transformer. The input with a pad is now used. This topology has

S.I 4 Chapter 5
a much higher noise figure than the usual amplifiers result from a now classic method ample, the TUF-1 H. has a +14 dBm value
receiver, but is capable of cxccllent 1MD described by Kurokawa. et al. l ( ) Such a fil- for P_i(]g, placing IP3in at +24 dBm or
performance, the parameter of greater ter is discussed in the next chapter. higher. Even higher power mixers are
interest for measurements. Parts like the MiniCircuits SBL-1, TUF- available, including some "level 27-dBin"
Fig 5.36 shows a different approach to 1, and ADE-1, a S M T part, represent the devices with P . ^ g = +24 dBm.
the problem. Here, a mixer is followed by standard diode rings. There are, of course, A recent QEX paper examines the ter-
a diplexer filter that then drives a post many more listed in their catalogs. These mination of high-level mixers to improve
mixer amplifier using a dual gate mixers are specified for a LO drive power I M D . " That paper considers diplexer fil-
M O S F E T . (40673, or 3N211 used.) The of +7 dBm. (Recall that this is available ters at both the IF and R F ports, as well as
2.2-k£2 gate resistor is transformed to look power from the LO source.) The mixer is some modified LC filters. It strikes us thai
like 50 £2 to the mixer through an L-net- usually well saturated at this +7 d B m and the Engelbrecht-Kurokawa methods may
work, LI and C I . This only provides a ter- LO drive changes do not alter gain. The also be suitable for R F port terminations.
mination at the IF. 1.9 M H z in this " + 7 - d B m " mixers will continue to func- The excellent paper by Slephensen is
example. Sum products are terminated tion with LO drives as low as 0 to +3 dBm,
included on the book CD.
with a high pass filter paralleling the with reduced gain and degraded intercepts.
L-network. The preselector filter was a Some Mini-Circuits parts are available for
triple tuned circuit in this example with L O power as low as 0 dBm. High Level FET Mixers
about 3-dB loss while the M O S F E T ampli- Mini-Circuits +7 dBm mixers are speci- Very wide dynamic range receivers and
fier has a noise figure of about 3 dB, for a fied for an input 1 dB compression power low noise transmitters both demand high-
net N F o f 12 dB. Overall gain is 9 dB. Mea- of + 1 dBm. A rule of thumb states that the level mixers. While some diodc-bascd
sured input intercept for the system was input intercept of a diode mixer is 10 to designs are suitable, they demand high LO
+ 15 dBm. This two-decadc-old scheme is 15 dB above P_ l d B , placing IIP3 at +11 to power, a practical difficulty. Several
not as strong as others, but can be an effi- + 16 dBm. These values are in line with our workers have examined other dcvices as
cient one for battery operation. The broad- measurements for the TUF-1 and SBL-1. switches. The notable example mentioned
band impcdance match is marginal. 9 earlier was the M O S F E T ring described
Most mixer manufacturers also build
Perhaps the ultimate IF termination for mixers specified for L O power of by Ed Oxner.
the switching mixer is a special crystal fil- + 17 dBm. These mixers usually use two Perhaps the most exciting work pub-
ter that presents a proper impedance at all series connected diodes in each leg of an lished in the past decade in this area was a
frequencies. This filter, and similar otherwise conventional ring. One ex- note appearing in Pat Hawker's ever popu-
lar and consistently informative Technical
Topics column in Radio Communica-
tions. 1 2 Hawker presented previously
unreported work on a new mixer topology
by Colin Horrabin. G3SBI. This four-FET
mixer, shown in Fig 5.37, differed from
earlier circuits. Oxner's design used FETs
as series switches while Horrabin used
the FETs as grounded switches. This is still
a commutating mixer, but transformer
action now generates the needed signals.
Fig 5.35—Front end of a spectrum analyzer showing ring mixers without
amplifiers. Horrabin's circuit used a monolithic quad

Fig 5.36—A mixer-terminating amplifier using a diplexer

filter. This Is a combination of a low pass and a high pass Fig 5.37—H-mode mixer using grounded FETs. This mixer,
filter in this example, but could also be a bandpass and the work of Colin Horrabin, G3SBI, has produced third order
bandstop filter. This example uses a considerable impedance input intercepts as high as +55 dBm. The circuit takes its
transformation at the amplifier input. name from the "H" shape presented by the transformers.

Mixers and Frequency Multipliers 5.15

 Q2 and Q3 to be on. creating a low imped-
ance to ground. The other two FET
switches arc off. now modeled as open cir-
(A) cuits. The resulting circuit is shown in part
B of the figure. Transformer T1 is one with
essentially three identical windings, with
two configured as a larger center tapped
T 3 t riX Liar
secondary. Each secondary winding is now
trMftomrt.
H" connected to separate output transformers
93 T2 and T3. Part of the transformers are not
shown, for they are connected to open cir-
cuits at this point in time. The currents in
T2 and T3 add at the IF output.
The polarity changes as we advance one
half of a LO cycle. Q1 and Q4 are now on
with Q2 and Q3 off. The other two second-
ary half-windings are now connected.
<B) Although not shown in the figure, detailed
-?
E j + examination confirms commutation.
Horrabin has measured values as high
as +55 dBm for IJP3. It becomes challeng-
ing to build low 1MD amplifiers to accom-
t pany this robust mixer. It is difficult to
measure intercepts this high, and consid-
erable effort has been expended by
Horrabin and his colleagues in this pur-
Fig 5.38—The H-mode mixer is redrawn to clarify operation. See text tor suit. They attribute the excellent perfor-
explanation. mance to a removal of RF input signals
from the gate-source switch-on path. The
configuration with grounded FET sources
of MOSFETs. the Phillips SD50OO. which understood with the redrawn circuit of makes it much more difficult to modulate
is essentially the same MOSFETas used in Fig 5.38. Part A of the Figure shows the the L O action with applied RF. Practical
Oxner's Si8901. basic circuit. Assume that at one point in front-end examples using this mixer arc
The operation of the H-mode mixer is time V-1.0 is positive. This causes FETs presented in Chapter 6.

5.4 FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS

Closely related to the mixer is a com- resemble a simple amplifier with a single spectral purity. If the circuit is tuned to
monly used circuit, the frequency multi- device (bipolar or FET). If the output is operate as a frequency tripler, the domi-
plier. This is a circuit with the predomi- tuned to a multiple of the input frequency nant output will certainly be at 3 times the
nant output occurring at a frequency that and if the circuit is driven harder than it input. However, there is a good chance that
is an integer multiple of the input. We saw would normally be driven for amplifier
frequency multiplication when a local os- servicc. efficient frequency multiplication
cillator was first applied to a mixer: the can occur. Example circuits are shown in
action was a natural consequence of the Fig 5.39.
circuit nonlinearity. While these circuits are simple and easy
The simplest frequency multipliers to implement, they often suffer from poor

Fig 5.40—Diode frequency doubter. The

diodes, ideally identical, can be silicon-
switching types, such as the tN4152 or
1N918 for use at HF and low VHF. Hot
carrier diodes are recommended for
UHF applications, or for critical, low
phase noise HF applications. The
transformer can be the familiar 10
trifilar turns on a FT37-43 core for HF
Fig 5.39—Simple, single-ended frequency multipliers using a bipolar transistor and applications. Often, this doubler drives
a JFET. These classic circuits can still be useful in modem designs, but only if a link on a single tuned circuit,
built with careful measurements. eliminating the need for the RFC.

5.16 Chapter 5
 —
2F Outf

Fig 5.42—Output
power and
fundamental
feed-through for
a diode doubler
using the circuit
of Fig 5.40. The
• I F undam sntal | diodes were
1N4152 that had
been matched
with a DVM.
10 12 14

Input Power, dBm

Fig 5.41—Basic push-push frequency
doubler using balanced bipolar
transistors.

Fig 5.44—
Frequency tripler
using four diodes
and a large
inductance choke
to generate a
square wave. The
output circuits are
tuned to the 3rd
harmonic of the
input drive.

Fig 5.43—Improved balanced diode

frequency doubler. Typical resistor
values are from 10 to 220 £2. See text.

bler s h o w n in F i g 5.41. T h i s circuit is Odd order frequency multiplication is

capable of gain and higher output p o w e r also c o m m o n . Although possible with the
there also be considerable energy at the than is possible with the diodes. A passive single device circuits presented earlier, it
f u n d a m e n t f r e q u e n c y (the input), the 2nd. doubler followed by an amplifier to regain is generally done with a balanced circuit
and Ihc 4th h a r m o n i c s of the input. T h e the p o w e r lost in the diodes has similar that generates a square wave. Mathematics
only way to improve the p e r f o r m a n c e is p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n and spectral purity. reveals that a square wave contains no even
through m o r e filtering. T h e output p o w e r f r o m the classic diode order harmonics. Fig 5.44 shows a f r e -
Not all output c o m p o n e n t s o c c u r at har- d o u b l e r (Fig 5 . 4 0 ) is typically around quency tripler using a diode bridge tuned
monics. A s with Class C amplifiers, non- + 2 d B m with a + 10-dBm drive. A curve is for a 10-MHz input with output at 30 M H z .
linear C c b of a bipolar transistor can result shown in Fig 5.42. Although output g r o w s The input circuit provides some impedance
m n o n - h a r m o n i c spectral c o m p o n e n t s . with drive, gain drops. Gain tends to be transformation from a 50-£I source as well
As with mixers, wc rcducc the occur- more constant with the m o d i f i e d circuit of as some low pass filtering that helps to
rence of spurious outputs with balanced F i g 5 . 4 3 w h e r e a b y p a s s e d resistor is preserve a sine wave drive. Diodes d l and
circuits. A balanced frequency doubler is added to " t e r m i n a t e " the dc c o m p o n e n t . d2 conduct on the positive drive polarity
shown in Fig 5.40 where two diodes oper- T h e dc signal also provides a convenient while d3/d4 conduct on Ihe negative half of
ate in a circuit that is more f a m i l i a r to us as tuning indicator. T h e added resistor the cycle. Note that the current flowing in
a f u l l - w a v e p o w e r supply rectifier. How- d e c r e a s e s m u l t i p l i c a t i o n gain at drive the intermediate inductor, shown with an
ever. we now short circuit the dc output levels b e l o w + 1 0 d B m . H o w e v e r , gain arrow, is the same for both polarities. The
with a radio f r e q u e n c y choke, extracting is h i g h e r at the h i g h e s t d r i v e levels of multiplication gain for this circuit can be
only the 2 F output. If the input t r a n s f o r m e r + 2 0 d B m where an output o f + 12 d B m has around -9 dB, but is level dependent. The
is well balanced and if the d i o d e s are been measured. At a drive o f + 2 0 d B m , the circuit can also be tuned for x 5 multiplica-
matched, it is c o m m o n for the f u n d a m e n - 4 x output is - 1 d B m . tion with reduccd gain. This circuit origi-
tal feedthrough for this circuit to be 30 to T h e drive to a balanced f r e q u e n c y dou- nated from Charles Wenzel. 1 3 The Web site
40 dB b e l o w the 2 F output. This circuit is bler should be relatively f r e e of even order in this reference is a wonderfully useful site
passive and has no gain. harmonics. A distorted drive can destroy with many other applications listed.
T h e d i o d e f r e q u e n c y d o u b l e r idea is balance, which c o m p r o m i s e s the suppres- A slightly simpler odd order multiplier
often e x t e n d e d lo form the p u s h - p u s h dou- sion of f u n d a m e n t a l f e e d - t h r o u g h . is p r e s e n t e d in Fig 5.45. T h i s circuit.

Mixers and Frequency Multipliers 5.17

 Jteg.
2X

1
1V V
1H5711 1 0
2. 7uH 2.2uH

rj^ r /* /"T-v
10
100 I C t 1120 30 MHz
MHz ~ 330uHl 1 ~ Output
Input
0.22uH

Fig 5.45—A simplified tripler circuit using only two diodes. Fig 5.47—Simple limiting amplifier using a digital IC. Here, a
This circuit is described in the Web site from Wenzel HEX inverter generates an output with over 10 mW at the
Associates. See text. fundamental drive frequency. The inputs to unused sections
should never be left floating.

Transmitters using this scheme arc pre-

sented later. One example might use a
14-MHz crystal in a VXO. The divider
output is a 7-MHz square wave, but one
rich in 21-MHz energy. A 5% bandwidth
triple tuned circuit bandpass filter selects
the desired 21-MHz output while provid-
ing over 60 dB suppression of 7, 14 and
28-MHz components. This scheme offers
two additional advantages: First, the oscil-
lator operates at a frequency that is well
isolated from the output, so buffering is
extremely effective. Second, the output is
easily turned on or off with the digital input
at "A", allowing keying without disturbing
the operating oscillator. Shaping to remove
clicks must be applied to later amplifiers.
Other digital schemes that generate
square waves are useful f o r odd-order
frequency multiplication. The b u f f e r of
Fig 5.47 can serve this function. For
example, this circuit could be driven by a
V X O at 14.4 MHz and followed by a triple
tuned bandpass filter at 72 MHz. The sig-
nal would then be amplified to a level of
+10 d B m or so where it can be used to drive
a t w o diode frequency doubler with a
double tuned circuit at 144 M H z , resulting
Fig 5.46—This frequency multiplier begins with a frequency division by 2 in a in 0 d B m at 2 m. ready for use with simple
digital integrated circuit. The result, after division, is a very precise square wave. transmitters or transceivers.
Odd harmonics can then be selected with a suitable bandpass filter. The output T h e example of Fig 5.47 used a Hex
from the filter is typically - 5 dBm when n=3. The bandpass should be designed for inverter, but other digital parts are also
a termination of 1 kQ at the IC end.
useful. F o r e x a m p l e . an exclusive-OR gate
can be used as a digital balanced mixer,
which uses only two diodes, can also be cessed with digital integrated circuits. This offering 4 0 dB or greater suppression of
tuned for x5 operation. While we have not provides design opportunities for many both " L O " and "RF" input signals before
yet. done the experiment, it would be very interesting applications. Fig 5.46 shows a bandpass filtering.
interesting to examine the insertion of scheme we have used for numerous V X O The frequency multipliers designed by
resistance in series with the large induc- based transmitters. A signal is injected at Wenzel featured low phase noise. While the
tance. The tripler circuits f r o m Wenzel the input to Q1 where it is converted to a multiplied output has higher noise than the
work well with either junction diodes or logic friendly format. Levels from -10 to 0 driving source, that noise is worse only by
hot carrier devices, although the hot car- dBm are suitable. The signal is then fre- the normal 20xLog(N) factor for an ideal
rier diodes are preferred for low noise quency divided with a 74HC74 D-flip-fiop. multiplier. The multipliers using digital logic
applications. The Wenzel w e b site dis- resulting in an accurate square wave. This elements may well be worse than this. We
cusses diode selection. output is then applied to a bandpass filter have not performed the measurements
Square waves are easily created and pro- where the appropriate harmonic is selected. needed to establish this performance.

5.18 Chapter 5
5.5 A VXO TRANSMITTER USING A DIGITAL FREQUENCY MULTIPLIER
The original goal for this project was a
transmitter that would function on the 3F/2
2 1 - M H z amateur band while using an 5F/2
available 14-MHz crystal. The single band .NxF/2
transmitter described here develops an VXO ;
i \
Ur JV
output in the 14-MHz band. 28-MHz and Divide i \
50-MHz designs are presented elsewhere by 2 i \
*
in the book.
F
v
J • i X

The basis for the transmitter is shown in

the block diagram of Fig 5.48. A crystal F/2 \
oscillator drives a digital divide-by-2 cir- Squarewave
cuit to generate a square wave at half the
oscillator frequency. This waveform is Crystal-F N Output F
rich in odd-order harmonics while nearly
9.33 3 14
devoid of even ones. A bandpass filter is
fabricated to extract the harmonic of inter- 14 3 21
est while suppressing the rest. The result- 12.07 3 18.1
ing signal is then amplified to the desired 18.67 3 28
power. 20 5 50
There are several advantages to this 14.321 7 50.125
scheme when applied to a transmitter 20.57 7 72=144/2
design. First, the digital divider and related
circuitry form a high gain buffer, provid-
ing excellent isolation from the output. Fig 5.48—Block diagram showing the transmitter concept. The table shows some
While a common problem with a VXO is possible applications.

Fig 5.49—Schematic for the oscillator, divider, 14-MHz bandpass filter and buffer amplifier for the VXO transmitter.

Mixers and Frequency Multipliers 5.19

output variation with tuning, this output is high, and the divider generates the desired sequence" keying scheme, similar to one
constant for the total tuning range. T h e 4.687-MHz output. The 5 V bias for U1 is applied to vacuum tube transmitters of the
oscillator frequency is not directly related obtained from U2. a low power regulator. I 9 5 0 ' s era.
to the transmitter output f r e q u e n c y , so A 2-k£2 pull up resistor on U I ' s Q out- The b u f f e r output is applied to a 100-Q
there are f e w problems relating to stray put helps to ensure that the output goes all pot f u n c t i o n i n g as a D r i v e control, and
power a m p l i f i e r energy in the oscillator the way to 5 V during operation, establish- then to a keyed driver, Q7. This stage and
circuitry. Finally, the output can be turned ing the logic level, and hence, the R F out- the output power amplifier are shown in
off and on by controlling a digital reset put level. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n of the F i g 5.50. These components are on a sepa-
line in the divider. As such, there is a per- resistor and the chip circuitry generate a rate board f r o m the earlier circuitry, fur-
fect method for keying without every load of approximately 1 k Q to provide fil- ther isolating the circuits. The driver, a
c h a n g i n g the oscillator operating fre- ter loading at the input end. establishing m e d i u m p o w e r bipolar f e e d b a c k ampli-
quency. The oscillator runs continuously the values for C8 and C9. T h e filter is fier. is c a p a b l e of an output of up to
and does not change frequency during a designed for a 5 0 - U output load. The 3 0 0 mW. The keying is done with Q9. a
transmit interval. The usual mechanisms available power at the third harmonic is shaping intcgralor-switch.
f o r generating chirp are absent. about 0 d B m . This filter is designed f o r a The output amplifier uses an inexpen-
The oscillator, divider, and filter por- bandwidth of 4 0 0 k H z at 14 M H z . With sive H E X F E T . S o m e regulated 5-V
tion of the 20-m transmitter is shown in the inductors used, the filler insertion loss energy is stolen from the other board and
F i g 5.49. A crystal at 9.373 MHz (HC-49, is about 3 dB. applied to a pot that generates bias for the
2 0 - p F load) was chosen to provide about A b u f f e r amplifier, Q5. increases the KHT PA. The bias is adjusted by monitor-
10 kHz of tuning around the desired output output f r o m the filter to a comfortable ing the F E T drain current with a sensitive
frequency of 14.06 MHz. The range is ob- + 11 dBm. Q5 is only powered on key-down meter and is set f o r a current of close to
tained without any crystal series inductance. intervals, controlled by a delayed switch. 1 m A . This amplifier will run in Class B,
However, the builder may wish to add in- Q6. which also provides the needed con- off during key up conditions, allowing the
ductance to extend the tuning range. The trol signal " A " f o r U I . A 4.7-ttF capacitor use of electronic T/R switching. However,
output from oscillator Q1 drives Q2, condi- keeps this switch "on" for a short interval forward F E T bias enhances both gain and
tioning the signal for logic compatibility. after key down. The 1 - k Q resistor in series stability. The F E T output is matched with
This then drives a 74HC74 di vide-by-2 chip. with the 4.7-(.iF capacitor allows the " A " a modified L C C type T - n e t w o r k consist-
During normal key-up conditions, pin 1 is signal to immediately change with the ini- ing of L5 and a pair of mica compression
held low by Q3. This "reset" prevents any tial application of the key while the trans- trimmer capacitors. This is followed by ad-
output from appearing from the IC. When mitter output is slill shaped with the cir- ditional low pass filtering. The output is
the key or spot switch are pressed, pin 1 goes cuitry around Q9. This creates a "time set to 4 W by adjusting the drive and tun-

RFC 2.7u
,
0.22U I RFC
r

)• 2.7u
1 6
P—out
14 MHz.
= 4W a t

•2 Spurs:
Ch I n
9 . 3 7 3 MHz, - 7 5 dBc.
-L o.iu 0. lu
-31- 16
28 MHz, -60 dBc.

S-10K -Q 5 L5
> 2°
jf—iAAA
.01 12
IRF-510

Data for 20 Meter Version:

Tl, T2, 8 bifxlar turns on FT-37-43
L4, 3.3 uH, 26t#24, T50-2
L5, L6, L7, 730 nH, 12t #22, T50-6
L1,L2,L3: 14 t #26 over 60% of T30-6
Cl-100, C2-200, C8=3.3, C 9 - 1 0
Driver P-out=300 rnW.
C10, CI 4, CI 7: 5™ 65 Filmtnm
C12,C15=3.3, Cil,C16=100, C13=120
C18=33, Cl9=100
Yl=9.373 MHz. hc-49 or similar.

Fig 5.50—Keyed driver and power amplifier for the transmitter.

5.20 Chapter 5
 ing the T - n e t w o r k c a p a c i t o r s f o r m a x i -
1.3 1.3
m u m output.
A subtle instability was noted during the
transmitter turn-on process. In an e f f o r t to
m a k e the transmitter as clean as possible,
an extra 2 . 7 - ^ H R F C had b e e n included in
the drain line. But a low level oscillation
w a s noted in the P A . An o s c i l l o s c o p e
e x a m i n a t i o n r e v e a l e d a f r e q u e n c y of
3 0 0 kHz. This turned out to be the result of
Fig 5.51—A 21-MHz bandpass filter. The inductors and the variable capacitors are a resonance between the 2.7 (aH and the
identical to those used in the 14-MHz design. b y p a s s capacitors. A 6 . 2 - Q resistor was
paralleled across the R F C and the oscilla-
tion was e l i m i n a t e d . This illustrates the
subtlety of wideband b y p a s s i n g of p o w e r
stages in a transmitter. See the i n f o r m a -
tion on d e c o u p l i n g in Chapter 2.
T h e only spurious r e s p o n s e s noted in
the output w e r e at the crystal oscillator
f r e q u e n c y and at the transmitter 2nd har-
monic, but they w e r e below the desired
output by 75 and 60 dB, respectively. Yet
the t r a n s m i t t e r is built with no internal
shielding or other complexities.
A 21 -MHz. version of this design would
be especially practical, for it could use an
existing 14-MHz crystal. A 2 1 - M H z
bandpass filter is shown in Fig 5.51 to aid
the designer/builder in realizing a rig f o r
that band.
Although the digital divider was origi-
nally implemented for use with simple low
power transmitters, it lends itself well to
general-purpose applications with LC
oscillators as well as crystal-based designs.

The 4-W output power amplifier is shown at the top of the photo. The board
includes the keyed driver, drive control pot, and bias pot. The box housing this rig
also includes a 20-meter receiver (The "Easy 90-14") described in Chapter 6.

REFERENCES
1. S. Maas, " A G a A s MF.SFET M i x e r with of Analog Integrated Circuits, 2 n d Edition, F r e q u e n c y Balanced A m p l i f i e r , " F e b 27.
Very Low Intermodulation." IEEE MTT- Wiley, 1984. 1968; and K u r o k a w a and Englebrecht, "A
35. No. 4, April, 1987. W i d e b a n d L o w Noise L - B a n d B a l a n c e d
7.B. Zavrel. W7SX, "Feedback Tech-
Transistor A m p l i f i e r , " Proc IEEE. M a r ,
2. W. Hayward. " E x p e r i m e n t s wilh Primi- n i q u e I m p r o v e s Active M i x e r P e r f o r -
1965.
tive FET Mixers," RF Design. N o v , 1990. m a n c e , " RF Design. Sep. 1997.
8.B. Zavrel. W7SX, "Double Balanced 11. J. B. S t e p h e n s e n . " R e d u c i n g I M D in
3. E. Oxner, " A C o m m u t a t i o n D o u b l e Bal-
M i x e r and O s c i l l a t o r " . Signetics NE/ H i g h - L e v e l M i x e r s . " QEX. May/June.
anced M i x e r of H i g h D y n a m i c R a n g e , "
SA602, N o v 9, 1987. 2 0 0 1 . pp 45-50.
Proceedings of Ht' Technology Expo '86,
Anaheim. C A . pp 309-323. See also RF 9. W. H a y w a r d , " C E R v e r t e r s , " QST, June. 12. P. H a w k e r , " G 3 S B F s H i g h P e r f o r -
Design, Feb. 1986. 1976, p p 31-35. mance Mixer". Technical Topics.
4. W. Hayward. "Experiments with Primi- Radio Communications. S e p / O c t . 1993. p p
10. K. K u r o k a w a , " D e s i g n Theory of Bal-
tive FET Mixers." RF Design, Nov, 1990. 55-56.
a n c e d Transistor A m p l i f i e r s , " Bell System
5. Li and C o r s e t t o , Microwave Journal. Technical Journal. Vol. 44, No. 10, Oct. 13. C'. Wenzel, " N e w T o p o l o g y Multiplier
Oct. 1997. 1965, pp 1 6 7 5 - 1 6 9 8 . See a l s o R. S. Generates Odd Harmonics," RF
Engelbrecht, U S Patent 3.371,284, "High Design, July, 1987. See a l s o w w w .
6. Gray and M e y e r . Analysis and Design Wenzel.com/documents/2diomult.html.

Mixers and Frequency Multipliers 5.21

 CHAPTER

Transmitters and Receivers

6.0 SIGNALS AND T H E S Y S T E M S T H A T P R O C E S S T H E M

The basic building blocks of amplifiers, microphone input. A receiver output from The actual signals are difficult to handle
filters, oscillators, mixers, and frequency a C W signal is generally a rather pure sine with simple equations and are different for
multipliers have been discussed. W e now wave, perhaps at a frequency of 1000 Hz. every voice. So, we approximate a voice
begin to combine these components to build Mathematically this is signal with several sine waves. The base-
the equipment that provides communica- band example we use ( F i g s 6 . 3 and 6 . 4 )
tions. W e begin the chapter with a look at has three tones of f, = 1000, f , = 2 5 0 0 , and
CW, AM, D S B , S S B , and F M signals. B l o c k v ( t ) = sin ( 2 i r f t.) E q 6.1 f 3 = 4 0 0 Hy. with respective amplitudes of
diagrams are then shown for the equipment 0.6. 1, and 0.5 V . The total baseband sig-
we build to deal with these signals. Later where v(t) indicates that the voltage is a nal is
sections will present detailed design meth- function of time, f is the frequency in Hz.
ods and examples. and t is time in seconds. Graphed in the
Signals are presented as equations. W e time domain, the tone is the familiar sine v„ ( t ) = 0.5 sin ( l 7t f 3 t )
then show graphs in the time and fre- wave, F i g 6.1. The energy is confined to a
quency domains, the results we would single frequency, so the spcctrum, or fre- + 0.6 sin ( 2 * f, t) E q fi 2

observe with either an oscilloscope or quency domain representation is a single

4-1 sin ( 2 K f2 t)
spectrum analyzer. This discussion is not line. F i g 6 . 2 . T h e 1 - V amplitude has a
intended to be complete, but is merely a spectrum with a height of 1 V . It is more
sketch of signal forms. A complete treat- common within the radio frequency de- Traditional amplitude modulation is
ment is found in communications texts. 1 sign arena to see spectra calibrated in terms familiar as an A M broadcast signal. This is
T h e first signal we consider is the audio, of power. generated by changing—or modulating at
or baseband representation. This might The human voice is not a sine wave, but an audio rate—the amplitude of a carrier.
represent the output of a receiver or a voice a combination o f tones forming compli- T h e carrier is merely a single sinusoid.
signal that we apply to a transmitter cated patterns in both time and frequency. A frequency o f 100 kHz is used in our

Single Aiidio Tone

v(t)

0 500 1000 1500 2000

F r e q u e n c y , Hz
time, milliseconds
Fig 6.2—The 1000 Hz audio tone in the
Fig 6.1—A single audio tone as a function of time. frequency domain.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.1

 B a s e b a n d time domain
1.0 —

Volts
- 0.5
<P
•c
•rt

!„ 400 1000
1 1
2500
F r e q u e n c y , Hz

time, microsecond
Fig 6.4—The frequency-domain graph of
Fig 6.3—The time-domain graph of the three audio tones. the three audio tones.

e x a m p l e s . T h e g r a p h s and e q u a t i o n s a r e exceeding the original carrier amplitude A d o u b l e s i d e b a n d signal results when

the s a m e as t h e e a r l i e r s i n g l e - t o n e a u d i o f o r part of the c y c l e . T h e f r e q u e n c y a u d i o is a p p l i e d to a balanced modulator
s i g n a l , c x c c p t that the f r e q u e n c y is h i g h e r . d o m a i n g r a p h s s h o w that e x t r a e n e r g y to driven by a local o s c i l l a t o r . T h e resulting
T h e c a r r i e r a m p l i t u d e is m o d u l a t e d to b e c o n t a i n e d in the f r e q u e n c y d o m a i n side- o u t p u t f o r a si ngle m o d u l a t i n g a u d i o tone is
g e n e r a t e t h e A M signal of Eq 6.3. bands while the carrier remains constant
with no a u d i o v a r i a t i o n . T h i s is e a s i l y c o n -
v l i ( t ) = sin ( 2 * f„ K) 1) sin (27t f c t )
v
a ( 0 = 0 + 0 . 3 sin ( 2 jr f a u „ I ) ) f i r m e d by o b s e r v a t i o n w i t h a s p e c t r u m
a n a l y z e r o r r e c e i v e r that will r e s o l v e the Eq 6 . 5
x sin ( 2 ;t f c t )
c a r r i e r f r o m the s i d e b a n d s .
Eq 6.3 A 1 0 0 - k H z c a r r i e r m o d u l a t e d bv the w h e r e t h e first t e r m is t h e a u d i o w h i l e the
w h e r e f c is t h e c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y of t h r e e - t o n e b a s e b a n d s i g n a l is s h o w n in s e c o n d is the c a r r i c r . T h e t e r m w i t h u n i t y
100 k H z and f a u ( i is the a u d i o f r e q u e n c y of F i g 6 . 7 a n d F i g 6.8. in E q 6 . 4 is m i s s i n g f r o m E q 6 . 5 , i n d i c a t -
1 k H z . T h e 0 . 3 f a c t o r is a m o d u l a t i o n T h e m u l t i - t o n e a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n is ing that t h e c a r r i e r is no l o n g e r p r e s e n t .
index and indicates 3 0 % modulation. The d e s c r i b e d by T h e w a v e f o r m s a r e s h o w n in F i g 6 . 9 a n d
t i m e d o m a i n s i g n a l is s h o w n in F i g 6 . 5 Fig 6.10.
w i t h a s p e c t r u m in F i g 6.6. T h e t w o c u r v e s T h e r e s u l t of a d o u b l e - s i d e b a n d g e n e r a -
are related t h r o u g h a p p r o p r i a t e m a t h e m a t -
v
am ( 0 ~ 0 +
0 . 3 v b ( t ) ) sin (2 rt fc t) t o r d r i v e n with the m u l t i p l e - t o n e a u d i o is
ics, w h i c h f o l l o w f r o m the trig i d e n t i t y Eq 6.4 then
s h o w n in t h e Trig Identities for Signal
Analysis s i d e b a r . A d e t a i l e d m a t h e m a t i c a l where the sine term represents the carrier v
dsb ( t ) = sin(2it f L 2 t ) + sin(2 it fL2 t )
a n a l y s i s will a l w a y s lie the t w o d o m a i n s and v h (t) is the b a s e b a n d signal f r o m E q 6.2.
t o g e t h e r . M o d u l a t i o n s that are s i m p l e in T h e first set of p a r e n t h e s e s on the right side -r 0.6sin (2 it f L .| t ) + 0.6sin (2 n f u t)
o n e d o m a i n arc o f t e n c o m p l i c a t e d and of the equal sign in E q 6.4 contains the unity
m e s s y in t h e o t h e r . + 0,5 sin (2 it f u 3 t ) - 0.5 sin (2 ji I L 1 I )
term, w h i c h leads to the carrier in the final
The time domain w a v e f o r m shows that result, and the c o m p l e x a u d i o signal v b (t) Eq 6.6
t h e a m p l i t u d e of the R F sine w a v e varies, that generates the sidebands. w h e r e the f r e q u e n c i e s s h o w n r e p r e s e n t the

100 kHz carrier 3 0 % modulated by 1 kHz

3
I
Ji" v < >

time, microseconds

Fig 6.5—The carrier amplitude here is 1 V. Modulation causes

the amplitude to depart from this value. The energy appears
in the figure to be a solid mass of energy, but if we zoom In,
plotting only a small fraction of the curve shown, we will see
the details of the RF oscillation. This could be done Fig 6.6—Frequency-domain representation of an AM signal.
experimentally with an oscilloscope triggered from the RF The carrier at 100 kHz is modulated at 1 kHz to generate two
waveform. sidebands below and above the carrier.

6.2 Chapter 6
 Trig Identities for Signal A n a l y s i s
In high school trigonometry class you may have learned some useful Identities. One of them relates the product of
two sine functions:

sin ( a ) sin ( b ) = — c o s ( a - b ) — c o s ( a - t - b )

Our analysis of amplitude modulation started with a carrier of amplitude A:

A sin (o\. t )

where coc = 2ntc is a carrier frequency expressed in radians/sec, with f c in Hz. The amplitude is allowed to vary
about a base value.
A = A , i ( l + msin(co a t))

where <oa is an audio frequency in radians/sec and m is a modulation index. The modulated wave becomes:

v ( t ) = A 0 ( l + msin(o)a t))sin(w c t ) which expands to:

v ( t ) = A () sin(cac t) + A f , sin (ojc t ) m sin (toa t )

The first term is the carrier, which varies only with time at the carrier rate, ojc. The second term is the product of
audio and RF carrier sine waves. Expansion with the identity yields:

A 0 msin («>a t)sin(o> c t ) = A 0 m — cos[(<ac -tu a )t]-—cos[(a» c +61, ) t ]

and then:

A „ msin (to, t)sin((fl c t ) = A 0 m ^cos[2*(ft. -f, ) t ] - ^ - c o s [ 2 k (f c + fa ) t ]

The two cosine waves on the right are the lower and upper sidebands of the AM signal.

AM Signal with 3 tone an Jo, 30% mod.

Carrier
a
1
i '»»<*)

99 100 101 102

time. Microseconds
Frequency, kHz

Fig 6.7—A three-tone baseband signal modulates a 100-kHz Fig 6.8—Frequency-domain view of amplitude modulation
audio tone. with a three-tone baseband signal. The two sideband
regions are now shaded.

« i -

3 o _
s Suppressed
Carrier
» 4 («) /
//
f
99
, /,100
Frequency, kHz
I

1000 aw
t
Fig 6.9—100-kHz double-sideband Fig 6.10—Frequency-domain view of i
output with 1-kHz audio. time, microseconds DSB signal with a single audio tone.
Two output frequencies are created.

Transmitters arid Receivers 6.3

 u p p e r a n d l o w e r s i d e b a n d c o m p o n e n t s re-
Double Sideband from A tone audio
s u l t i n g f r o m a u d i o c o m p o n e n t s at f ( . f , ,
and f v T h e D S B s i g n a l s are s h o w n in
2.5 Fig 6 . 1 1 a n d F i g 6 . 1 2 .
A s i n g l e s i d e b a n d ( S S B ) s i g n a l is
d e s c r i b e d b y e l i m i n a t i n g o n e of the side-
a
b a n d s . F o r this e x a m p l e , w e r e t a i n t h e
I •2J u p p e r s i d e b a n d , r e s u l t i n g in

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 v s s b ( t ) = sin ( 2 ji f U 2 t )

t

time, microseconds + 0.6 sin (2 ?t f L ! 1 1) E ( j 6 7

+ 0.5 sin (2 jr f U 3 t )
Fig 6.11—Double sideband with a multi-tone audio, time domain.
T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g g r a p h s are F i g 6 . 1 3
and F i g 6 . 1 4 .
T h e S S B signal, when viewed in the fre-
q u e n c y d o m a i n , is really n o t h i n g m o r e than
Fig 6.12— an exact replica of the original b a s e b a n d sig-
Frequency-domain nal, except that it is n o w translated linearly
representation of to a h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y . If a l o w e r sideband
DSB with multiple- signal had been g e n e r a t e d , it w o u l d h a v e
tone audio. The been a replica of the original with an inver-
upper and lower
sion. That is, what had started as a high a u d i o
sideband parts of
the spectrum are f r e q u e n c y of 2 5 0 0 H z n o w appears as the
highlighted. lowest f r e q u e n c y .
A f r e q u e n c y - m o d u l a t e d s i g n a l is d e -
scribed by

v
fns (0 =
sin [2 jt f c ( l + m sin (2 n f., t ) ) t ] E q 6-8

If w e pick a 10-kHz carrier and modulate

Single sideband signal with 3 tone audio it with a 1-kHz audio signal, w e see the time
domain signal of Fig 6.16. T h e amplitude is
constant, but the f r e q u e n c y varies.
J 2
E x t r a c t i n g (he s p e c t r u m f o r this signal
| W ) is m a t h e m a t i c a l l y m u c h m o r e d i f f i c u l t
a t h a n it w a s with the o t h e r s i g n a l s , for the
a u d i o sine w a v e is n o w inside the a r g u -
1 m e n t f o r the b a s i c signal b e f o r e m o d u l a -
t i o n . a s s e e n in E q 6 . 8 . S i g n a l s a p p e a r
a b o u t the c a r r i e r , s p a c e d by the a u d i o f r e -
1000 2000 3000 4000
q u e n c y . H o w e v e r , s e v e r a l sets a p p e a r . A
t
1 k H z a u d i o t o n e p r o d u c e s s i g n a l s at + / - 1 .
time, microsecond + / - 2 k H z a n d so o n . as s h o w n in F i g 6 . 1 7 .
T h e s t r e n g t h of the s i d e b a n d s and the car-
Fig 6.13—Single-sideband signal from a three-tone baseband input. rier d e p e n d on 111. still a m o d u l a t i o n i n d e x ,
and a r c d c s c r i b c d b y B e s s e l f u n c t i o n s . 2
N o F M e q u i p m e n t is d e s c r i b e d in t h i s
b o o k , b u t the e q u a t i o n s a r e i n c l u d e d for
completeness.

Fig 6.14—Spectrum
of a single- Block Diagrams
sideband signal
W e now e x a m i n e basic transmitters and
resulting from a
three-tone receivers, beginning with s i m p l e C W gear.
baseband audio A C W transmitter generates a carrier at a
input. single frequency with no m o d u l a t i o n other
than the o f f - o n k e y i n g that i m p o s e s the f a -
miliar e n c o d i n g . A s i m p l e C W transmitter is
s h o w n in F i g 6.18. T h e circuit begins with
an osci 1 lator operating at the final o u t p u t fre-
q u e n c y . Typical oscillators are usually fol-

6.4 Chapter 6
 tive to this. W i t h the transmitter output at
10 k H z carrier, 1 k H z audio, I M

a
1
jl
1A j 1 i 1
a multiple of the oscillator f r e q u e n c y , it no
longer has c o m p o n e n t s within the band-
width of the oscillator tank, so is not sus-
ceptible to the pulling mentioned. Indeed,
5a v(t)
c
it is often practical to build transmitters
with n o inter-stage shielding w h a t s o e v e r
o if multipliers arc used. A b a n d p a s s filter is

1 11 1
used at the multiplier output to suppress
direct f e e d - t h r o u g h f r o m the oscillator and
» h a r m o n i c s — other than the desired o n e —
-l
CIS 1 1.5 2 that are o f t e n present. T h e filter can often
i be as simple as a single resonator if the
time, milliseconds m u l t i p l i e r is just a b a l a n c e d f r e q u e n c y
d o u b l c r . M o r e o f t e n , we use d o u b l e or
Fig 6.16—Time domain representation of an FM signal.
triple tuning at the output of multipliers.
A mixer is o f t e n used within a C W trans-
the f r e q u e n c y to c h a n g e (pulling) when the mitter with a bandpass filter to select the
- amplifiers are k e y e d on. The output fre- desired f r e q u e n c y , shown in F i g 6.19, This
q u e n c y then d i f f e r s f r o m that when the e x a m p l e has a 2 - M H z variable-frequency
4w
H-> amplifier is o f f . oscillator, a 5 - M H z crystal-controlled os-
> — T h e m o d i f i e d circuit of Fig 6.18B uses cillator, and an output at 7 M H z . T h e V F O
a f r e q u e n c y multiplier between the oscil- t u n e s a 150-kHz range to c o v e r the C W
lator and the p o w e r amplifiers. T h e buff- portion of the 7 - M H z band. The bandpass
•H ering action of a f r e q u e n c y multiplier is f i l t e r m u s t be w i d e e n o u g h to pass the
, 1 1 1 1 i p r o f o u n d . Signals travelling f r o m the out- entire range, but should not be a lot wider,
i i i i i i i put b a c k w a r d in a b u f f e r r e m a i n at the f o r s p u r i o u s mixer p r o d u c t s must also
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 be suppressed by the filter. T h e 5 - M H z
output f r e q u e n c y . T h e b u f f e r input, in-
F r e q u e n c y , kHz c o m p o n e n t will be suppressed by balancc
cluding the oscillator, is not usually sensi-

Fig 6.17—Spectrum of an FM signal,

10-kHz carrier with 1-kHz audio. This
graph represents what we might
observe with a typical spectrum
analyzer. We often see plots like this
with some components below the
frequency axis, indicating a sign
change when frequency is modulated
rather than amplitude.

lowed by amplifiers (perhaps several) to in-

crease output power. The filial block is a low-
pass filter to remove harmonies.
T h e a m p l i f i e r s serve the additional
function of b u f f e r i n g the oscillator. B u f f -
ers may have low gain, but h a v e m u c h
more gain in the normal forward direction
Fig 6.18—Simple CW transmitters with a master oscillator and a power amplifier
than in the reverse one. A typical 2 0 - d B are traditionally called a MOPA design. Design "A" has the oscillator and amplifier
gain design might have a gain o f - 3 0 dB in operating at the same frequency while that at "B" uses frequency multiplication.
the reverse direction. This serves to pre-
vent large transmitter output signals f r o m
reaching the oscillator. C o m m o n - b a s e
(gate) amplifiers usually feature excellent
reverse isolation.
A crystal or an LC resonator determines
the o s c i l l a t o r f r e q u e n c y . T h e oscillator
should be shielded f r o m the rest of the
transmitter to prevent transmitter output
c o m p o n e n t s f r o m reaching it. An oscilla-
tor is most sensitive to signals at f r e q u e n -
cies within the loaded b a n d w i d t h of the
r e s o n a t o r c o n t r o l l i n g the oscillator.
H e n c e , shielding is especially important
Fig 6.19—A CW transmitter using a mixer. Frequency stability is Improved owing
for the simple transmitter of Fig 6.18. Poor to use of a lower frequency for the variable-frequency oscillator. Careful bandpass
shielding or inadequate b u f f e r i n g allows filtering is required at the mixer output to preserve spectral purity.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.S

 in the mixer, bul may often need to be f u r - s i m p l e C W transmitters. H e t e r o d y n e where it can be heard. This may occur in one
ther attenuated by the b a n d p a s s filter. A methods are also useful when building lo- step in a direct-conversion (including regen-
typical circuit would o f t e n u s e a triple- cal oscillator systems for SSB or similar erative) receiver or in several steps in a con-
tuned filler if intended to meet m o d e r n equipment. ventional superheterodyne. The key element
standards. A CW signal is received by heterodyning in a direct-conversion receiver is the mixer,
T h e s e m e t h o d s arc not restricted to the radio frequency energy down to baseband or as it is usually called in applications with
an audio output, the product detector. The
input signal, usually relatively weak, is ap-
plied to the R F port of a mixer driven by a
bandpass
strong local oscillator. T w o mixer outputs
filter
will appear, but only the audio difference fre-
quency is used. The signal is usually ampli-
fied further and is applied to headphones. A
block diagram is shown in Fig 6.2(1. The in-
put preselector filter protects the receiver
from strong signals at frequencies far re-
moved from those being received. The low-
pass filterroutes audio to the amplifiers while
preventing other mixer products or mixer
feed-through components from reaching the
amplifier. Direct conversion receivers are
covered in much greater detail in Chapter 8.

Fig 6.20—Direct-conversion receiver. The incoming signal is applied to a mixer An instructive experiment tunes the fre-
where it is converted directly to audio without intermediate processing. quency of a signal generator attached to a
direct conversion receiver. One will then
h e a r an a u d i o beat note, the d i f f e r e n c e
f r e q u e n c y b e t w e e n the generator and the
r e c e i v e r local oscillator. T h e output
f r e q u e n c y is s h o w n in Fig 6.21 as a f u n c -
tion of generator f r e q u e n c y . T u n i n g the re-
ceiver with a fixed generator p r o d u c e s an
identical result. T h e r e s p o n s e is d o u b l e
sided; f o r every tuning of a s i m p l e direct
conversion receiver, there are t w o d i f f e r -
ent input f r e q u e n c i e s that can p r o d u c e the
s a m e output signal. O n e r e s p o n s e is called
the a u d i o i m a g e of the other. This m a k e s it
challenging to use such a receiver in se-
verely congested b a n d s . B u t the simplicity
and other good qualities of a direct con-
version receiver will o f t e n c o m p e n s a t e for
this p r o b l e m .

T h e traditional solution to t h e a u d i o
i m a g e p r o b l e m is the single-signal super-
h e t e r o d y n e receiver s h o w n in the block
Fig 6.21—Tuning response of a fixed-tuned DC receiver while varying a signal genera-
d i a g r a m of F i g 6.22. T h e incoming signal
tor applied to the input, A 1000-Hz beat note is available from the generator at
two different generator frequencies. One response is the audio image of the other. is processed in a preselector filter and then
applied to a mixer. T h e output is still at a
radio f r e q u e n c y , but one that is d i f f e r e n t
f r o m the i n c o m i n g signal, an intermediate
f r e q u e n c y , or IF. T h i s 7 - M H z receiver uses
a 1-MHz IF with an L O in the 6 - M H z re-
gion. T h e 1-MHz signal f r o m the mixer is
filtered with a narrow bandwidth circuit. It
is further amplified and applied to a second
mixer, now functioning as a product detec-
tor to produce an audio output. After some
audio gain, headphones are driven. The L O
for the product detector is called a beat fre-
quency oscillator, or BFO.
Assume that the 1 - M H z I F filter has a
bandwidth of 500 Hz, centered exactly at 1
M H z . T h e receiver L O will b e tuned to
Fig 6.22—A simple single-conversion superheterodyne receiver featuring a
"single-signal response." A narrow filter, usually using a quartz crystal, 6.040 M H z . This means that the incoming
follows the mixer. signals that will produce an output are cen-

6.6 Chapter 6
 anced mixer. It will be driven with a suit-
able RF local oscillator and l o w level au-
dio from an amplified microphone. The
output, shown earlier in Fig 6.10. contains
Restricted Response of the two sidebands symmetrically spaced
Single Signal Superhet. about a suppressed carrier. Further ampli-
fication and low-pass filtering completes
the transmitter. A simple DSB transmitter
is shown in F i g 6 . 2 4 . A typical simple DSB
transmitter will have a carrier that is sup-
pressed by 30 to 4 0 dB with respect to ei-
ther sideband. Although simple and c o m -
patible with existing SSB equipment, DSB
transmitters are rarely used today, largely
due to the excess spectrum used.

S i g n a l G e n e r a t o r F r e q u e n c y , Hz Audio intelligence is impressed on the

signal in DSB and SSB transmitters with a
block traditionally shown as a balanced
Fig 6.23—Tuning response to the single-signal superhet. The output from a single
modulator. The modulator is really just a
source occurs in a single area on the dial.
mixer with a particular application. It is
usually a balanced circuit, for that is the
mechanism used to suppress the carrier
tcred at 7.04 MHz and occur in a double sideband signal. (Double-side- output. See balance in Chapter 5.
500-Hz band, 250 Hz on either side of band, full-carrier amplitude modulation is The direct-conversion receiver shown
7.04 MHz. Signals within that band arc the of great historic interest, especially to c o l - earlier (Fig 6.20) will allow DSB signals
onlv ones that will produce an IF output. lectors, but is not the most-used method o f to be received. Each of the two sidebands
Set" the BFO lo 0.999 MHz, 1 kHz away voice communications today. W e won't will be heterodyned down to baseband
from the IF center. An IF signal at 1 MHz treat the method in this book.) The key el- where they will add to produce an audio
will then produce a 1-kHz beat note. But ement needed to generate DSB is a bal- output. It is vital that the BFO be exactly
the only beat notes that are possible for this
BFO setting are in a 500-Hz wide span from
750 to 1250 Hz. Repeating the earlier ex-
periment performed with the direct conver- Audio
sion receiver yields the result of Fig 6.23. Low pass Balanced 8F Lovr pass
filter Modulator Filter
A single-signal response can also be
DSB Output
obtained with phasing methods, and re-
) at f o .
lated schemes. These arc covered in delail
in Chapter 9.
Dt

DSB
Let's return to the transmitter problem,
but now consider the generation of a
Fig 6.24—A double sideband transmitter.

Audio Balanced HanUpass

Fig 6.25—A traditional SSB transmitter using the filter method. A narrow filter follows a balanced modulator to remove one of
two sidebands present on the DSB output o< the modulator.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.7

 on the frequency of the suppressed carrier. is a small positive difference frequency. site-sideband energy transmitted by a
This is so difficult in practice that a DC This value is greater than the carrier, so properly designed and adjusted SSB trans-
receiver is normally not suitable for DSB this is an upper sideband. Because the LC mitter, thai does not mean that the spec-
applications. bandpass is configured for a difference trum where that opposite sideband would
The most popular method used to gen- output, the signal output will be ( F L 0 - have been is not used. That spectrum is
erate SSB is shown in Fig 6.25. This is (F c +S)), which expands to ( F L 0 - F c - 8). usually occupied by another SSB station.
traditionally called the filter method, for a This is less than the suppressed and trans- If a direct-conversion receiver was tuned
narrow bandpass filter is used to select one lated carrier at (F, 0 - F c ) , so we now have to a desired signal, the undesircd signal
of two sidebands generated by a balanced a lower sideband signal. A designer must would produce completely garbled audio,
modulator. See Figs 6.12 and 6.14. The always be aware of such inversions. They making simple direct-conversion receiv-
other dominant way to get SSB is the phas- can be useful for the designer, for crystal ers unsuitable in a densely populated band.
ing method, treated in great detail in Chap- filters without ideal symmetry (lower side- A superheterodyne receiver like that in
ter 9. The phasing method is based upon band ladder of Chapter 3) are easily built. Fig 6.27 is usually used to receive SSB.
mathematics following from the Trig Iden- The simple direct-convcrsion receiver The incoming signal is filtered in a
tities for Signal Analysis sidebar earlier in Fig 6.20 is effective in receiving an SSB preselector, heterodyned to an IF, and is
in this chapter where multiplication of signal. The difficulty that we encountered passed through a bandpass filter. The
two sine waves is performed with a doubly with DSB is no longer present, for there is bandwidth of that filter, usually built with
balanced mixer. no coherent information in the spectrum quartz crystals, is wide enough to pass all
The SSB transmitter shown in Fig 6.25 formerly occupied by the suppressed side- of the speech spectrum that is transmitted,
has a severe difficulty—it operates at only band to be heterodyned to baseband, elimi- but little more. A typical SSB receiver will
a single frequency, that of the filter used to nating the need for extreme stability. If the have a bandwidth from 2 to 3 kHz. The
generate the sideband. A practical filter- BFO is in error by 100 Hz, the received filter shape is fairly flat over the passband,
type SSB transmitter topology is presented voice may sound unusual, but will still be but then has steep skirts so that energy in
in Fig 6.26 where an SSB signal is gener- intelligible. an adjacent "channel" will not interfere
ated at an intermediate frequency. The Even though there is negligible oppo- with the signal being received. The nar-
resulting SSB is then heterodyned to a
desired output frequency where it is
bandpass filtered, amplified, low-pass fil-
tered, and applied to an antenna.
Assume the narrow filter used to create
the SSB signal at IF is configured to create
an upper sideband. For example, let
the carrier frequency be 9.000 MHz with
a filter extending from 9.0003 to
9.003 MHz, a bandwidth of 2.7 kHz. Set
the LO to 37.4 MHz and design the LC
bandpass filter to cover 28 to 29 MHz. The
resulting signal is then at 28.4 MHz. The
transmit mixer has both sum and differ-
ence frequency outputs and the l.C
bandpass has selected the difference, pro-
ducing a carrier output of (F L O - F c ) for Fig 6.27—A traditional superhet S S B receiver. T h e response from only one
the suppressed carrier. The sideband fre- sideband is allowed owing to the narrow-bandwidth crystal filter and the
quency within the IF will be F c + 8 where 8 relationship of the B F O frequency to that filter.

IF
ftudio Balanced bandpass
Low p a s s Modulator filter
Audio RF Low p a s s
Amp. Filter

Microphone Carrier
(baseband)
Osc.
Fc.
(9.0000 MHz)

Fig 6.26—A practical filter type S S B transmitter where a mixer translates the output of a fixed-frequency S S B generator to a
variety of outputs.

6.8 Chapter 6
Fig 6.28—An SSB transceiver, a system for both receiving and transmitting an SSB signal. Economy and operating
convenience are gained by sharing elements between functions. It is most common to share oscillators and a crystal filter,
which is done here. This circuit also shares a mixer between the receiver and transmitter, and uses a bidirectional IF
amplifier, a circuit that, with dc switching, will amplify signals moving in either direction. The amplifier circuits are presented
later in the text.

row b a n d p a s s filter in ihe S S B receiver is through the n u m b e r s to c o n f i r m the be- reception of D S B signals. T h e filter in the
followed by I F amplifiers, a product de- havior. U s i n g popular vernacular. " Y o u r e c e i v e r rejects o n e of the s i d e b a n d s
tector with B F O , and an audio amplifier. do the m a t h . " present at the receiver antenna terminal.
The BFO must be carefully set in Ihe SSB T h e SSB receiver, although designed to Finally, we sec that combining Figs 6.26
receiver. It should be fixed so that one edge receive SSB, is also well suited to C W . So and 6.27 will result in a transceiver where
of the filter (a - 6 dB point) corresponds to long as the filter has good stopband at- many circuit elements can be shared be-
an audio note of about 300 Hz. The other tenuation, the r e s p o n s e will also be single tween transmit and receive functions. Most
edge will be determined by the filter band- signal, as can be c o n f i r m e d by r e p e a t i n g transceivers share all oscillators and the
width. Typically the B F O is at a point on the e x p e r i m e n t we have d o n e with both crystal filter between the two f u n c t i o n s .
the filter response that is 20 or 30 dB below the direct conversion and the C W super- Fig 6.28 shows a typical block diagram,
the nominal, flat response. The same con- heterodyne. R e a d j u s t m e n t of the B F O can here with a design that also shares a mixer
straints are used in setting up the carrier c o m p r o m i s e the single signal characteris- between functions, and uses a bidirectional
oscillator in the filter method transmitter. tic. An S S B filter is o f t e n considered too amplifier. No matter what schemes the de-
T h e S S B receiver can p r o d u c e sideband wide f o r o p t i m u m C W p e r f o r m a n c e , espe- signer may clcct to use, he or she should
inversion just as w e illustrated in the trans- cially in a heavily used band. take care to preserve performance in both
mitter. T h e b u i l d e r / d e s i g n e r s h o u l d go T h e S S B receiver is also well suited for transmit and receive functions.

6.1 RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS

A receiver is characterized by n u m e r - f r o m an original signal. H e n c e , local are required.) T h e experiment uses a 50-S2
ous parameters. It must have considerable oscillators must be stable with respect to audio-signal source with known output
gain, for the signals we wish to hear are the stability of the signals being processed. power. See Chapter 7.
weak. T h e receiver must also be selective, F i l t e r s that p r o v i d e selectivity must be A large collection of monaural and ste-
allowing signals with only slightly differ- wide enough to pass the desired informa- reophonic h e a d p h o n e s w e r e e x a m i n e d , old
ing f r e q u e n c i e s to be isolated, received, tion related to the rcccived signals. T h e and n e w . T h e t w o e a r - p i e c e s were
with u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s e d . T h e gain m u s t be g e n e r a t e d without a d d i n g usually o p e r a t e d in series. T h e typical
receiver must also include detection in o n e e x c e s s i v e noise. R c c c i v c r p e r f o r m a n c e p h o n e s were low (4 CI) to m e d i u m imped-
form or another, p r o d u c i n g an output fre- specifications generally relate to h o w well ance (20 to 35 il per side), o f t e n represent-
quency that we can hear. T h e detection the various required j o b s are done. ing a reasonable impedance match to the
may consist of a r e c t i f i e r that extracts We begin our receiver investigation with 5 0 - Q g e n e r a t o r . T h e signal s o u r c e was
information about amplitude variations of a primitive experiment, an examination of adjusted with each h e a d p h o n e set until a
the radio f r e q u e n c y signal, a discrimina- headphones, the generally preferred trans- signal was j u s t detectable in a quiet r o o m .
tor that evaluates signal f r c q u c n c y , or a ducer for c o n v e r t i n g an electrical signal T h e m o s t sensitive h e a d p h o n e s were
mixer excited by an L O with a frequency into sound. (Although we all tend to obsolete, i n e x p e n s i v e types consisting of
at or very close to the incoming one. assume that headphones are optimum, little more than 2-inch d i a m e t e r speakers
All functions m u s t be executed in a way some will argue that a speaker is preferred mounted next to each ear. T w o pair f r o m
that does not c o m p r o m i s e the information for weak signals. Individual experiments our collection were c a p a b l e of p r o d u c i n g

Transmitters and Receivers 6.9

a detectable output with an available input ent when power was first applied. While in section 2.6. N F is a measure of the deg-
o f - 8 5 dJBm. That is. the applied signal was. the noise was not so loud as to be objec- radation of signal-to-noise ratio by a pro-
85 dB below one milliwatt from a tionable, it would obscure some weak cessing element, be it a complete receiver
50-fi audio source. signals we expected to hear. When a or a single stage.
Several of the phones were nearly as signal generator was attached and Let's assume that we wish to infer
sensitive including some newer Koss adjusted, the best we could hear was about receiver noise figure by driving the
TD/65 (90 Q per side) used for routine - 1 3 0 dBm. well away from the - 1 4 0 dBm receiver with a signal generator. The input
communications. The Koss sensitivity was expected with many simple direct-con- signal power is established by the avail-
- 8 0 dBm, with better clarity than version receivers. able power from the generator. (This may
provided by many others. Several light- Why is this receiver so noisy? Utile differ from the actual power delivered to
weight inexpensive phones (Sony Walk- noise is generated in the first element in the source.)
man class) had sensitivity from - 6 0 to the system, the diode ring mixer, a passive Input available noise power is that avail-
- 7 0 dBm. Very old high impedance element without gain. Rather, the noise in able from whatever resistor might be
phones had similar sensitivity, but only this design is generated in the amplifier attached to the input, given by
after being impedance matched. that follows the mixer.
A typical listening level will be signifi- This noise is not the result of a poor P„ = k T B Eq 6.9
cantly higher than our threshold, but still op-amp choice, but a poor design with
well below a milliwatt. From these experi- respect to noise. Negative feedback in an where k is Boltzmann's constant, T is tem-
ments. we will assume that a minimum amplifier reduces input impedance. The perature in kelvins. and B is the bandwidth
receiver must be capable of producing an impedance looking into the inverting in Hz in which the noise is observed. The
output o f - 5 0 dBm for the weakest signal amplifier input of a 5532. with a 5.6-kQ standard temperature used for noise deter-
to be encountered. The weakest signals feedback resistor, is about 1 Q. We modify minations is 290 K, close to a normal room
that we normally encounter in H F CW this with an added series 56-SI resistor to temperature. This noise power is indepen-
communications are - 1 3 0 to - 1 4 0 dBm, generate a 57-12 impedance to approxi- dent of the resistance. The noise power is
indicating a needed gain of around 90 dB. mately match the mixer, a requirement for distributed uniformly overall frequencies.
Although this is a subjective result, it rep- low mixer distortion. The available sig- If receiver bandwidth is increased, the
resents a design beginning. nals from the mixer are all absorbed, but noise power increases accordingly.
Our first simple receiver is shown in only the fraction of the power delivered to Attaching a room temperature resistor
Fig 6.29. A high-gain audio amplifier with the I - Q input is amplified. The remaining to the input of a receiver provides a source
low input and output impedance was built power is merely converted to heat. All of of noise. The signal generator, with its
with a gain of 87 dB. The amplifier is the available noise current from the input output resistance, will also serve this func-
combined with an external diode ring resistor flows in the op-amp input. The tion. If the generator level is changed by
mixer. 7-MHz local oscillator and input result is poor noise Figure, a degradation attenuation, output resistance seen by the
7.5-MHz low-pass filter to form a com- in the input signal-to-noise ratio in the pro- receiver remains constant to maintain a
plete direct-conversion receiver. An cess of amplification. This amplifier is constant available noise power.
antenna was connected, producing numer- contrasted with the popular design where The output signal and noise are mea-
ous signals in the 40-m band. The receiver the first audio amplifier is a common-base sured by attaching a load (usually a
had the usual bright response that we bipolar transistor. In that design, almost speaker or earphones) monitored by an ac
expect from direct-conversion designs. all of the available power is presented to voltmeter, ideally one that provides a true
(DC receivers are discussed in much the active device. rms response. Noise output can be moni-
greater detail in Chapter 8.) The fundamental receiver parameter tored alone by momentarily turning the
The amplifier did more than make the used to characterize the noise that limits generator off. When the signal is again
signals louder. It generated noise, appar- sensitivity is noise figure (NF), introduced applied, along with the input noise, the

F-l

Medium Z
headphones

Fig 6.29—A basic direct-conversion receiver. An audio amplifier with a gain of 87 dB follows the diode ring. See text for
discussion.

6.10 Chapter 6
output will be an output signal + noise The human ear and brain are a vital part of
Het HF - 3 . 7 dB

fx
power. An output signal-to-noise ratio can the communications system and they are
then be calculated. Noise figure can then
be calculated.
capable of acting like a f ilter of consider-
ably narrower bandwidth than the voice
[X
Noise figure is usually measured with a bandwidth of the receiver. This effect is X
H T K dB HF2=8 dB
noise source of known power, usually well observed with both wide bandwidth super-
heterodyne designs and direct conversion Gain 1 - 12 dB
above the noise power available from a
290-K resistor. See Section 2.6 and noise receivers. Indeed, many seasoned weak-
Fig 6.30—Example calculation for noise
measurements in Chapter 7. signal VHF enthusiasts including moon- figure of a cascade of two stages.
The greatest virtue of noise figure as a bounce specialists normally use wider
receiver parameter is that it is bandwidth SSB-bandwidth filters.
invariant. If we increase the bandwidth Many argue that noise figure is rarely a
during a NF measurement, we will process significant receiver parameter, especially
more noise in the receiver. But the output for HF reception. An NF of 10 or 12 dB at
will also increase in proportion, leaving 28 MHz, with much higher numbers at
the noise gain, the ratio of output noise to lower frequencies will usually provide as
input noise, a constant. much sensitivity as one can use. A practi- 8-dK NF. Related power ratios are F ( = 2,
Another measure of receiver sensitivity cal receiver test is very simple: While F 2 = 6.3, and G, = 15.8. yielding F = 2.34,
is minimum discertiable signal, or MDS. listening to background noise on a band, or NF K E T = 3.7 dB. The first stage noise
This is the available input signal from a disconnect the antenna. If the noise drops performance dominates in Ihis example.
generator that will cause the output power significantly, the receiver NF is as good as Once we know how to evaluate a cascade
to increase by 3 dB over what is present it needs to be. of two stages, we can apply the process in
without the applied signal. In this condi- NF is much more important as a design steps to evaluate an arbitrary cascade,
tion the signal and the noise have equal parameter. The essence of modern re- including an entire receiver front end.
output powers. ceiver design is aquest for dynamic range, Many of the circuit blocks that wc used in
MDS is directly related to room tem- and NF specifies the lower end of such a recei vers and transmitters are room tempera-
perature NF by range. ture passive parts with no gain elements.
Equation 6.10 relates NF to MDS. sug- These include not only the popular passive
MDS (dBm) = - 1 7 4 dBm + NFldBi gesting that little is to be gained with switching-mode mixers, but attenuators and
+ 10 log(B) Eq 6.10 extremely low noise figures. Consider, for filters. Generally, the NF of a passive circuit
example, a receiver with a 200-Hz band- equals the insertion loss of that circuit.
We measured the noise figure of one of width and 3-dB NF. Equation 6.10 pre- Hence, a diode ring mixer with a 6 dB con-
our receivers to be 7 dB with a nominal dicts MDS o f - 1 4 8 dBm. Dropping noise version loss (gain = - 6 dB) will have a 6-dB
bandwidth of 500 Hz. Eq 6.10 then pre- figure to a spectacular 0.5 dB results in NF. A bandpass filter with an insertion loss
dicts MDS of - 1 4 0 dBm. A direct mea- only a 2.5 dB sensitivity improvement to of 2 dB will, similarly, have NF = 2 dB and
surement of MDS where we look for a -150.5 dBm. This is what a careful MDS Gain = - 2 dB.
3-dB increase in output above the noise measurement would demonstrate. But in
Fig 6.31 illustrates a receiver front end
floor as we apply signal produced an al- reality, the practical improvement could
where several elements contribute to the
most identical result o f - 1 4 1 dBm. be much more than this. The dilemma
noise figure. This circuit will include an
It is interesting to listen to this receiver comes about when we pick a noise tem-
RF amplifier, for we are interested in rela-
with the signal generator atlached. We find perature of 290 K for our standard. This
tively low noise figure. Two bandpass
that we can hear the MDS, but nol much choice defined the "input" noise in Eq 6.9.
filters are used. The first is a single resona-
further into the noise. But if the input noise resulted nol from the
tor ahead of the RF amplifier while the
290 K resistor related to our measurement,
Wc now increase the receiver bandwidth second is a double tuned circuit. A diode-
but from an antenna pointed at a quiet part
to 2.4 kHz by switching in a new crystal ring mixer is followed by a feedback am-
filter, increasing the bandwidth factor of the sky. the input noise might well
plifier that uses a bipolar transistor with
in Eq 6.10 to 33.8 dB. MDS becomes relate to a resistor with a temperature as
high dc emitter current. The overall cas-
-133.2 dBm with a 7-dB noise figure. A low as 20 K. A more refined calculation
cade has net gain of 15 dB and a net noise
measurement will usually confirm this would show that MDS could be as low as
figure of 7.1 dB.
number. Noise measurement in a wider - 1 5 8 dBm for this example. A related con-
cept of noise temperature was used to Front-end bandpass filters usually do
bandwidth is generally easier than it is with nol impact overall noise figure. In the re-
narrow band sy stems owing to less fluctua- obtain this result.'
ceiver example just presented the system
tion in the meter movement. But major The noise factor of a two-stage cascade bandwidth is determined by a crystal filler
errors can and often do occur as a result of is that follows the attenuator. This filter is
slight gain variations with frequency in usually narrow (3 kHz or less) and the two
1
either the IF or the receiver audio cir- F F1 . I *O^" ) L/C bandpass filters shown as the first and
Eq 6.11
cuitry— errors that generate a narrower third elements in the cascade are wide (a
noise bandwidth than expected. A direct where F is the net noise factor. F ( and F 2 few hundred kHz). The crystal filter then
NF measurement is generally preferred sets the overall response. The bandpass
are the noise factors for the first and sec-
over one of MDS, w here only a ratio of two filters in the cascade have no more impact
ond stage, and G, is the available power
noise powers must be determined. on noise figure than an attenuator would.
gain for the first stage. All numbers are
An ideal receiver with measured MDS power ratios and not dB values. The situation would be considerably dif-
commensurate with the filter BW will of- Consider an example shown in Fig 6.30. ferent if the crystal filter was replaced wi l h
ten let a listener hear signals that are much The first amplifier has again of 12 dB and a wide L/C filter with equal or wider band-
weaker than indicated by the MDS. Why'? a 3-dB NF while the second stage has an width than those in the front end. J

Transmitters and Receivers 6.11

Some RF Amplifiers and ance to the input if the value for optimum with LI = 1.26 nH and CI = 39 pF. The
NF is known. We didn't have that data for noise match point that we inferred was
Attenuators the J310, but were able to find hints. Spe- r o r r = 0.89 at 7 0 . 5
Many modern HF receivers use no RF cifically, Chip Angle. N6C.A. has built A c o m m o n source JFET should be
amplifier, for adequate noise figure can be amplifiers with the U310 for several V H F capable o f low noise performance. The
obtained without it. Most commercial gear bands. The U310 is the same chip, but is practical difficulty in building such a cir-
has a NF of 10 to 12 dB at and b e l o w packaged in a metal can with the gate cuit is often stability. Cascode connected
30 MHz. A practical sensitivity test was attached to the can. W e were able to ana- JFETs should be considered. Neutraliza-
outlined above. There arc some situations lyze his circuits and scale his input net- tion is also practical, although rarely used.
where an RF amplifier can be useful, even works to lower frequency. The result was The humble source follower should not
at HF. This is especially true at 21 and an amplifier with a measured 1.5-dB NF, be discounted as a low-noise amplifier. A
28 MHz during periods o f marginal propa- but with a poor input match and gain o f suitable circuit is shown in F i g fi.34. A
gation. It is then useful to switch a low
only 12 dB. This occurred at 21 M H z link-coupled input drives the gate through
noise amplifier into the signal path. Such
an amplifier is not normally needed and
should not be used merely to make signals
louder. W e will illustrate a few circuits that
we have built, used, and measured.
A favorite RF amplifier is a c o m m o n System NF = 7.1 dB
gate JFET circuit. A J310 is used for HF
applications, while a U310 is preferred for HF f o r each stage:
VHF and UHF. (The surface mounted ver-
sion o f the J310 should be excellent for 1 dB 4 dB 2 dB 6 dB 6 dB 6 (IB
both!) The basic amplifier is shown in
Preselect RE Amp. Bandpass Mixer P o s t Amp
F i g 6 . 3 2 . The FET is biased for a current
of 12 to 14 m A , determined by FET I^gs
and source resistor. The gain is only about
2 dB with this amplifier if the drain load
resistor, R, is set at 680 £2. In spite o f the
low gain, the amplifier is still very useful.
It has a g o o d input and output impedance
match, so offers a good interface to filters Gain f o r each s t a g e :
and mixers. It is most useful for the excel- - 1 dB 12 dB - 2 dB - 6 dB 18 dB - 6 dB
lent reverse isolation. The reverse gain
(S12) was measured as - 4 3 dB. This is System Gain = 15 dB
an excellent amplifier for use with direct
conversion receivers when attempting to
Fig 6.31—A six-stage cascade showing a typical receiver front end. The stages
reduce tunable hum, discussed in Chapter consist of a wide filter, an RF amplifier, a steeper skirted bandpass filter, a diode
8. The circuit is turned on with V C 0 K T R 0 L ring mixer, a post-mixer amplifier, and finally, a 6-dB attenuator.
= +5 or so. The gain is reduced by 40 dB
when turned off.

Gain goes up to 6.5 dB in this circuit

when the drain load resistor is eliminated. FT-37-43 Toroid
In that configuration, the third order out-
put intercept was +28 dBm. measured at
14 M H z with fairly flat gain up to 50 MHz.
(Intercepts were introduced in section
2.6.) Lower frequency performance is im-
proved with a larger inductance RF choke.
Higher gain is available if the output is
tuned, shown in F i g 6.33. The output drain
resistance for this amplifier is close to
10 kQ, allowing it to form one termination
of a bandpass filter. The variation shown
with a single tuned output circuit has a typi-
cal gain of 12 to 13 dB with a 5 0 - Q load.
The 50-£2 input match is a 15-dB return
loss. Noise figure was 5.0 dB at 21 MHz.
This amplifier has no tuning at the
input, for CI and LI arc both large. Lower
noise figure is often obtained with a suit-
able input network, one that usually
degrades input impedance match. The
designer can generally design an input
Fig 6.32—A common-gate amplifier using a JFET. The 100-Q resistor at the drain
network that will present a needed imped- suppresses UHF oscillations. See text regarding the drain load resistor, "R."

6.12 Chapter 6
 a t u n e d circuit w i t h a sizable i m p e d a n c e
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e o u t p u t is then ex-
tracted f r o m the source with a ferrite trans-
f o r m e r . An e x a m p l e a m p l i f i e r m e a s u r e d
gain of 11 dB with N F = 1.9 dB. No stabil-
ity p r o b l e m s w e r e noted. T h e output match
was good, although the input is severely
mismatched.
Dual gale M O S F E T s m a k e excellent R F
amplifiers as shown in Fig 6.35. T h i s cir-
cuit w a s tuned f o r both the 21 and the
14 M H z b a n d s with similar results obtain
with each. T h e 14-MHz circuit is shown.
A p i - n e t w o r k transforms the 50-12 source
to "look like" an i m p c d a n c e of 2 0 0 0 Q at
gate-1 of the F E T . The n e t w o r k was
designed for a Q of 10 and used an existing
2.7-p.H R F C . T h e drain is matched with a
f e n i t e t r a n s f o r m e r f o l l o w e d by a 6 - d B
pad. This a m p l i f i e r p r o v i d e a gain of
16.5 dB (including the loss of the p a d ) with
a 3.6-dB noise figure. The circuit had an
output intercept o f + 12.5 d B m .
T h e gain is often excessive with dual-
gate M O S F E T s . Better o v e r a l l r e c e i v e r
LI: 2.7 u H R F C d y n a m i c range is a f f o r d e d by r e d u c e d
0.1 CI: 0.1 u F gain. T h e pad helps, but it c o m p r o m i s e s
the a m p l i f i e r intercept p e r f o r m a n c e , f o r
L2: 15t # 2 8 , T30-6
the a m p l i f i e r must h a v e a 6 dB h i g h e r
C2: 2 - 1 8 p F intercept to get the quoted value. E v e n the
C3: 33 p F 1200-12 drain load resistor c o m p r o m i s e s
C4: 15 p F 1MD p e r f o r m a n c e . S o u r c e d e g e n e r a t i o n
provides an alternative, achieved by dis-
c o n n e c t i n g the s o u r c e b y p a s s capacitor.
Fig 6.33—A 21-MHz RF amplifier. This circuit, with the values shown, provides a Gain d r o p p e d to 9 dB for the circuit shown
gain of 14 dB with a 5-dB noise figure. Redesign of the input network produced a (with pad), and the noise f i g u r e increased
NF of 1. 5 dB, but with reduced gain of 12 dB. A shield between the source input slightly to 4.1 dB with O I P 3 = + 1 4 d B m .
circuit and the output drain circuit is advised, especially if high-Q solenoid coils
are used. It is generally not required when using toroids, although the gate should The low-Q inductor used in the input pi-
be grounded with short lead length. nctwork compromises the noise figure. Re-
placing it with a toroid dropped the
3.6-dB N F to 2.5 dB. Even lower values are
available if a higher impedance is chosen
for the pi network. The input match is very
poor with all variations of this amplifier.
M a n y of the feedback amplifiers
described throughout this text are suitable
for RF a m p l i f i e r application. T h e noise
figures can be in the 3 dB area with s o m e
transistors. F o r e x a m p l e , we have mea-
sured a 3 - d B N F with a 2 S C 1 2 5 2 operat-
ing with 2 0 - m A emitter current.
T h e m o d e r n trend in a m a t e u r receivers
is to include an R F amplifier that can be
switched into the circuit if needed. That
s w i t c h i n g is best d o n e with relays,
although P I N diodes can also be used if
d o n e with extreme care to avoid second-
order intermodulation. It is also c o m m o n
to include o n e or t w o attenuators that can
be s w i t c h e d ahead of a receiver. An
attenuator equally decreases the strength
of all signals reaching the f r o n t end. O f t e n
the signals we are trying to c o p y are strong
Fig 6.34—Source follower functioning as a low-noise amplifier. The drain resistor enough that an attenuation of 10 dB will
serves to suppress UHF parasitic oscillations. The components shown will tune
not cause a sensitivity p r o b l e m . T h e real
from 6 to 22 MHz.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.13

 6 (IB
+12 100

In

20:4 t, FT37-43
(Of
Ll 270 pF Fig 6.36—A 50-fi, 10-dB pad using
standard resistors and a toggle switch.
100K 57 pF nominal Short lead lengths should be used to
2.7 uH RFC provide good performance over the HF
region. Relay switching could also be
used.
Fig 6.35—Dual-gate MOSFET RF amplifier. This version used an RF choke at L1
with Qu = 50. A higher Q inductor will drop the amplifier noise figure. See text.

+ 12

R1 ^
10K
r E3
150
Dual-Gate MOSFET
Availability
The dual gate MOSFET was a
.01 — V W .01 very popular consumer device from
IB (O) 2H7000
—€o>
1970 to 1980 and was readily
available from a number of sources.
R2 - The part provides low noise,
10K
moderate to high amplifier inter-
51 Q1 51 < cepts, and reasonable power
R4 RS : consumption. They also offer good
39K!> R9 AGC performance. They are now
>1M
: R7 more difficult to obtain than they
were in the past.
But Dual-Gate MOSFETs are still
available. Several suppliers in
Japan continue to manufacture a
R6 .
15 >
variety of components. The NEC
3SK131 is an excellent part, but it is
available only in a surface-mount
form.
Phillips manufactures a large
1114152 variety of dual-gate devices. These
.01; are often listed in some US cata-
logs. Again, these devices appear
R8 < predominantly in SMT format.
10K<> Generally, it is quite straightfor-
ward to substitute one MOSFET in a
V-control
RIO 02 circuit designed for another. There
1M may be a few different biasing
details, but these can be extracted

r
A A A — f < h 2H7000
from data sheets, which are gener-
ally available on the World Wide
39K
Web. Experiments may be required
if data Is not available.
Finally, most circuits using dual-
gate MOSFETs can be built with N-
channel JFETs in a cascode
configuration. This is illustrated in
Fig 6.37—A 10-dB pad using electronic switching. A bridged-Tee pad (R3, 4, 5, 6) is
switched with low-cost MOSFETs, During thru operation, Q1 is on while Q2 is off. the IF amplifier part of this chapter.
Q2 comes on during attenuated operation. Current consumption is about 1 mA.

6.14 Chapter 6
utility of an attenuator is that most distor- The typical miniature toggle switch works attenuation position with the Q 2 gate low.
tions drop faster with signal strength than well for pads of this sort with 10 to 20 dB The Q l channel is then held at 6 V. But
the signals themselves. Hence, if strong attenuation. when Q2 is turned on, R 6 is switched to
signals within a band are causing gain A scheme is shown in Fig 6.37 where R F ground. The dc potentials also change
compression or intermodulation distor- 2N7000 M O S F E T s replace a mechanical to turn Q l off. W e measured an insertion
tion, a small decrease in the strength of the switch. The FETs are both R F a n d dc loss of 0.38 dB with this circuit, with a 10
offending signals can completely elimi- switches in this application. A pair of re- dB gain step. The 14-MHz IIP3 exceeded
nate the problems. sistors. R1 and R2. create a 6-V supply. R9 +35 d B m during low attenuation, and was
A passive attenuator is shown in Fig 6.36 will bias Q1 into conduction in the low +26.5 d B m in the attenuation position.

6.2 IF AMPLIFIERS AND AGC

A superheterodyne receiver uses an ure, including the loss of any filter ahead verter. The receiver is then completed
intermediate frequency between an initial of it, can have a m a j o r impact on system through digital calculations. Distortion
mixer and detector, primarily as a means for performance! within the IF amplifier and the A-to-D
obtaining selectivity. It is this selectivity that The distortion properties of IF amplifi- converter bccomc vital.
selects the sideband received, or provides ers will become more important in emerg- In the following pages we will consider
single-signal CW reception. The IF is the ing receiver topologies. These receivers, a number of IF amplifier circuits. W e will
usual place for adding and controlling re- largely based upon digital signal process- examine them for noise figure, gain, gain
ceiver gain through voltage control. ing. use wide I F filters followed by an IF variation, and 1MD. Some complete IF
Voltage-controlled gain is usually real- amplifier driving an analog-to-digital con- systems will be shown.
ized with integrated circuits. But the most
popular p a n s are slowly, but surely disap-
pearing as the consumer markets evolve
toward larger scales of integration.
Accordingly, this section contains two Crystal
IF
goals. First, we hope to illustrate some I F Filter
Receiver Front End Amplifier
amplifier methods that can be applied be-
fore the semiconductors disappear. And of
greater import, we hope to illustrate some
methods that others can use to develop
their own IF circuits. Bet G—15 dB, HF=7.1
Early superhets used tuned IF amplifi-
ers. providing selectivity throughout the Fig 6.38—The front end presented earlier in Fig 6.31 Is combined with a crystal
amplifier while modern designs usually filter of known insertion loss, followed by an IF amplifier. If the filter has a 10-dB
use local filtering. Signals exit a mixer, IL, a 7-dB IF noise figure will produce a system NF of 10.6 dB.
pass through a filter (usually built from
quartz crystals) to reach the IF amplifier.
As such, the IF amplifiers are protected
from strong out of band signals, the
sources of p e r f o r m a n c e - c o m p r o m i s i n g
distortions. Reasonable linearity is still
useful to preserve low in-band distortion.
The importance of I F noise figure is
illustrated in Fig 6.38 where we calculate Fig 6.39—AmplHler
for examination ot
receiver noise figure for a system with the the MC1350P. Gain
front end treated earlier. The front end had is reduced by over
a 7.1-dB N F with total gain of 15 dB. W e 60 dB by Increasing
start with a lossy crystal filter with 10-dB the dc current Into
insertion loss and find that overall system pin 5.
noise figure is always above 10 dB, even if
the IF N F is as low as 3 dB. A more real-
istic filter loss of 3 dB provides an overall
N F i n the 8 to 9 dB region, even with fairly
noisy IF amplifiers. IF Amplifier noise fig-

Transmitters and Receivers 6.IS

 R»c not used for
•eanreaents. Use 200 for
Short l e a d s good output watch.

• Output Input

Dl=MPH3-»04 or
ximi lar.

ALl transistors
2H3904
It: 10 bifilar
turns FT37-43

Fig 6.40—Bipolar transistor discrete IF amplifier with gain Fig 6.41—Simple gain-controlled amplifier. The inset shows
reduction using the same mechanism as used in the the use of two PIN diodes to increase the control range
MC1350P. Control range was 70 dB, experimentally slightly with the same control current. Many diode types work
controlled with a 10-kQ manual IF gain. with this circuit; see text. The 10-kCl pot establishes manual
IF gain.

6.6 dB, increasing to 14.1 dB with 10-dB

gain reduction. Changing R x to 220 £1 with
a new matching transformer produced fur-
ther degradation.
Fig 6.40 shows a breadboard circuit
with internal workings similar to the
'1350. although the TC has additional dif-
ferential input and output buffering. The
QI collector current passes through Q2
that operates as a common base amplifier.
Gain is reduced by increasing the base bias
.l |out.put
on Q3 so that emitter current and signal
current are both robbed from Q2. This cir-
cuit provided measured gain of 16.5 dB,
70-dB gain-control range, and good I M D
D l , 2 : HPH3404 o r MA47600 performance. Noise figure was 7 dB at
maximum gain, but degrading to 19 dB
with 10-dB gain reduction. We noted a
noise peak when Q 2 and Q 3 conducted
Fig 6.42—AGC amplifier with FETs and PIN diodes. Manual gain is controlled with equal currents. Careful examination re-
the 10-kQ pot. vealed the same effect with the M C I 3 5 0 .
A bipolar transistor circuit using PIN-
diode emitter degeneration is shown in
The first amplifier presented uses the terminated with a ferrite transformer, pro- Fig 6.41. Although simple, this circuit
popular Motorola MCI 350P. Although this ducing a 10-MHz gain of 4 ? dB. The gain- offers promise. Gain at 10 MHz was mea-
device is, at this writing, slated to he dis- control range was over 65 dB. The noise sured at 30 dB with a MPN3404 PIN diode.
continued. it will probably be available for figure was 5.1 dB. but degraded to 10.3 dB Gain control range was also 30 dB. A
a while from distributors, or from surplus. when the gain was reduced by 10 dB. builder may wish to load the collector with
The methods used in the 1350 can also be The relatively high input impedance is a resistor to produce slightly less gain per
realized with discrete components. The rarely suitable for termination of crystal stage with a better output impedance
MCI 350P test circuit is shown in Fig 6.39. filters. Extra resistance. R T , is often paral- match. Noise figure was 5.2 dB and hardly
The input between pins 4 and 6 (the leled with the input to achieve a needed changed with a 10-dB gain reduction. Sev-
input differential pair) looks like a impedance. R T = 620 £2 produced a net eral diode types were evaluated in this cir-
2700-£2 resistance paralleled by 8 p F at impedance near 500 £2. a common value cuit. Power rectifiers such as the 1N4006
10 MHz. This was approximately matched needed to terminate crystal filters. This or 1N647 worked well with low distortion,
with a 2:14 turn fcrritc transformer with no was matched to 50 £2 with a 4:14 turn ratio although large diode capacitance reduced
R t used. The output, consisting of open col- ferrite transformer. Gain dropped to 39 dB, gain control range. While a 1N4152
lectors of a differential transistor pair, was as expected. Full gain noise figure was worked, IMD was severe at some currents.

6.16 Chapter 6
rig 6.43—A single JFET is biased Fig 6.44—Two variations of a basic dual-gate MOSFET amplifier with variable
toward pinchoff with the reverse bias gain. The circuit at (8) has the larger gain variation. The labeling of FETs is
developed across the Zener diode. arbitrary, for these circuits are intended to be generic. The 3SK131, an SMT device
This amplifier offers 13.S dB gain and a from NEC is popular and is recommended.
37-dB gain range. The transformer,
wound on an FT37-43, was available on
t h e bench at the time of testing. The
10-kQ pot sets gain.

PIN diodes can be combined with FETs

for interesting IF amplifiers. Fig 6.42
shows an amplifier where a F E T serves as
a common-source amplifier, followed by
shunt PIN diodes driving a source-fol-
lower output. Output could also be ob-
tained f r o m the first F E T drain through a
transformer. This topology has many pos-
sibilities. Gain was 13 dB with a 60-dB
gain range when the F E T was driven from
50 SI. N F was poor in this topology, but
became very good when the first F E T was
driven f r o m a higher impedance via an
L-network. Gain also increased.
The p e r f o r m a n c e of this a m p l i f i e r is
critically dependent on diode type. IMD
was very low with M A 4 7 6 0 0 diodes from
Microwave Associates. Experiments with
devices f r o m HP are recommended using
the 5082-3080, or H S M P - 3 8 1 4 . We
observed some gain compression in this
circuit with the M P N 3 4 0 4 . Fig 6.45—An IF amplifier using either a dual-gate MOSFET or a cascode connection
A very simple JFET IF amplifier is shown of JFETs. These amplifiers use diode strings in series with the FETs for biasing,
in Fig 6.43 where gain is reduced as gate allowing substantial gain reduction with reduced control voltage. Transformers use
#28 wire on an FT-37-43 ferrite toroid. Measurements were done at 10 or 14 MHz.
bias moves toward pinchoff. This circuit is
configured (with a Zener diode) for a single
power supply, although a negative supply
for the biasing would be preferred. The cir-
cuit shown barely has adequate power slower than gain, so IMD products are configurations in Fig 6.44. that at (A) is
supply voltage, but basic performance is always decreasing with gain reduction. The the more fundamental. T h e F E T is self-
excellent. Initial gain is 13.5 dB (at 10 MHz) measurements were done with 50-Q input biased with a source resistor while gate 1
with a smooth control range of 37 dB. Noise drive. An input network presenting a higher is at dc ground. Gate 2 is normally biased
figure at maximum gain was 4.6 dB, increas- impedance to the gate will increase gain and at about 1/3 of V ^ to produce maximum
ing to 7.6 d B with 10 dB of gain reduction. drop noise figure. gain. M o v i n g the voltage on gate 2 in
Input intercept was +10 tlBm at maximum
A popular IF d e v i c e is the dual-gate either direction will reduce gain. T h i s
gain, dropping eventually to - 7 d B m as
M O S F E T . See the earlier sidebar regard- topology has a limited gain reduction (less
gain drops. However, intercept degrades
ing part availability. With t w o basic than 10 dB) available unless gate 2 is

Transmitters and Receivers 6.17

 extended to negative voltages.
Fig 6.44B shows a popular variation
used in many imported transceivers. Here,
gate 1 is positively biased to about 2 V.
With this biasing on gate 1. stage gain
variation exceeds 30 dB with positive gate
2 voltages.
Fig 6.45 shows additional variations wc
examined. One uses a 3N209. The biasing
is similar to that in the previous figure,
part A, but uses a string of diodes in the
source lead with gate 1 biased at the top of
the diodes. With the 3N209 circuit shown
and without R T . maximum gain was 28 dB
and gain variation was nearly 60 dB. The
noise figure was 2.5 dB with the I. network
designed to present an impedance of
2.3 kD to gate I. Inserting a 3-k£2 resistor
for R x generates a proper termination for
the L-network. causing gain to drop to
20 dB and NF to increase to 6.6 dB. but
now with a well-matched input. Noise fig-
ure degrades only slightly with gain reduc-
tion. Very careful gate-2 bypassing is
required with all circuits using dual-gate IF amplifier using a cascode JFET pair.
MOSFETs to prevent UHF oscillation. The
bypass capacitor should have fairly small
C (1000 pF) so AGC dynamics arc not al-
tered, and capacitor lead length should be
short. A drain resistor (10 to 100 II) will of the current is shifted from Q2 to QI as down voltage, but may still have high ca-
also help stability. gain is reduced, increasing I in shunt ele- pacitance when compared with "RF parts."
IMD performance was modest with a ments and removing it from the series The total IF gain needed in a traditional
typical TIP3 being - 1 1 dBm. However, ones. This circuit has a gain range of about AM receiver can be relatively high, for the
intercepts improved as gain was reduced. 50 dB. Performance is better (lower inser- usual AM detector requires high drive for
This means that distortion products always tion loss at max. gain) with premium PIN reasonable fidelity. The product detectors
drop faster with gain reduction than the diodes, but is surprisingly good with used in CW and SSB receivers are linear to
desired signals. 1N4006 rectifier diodes. Rectifiers often low levels, IF gain is then picked for good
The circuit on the right side of Fig 6.45 use a PIN structure to secure high break- sensitivity with the weakest signals and is
uses a cascode connection of J310 JFETs.
A slightly larger source resistor was used
to obtain similar stage current, typically
8 mA at full gain. This amplifier produced
a maximum gain of 28 dB with a 34-dB
gain variation (R T absent.) The 3-dB NF
degraded little with 10 dB gain reduction.
A typical input intercept was - 3 dBm with
IMD products dropping faster than the
desired output signals.
Fig 6.46—IF
IF Systems attenuator circuit
offering a 50-dB
As we begin to assemble a complete IF gain-control range
system, the first question we ask is "How with an insertion
much gain is needed?" Often, the required loss of about 2 dB
at S MHz. The
gain is very small. In such a case, one can 10-kQ pot is a
still realize AGC in the IF with a voltage- manual gain
controlled attenuator. Such a circuit is control.
shown in Fig 6.46 where PIN diodes are
arranged in a ladder of series and shunt
elements. Diode current is controlled with
a bipolar differential pair. Q2 is com-
pletely "on" at maximum gain, conduct- dl-d5: UUms. 46,d7: 1 » 1 » QX-Q3: 2MJ90J

ing all the current offered by Q3. This L1-L2: SO nH on ferrite toroid, 100 uH RFC suitable.
current flows through series elements with
no current flowing in the shunt parts. Some

6.18 Chapter 6
reduced as signals get larger. The IF in a threshold with no output until a minimum Diodes arc often used to combine two
digital receiver (one where an IF signal is input signal is applied. This dc threshold control signals applied to an IF amplifier,
applied to an A-io-D converter) may have must be exceeded before any gain reduc- shown in Fig 6.49. The two signals can
more severe requirements related to tion occurs, resulting in a threshold for RF comc from a manual gain control and an
matching the input signal requirements of detection. Once the signals are strong AGC detector, or they may originate from
the A-to-D. enough to exceed the detector threshold, two parts of an AGC system. Similar meth-
The usual IF system provides two out- the AGC holds the output nearly constant ods are used to mute receive IF amplifiers
puts. One drives the signal detector while with only a slight increase with louder during transmit periods.
the other is applied to an AGC detector, a applied signals. Fig 6.48 shows a plot for Fig 6.50 shows a system with two stages
circuit providing dc output in proportion one of our receivers, showing output sig- of gain with cascade connected J3IOs fol-
to (he RF input voltage. Some AGC detec- nal Vs available input power. The thresh- lowed by a fixed gain differential amplifier.
tors arc shown in Fig 6.47. The two out- old was adjustable and was set to occur A 1:1 turns ratio ferrite transformer couples
puts must be well isolated. It is especially with an input signal of - 9 7 dBm, MDS for the signal from the cascode to the dif-pair, IF
important that BFO energy from the prod- this CW receiver was under - 1 4 0 dBm. so output is extracted from one collector of the
uct detector not reach the AGC detector there is a moderate range of signals avail- pair while the AGC detector is driven by the
where it can be detected to reduce IF gain. able before any AGC action occurs. This other isolated output.
Noise on the BFO (see the oscillator chap- is an "ear-saver" design, one that protects The experimental development of this
ter discussion of noise) that reaches the IF the user from loud signals, but produces a circuit started with the first stage, Q1 and
can also inter-modulate with signals to receiver sound not compromised by AGC. Q2. The gain control range was only 30 dB
compromise performance. Most commercial transceivers use AGC with three diodes in the chain, but in-
systems designed to make all signals creased with 5 diodes. Single stage current
A dc signal emerges from the AGC
sound nearly the same. This is clearly an was 10 mA at maximum gain, but dropped
detector. It is usually amplified and pro-
open area for the individual designer/ to about 1 mA at minimum gain. A second
cessed with op-amps for application to the
builder. stage. Q3 and Q4, was added, sharing the
controlled stages.The detector may have a

(C)

Fig 6.47— Several RF detectors suitable for examining the output of an IF amplifier. (A) shows a traditional diode detector
with fast signal diodes. (B) is similar although the diode anode is now biased for a small direct current. (C) shows an emitter
follower functioning as a detector. As the Input voltage becomes more positive, causing the normal rectification in the e-b
diode, collector current flows to charge the capacitor. (D) shows a sensitive detector, suitable for AM demodulation as well
as level detection. The Gilbert cell mixer now functions as a multiplier, for both Input ports are driven by the same signal. A
10-mV input yields several volts of dc output. If that input Is 40% modulated, the audio output will be several volts peak-to-
peak. This circuit was designed by W7AAZ. Many op-amps are suitable Including the TL074 and NES532. (E) uses a pair of
differential amplifiers, each with an 80-mV Input offset, causing each to operate as a detector. Cross coupling of the outputs
cancels ac In the output through balance, producing a current input to an op-amp. A dual supply Is usually required for this
circuit. This detector was used by Carver (W7AAZ) In his high-performance IF system.6

Transmitters and Receivers 6.19

 1 AGC Response, 3 MOSFET IF (A)
0 0
- —
8 /
/
"W - f J IF Amp
1 -10
•a
m

/
I

/
t
P a
-so /

1 -« /
£
S "50

f
•§* -60
O -160 -140 - DO -100 -80 -60 -40 -20
Pi
Receiver Input Power, dBm

(C)
Fig 6.48—Receiver output vs input for a CW receiver. The threshold was
specifically set in accord with operator preferences. The IF amplifier is shown
later in Fig 6.56.

Fig 6.49—Diodes combine signals applied to an AGC amplifier. At A, an AGC

signal and one from a manual gain control are selected with the more positive one
setting the voltage applied to the amplifier. In B, two signals applied to transistor
bases establish currents that are summed in an op-amp. Both inputs contribute in
this case. The version in C uses diodes within feedback loops of op-amps to form
"perfect rectifiers," which establish a very sharp transition between active inputs. agcsM».*sd 4Oct 61 vlzoi
This scheme was elegantly used in Carver's IF amplifier.7

Fig 6.50—A general-purpose IF Amplifier module using cascode J310 JFETs. See text for details.

6.20 Chapter 6
 AGC Response, Cascode .B10 IF
DC Voltage at Op-Amp Output

4? J \
P * V
10 \
& I0
I• —
N
O
V
\

-100 - 90 - 80 - 70 -Ml - 5 0 "40 " 3 0 "20 "10 0 10 -100 - 9 0 -80 -70 -60 "JO " 4 0 - 3 0 "20 "10 0

Input Power, dBm Input Power, dBm

Fig 6.51—IF system output ws input for the IF system using

two cascode-connected J310 stages. The two curves are for Fig 6.52—DC level at the op-amp output. This voltage may be
two different values of "input resistor" in the op-amp, which used directly to drive an "S meter," driven with an op-amp dc
alters system dc gain. See text for details. follower.

diode chain with the first pair. A 1310 the op-amp output is connected to the con- siderable output variation between thresh-
source follower was temporarily added to trolled stages through diode D6. The old and the u p p e r input-signal limit.
provide an output. The gain variation was response is shown in the upper curve of Input resistor was dropped to 10 k Q
now 93 d B at 10 M H z . increasing to F i g 6.51. Although the loop is well (increasing loop gain) to produce the pre-
108 dB at 5 M H z . There was a high pass behaved, it is not very tight, allowing con- ferred response in the lower curve. But the
gam characteristic, a result of the 15 )jH
RFC. Larger values should be used at
lower frequency. The gain control voltage
should be between 0 and 6 V. Values above
(A)
6 V produced a slight gain decrease, so <audio)
that region should not be used.
The 9-MHz gain was 28 dB with no
input network other than a blocking
capacitor. N F was then 7 dB with R1 at V-C
10 k£2. A 9-MHz pi network was then added i — t a-recower
to present a 2-kQ impedance to the first
rate, causing gain to j u m p to 44 dB while
SF dropped to an impressive 1 dB. The NF
11 V-c

• as maintained with 10-dB gain reduction.

We then replaced R1 with a 2.2-kQ resis-
tor. so the network now causes a good 50- J•T"*
- I
SR-tecorer
V-C
11 impedance match to appear at the input. P 1
X _L (C!
S F was now up to 5 dB. increasing to 6 dB
» i t h a 20-dB gain reduction. The designer/
Builder needs to design his or her own net-
works to apply this circuit to the filters
oxed.
(D)
The rest of the circuit was now built,
initially using 47 k Q for R30. R I V at U2, R SB-recover
The no-signal dc voltage at the detector To
output (emitter of Q7) was 6.8 V. so the
i n n of " o f f s e t " pot R31 was set initially to
this value. The Op-amp, U2, buffers the 1 "
control voltage appearing across the
timing capacitors, C19 and C21. The loop Fig 6.53—Audio envelopes and timing capacitor values vs time. See text for
h closed, generating AGC action, when details.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.21

 F o r e x a m p l e , t h e c o n t r o l g a t e s of t h e J F E T
+V-dd -Vrld c a s c o d e c i r c u i t s are c o n n e c t e d to b y p a s s
capacitors with series decoupling resis-
tors. T h e b y p a s s i n g is a n e c e s s a r y p a r t of
the cascode connection. The related R C
f o r m s a l o w p a s s f i l t e r that c a u s e s the sig-
nal at t h e c o n t r o l l e d g a t e t o a r r i v e after an
input is a p p l i e d . T h e d e l a y is s h o r t with
t h e v a l u e s w e used, b u t c a n b e m u c h l a r g e r .
S i g n a l s a r r i v i n g at t h e I F i n p u t are d e l a y e d
through a narrow bandwidth filter, gener-
a t i n g an o u t p u t that g r o w s at a f i n i t e r a t e ,
a l l o w i n g a f a s t A G C s y s t e m to k e e p u p .
In s o m e a p p l i c a t i o n s w e w i s h to a p p l y
A G C to an R F or I F a m p l i f i e r p r e c e d i n g a
n a r r o w f i l t e r , s h o w n in t h e e x a m p l e of
F i g 6 . 5 4 . T h e f i l t e r d e l a y is n o w w i t h i n t h e
l o o p . T h a t is. w e d e t e c t a f t e r the d e l a y of
the f i l t e r , a l l o w i n g the s i g n a l to g r o w t o o
large to a v o i d o v e r l o a d i n g e a r l y s t a g e s .
Fig 6.54—System with a crystal filter within the AGC loop. See text for discussion. T h e d e l a y can c a u s e s e v e r e o v e r s h o o t or
p o p p i n g if g a i n r e d u c t i o n is a p p l i e d
d i r e c t l y t o the first s t a g e . T h e p r e f e r r e d
s o l u t i o n is to p u r p o s e f u l l y delay t h e c o n -
s y s t e m is n o w i n e f f e c t i v e at i n p u t levels H a v i n g o b s e r v e d t h e ideal s y s t e m w i t h - trol s i g n a l a p p l i e d to the e a r l y s t a g e w i t h a
a b o v e 0 d B m . T h e r e a s o n f o r this b e c o m e s o u t A G C , w e n o w i n c r e a s e the s t r e n g t h of long time constant. Good system dynam-
c l e a r if w e e x a m i n e t h e c u r v e of F i g 6 . 5 2 t h e dit c h a i n a n d a c t i v a t e A G C . G e n e r a l l y ics r e s u l t o n l y w h e n t h e c o n t r o l l e d e l e -
s h o w i n g d c v o l t a g e at the U 2 o u t p u t . T h e w e w i s h to h a v e a n e a r i n s t a n t a n e o u s f a s t ments after the narrow filter have enough
d c v o l t a g e h a s r e a c h e d 0 by the t i m e t h e attack, with a slow decay, yielding the r a n g e a n d s p e e d to r e d u c e t h e g a i n f a r
input g e t s to 0 d B m , s o n o f u r t h e r g a i n same audio response w e saw with the ideal e n o u g h to r e s t r i c t t h e o u t p u t f o r a short
r e d u c t i o n is p o s s i b l e . A d j u s t m e n t of the case. B u t that d o e s not a l w a y s o c c u r . w h i l e , o n l y to r e c o v e r , a l l o w i n g t h e
o f f s e t pot. R 3 1 . will probably fix this Fig 6.53B shows a single timing capaci- d e l a y e d s t a g e t i m e to a s s u m e part of the
a n o m a l y , if it b e c o m e s a p r o b l e m . S u c h tor, C I , with a m o d e s t detector output overall gain reduction.
l e v e l s w o u l d r a r e l y b e e n c o u n t e r e d in impedancc, R A . The resulting slow attack W e u s e d a s t r i n g of M o r s e c o d e d o t s as
most receivers. a l l o w s t h e a u d i o to c l i m b to high levels, a m e a n s f o r e v a l u a t i o n a n d a d j u s t m e n t of
T h e r e l a t i v e l y c l e a n d c v a r i a t i o n in and then d r o p o v e r t h e c o u r s e of t h e dit as an A G C s y s t e m . T h i s is n o t a m e r e i l l u s t r a -
F i g 6 . 5 2 s u g g e s t s that a s i g n a l - s t r e n g t h the capacitor voltage stabilizes. tion, b u t a u s e f u l e x p e r i m e n t a l m e t h o d . A
m e t e r c o u l d b e d r i v e n d i r e c t l y by the o p - D e c r e a s i n g the attack time, realized by simple P I N diode modulator called the
a m p . If this is d o n e , a d d i t i o n a l c i r c u i t r y reducing R A . reduces this distorting be- Ditter is p r e s e n t e d in t h e m e a s u r e m e n t
s h o u l d b e a d d e d f o r a n y "calibration"' that h a v i o r . But in t h e e x t r e m e t h i s g e n e r a t e s c h a p t e r f o r j u s t this p u r p o s e . T h e dits are
m i g h t be d e s i r e d w i t h t h e S m e t e r . T h e t h e b e h a v i o r s h o w n in F i g 6 . 5 3 C w h e r e c r e a t e d w i t h a 5 5 5 t i m e r IC, but c o u l d b e
o f f s e t p o t is not i n t e n d e d f o r this p u r p o s e , the timing capacitor charges very fast g e n e r a t e d with a f u n c t i o n g e n e r a t o r , n o w
b u t o n l y to set A G C t h r e s h o l d . b e f o r e t h e g a i n is r e d u c e d . T h e aud io d r o p s offering adjustment ability. The Ditter
T h e a t t a c k t i m e in t h e c i r c u i t of Fig 6 . 5 0 to a level b e l o w t h e p r o p e r o n e , but g r o w s i n c l u d e s an o u t p u t to d r i v e t h e e x t e r n a l
is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e d e t e c t o r ( Q 7 ) o u t p u t to t h e right v a l u e a f t e r the l o o p " c a t c h e s t r i g g e r i n g i n p u t of a d u a l t r a c e o s c i l l o -
i m p e d a n c e , by t i m i n g c a p a c i t o r s C 1 9 and u p . " In t h e e x t r e m e , t h e r e is n o a u d i o f o r a s c o p e . O n e ' s c o p e c h a n n e l t h e n s h o w s the
C 2 1 , and by R 2 3 . R 2 1 a n d the c a p a c i t o r s period until the timing capacitor dis- control voltage while the other monitors
establish recovery characteristics. The c h a r g e s e n o u g h to a l l o w t h e I F g a i n to in- a u d i o o r TF o u t p u t . I d e a l l y , an A G C l o o p
v a l u e s s h o w n w e r e a p p r o x i m a t e and m a y c r e a s e to a v a l u e that p r o d u c e s a s t a b l e
n e e d s to be tested o v e r a w i d e r a n g e of
r e s u l t . T h i s is t h e w e l l k n o w n " p o p "
r e q u i r e later c h a n g e s . signals, for stability can vary with level.8
o c c u r r i n g with s o m e A G C s y s t e m s .
A P N P d e t e c t o r w a s u s e d in the p r e v i -
ous circuit. Consider a more general case A solution is f o u n d with t w o (or m o r e )
w i t h an N P N (or a d i o d e ) d e t e c t o r c h a r g - liming capacitors, C I and C2. C I is s m a l l e r Audio Derived A G C
ing m e m o r y capacitors. F i g 6.53. shows than b e f o r e and can be charged quickly with Simple equipment sometimes uses
some audio envelopes and related capaci- the d e t e c t o r o u t p u t i m p e d a n c c . T h i s m a y audio derived A G C where a detector
t o r v a l u e s . V c . T h e input to t h e r e c e i v e r r e d u c e the gain, but for only a short time. s a m p l e s t h e a u d i o signal to c h a r g e a t i m -
(or I F s y s t e m ) is a c h a i n of M o r s e d o t s M u c h of the c h a r g e on C ! d i s c h a r g e s ing c a p a c i t o r . T h a t v o l t a g e is p r o c e s s e d
(dits.) E v e n if t h e r e c e i v e r is to b e u s e d through R to be deposited on C2, increasing a n d a p p l i e d to I F a m p l i f i e r s f o r A G C . T h e
o n l y for S S B . this r e p r e s e n t s a g o o d test that voltage and the resulting V c value. T h e a t t r a c t i o n of this is that a u d i o a m p l i t u d e s
m e t h o d . S e t the s t r e n g t h of the d i t s to b e p r o c e s s repeats with e a c h c y c l e of the I F a r e l a r g e , f o r m o s t of t h e r e c e i v e r g a i n h a s
l o w . A G C to " o f f , " and the m a n u a l g a i n system. T h i s behavior, closer to the ideal, is b e e n r e a l i z e d . L i t t l e m o r e g a i n is r e q u i r e d
c o n t r o l to d r o p the TF gain to p r o d u c e the presented in Fig6.53D. to c o m p l e t e t h e A G C s y s t e m . B u t t h e r e is
r e s p o n s e s h o w n in F i g 6 . 5 3 A . T h i s is an a major difficulty with audio derived
T h e p r o c e s s is m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n
ideal a u d i o e n v e l o p e w i t h a w e l l - d e f i n e d
the simple picture w e have painted, for A G C . T h i s r e l a t e s to t h e s a m p l i n g n a t u r e
r i s e a n d fall t i m e .
t h e r e a r e d e l a y s w i t h i n all IF a m p l i f i e r s . of the d e t e c t i o n p r o c e s s . T h e d e t e c t o r s w e

6.22 Chapter 6
 ponents used. A ferrite transformer
TO A u d i o
O u t p u t AmD. m a t c h e s t h e 5 0 - f i d r i v e to the m a i n c r y s t a l
f i l t e r i m p e d a n c e of a b o u t 3 0 0 £}. T h e filter
o u t p u t is then t r a n s f o r m e d up to 2 2 0 0 £2
w i t h a l o w Q p i - n e t w o r k w h e r e a 2.2-k£3
i n p u t resistor at Q1 t e r m i n a t e s the filter.
This topology guarantees a reasonable
noise figure with a proper i m p e d a n c e
m a t c h f o r the c r y s t a l filter, vital ill p r e -
serving the specified p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e
p i - n e t w o r k u s e d an e x i s t i n g R F c h o k e ,
a l t h o u g h a toroid with h i g h e r Q L - w o u l d b e
preferred.
Fig 6.55—Full wave audio detector for use in simple AGC systems.
This IF has a bandwidth just under
5 0 0 H z with a m e a s u r e d s y s t e m s i d e b a n d
s u p p r e s s i o n in e x c e s s of 120 d B . T h e d c
A G C r e s p o n s e w a s p r e s e n t e d e a r l i e r in
Fig 6.48. The threshold may be adjusted
w i t h R - t h (2.5 k Q ) s h o w n in the s c h e m a t i c .
have e x a m i n e d o b t a i n o n e s a m p l e f o r e a c h should all be of the s a m e type. T h e a t t a c k a n d r e c o v e r y are d e t e r m i n e d
peak of t h e w a v e f o r m b e i n g d e t e c t e d . A u - T h e initial a d j u s t m e n t of the I F a m p l i - by the c o m p o n e n t s in the Timing s e c t i o n
dio w a v e f o r m s have f e w e r peaks, espe- f i e r s t a r t s by r e m o v i n g o n e e n d of R 3 0 of t h e c i r c u i t . An N P N d e t e c t o r , Q 6 .
cially if t h e s i g n a l is a l o w - p i t c h e d C W f r o m the b o a r d . T h e A G C is t u r n e d o n w i t h c h a r g e s a f e e d t h r o u g h c a p a c i t o r that f e e d s
carrier. T h i s a l l o w s the r e c e i v e r to b e o v e r - n o s i g n a l s p r e s e n t and the v o l t a g e on pin 6 a s i g n a l out of t h e m i l l e d e n c l o s u r e to a
w h e l m e d in t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n p e a k s . of U 2 i s m e a s u r e d a n d r e c o r d e d in the C A 3 1 4 0 o p - a m p that then d r i v e s i n v e r t e r
A partial s o l u t i o n to t h e l o w f r e q u e n c y n o t e b o o k . T h e v o l t a g e o n t h e a r m of R 3 1 Q 8 . T h e Q 8 c o l l e c t o r then d r i v e s the tim-
d i f f i c u l t y lies in a u d i o f i l t e r i n g . A h i g h - is then set for the s a m e v a l u e . R 3 0 is a g a i n ing c a p a c i t o r s . T h e p r i m a r y o n e is a
pass f i l t e r ( w i t h s e v e r a l e l e m e n t s ) a h e a d i n s t a l l e d in t h e c i r c u i t . R 3 1 c a n be r e - .01 | i F . w h i c h is tied to a 0 J | i F / 1 0 k£2
of b o t h t h e A G C d e t e c t o r a n d a u d i o o u t p u t a d j u s t e d later to alter A G C t h r e s h o l d . c o m b i n a t i o n p a r a l l e l e d by a 1 j i F / 1 0 0 k Q
will p r e v e n t v e r y l o w b e a t n o t e s f r o m p a i r . T h e s e v a l u e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d with
A s i m i l a r M O S F E T I F a m p l i f i e r is
r e a c h i n g c i t h e r . A c u t o f f of a r o u n d 3 0 0 H z t h e ditter m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r . T h e v o l t a g e
s h o w n in F i g 6 . 5 6 . T h i s circuit u s e s t h r e e
is s u g g e s t e d . on the t i m i n g c a p a c i t o r a n d the a u d i o sig-
g a i n s t a g e s u s i n g 3N 2 0 9 M O S F E T s , a t y p e
A t y p i c a l f u l l w a v e d e t e c t o r f o r u s e in nal a r e show n in a p h o l o .
a v a i l a b l e in o u r j u n k b o x . T h o s e w i s h i n g
an a u d i o d e r i v e d A G C is s h o w n in F i g 6 . 5 5 to d u p l i c a t e t h i s c i r c u i t s h o u l d c o n s i d e r the
with b o t h p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e a u d i o 3 S K 1 3 I o r s i m i l a r a v a i l a b l e S M T parts.
p e a k s c o n t r i b u t i n g to the o u t p u t . A s l o w A f t e r t h r e e gain s t a g e s , the s i g n a l is ap-
A Hang AGC System
r e c o v e r y is set b y t h e 1 0 - M Q r e s i s t o r p l i e d to a d i f f e r e n t i a l P N P a m p l i f i e r . O n e F i g 6 . 5 7 s h o w s an A G C s y s t e m with t h e
across C1. which can be made faster with side is t e r m i n a t e d in a 5 1 0 - £ i r e s i s t o r , p r o - u n u s u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of u s i n g t w o t i m i n g
a s m a l l e r r e s i s t o r . S h o r t i n g C I will turn v i d i n g a p r o p e r l y m a t c h e d d r i v e f o r a "tail s y s t e m s . O n e is d r i v e n b y I F s i g n a l s , so it
the A G C o f f . T h e s y s t e m s h o w n is s u i t a b l e e n d " c r y s t a l f i l t e r . T h i s f i l t e r s e r v e s to has t h e a d v a n t a g e s of q u i c k a t t a c k . T h e
for IF a m p l i f i e r s like t h e M C I 3 5 0 P . L e v e l eliminate noise generated within the IF other c o m e s f r o m the audio.
s h i f t i n g o r i n v e r s i o n m a y be r e q u i r e d f o r a m p l i f i e r at f r e q u e n c i e s o t h e r than that of During receiver operation, signals
other controlled circuits. t h e m a i n f i l t e r . It a l s o d i s t r i b u t e s the s e l e c - within the I F c a u s e C 2 to c h a r g e , w h i c h
M e n t i o n w a s m a d e e a r l i e r of d i f f i c u l t i e s tivity i m p r o v i n g t h e s t o p b a n d a l l e n u a t i o n r e d u c e s r e c e i v e r gain. If the signal is a short
with f i l t e r s w i t h i n an A G C l o o p . T h i s p r o b - of the o v e r a l l s y s t e m . T h e n o i s e f i l t e r is lived o n e o r e v e n a n o i s e b u r s t . C 2 will
lem c a n b e e s p e c i a l l y s e v e r e w h e n a u d i o t e r m i n a t e d in a r e s i s t o r a n d a F E T fol l o w e r q u i c k l y d i s c h a r g e t h r o u g h Q 1 0 . a low
filters a r e i n c l u d e d w i t h i n a l o o p . A u d i o output stage feeding a product detector. p i n c h o f f J F E T switch. H o w e v e r , if the sig-
filtering is b e t t e r a p p l i e d a f t e r d e t e c t i o n T h e m a i n I F i n p u t s e l e c t i v i t y is p r o v i d e d nal is p r e s e n t for a r e a s o n a b l e p e r i o d
for t h e A G C l o o p . b y a 10th o r d e r f i l t e r with a 5 0 0 - H z b a n d - (around a hundred milliseconds), audio
Although audio derived systems present width, designed for a Gaussian-to-12-dB will h a v e been a m p l i f i e d by Q11 to c h a r g e
major design challenges, good perfor- r e s p o n s e . ( T h i s f i l t e r , a K V G X L - 1 0 M . is C I n e g a t i v e l y . T h i s d r i v e s Q 1 0 into
m a n c e is still p o s s i b l e . T h i s b e c o m e s e v i - r e g r e t t a b l y n o l o n g e r a v a i l a b l e . T h e y are p i n c h o f f , w h i c h d i s c o n n e c t s it f r o m C 2 .
dent when high-end professional-level s o m e t i m e s f o u n d on t h e s u r p l u s m a r k e t , T h e only d i s c h a r g e path f o r C 2 is now a
a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g e q u i p m e n t is s t u d i e d . but f e w w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d . ) T h e I F sys- 22-M£2 resistor, so r e c o v e r y is slow, caus-
tem was breadboarded without printed ing the gain to hang at a nearly c o n s t a n t
b o a r d s in a m u l t i p l e - s e c t i o n s u r p l u s mill- level. But if the a u d i o d i s a p p e a r s f o r a short
Practical FET IF ing. O n e s e c t i o n c o n t a i n s t h e m a i n f i l t e r p e r i o d , C I d i s c h a r g e s . Q 1 0 is no l o n g e r
System Examples input w h i l e a n o t h e r h a s the o u t p u t and the pinched off, and C2 quickly discharges,
The Cascode JFET amplifier presented f i r s t I F a m p l i f i e r . A n o t h e r h o u s e s t h e 2nd r e t u r n i n g the r e c e i v e r to full gain.^ T h e
earlier w a s d e v e l o p e d as a c o m p l e t e , practi- a n d 3 r d I F s t a g e s w h i l e vet a n o t h e r h o l d s a u d i o d e t e c t o r is an " o p e n - l o o p " p r o c e s s
cal m o d u l e . F i g 6.50, f o r use in a M o n o - t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l a m p l i f i e r a n d an N P N that m o d i f i e s the basic c l o s e d - l o o p IF A G C
b a n d S S B / C W T r a n s c e i v e r . T h i s circuit can d e t e c t o r . F e e d t h r o u g h c a p a c i t o r s r o u t e Ihe s y s t e m , so d o e s not alter s y s t e m d y n a m i c s .
be built with other F E T types, with appropri- s i g n a l t h r o u g h the m i l l i n g w h e r e t h e d c T h e h a n g s c h e m e can b e a d a p t e d to o u r
ate circuit c h a n g e s . T h e J F E T s s h o u l d b e p a r t s of the A G C l o o p r e s i d e . F E T I F systems with relative ease, as
roughly m a t c h e d f o r I D S S ( + / - ! ( ) % ) and T h e input c i r c u i t r y is critical to the c o m - s h o w n in F i g 6 . 5 8 . The p a r t i a l circuit in

Transmitters and Receivers 6.23

 Perhaps the most impressive IF design
we have seen is that presented by Bill
Carver. W7AAZ. in QST. May. 1996. 10
This circuit is based upon the AD600
series of integrated circuits from Analog
T i m i n g signals for Devices. Although expensive, these parts
the M O S F E T IF offer outstanding performance. They fea-
Amplifier during ture a wide AGC range that is extremely
A G C testing. dB linear (the gain in dB is directly pro-
portional to the control voltage). Bill's
complete paper is included on the CD
included with this book.
Carver's IF amplifier included a num-
ber of outstanding features not found in
other circuits. His circuit used three
amplifier blocks where gain reduction
(A) is set up for NPN dctcctors while (B) IF amplifier using a dual-gate MOSFET occurred, just as one of the previous cir-
accommodates PNPdetectors. The builder input stage followed by an MC1350P. By cuits shown (Fig 6.56) used three stages.
must provide many design details. applying AGC to both FET gates, he was Our simple circuit had gain reduction
able to obtain a very wide AGC range in a applied to all stages at once. But Carver's
relatively simple design. PIN diodes can IF used a sequential gain reduction. The
Evolving Designs also be added to existing systems to stretch last stage had gain reduced by 40 dB
Clearly, many of the methods can be the range of" FET or bipolar amplifiers, in- before any other reduction occurred.
combined. For example. W7AAZ built an tegrated or not. Further reduction was applied then to the

+8v - — . 5n/FT
+8v
5n/FT
^ 0 0 !
5n/ FT

9 MHz IB
KVG XL10M LI
5: 12t Q l , 2,3:311209
T1
II i1 see text.

f
L1,L2: 2.7uH molded RFCS T2: 20t#28, 4t#28 link
Tl: 5t:12t, FT37-43 FB43-2401 or FT37-43.
D1-D7: 1N4152
+8v
2N3906 x2

+12 100 ^ .1

To Prod.Det.
IF Output 39K
—VAr-

15:5 t FT37-43
W — G r o u n d to Mute.

Fig 6 . 5 6 — I F amplifier using three gain reduction stages with dual-gate M O S F E T s . See text for discussion.

6.24 Chapter 6
 +12 V

1, 5000

Except as indicated, Decimal

AGC values of capacitance are in
microfarads (pF): others are in
picofarads (pF); Resistances are
in Ohms; k=1,000, M=1,000,000.

Fig 6.57—A full hang-type AGC system with two timing systems. The IF-derived AGC offers quick attack while "hang time" is
established by the audio.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.25

Fig 6.58—Adapting a hang AGC to IF amplifiers with NPN or PNP detectors. See text discussion.

m i d d l e s t a g e , a n d u f l e r a total of 8 0 - d B mon with e m e r g i n g receivers: H e used a a u d i o a m p l i f i e r s ) or s o f t w a r e with a D S P

r e d u c t i o n , to t h e input s t a g e . T h i s w a s p o s - f e e d - f o r w a r d s c h e m e w h e r e the A G C detec- system. Delay in filters or amplifiers pre-
sible b e c a u s e of the b u f f e r i n g u s e d within tor not only c o n t r o l l e d the gain of stages sented a p r o b l e m with traditional negative
the A D 6 0 0 and t h e u s e of " p e r f e c t r e c t i f i - ahead of the detector, but altered the gain in feedback systems, but now b e c o m e s an as-
e r s " in t h e c o n t r o l c i r c u i t s . T h e C a r v e r stages f o l l o w i n g detection. In principle, one set. p r o v i d i n g time for c a l c u l a t i o n s in a
system also used a second gain reduction could carry these m e t h o d s to the e x t r e m e D S P based system. T h e s e D S P m e t h o d s h a v e
l o o p with a b a n d p a s s f i l t e r b e t w e e n s t a g e s , where an accurate dctector establishes gain already, at this writing, b e e n used f o r a f e w
optimizing dynamic behavior while keep- in later stages without a need for negative years in s o m e very- h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e mili-
ing n o i s e l o w . feedback. T h i s could be realized with hard- tary equipment from R o h d e and S c h w a r z ,
T h e C a r v e r p a p e r included a n o t h e r w a r e (a log a m p l i f i e r and detector with vari- and will b e described f o r use in D S P trans-
unusual feature that will b e c o m e m o r e c o m - able gain I F a m p l i f i e r s and s t e p p e d gain ceivers described in this b o o k . "

6.26 Chapter 6
6.3 LARGE SIGNALS IN RECEIVERS AND FRONT END DESIGN
The range of signals available 10 our tivity. But they are vital in protecting the dependent on position within the pass-
receivers can be very wide indeed. The receiver from other responses. band. For the four-element filter, side-
weakest signals we can hear are limited The narrow crystal filter in the IF deter- band suppression extends from only 14
by noise, and d r o p to typical levels of mines the receiver selectivity. T h e dB at the low audio end to 4 3 dB at the
- 1 4 0 dtim or less in a C W bandwidth. response of two crystal filters arc shown high end. The 8-elernem filter offers much
These are rare at HF. but common at VHP. in F i g 6.61. Both filters were designed f o r better sideband suppression, but is still
But signals can also be very strong. The a bandwidth of 2 5 0 0 H / . but one filter only 27 dB at the low audio end. It grows
strongest sky-wave propagated signals we uses four crystals while the more selec- to 87 d B at the high audio extreme. Simi-
encounter will depend on our antenna, but tive one uses eight. The beat frequency lar response can be expected in a filler
can sometimes be as strong as a microwatt oscillator ( B F O l is normally placed 300 method SSB transmitter. The improved
1-30 dBm.) or even more with high gain Hz below the lower passband edge for an response of the phasing method is dra-
antennas. upper sideband response. The voice fre- matic for sideband suppression at low
M o s t of o u r concern for large signal quencies then recovered by this 2500-Hz audio frequency. This suggests that com-
performance relates to the receiver front bandwidth filter extend from 300 to 2800 binations of a superhel and the phasing
end, the part of a receiver between the Hz. Opposite sideband response is then method may o f f e r spectacular perfor-
antenna connector and the place where well defined. O w i n g to the filter skirt mance, an old, but still viable option.
receiver bandwidth determining selectiv- shape, sideband suppression is critically Several undesired phenomena occur in
ity is obtained, usually the first crystal fil-
ter. The front end usually consists of much
more than the "'first stage."
We have two concerns when dealing with
the large signals. First. "How loud can the
signals be that we try to copy with our re-
ceivers?" This problem relates to both front
sods and to gain control. Second, "What is
the range of signals that can be present within
the receiver front end without causing prob-
lems when we attempt to receive average or
weak signals?" This is the more complicated
and subtle problem with the more interest-
ing challenge.
Fig 6.59 shows a partial receiver block
diagram for a 14-MHz single-conversion
« p e r h e t with a 2-MHz IF. The calculated
front-end filter response is shown in
Fig 6.60. The center frequency response
is normalized to 0 dB, so the response at
S21
10 MHz can be used to evaluate worst-case 10 12 14.1 13
image rejection, 76 dB for this example. -?s.Q841 -55.233 2e-06 -6S.?<5?5
The front-end bandwidth, over 400 kHz, is
wide enough to not require any adjustmenl
during receiver use. These filters contrib- Fig 6.60—The response of the front end from 10 to 18 MHz. The image rejection at
10 MHz is 76 dB. This is a computer generated ideal plot. The 3-dB bandwidth is
ute little to the receiver signal selectivity
0.41 MHz, centered at 14.1 MHz. This response results from a single- tuned circuit
and do not impact noise figure and sensi- at the antenna and a double-tuned circuit between the RF amplifier and the mixer.

Fig 6.59—14-MHz receiver with a 2-MHz IF. The LO tunes from 12 to 12.2 MHz, so the image extends from 9.8 to 10 MHz.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.27

 of e l i m i n a t i n g spurious responses in fre-
q u e n c y synthesizers, s o m e t i m e s quite
significant when D D S is used.
• Second-order intcrmodulation distortion:
Generally, intermodulation distortion
(IMD) occurs when t w o or more signals
are applied to the input of a receiver, cre-
ating distortion products at frequencies
other than the input. Seeond-ordcr I M D
produces sum and difference frequencies.
The sample receiver of Fig 6.59 used a
2-MHz IF, so two inputs that were sepa-
rated by 2 MHz could generate an output
at the IF. Inputs at. for example. 13 and
15 M H z could generate the distortion
products. However, this is unlikely, forour
receiver is preceded with considerable fil-
tering. Signals at these frequencies arc
attenuated before reaching the later parts
of the front end. Second-order I M D is
characterized by an intercept, as outlined
Fig 6.61—Response of two crystal filters. While both have a bandwidth of 2.5 kHz,
one uses only 4 crystals (trace marked with small squares) while the other uses 8. in Chapter 2.
Both were designed for a Butterworth response. Steeper skirts are afforded by a • H a r m o n i c distortion: This is a distortion
Chebyshev response. See text lor discussion.
created within the r e c e i v e r w h e r e the
output is a h a r m o n i c of an input. For
example, second-order h a r m o n i c distor-
a receiver f r o m end to c o m p r o m i s e perfor- away from the weak carrier by several tion would occur if a strong 1 M H z sig-
mance. These include: receiver b a n d w i d t h s . It is often 3 0 % am- nal was applied to the f r o n t end. A
• Gain c o m p r e s s i o n : If we e x a m i n e the plitude m o d u l a t e d by an a u d i o sine s e c o n d - h a r m o n i c signal would then be
f r o n t end as a m o d u l e and measure gain, wave. W e increase the strength of the created within the receiver and p r o d u c e
we find a constant value for most sig- m o d u l a t e d carrier while the receiver is a signal in the 2 - M H z IF. A more c o m -
nals. H o w e v e r , as the signals grow, we tuned to the w e a k e r one. waiting until mon distortion might be generated f r o m
eventually find a level where the gain is the modulation of the stronger appears a strong 7 - M H z signal. The 14-MHz sec-
reduced over the small signal value. W e on the weaker one. ond h a r m o n i c created in the r e c e i v e r
usually s p e c i f y the I dB c o m p r e s s i o n f r o n t end is available for s u b s e q u e n t
• Phase noise blocking, or reciprocal mix-
point, that available input power in d B m conversion. But the e x a m p l e f r o n t end
ing: This problem was described in the
where gain is reduced f r o m the small filtering is extreme e n o u g h thai little 1
oscillator chapter. Phase noise blocking
signal value by 1 dB. A simple way to or 7 M H z e n e r g y w o u l d ever reach the
occurs when a strong signal is applied to
measure gain c o m p r e s s i o n uses t w o sig- front end. Direct harmonic distortion is
the rccciver ai a f r e q u e n c y slightly away
nals or "lones." One is of w e a k to aver- rarely a problem in a well pre-selectcd
f r o m the r e c e i v e r ' s tuned f r e q u e n c y .
age strength and is the one tuned by the receiver, one with good input filters. But
Noise sidebands on the receiver L O will
r e c e i v e r d u r i n g the test. T h e other is most c o m m e r c i a l receivers, today, are
mix with the i n c o m i n g signal to p r o d u c e
m u c h stronger and is placed within the not well pre-selectcd.
an IF response. T h e o f f e n d i n g energy is
f r o n t - e n d b a n d w i d t h , but well outside a noise rather than a carrier, so the • T h i r d - o r d e r intermodulation distortion:
the receiver bandwidth. A typical spac- r e s p o n s e is proportional to r e c e i v e r Like s e c o n d - o r d e r I M D discussed
ing for an S S B receiver might be 2 0 to b a n d w i d t h . F o r this reason, the re- above, this distortion is the result of two
50 k H z . T h e strong signal is increased sponse, when measured, is usually nor- input tones. This product is perhaps the
until the weaker one d r o p s by 1 dB. This malized to a 1 - H z bandwidth. Measure- most difficult distortion to eliminate, for
can be a difficult m e a s u r e m e n t to per- ment is c o m p l i c a t e d by noise on a it occurs close to a pair of incoming fre-
f o r m . "Phe IF filter must have e n o u g h generator that might be used to m e a s u r e q u e n c i e s . It is a third-order product
stopband attenuation to k e e p the strong it. It is difficult to differentiate between because there are essentially three fre-
.signal f r o m creeping into the IF where the two. j u s t i f y i n g the term reciprocal quencies that create the product. If t w o
undesired A G C detection might occur. mixing. N o i s e blocking shows up as a input frequencies, f, and f 2 . arc applied
Further, the m e a s u r e m e n t is often com- problem on the air when a strong local to a receiver, the distortion o c c u r s at
p r o m i s e d by reciprocal m i x i n g , or noise signal appears. If the o f f e n d i n g signal is (2 f | —fj) and (2 f r f , ) . In the first
b l o c k i n g , which is d e s c r i b e d below-. on C W . the noise s h o w s up as a keyed example, f j is used twice, so the 3 inputs
Gain c o m p r e s s i o n is easily d e f i n e d , but hiss that b e c o m e stronger as the receiver are f,, f ( . and f 2 . (Note that order can
rarely a great problem. is tuned toward the signal. It is a f u n d a - also be related to the e x p o n e n t on a
mental problem that is " f i x e d " only with dominant term in a p o w e r series descrip-
• Cross modulation: This was a c o m m o n
careful L O design. Reciprocal mixing is tion of the distorting device, but that
specification when A M was the d o m i -
a m a j o r problem with f r e q u e n c y synthe- r e l a t i o n s h i p is o f t e n a m b i g u o u s . 1 2 )
nant modulation m o d e . It is measured
sized radios and o f f e r s the single most C o n s i d e r two e x a m p l e inputs of 14.04
with two input signals. T h e first is an
fundamental challenge to the design of and 14.05 M H z . directly within our in-
average streng^i carrier with no modu-
advanced c o m m u n i c a t i o n s e q u i p m e n t . put filters. The distortion products now
lation of i t ' s own. T h e s e c o n d is a
An integral part of this challenge is that appear at 14.03 and 14.06 MHz. The front
m u c h stronger modulated carrier spaced

6.28 Chapter 6
 s i g n a l in d B m a v a i l a b l e to t h e r e c e i v e r is
t h e g e n e r a t o r o u t p u t less the a t t e n u a t i o n
50 Ohm
1
Step v a l u e in d B .
Voltmeter
! Attenuator (
After measuring M D S , a second signal
' .1. ' Receiver
s o u r c e is a d d e d to t h e test set. as s h o w n in
\ J «;n under T e s t
F i g 6 . 6 2 B . T h e s o u r c e s a r e a d j u s t e d to
h a v e e q u a l o u t p u t s . T h e hybrid in that fig-
(A)
ure is a circuit e l e m e n t that c o m b i n e s t h e
50 Ohm o u t p u t s of t w o 50-£2 g e n e r a t o r s to f o r m
Sources o n e 50-12 s o u r c e w h i l e i s o l a t i n g the (wo
generators f r o m each other. (See Chapter
7 under Return Loss Bridge.) The com-
b i n e d o u t p u t is a d j u s t e d as n e e d e d in t h e
s t e p a t t e n u a t o r . T h e level a v a i l a b l e to
t h e r e c e i v e r i n p u t is a d j u s t e d until t h e
r e s p o n s e on t h e m e t e r is e x a c t l y t h e s a m e
3 - d B - a b o v e - t h e - n o i s e r e s p o n s e that w e
s a w when m e a s u r i n g M D S .
Fig 6.62—Setup for measurement of receiver dynamic range. See text for
C o n s i d e r an e x a m p l e . First, turn A G C
discussion.
o f f f o r all D R a n d i n t e r c e p t m e a s u r e m e n t s .
W i t h no input s i g n a l s , the a u d i o o u t p u t
f r o m o u r r c c c i v c r is 5 m V . R M S . T h i s is
end filtering d o e s nothing to attenuate the M D S w a s d e f i n e d e a r l i e r a n d is t h e
the result of r e c e i v e r n o i s e . W e n o w i n j e c t
original signals that c a u s e the distortion, available power from a room temperature
a 1 4 . 0 1 0 - M H z s i g n a l f r o m a g e n e r a t o r and
nor d o c s it attenuate the products once they signal s o u r c e that will c a u s e the o u t p u t to
a d j u s t t h e l e v e l and r e c e i v e r t u n i n g until
have b e e n g e n e r a t e d . First i m p r e s s i o n s i n c r e a s e by 3 d B a b o v e the b a c k g r o u n d
t h e a u d i o o u t p u t is 7.1 m V , 3 d B a b o v e the
suggest thai this distortion w o u l d ruin all n o i s e . M D S is r e l a t e d t o r e c e i v e r n o i s e f i g -
n o i s e level. T h i s h a p p e n e d with a g e n e r a -
c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , but things are not that ure a n d b a n d w i d t h by
tor o u t p u t of - 1 3 0 d B m . w h i c h b c c o m c s
severe. T h e detail that saves our rcceivcrs
the M D S . N e x t , w e set u p t h e signal g e n -
is the characteristic that a third-order dis-
M D S (dBm) = - 1 7 4 dBm + e r a t o r s at 14.03 a n d 14.05 M H z , l e a v i n g
tortion p r o d u c t will increase or decrease
the r e c e i v e r t u n e d to 14.01 M H z . W e in-
in proportion to the cube of the input sig- 10 l o g ( B W ) + N F E q 6.12
c r e a s e the l e v e l of the t w o t o n e s until w e
nals. S o . if i n p u t signals b e c o m e 1 d B
g e t t h e s a m e o u t p u t that w e s a w with the
weaker, the resulting distortion d e c r e a s e s w h e r e B W is t h e r e c e i v e r noise b a n d w i d t h
M D S measurement. This occurs with a
by 3 dB. T h i r d - o r d e r I M D in a receiver is in H z a n d N F is t h e n o i s e f i g u r e in d B .
s i g n a l at the input of - 4 4 d B m p e r tone.
characterized b y a third-order input inter- N o i s e b a n d w i d t h is u s u a l l y c l o s e to signal
E a c h tone is 86 d B a b o v e M D S . so o u r
cept. A l t h o u g h t h i r d - o r d e r I M D is an b a n d w i d t h al the - 6 d B p o i n t s . " F o r
t w o - t o n e d y n a m i c r a n g e is 8(5 d B .
insidious p r o b l e m , it is easy to m e a s u r e . e x a m p l e , a receiver with a 2.5-kHz
Generally, a n y t h i n g w c do to a f r o n t - e n d b a n d w i d t h a n d a 10-dB n o i s e F i g u r e h a s a W e can m e a s u r e t h e r e c e i v e r i n p u t t h i r d -
design to i m p r o v e I M D will also i m p r o v e - 1 3 0 - d B m M D S . T h e test s e t u p u s e d t o order intercept directly with the s a m e
gain c o m p r e s s i o n and s e c o n d - o r d e r I M D . m e a s u r e M D S is s h o w n in Fig 6 . 6 2 A . T h e e q u i p m e n t . ( S e e C h a p t e r 2, s e c t i o n 6, to
For these reasons, the third-order input in-
tercept b e c o m e s a central d e s i g n consid-
eration for receivers.
0IP3=+11 0IP3-+20 1JIF3-+30
1 dBm
(LBm v dBm * v

Dynamic Range and . Out

Intercepts G-10 B=14

1/
£5=12
We often hear folks talking about dB dB

dynamic range of an a m p l i f i e r o r r e c e i v e r , +1 dBm-1.259 nSM-

hut the t e r m is o f t e n ill d e f i n e d . W h e n -4 d B m = Q . 3 9 8 n»-«_
a s k e d a b o u t it, the p e r s o n will say it is the -6 iffim-0.251

d i f f e r e n c e in d B b e t w e e n the l a r g e s t s i g n a l
1
that a c i r c u i t c a n h a n d l e and the s m a l l e s t . = 0.137
But w h a t is t h e w e a k e s t s i g n a l and w h a t
d e f i n e s it? H o w l a r g e c a n the l a r g e s t be
and h o w d o w e d e f i n e t h a t ?
W e use the f o l l o w i n g receiver defini- 0IP3=+27.4
tion: T w o - l o n e d y n a m i c r a n g e is the d B .dBm

difference between two signal levels; The

IIP 3 — 8 . 6 3
w e a k e s t signal that a r e c e i v e r c a n deal with G=36
dBm
i> the minimum discernahle signal, or dB
M D S w h i l e the s t r o n g e s t signal is o n e of
Fig 6.63—Three amplifier stages are cascaded. The intercept for the cascade is
t w o s i g n a l s of e q u a l s t r e n g t h that p r o d u c e
calculated by normalizing the intercepts to one plane in the system, converting
a t h i r d - o r d e r d i s t o r t i o n p r o d u c t with a re- values from dBm to mW, combining values in the way that resistors in parallel ai
s p o n s e e q u a l t o t h a t of t h e M D S . combined, and then converting back to dBm. See text for details.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.29

see how intercept is defined and mea- Fig 6.63. This cascade might be part of a method is a worst-case analysis where the
sured.) Set the attenuator output for a wideband amplifier to be used in an SSB intermodulation voltages from each stage
larger output per tone than was used in iransmitter. The output intercepts of the add in phase. Our measurements indicate
the direct DR measurement. Tune the three stages are known: +11, +20. and that this analysis works well in practical sys-
receiver to 14.01 MHz and note an output +30 dBm. The respective gains are 10. 14 tems. so long as the individual stages are
of 100 mV in the audio voltmeter. We note and 12 dB. Recall that the inpul intercept well-behaved, as defined earlier.
thai the available signals at 14.03 MHz and of an amplifier is related to the output in- Receiver dynamic range is related to
14.05 MHz is -31 dBm per tone or per tercept through the stage gain. This differ- intercept and MDS by a simple equation.
signal. We now tune the receiver to ence is not restricted to a single stage. The MDS is further related to bandwidth
14.03 MHz where we encounter a very output intercepts for each stage can be nor- and noise figure, offering a more general
loud signal. The attenuator is increased malized. or "'moved" to the input of equation.
until the output level is again at 100 mV. the overall system, becoming + 1 . - 4 . and
finding thai this happened when we had - 6 dBm. The individual intercepts are DR(dB) = Q j - MDS)
added 60 dB of attenuation. Hence, the merely adjusted by the gains in the move-
distortion products arc 60 dB below the ment process. The normalized values are
desired response. This is the IMD Ratio, convened from dBm to power in milli-
j-J (ilP? + 174 - Nl- - 10 los (BW ))
or IMDR. Rewriting an equation from sec- watts. The values are then combined in the
tion 2.6 same way that resistors-in-paraliei are
Eq 6.15
IMDR combined, producing a net input intercept
IP.... = P.. + Eq 6.13 of 0.137 mW. or - 8 . 6 dBm. The parallel
where IIP3 is the input third order inter-
resistor analogy has no significance other
cept. M- is system noise Figure, BW is
allowing us to calculate the input than being an easily remembered formula.
the system bandwidth. Recall that kT =
intercept for the receiver as - 1 dBm. While This can also be presented in a general- - 1 7 4 dBm at 290 K. explaining that term
doing this measurement, it is instructive to ized equation in the equation.
change the input from - 3 1 to - 2 9 dBm. or
a similar small amount. With 2-dB-larger
input signals, we see IMD products that
IP, = - 10 log 110 Id Some Front-End Design
are 6 dB stronger. The IMDR becomes (General case)
56 dB. still leaving an input intercept of Examples
- I dBm. If lP, i n remains a constant, the We are now in a position to evaluate
front end is said to be well behaved. some receiver front-end designs. A few
Two formats are used to indicate inter- / U"i IP; examples will be presented using data
lb
cepts. The one we have used for an input • 10 loa 10 10 " 10 t- 10 obtained from measurements we have per-
intercept is IP3l„. The IP} part indicates v formed.
(N-3.3-stage example)
that it is a third-order intercept while in The first example is a popular one
signifies an input rather than output inter- Eq 6.14 among the QRP clan, a receiver front end
cept. An equally valid designation is ITP3 based upon the Phillips NE602 or NE612.
where the first / denotes input. The second Our evaluation data was presented in
where IP, now represents the intercept of the
format relates to the output intercept, sym- Chapter 5. A front-end block diagram,
cascade and fP[ is the intercept of the
bolized by IP)0„,or OlP.i. Avoid associat- Fig 6.64, includes gains, intercepts, and
i-th stage with all intercepts being normal-
ing the term intercept point with a number, noise figures for the stages. The result of
ized to a single plane in the amplifier. In our
for il is only confusing when the plane of applying the dynamic range analysis is
example, we normalized all intercepts lo the
definition is not specified. Strictly speak- also included. This is a simple design with
system inpul. However, we could have
ing. intercept point is the intersection of only one active block, the mixer. The dy-
picked the output, or any interface between
two curvcs. namic range is modest at 83 dB, although
stages. (The equation is derived in Introduc-
Intercepts are not mere esoteric curiosi- tion lo Radio Frequency Design.) This sensitivity is quite good. The noise figure
ties or receiver figures-of-merit. Rather,
they arc tools, useful parameters available
to the designer. Intercepts offer two major
capabilities:
• If the input intercept of a receiver (or any IIP3--17.3
system) is known, the intermodulation To 5 0 0
distortion is well defined for all input Hz BW
Crystal
levels. • Filter
• If the intercepts and gains for all stages in and IF
a system arc known, they can be com- HF-IO dB
G a i n - - 1 dB GatlHlS ttB
bined to calculate the intercept for the KF-5 dB
fcitiaste]
complete system. Input and output in-
tercepts for a single stage di fler by the
l e t C a i n . I S dB
small-signal stage gain. I I P 3 - - 1 5 . S dB»
Equation 6.13 lets us calculate distor- MBS - - 1 4 0 dBm
•OF - 7 dB
tion for any input level. DB . S3 <m
The intercept of a cascade was treated
earlier and is illustrated here with an ex- Fig 6.64—A simple receivesffront end using the NE602. The IF system is estimated
ample: a three-stage amplifier shown in to have a noise figure of 10 dB.

6.30 Chapter 6
is essentially that of the IC plus the inser- gain to actually increase input intcrccpl add an R l ' a m p l i t i c r . In other situations, an
tion loss of the bandpass filter preceding with only a modest noise figure change. NE602 is used as a second mixer in a
it. Care must be exercised in implement- Some builders claim a 90-dB dynamic receiver, having been preceded with gain.
ing this design if this DR is to be realized. range with N E 6 0 2 front ends with this The trade-off is illustrated in Fig 6.65. A
For example, chip intercept could be al- bandwidth. Clearly, careful measurements bandpass filter with a 1 -dB loss is followed
tered if output is cxtractcd only from one are always worthwhile. by a low gain R F amplifier. The signal then
output terminal. On the other hand, care- In spite of the good MDS obtained from passes through the original 2-dB-Ioss fil-
ful mismatch at the input may decrease the NE602, some builders are tempted to ter before arriving at the mixer. This de-
sign offers a 2-dB improvement in sensi-
tivity. but at the pricc of a 5-dB decrease in
dynamic range.

0IP3=0 dBm The next sample front end. Fig 6.66, is

To 500 the opposite extreme. Here we use a diode
Hz BW ring mixer as the first clement, followed
Crystal
Z Matching •Filter by a post mixer amplifier with high cur-
NE602
Network and IF rent. This is the sort of I'ronl end we
recommend for the 160. 80 or 40-m ama-
Gain=-1 (IB Gain=-2 dii Gairt=18 dB teur bands where low noise figure is rarely
Gain=10 1IF-5 dB needed. Although M D S is ~8 to 10 dB
HF=3 dl
higher than the previous designs,
dynamic range is 98 dB. The mixer in this
llet Gain = 25 dB
IIP3 = -25.5 dBm design is a +7-dBm-tvpe ring such as the
MDS = -142.2 dBm Mini-Circuits SBL-1 , " T U F - f o r TUF-3. If
1IF = 4.8 dB an even stronger TUF-1H was substituted,
DR - 78 dB
DR over 100 dB is easily within reach in a
simple design. The post mixer feedback
Fig 6.65—An RF amplifier is added to the previous design, offering slightly amplifier would ideally use a part speci-
improved MDS at the cost of degraded dynamic range. fied just for this application, such as the
2N5109 with 40 or 50 mA. However, a
parallel pair of 2N3904s will do a surpris-
ingly good j o b . again with 40 mA of total
current.

IIB3-+13 Many builders question the use of a

passive mixer with no gain. But it is ex-
actly this lack of gain that leads to the low
noise. The passive nature of the circuit
eliminates the noise-generating elements
Gain=22 dB HF=6 dB that compromise some other mixers. There
Gain—3 OB
Gain=-6 dB is no substitution for actual design.
The high noise figure of the bare-ring-
N e t G a i n = 7 dB mixcr front end is usually not suitable for
I I P 3 - + 1 5 . 2 dBm the higher bands. The designer will often
MDS 132 dBm want to add an RF amplifier to obtain lower
HF = 1 5 . 3 dB NF. This modification is illustrated in
DR - 9 8 dB
Fig 6.67. The modest R F amplifier im-
proves sensitivity by several dB while only
Fig 6.66—Basic front end with a diode-ring mixer followed by a high-current reducing d y n a m i c range by 2 dB. Too
bipolar feedback amplifier. much RF gain could severely compromise
performance.

The Receiver Factor

IIP3-.13 aa. The two-tone dynamic range presented
rt-ystal
inter above has a major disadvantage as a re-
*"<md IF
ceiver figure-of-merit: DR is a strong func-
Gain-10 dfi Galn=22 lifl tion of bandwidth. This is a direct result of
Cain~-2 dB Gain=-6 ilH
dB MDS used in the DR equation. A CW re-
ceiver with a 500 Hz bandwidth will pro-
Hct Gain - 17 dB duce a higher DR than a SSB design with
IIP3 = -4.2 dBm much wider bandwidth. Measurements of
MDS = -139 dBm MDS are difficult, often complicated by
HF - 7.6 dB
DR = 96 dB un-planned filtering in the receiver audio
section. While this filtering may or may
Fig 6.67—An RF amplifier is added to the basic diode-ring front end, significantly not have much impact on the way arcccivcr
improving noise figure while compromising DR by only 2 dB. sounds, the measured results are altered.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.31

 Both input intercept and noise figure for T h e noise figure, and h e n c e , the receiver • A bandpass filter with two or more reso-
a receiver are generally b a n d w i d t h invari- f a c t o r m a y c h a n g e slightly with b a n d w i d t h nators ;
ant p a r a m e t e r s . T h e first is a measure of with s o m e receivers. This is usually the • A diode-ring mixer;
strong signal p e r f o r m a n c e while the other result of d i f f e r i n g filter insertion loss as • A post-mixer a m p l i f i e r using a low-noise
defines weak signal behavior. They can be bandwidth is s w i t c h e d , 1 4 bipolar transistor with n e g a t i v e f e e d -
combined by taking the d i f f e r e n c e . W e call back;
this the receiver factor, R = I I P 3 - N F . The
A General Purpose • An attenuator that creates a stable im-
receiver using a diode ring f r o n t end with-
out R F amplifier, Fig 6.66, had R=0 d B m
Monoband Receiver p e d a n c e at both the output and, through
the behavior of the f e e d b a c k circuitry,
while the N E 6 0 2 receiver with an R F am- Front End the input of the post mixer amplifier;
plifier, Fig 6.65, provided R = - 3 0 . 3 d B m . Although there are numerous routes to • A crystal filter;
While both sample receivers used a C W the c o n s t r u c t i o n of a high p e r f o r m a n c e • And finally, an I F amplifier.
b a n d w i d t h , the R - v a l u e s w o u l d be the f r o n t end, a d e p e n d a b l e robust topology Generally, receivers designed with this
s a m e if they were built with S S B filters. consists of the f o l l o w i n g cascade: front end have produced d y n a m i c range
L a t e r in this chapter we will describe a • A simple b a n d p a s s filter; within a couple of dB of the values prc-
receiver with an astounding R = + 3 5 d B m ! • A low-gain R F amplifier:

6.32 Chapter 6
 dieted by the analysis presented when us- larly with the FET gate lead. resistance generates even better stability.
ing measured data for the individual A cure for the instability is resistance in We have used 100 Q in this application,
stages. The block diagram for this front series with the drain. This is nol a mere for it provides margin without altering the
end is shown in Fig 6.68. experimental band-aid, but a circuit detail low frequency ( H F and low VHF) gain.
A small circuit board was designed and justified with analytic evaluation. Greater The resistor should be placed as close to
fabricated for this front end and includes a
crystal filter of up to 6 crystals. The 5 0 - f l
impedance of the pad is increased with a
pi-network to whatever value needed by G a i n of a J F E T A m p l i f i e r
the filter. The other end of the crystal lad-
The IF amplifier used in the output of the general-purpose receiver front
der is terminated in the proper resistor and end is a common-source configuration with a transformer output present-
a common source JFET amplifier. A PIN ing a 200-Q load to the FET drain. Amplifier gain depends on the imped-
diode attenuator is also included in the IF ance presented to the input.
amplifier output for those applications
where no other I F gain control is avail-
able. A muting switch for the R F amplifier
200 Ohm Xoad
is also included. The complete schematic
is given in Fig 6.69.
The input pre-selector filter is a single
tuned circuit. It begins as a 3-elcment low-
50 J310
pass filter, but the usual inductor is
Ohm - Parameters:
replaced with a series tuned circuit. This
Input Vp— 3v
simple topology degenerates into a low
pass filter in the V H F stopband, a useful Idss=45 mft
attribute when trying to avoid spurious
responses related to stray V H F signals.
The second bandpass filter, a double-
tuned circuit, appears after the R F ampli-
fier where noise figure has been estab- The "filter" is the combination of an impedance-transforming network
lished. Insertion loss is not as critical as it and a crystal filter in this instance. The 50-ft source is transformed to
might be without the amplifier. This means match a higher resistance, 820 Q in the schematic above, with the
that the filter bandwidth can be narrow composite "filter."
enough to ensure very good image rejec- If 1 mV is presented to the input, the voltage at the gate will be increased
by the square root of the impedance ratio, here a factor of 4.05. So, Vg =
tion. It also allows us to use small toroid
4.05 mV. The FET bias current is 7.92 mA in this instance, so the trans-
cores, if desired.
conductance is gm = 0.0126 S, using equations presented in Chapter 2.
Two bandpass filters should be used in The drain signal current is then
designs that include an R F amplifier. An
RF amplifier that is not preceded by a filter
GM»VG = 0.051 milliampere.
is subject to overload from local signals,
particularly the strong V H F broadcasts
This current develops an output voltage across the 200 £2 load, Vout =
that most of us experience. A filter should 10.21 mV. (The 1 0 0 - 0 resistor is significant only in reducing the effective
also appear after the RF amplifier, imme- supply voltage. It is included to suppress parasitic oscillations.)
diately preceding the mixer. This circuit,
often termed the image-stripping filter, Output power is V 2 /200 = 5.21 x 10~7 W. But the available input power
establishes image rejection. If it was only is 1 mV across 50 £1, or 2 x 10-8 W, so transducer power gain is 26, or
present ahead of the R F amplifier, it would 14.2 dB. The important detail here is that power gain is a strong function
not suppress noise at the image frequency of the impedance terminating the filter, shown in the curve below.
that is created by the R F amplifier.
The R F amplifier we chose is a
Common Source J.HST Amplifier Gain
common-gate JFET design. It is capable of 20
very low noise figure while offering good
intermodulation distortion and high power
15
output when needed. It also can have very
good reverse isolation, serving to suppress
r(Rs)
signals at the mixer that would otherwise 10
find their way to the antenna terminal. But
it can also be challenging, for the common
gate FET amplifier can lend to oscillate.
The spurious oscillations, which usually
occur at a few hundred MHz, occur when
the layout is poor or leads are too long. 500 1000 1500 2000
Generally, too much fuss is propagated in
much of the electronics literature regarding Gate Termination, OJutts
long leads in solid-state circuitry, but this is
a place where it really docs matter, particu-

Transmitters and Receivers 6.33

 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Emitter Clii'ii'nl, mA

p g 6.70—Gain (lower curve) and output intercept for one or

: » o 2N3904S in parallel. Two devices should be used for
c u r r e n t s above 20 mA, while total current over 40 mA Is not Fig 6.71—Calculated response for the Gaussian-to-6-dB
-ecommended except as an experiment. crystal filter. The shape is Gaussian for the top 6 dB, but
Tt = 10 bifilar turns on an FT37-43. then reverts to a Chebyshev-like skirt response. The k and q
R9 = 47, R8 = 1kQ, R6 = 1.5 kQ, R7 = 680 Q, R10 = 6.8 kfi, data for this filter were obtained from Zverev's Handbook of
R 1 2 = R13, which are picked to set the dc emitter current. Filter Synthesis, Wiley, 1967.
R i 2 = R13 = 100 n for 30 mA total current.
013.14,15,16,18,19 = 0.1nF.
t

F E T as the b o a r d l a y o u t o r b r e a d b o a r d F i g 6.70. A home station design where this r e c e i v e r . T h e r e c e i v e r a r c h i t e c t u r e is

A simple shielding method for a p o w e r is a b u n d a n t m i g h t u s e 3 0 o r 4 0 m A o n e w i t h o u t an I F / A G C a m p l i f i e r . F r o n t -
• ill R F a m p l i f i e r w a s s h o w n e a r l i e r in w h i l e 10 m A m a y be e n o u g h f o r a p o r t a b l e end p a r t s a r e t a b u l a t e d in the f o l l o w i n g list.
• 1 - c h a p t e r . T h e shield w a s n o t n e e d e d o n a p p l i c a t i o n . N o h e a t s i n k h a s been n e e d e d T h e 5 - e l e m e n t 5 - M H z crystal filter f o r
•nis circuit h o a r d . f o r a p a i r of 2 N 3 9 0 4 s at 4 0 m A total c u r - this receiver w a s d e s i g n e d f o r a 3 - d B b a n d -
The R F a m p l i f i e r o u t p u t r e s i s t a n c e is r e n t . L a r g e r t r a n s i s t o r s with h i g h e r p o w e r width of 5 0 0 Hz and a G a u s s i a n - t o -
. u o u n d 1 0 , 0 0 0 £1. T h a t v a l u e w a s u s e d d i s s i p a t i o n r a t i n g s c a n . of c o u r s e , b e used. 6 - d B shape. T h i s s h a p e has the virtue of a
hile d e s i g n i n g t h e input t e r m i n a t i o n f o r The designer/builder must design the g o o d t i m e - d o m a i n characteristic, k e e p i n g
the d o u b l e t u n e d c i r c u i t w h i l e t h e o u t p u t is crystal filter for the desired bandwidth. r i n g i n g to a m i n i m u m in a n a r r o w filter.
»cl f o r a 5 0 - Q t e r m i n a t i o n . W h i l e the board will a c c o m m o d a t e up to T h e s t o p b a n d a t t e n u a t i o n is still r e a s o n -
T h e R F a m p l i f i e r F E T is b i a s e d o n w h e n 6 crystals, f e w e r may s u f f i c e . In o n e a p p l i - able. A n added virtue of transitional filters,
the N P N s w i t c h is s a t u r a t e d . T h e b u i l d e r cation u s i n g a 5 - c r y s t a l C W b a n d w i d t h fil- i n c l u d i n g this G a u s s i a n - t o - 6 - d B . is a rela-
s h o u l d d e s i g n c o n t r o l c i r c u i t r y to a p p l y a ter, w e f o u n d that s t o p b a n d a t t e n u a t i o n w a s tive insensitivity to exact c o m p o n e n t value,
p o s i t i v e v o l t a g e to the c o n t r o l i n p u t d u r - less than i n d i c a t e d by c a l c u l a t i o n s . T w o a l l o w i n g a m i n o r d e g r e e of " s l o p " w h e n be-
ing r e c e i v e i n t e r v a l s . m e a s u r e s restored p e r f o r m a n c e : First, all ing c o n s t r u c t e d . O n the d o w n side, this f i l -
T h i s m o d u l e uses m i x e r s in the T U F crystal metal c a s e s w e r e g r o u n d e d to a w i r e ter lacks the f a m i l i a r circuit s y m m e t r y of
family f r o m Mini-Circuits. Either the b u s . S e c o n d , a shield w a s s o l d e r e d to the B u t t e r w o r t h and C h e b y s h e v d e s i g n s . W e
T U F - 1 o r T U F - 3 s h o u l d w o r k well w i t h g r o u n d foil b e t w e e n the crystal filter and built this 5 - M H z filter with available c r y s -
+7 d B m of L O p o w e r . A h i g h level m i x e r the post m i x e r a m p l i f i e r . tals that had good Q, o f t e n o v e r 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 .
( T U F - 1 H o r T U F - 3 H with + 1 7 - d B m L O Crystal f r e q u e n c i e s w e r e m a t c h e d to within
The builder/designer has considerable
p o w e r ) will a l s o fit in t h e b o a r d a n d will 10 H z . D e s i g n d e t a i l s are p r e s e n t e d in
flexibility available w h e n c h o o s i n g the
p r o v i d e e v e n h i g h e r d y n a m i c r a n g e , but C h a p t e r 3. A c a l c u l a t e d r e s p o n s e f o r this
terminating resistance for a crystal filter.
o n l y w h e n f o l l o w e d by an a d e q u a t e l y crystal filter is s h o w n in F i g 6.71.
T h i s c h o i c e i m p a c t s the d e s i g n of t h e I F
s t r o n g p o s t - m i x e r a m p l i f i e r . T h e m i x e r is a m p l i f i e r . T h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e is s u m - Several different filter designs were
g e n e r a l l y the DR d e f i n i n g e l e m e n t within m a r i z e d in t h e Cm in of a J FET Amplifier tried in t h i s r e c e i v e r . W h i l e a C o h n d e s i g n
the s y s t e m . s i d e b a r . H i g h e r g a i n is a v a i l a b l e w i t h t h e w o r k e d , it u s e d a t e r m i n a t i n g r e s i s t a n c e
T h e p o s t - m i x e r a m p l i f i e r is a critical higher impedance values. u n d e r 2 0 0 11. T h i s s e v e r e l y i m p a c t e d t h e
e l e m e n t . E n o u g h c u r r e n t s h o u l d b e u s e d to T h e P I N d i o d e will p r o v i d e up to 3 0 - d B I F a m p l i f i e r g a i n a s o u t l i n e d in t h e I F
guarantee the desired d y n a m i c range. a t t e n u a t i o n . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y h a n d y f o r s i d e b a r . (A C o h n t y p e c r y s t a l f i l t e r is, of
H o w e v e r , too m u c h current can also be a p p l i c a t i o n s w h e r e no a d d i t i o n a l I F g a i n is c o u r s e , p o s s i b l e with a h i g h e r t e r m i n a t i n g
w a s t e f u l , e s p e c i a l l y in a p p l i c a t i o n s w r hcrc used. i m p e d a n c e , but the s i m p l e d e s i g n m e t h o d
b a t t e r i e s arc u s e d . T h e l a y o u t u s e d in t h e p r e s e n t e d in C h a p t e r 3 is t h e n i n v a l i d . ) A
g e n e r a l - p u r p o s e b o a r d is f o r t w o p a r a l - Gaussian-to-6 dB filter with a 250-Hz
leled 2 N 3 9 0 4 S . s h o w n in F i g 6 . 6 9 . R e s i s - The Easy-90 Receiver bandwidth and 500-f2 terminations
t o r s R 1 2 a n d R 1 3 d e t e r m i n e the total T h e g e n e r a l - p u r p o s e f r o n t e n d w a s used worked well, but was too narrow for the
current, which should be equal. Only one to build a s i m p l e r e c e i v e r f o r the 2 0 - m C W intended application
t r a n s i s t o r is r e q u i r e d if t o t a l c u r r e n t is b a n d , d u b b e d t h e EZ90-14C. T h e 9 0 indi- T h e f r o n t - e n d b o a r d o u t p u t is r o u t e d
2 0 m A o r less. G a i n and o u t p u t i n t e r c e p t c a t e s a t w o - t o n e d y n a m i c r a n g e in e x c e s s d i r e c t l y to the p r o d u c t d e t e c t o r , s h o w n in
a r e p r e s e n t e d vs t o t a l a m p l i f i e r c u r r e n t in of 90 d B , w h i c h is a c h i e v e d with e a s e w i t h t h e d e t e c t o r - a u d i o b o a r d in F i g 6 . 7 2 . T h i s

6.34 Chapter 6
Fig 6.72—Audio amplifiers, product detector, and sidetone oscillator for the EZ-90C receiver.

EZ90-14C
Parts List for the 20-Meter "Easy 90" Receiver
C1,C3: 470 pF SM or NPO ceramic C29: 100 pF R7: 680
C2,C6,C9,C22: 65 pF, 10 mm air C30: 150 pF R8: 1 kQ
variable (Sprague Goodman C31: 100 pF R9: 47
GYC65000) C32: 82 pF R10: 6.8
04,5,13,14,15,16,18,19,35,36,37,39: C33: short circuit R12, R13: 100
0.1 fiF C34: not used R14, R16: 150
C7:82 pF Q1, Q4: J310 R15: 36
C8: 2.2 pF Q2, Q3, Q5: 2N3904 R17: 820
C10: 56 pF D1: MPN3404 or similar PIN diode R18: 220
C11: 22 pF L1: 27t #28 on T30-6 R19:100
C12: 200 pF L2. L5: 4.7 nH molded RFC, Q>=50 R20: 47
C20: 820 pF L3. L4: 1.04 p.H, 16 t #28, T30-6 R21: 1 kQ
C21: 220 pF T1:T2 10 bifilar turns #28, FT37-43 R22: 680
C23: 470 pF R1: 180 U1: TUF-1 or TUF-2 or TUF-3
C24; 68 pF R2, R3: 10 k£i Y1, 2, 3, 4, 5: HC49 crystals,
C25: short circuit R4: 100 5 MHz, Lm=98 mH, C0=3 pF (see
C26: 100 pF R5: 47 text)
C27: 150 pF R6: 1.5 kQ Y6: not used; add short circuit
C28: 100 pF

Transmitters and Receivers 6.35

module design has been used in several low in this version. The audio is muted E Z 9 0 - I 4 C . The oscillator is a voltage-
projects. A TUF-1 provides the detector with a shunt F E T switch. tuned Colpitts circuit purposefully config-
function. Bipolar audio amplifiers drive an The B F O f o r the product detector is ured for low inductance. The high fixed-
audio gain control, followed by an op-amp shown in Fig 6.73. This is breadboarded tank capacitance is desirable for low phase
providing gain and an R C active low pass on a small scrap of circuit board material, noise. This L O produces a narrow tuning
filter with a peak at 700 Hz. The Q is kept Fig 6.74 shows a 9-MHz VFO for the range of about 20 kHz with the available
tuning diode. This receiver is used with a
transmitter wilh restricted tuning range, so
the narrow range is acceptable. The
builder/designer may wish to use a combi-
nation of varactor tuning and a traditional
Fig 6.73—BFO for variable capacitor to achieve a wider tun-
the EZ90-14C. A ing range. Alternatively, higher L could
variable capacitor be used to cover the entire C W band with
can be used in a varactor diode.
series with the
crystal for final The V C O output is extracted from a FET
adjustment. It was follower that then drives a power ampli-
replaced with a fier to provide the +7 d B m L O power
fixed capacitor in needed by the ring mixer. Power amplifier
our receiver. degeneration is adjusted to set output
level. An 8-V regulator supplies the VCO.
It also provides a stable bias for the tune
pot and a stable 4 V for an op-amp refer-
ence. The gain and offset in the op-amp
are set up to supply a 5 to 10 V swing on
the varactor diode.
A receiver noise figure m e a s u r e m e n t
produced N F = 6.6 dB. if a noise band-
width of 800 Hz is used wilh this. M D S
o f - l 38 dBm is suggested. However, a di-
rect m e a s u r e m e n t of M D S produced
- 1 4 1 dBm. The d i f f e r e n c e is attributed to
the narrow audio filter thai restricts over-
all noise bandwidth. D R m e a s u r e m e n t
p r o d u c e d a value of 95 dB, f o r IIP3
= - 1 . 5 d B m . Using this value for IIP3,
General-purpose receiver front end board used in the EZ90-14. receiver factor is R = - 8 . 1 dBm.

6.36 Chapter 6
 The receiver is packaged with a 14 MHz needed for high dynamic range. IIP3. The amplifieris preceded by a single
VXO transmitter described in Chapter 5. The receiver is a CW only design using resonator preselector and followed by a
The narrow receiver tuning range elimi- filters with reasonable time domain char- double tuned image-stripping filter.
nates most birdies from being a problem. In acteristics. While these filters are no The mixer uses a TUF-1 with +7 dBm
spite of this, one was encountered in the longer available, it should be possible for LO drive. A higher LO level is applied to
form of a feedthrough of 15-MHz WWV the aggressive builder to build viable sub- a 3 dB hybrid that splits the signal into two
energy. This signal got into the enclosure stitutes. The 9-MHz IF system was isolated components. One drives the mixer
on the antenna connector where it then described earlier in detail in Fig 6.56. The while the other is attenuated and available
found it's way onto the grounds that design features three stages of gain using for transceive applications. The mixer
reached the product detector. There, the dual-gate MOSFETs and crystal filters at has two inputs, selected by a small relay.
normal third harmonic response of the di- both the IF input and output. The IF cir- One is the normal 14 MHz signal from
ode ring allowed the 15-MHz component to cuitry is built with breadboards into a mul- the double tuned circuit while the other
be directly converted, to produce baseband tiple section milled aluminum enclosure. comes from other equipment at cither 4 or
audio. The problem was eliminated with a The front end (Fig 6.75) begins with a 14 MHz. The mixer output is applied to the
5-MHz low-pass filter inserted in the line bipolar RF amplifier biased to I e = 12 mA, familiar feedback amplifier and pad com-
between the front end and the detector au- which produces low noise figure while bination. The front end is housed in a 4 x
dio board. The problem would never have maintaining an intercept that is high 4 x I inch milled aluminum box.
occurred if the receiver had not been built enough to not degrade overall receiver The BFO and Product Detector, shown
with completely unshielded boards.
Generally this receiver will hold up well
in a contest environment, although we find
it in need of some AGC for those moments
when a really strong signal is encountered.
Limiting in the audio output op-amp pro-
duces a clipped response when the strong
signals appear, saving the operator's cars.
The very "hot" receiver (low MDS) was
designed for portable situations where
noise levels are much lower than we find
in a home environment.

A 14-MHz Receiver
This receiver is an updated version of
two earlier designs. 1 5 The changes include
repackaging (smaller size) with improved
shielding, a new frequency counter with
lower power requirements, and a reduced
noise IF system. This receiver is simi lar to
the EZ90. but features the shielding General-purpose receiver front end board installed in the EZ90-14 Receiver.

Fig 6.75—Front end for the 14-MHz receiver. The circuit is built largely with breadboarding methods.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.37

 Close up view of audio amplifiers.

Front panel view of receiver.

in F i g 6 . 7 6 , is t r a d i t i o n a l . A d i o d e r i n g
m o v e s t h e 9 - M H z I F signal to b a s e b a n d
w h i l e a b i p o l a r t r a n s i s t o r s e r v e s the B F O
function.
T h e 5 - M H z local o s c i l l a t o r is s h o w n in
Fig 6.77. T h e design uses a Colpitis V F O
with a JFET. A J F E T buffer drives a feed-
back amplifier output stage. T h e output
p o w e r is l a r g e e n o u g h to d r i v e t h e h y b r i d
s p l i t t e r and m i x e r in t h e f r o n t - e n d m o d u l e .
V a r a c t o r d i o d e t u n i n g will e v e n t u a l l y b e
a d d e d t o p r o v i d e an R I T f u n c t i o n . T h e r e -
lated C M O S f r e q u e n c y c o u n t e r w a s
d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 4.
T h e r e c e i v e r a u d i o s y s t e m is s h o w n in
F i g 6.78. U1 provides a u d i o gain, muting,
and a convenient place to i n j e c t a sidetone
signal. This drives an a u d i o gain control and
the output stage. U2 and Q 2 . T h e output op-
crates as a class A a m p l i f i e r with a s t a n d i n g
current of about 9 0 m A . T h i s will drive a
I 14-MHz receiver. Upper left is the frequency counter, upper right is the small speaker or h e a d p h o n e s of virtual ly any
j, middle is IF chain, and lower right is product detector/BFO. i m p e d a n c e . T h e high current is not a prob-

16:4
T50-6 l?t
i T37-6

2
- r
i-ry^rv^
j y t y \ a _
T l i 330 -1-
T
330

»*-
220 J_
50-400 t'O) Input
T

2 " 10-90
600
i
Vl
Fig 6.76—BFO and Detector for the 14-MHz receiver.

6.38 Chapter 6
Fig 6.77—LO system for the 14-MHz receiver. The N750 capacitor provides temperature compensation as measured with a
small homebuilt thermal chamber. All other capacitors in the oscillator have an NPO temperature coefficient.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.39

 +12v
1 0 0 <> 100
10Ou
100U

5532 10U - i 22K

Q1 100 •il—
10u
J310 c
\ / W -
2K
f-AAA—f 10K Lin.
0u 2
5 1 K
100K

r
-\A/\r-f 01
«2 68'
70K
Audio
— STO-in output

2N3904
- Mute T i m e Ctrl.
4.7K I 2N3906]
r A A A r
Q7
\ i o o k : 1 0 k
' 100K
10k
OS
To IF A G C Line

10K< To A G C C a p .
Q6

22K 2N3904
4.7K;
7u I 2N3904 2N3904
Key-line S i d e T o n e to
Audio A m p
Key-in

0.1u
.01

Side Tone Osc. 1N4152

~V| Key-out —

4.7K
2N3906

Key-line

.01,5%

5.1K
^ ^ 5 1k
0 1 , 5 %L L 22K

Fig 6.78—Audio and control system for the receiver. See text for details.

6.40 Chapter 6
lem, for the receiver is used only in a home
environment. Q 3 and related components
generate a time delay, establishing the time
the receiver is muted following a key clo-
sure. Placing the function in the receiver
allows use with many transmitters that may
not include interface circuits. The key line
loops in and out of the receiver.
Q8 and Q 9 f o r m an unusual Weinbridgc
sidetone oscillator. In key-up conditions
the two transistors and the two 5.l-k£> emit-
ter resistors form an amplifier with a non-
inverting gain of two. This is not high
enough to support oscillation. But when the
key is pressed, the 4.7-kI2 resistor causes the
voltage gain to exceed 3. allowing oscilla-
tion to begin. The frequency is determined
by the 5% capacitor, and 22-kQ resistors. S21
3.5 4 4.1 4.S
Oscillator output is obtained from the emit-
-29.9443 -J.7487! -1.89152 -30.3939
ter of Q8. This point does not change de 0 0 0 0
value as the circuit is keyed, preventing a
keyed voltage spike in the audio. Fig 6.79—Filter for use at the output of crystal controlled converters to be used
with the 4-MHz Input in the 14-MHz receiver.

Overall Results
This receiver is a design that has evolved this occurred only after a minor struggle. Although a traditional dual conversion
for several years, so the performance is fairly Examination showed lhat an R F choke in system does not o f f e r the dynamic range
stable. Prior to a major rebuild in 1998. the the oscillator F E T source had poor tem- of a single conversion design, it can be
receiver used an IF based upon MC-1350P perature characteristics. Removal of that close if converter gain is kept low. The
integrated circuits. While adequate, the noise component and further compensation pro- typical converters consist of a preselector
performance was marginal. Receiver noise duced a stable oscillator, illustrating the filter, a diode ring mixer with crystal con-
figure is now maintained as I F gain is virtue of careful testing and response to trolled oscillator, a post mixer amplifier,
reduced, producing a receiver that continues test results. The LO, although lacking the and pad. An RF amplifier is used for the
to sound "bright," when used for weak or control features of a synthesized system, higher bands. Some sort of 4 - M H z hand-
strong signals. is completely free of spurious responses. pass filter is then required to guard against
Noise figure was measured as 7 dB. The The receiver is just as much fun to use as any second conversion images. One filter
measured MDS was around - 1 4 1 d B m the original was in 1974. we have used is shown in Fig 6.79 with
while 1TP3 was +1.5 d B m for DR of 95 dB. calculated response. The filter may reside
The LO system, although difficult to with the converter or with the basic re-
evaluate, seems to a have phase noise less Converters ceiver. All of our converters use a crystal
t h a n - 1 4 0 dBc/Hz at a 5 kHz carrier offset. The receiver has been used with crystal- 4 MHz above the incoming band, preserv-
Thermal stability is excellent, although controlled converters for numerous bands. ing the frequency counter accuracy.

6.4 LOCAL OSCILLATOR SYSTEMS

Fig 6.80 shows a number of traditional
LO configurations found in receivers and
transceivers. Not shown are the common (A)
synthesized schemes found in " m o d e m "
commercial equipment. Frequency synthe-
sis was discussed in Chapter 4. Many
considerations presented here apply to syn-
thesizers as well as simpler systems.

Kt
The simplest system is that of Fig 6.80A.
A free running LC oscillator operates al
3 dB Hybrid
the desired output frequency. It is buff-
ered, sometimes with m o r e than one
amplifier if higher power is required. Low
pass or bandpass filtering is included to
remove harmonics. The signal will even-
tually drive a mixer, with many types
requiring L O drive that is f r e e of even- Fig 6.80—Local-oscillator systems for use with communications systems. See text
order harmonics. Odd harmonics are for details.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.41

allowed with the familiar diode rings, for be reduced with carcful attention devoted component at 4.5 MHz. But spurious out-
they produce a symmetrical signal, a to LO mixer drive levels. A normal diode puts may not just indicate an inadequate
square wave in the extreme. Even-order ring should be driven with a LO signal of bandpass filter. Even when that filter is
harmonics can upset the balance needed +7 dBm. the 26.5-MHz signal in our improved, the spurs may persist, a result
for good port-to-port isolation. Details are example. The "RF" input should be con- of poor layout.
discussed further in Chapter 8. fined to a maximum level o f - 1 0 dBm. The A number of problems are present with
Frequency multiplication is often used. "specifications" for the mixer list a much this layout. Large RF currents flow in the
Fig 6.80B. for the buffering offered is ex- higher level, around 0 dBm. This is the oscillators, often larger than indicated by
cellent. In some cases a multiplier is level al lowed without damage to the mixer. the output levels. Those currents flow in
needed to increase the frequency of a fun- But spurious responses grow dramatically the ground plane. If a solid ground plane is
damental- mode VXD to the VHF region. with drive level. It is important to actually used, attenuated oscillator current will be
While crystal-controlled oscillators may measure levels. An available RF power of found in the ground foil around and be-
be possible at the needed frequency, over- -10 dBm should be established with a suit- yond the bandpass filter, now free to feed
tone modes are usually used at VHF, which able substitutional measurement with a into the output. The amplifier after the fil-
cannot be pulled with the ease of a funda- power meter or 50 Si terminated oscillo- ter has a wide bandwidth and increases the
mental mode oscillator. A bandpass filter scope. discussed further in Chapter 7. spurious level.
follows the frequency multiplier. This is The example mixer will have - 1 7 dBm Radiated oscillator signals reach the
needed to sclectcd the desired harmonic outputs at 22 and 31 MHz. A bandpass fil- output coaxial connector. The center wire
while suppressing all other components. ter will select the higher. Either a double and the ground connection between the
Balanced frequency multipliers are recom- or triple tuned circuit is suitable. This ap- box wall and the circuit board foil form an
mended when possible, for they ease the plication requires at least a 300-kHz band- open loop. That loop is now free to inter-
level of filtering and shielding required. width. A wider filter may be preferred, for cept some of the radiated energy. A better
The frequency multiplication process is a 1ft bandwidth LC filter is lossy with connection to the outside world would
often a lossy one, so more amplifiers may typical toroid coils. But a 1-MHz band- extend coaxial cable on a bulkhead con-
be required. More than one gain stage may width at a 31 -MHz center would be an easy nection until the board is reached. A
be required. Finally, a low pass filter re- filter to design, build, and tune. A typical twisted-wire pair also works well.
duces the harmonics generated by the am- filter insertion loss might be 3 dB, result- Single-point grounds for each stage arc
plifiers. ing in a filter output of - 2 0 dBm. If the common in audio systems and are appro-
A frequency multiplier system like that eventual system output must be +10 dBm. priate for RF designs. Similar regional
of Fig 6.80B need not alter stability. Any a net gain of 30 dB is required. This is grounding can confine oscillator ground
drift in the oscillator will be multiplied difficult with one gain stage, but easily re- current to a small part of the overall board.
with the carrier signal. So a I-kHz drift in alized with two. Feedback amplifiers with This would also prevent coupling between
an oscillator that is frequency tripled will general-purpose transistors such as the the individual oscillators.
produce a 3-kHz shift in the output, leav- 2N3904 or MPSH10 are suggested. Again,
The scheme that produces much belter
ing the fractional change constant. This measurements are required. Avoid input
performance is shown in part C of Fig 6.81.
drift is still low with multiplied crystal os- overdrive as a means of obtaining the de-
The board ends with the mixer, situated
cillators. sired mixer output.
very close to an output connector. The
The premix scheme of Fig 6.80C is Layout can be critical with the mixer loop area related to the output connection
popular, using a mixer to produce an out- system. The filtered mixer output is low at is kept small. A coaxial environment is
put resulting from two oscillators. One -20 dBm. Yel there are two very strong maintained through the bandpass filter
input is usually from a free running LC signals present: an RF input (the VFO) at with the following amplifiers then built on
circuit while the other is crystal controlled. 4.4 to 4.7 MHz, and a crystal generated LO an open board. Examples are shown later
For example, a 25-MHz transceiver with at a robust +7 dBm at 26.5 MHz. Spurious in photographs. A 5-cIement low-pass fil-
an IF of 6 MHz might use a 31 -MHz LO mixer outputs should be al least 50 or 60 ter follows, attenuating harmonics created
system. This could be realized with a 4.5- dB below the desired level of - 2 0 dBm, or in the amplifiers. The final element in most
MHz free running VFO and a 26.5-MHz at - 8 0 dBm. The crystal oscillator output systems is a splitter-combiner, allowing
crystal-controlled oscillator. The fre- reaches +7 dBm. It is reasonable to obtain two 50-11 loads to be driven. This circuit
quency drift is dominated by the LC cir- 50 to 60 dB of suppression between points usually has a 25-Q input impedance, pro-
cuit. which can be fairly stable owing to on a circuit board. But 87-dB suppression vided by a modification to a 50-£i low-
the low frequency. presents a greater challenge. pass filler.
Assume this example system is to tune a Fig 6.81 shows one way we might build Active mixers with lower LO power re-
300 kHz range from 30.9 to 31.2 MHz. this LO system. The block diagram is in quirements may be preferred for premixed
The VFO will then tune from 4.4 to 4.7 part A while part B shows a typical single LO applications. While the NE602 is suit-
MHz. Before construction begins, or a board layout. This might be either a bread- able, higher-level Gilbert Cells like the
crystal is ordered, a spur analysis should board or a printed circuit board, cither us- MCI496 or the Texas Instruments Japan
be performed. This was discussed in the ing a nearly solid metal top foil. When this SN16913P are preferred. The later part is
mixer chapter, "t here are no severe prob- layout is built and measured, we see the soon due to be discontinued with no simi-
lems with the frequencies used in this ex- spurious outputs mentioned earlier. The lar replacement on the horizon. The
ample. crystal oscillator signal (26.5 MHz) is AD-83I or AD-8343 from Analog De-
Spurious responses, when present, can present in the output, as is a weaker VFO vices should be investigated.

6.42 Chapter 6
 Fig 6.81—Possible layouts for
the heterodyne LO system. See
(A) text discussion.

V F O + Buffer

Closed Output Loop,

reduced area.

(C)

-D ©

Crystal Oscillator + Buffer

Transmitters and Receivers 6.43

6.5 RECEIVERS WITH ENHANCED DYNAMIC RANGE
All of the e l e m e n t s within the f r o n t e n d circuit b e g i n s with a 9 - e l e m e n t l o w - p a s s via a 5:1 spur. T h e i m a g e a n d s p u r r e j e c -
m u s t b e e n h a n c e d w h e n striving f o r high f i l t e r , f o l l o w e d by a 3 - r e s o n a t o r b a n d p a s s tion p l u s the 9 - M H z IF f e e d t h r o u g h r e j e c -
d y n a m i c r a n g e ( D R ) . It is usually Ihc m i x e r w i t h a b a n d w i d t h of 3 0 0 k H z . T h e r e c e i v e r t i o n c o u l d o n l y b e g u a r a n t e e d w i t h an
(or m i x e r s ) that are the critical e l e m e n t s , using this filter w a s a c o m m i t t e d C W extensive preselector. Such filters have
the parts to be u p g r a d e d . H o w e v e r , as soon d e s i g n that t u n e d o n l y t h e b o t t o m 150 k H z high i n s e r t i o n loss. 6 . 5 d B here w h e n the
as wc i m p r o v e a m i x e r in a typical r e c e i v e r , of t h e b a n d , so the n a r r o w p r e s e l e c t o r w a s pad is i n c l u d e d . It is t h i s h i g h l o s s that
the a m p l i f i e r s b e c o m e s t r e s s e d . It is m a n - n o t a l i m i t a t i o n . T h e c i r c u i t e n d s in a 3 - d B m a d e the R F a m p l i f i e r n e c e s s a r y .
datory that w e e x a m i n e all c o m p o n e n t s up pad that e s t a b l i s h e s f i l t e r t e r m i n a t i o n a n d T w o p r e s e l e c t o r n e t w o r k s are required
to and i n c l u d i n g the selective filters. helps preserve mixer performance. The w h e n e v e r an R F a m p l i f i e r is used. S o m e ini-
I n t e r m o d u l a t i o n i n t e r c e p t and n o i s e f i g - l o w - p a s s f i l t e r g u a r a n t e e s stellar s u p p r e s - tial selectivity protects the system f r o m out
ure are b o t h vital e l e m e n t s in a w i d e D R sion of V H F s i g n a l s , a p r o b l e m in a m e t r o - of band energy. A single network at the in-
r e c e i v e r . A n y N F i m p r o v e m e n t will a l l o w politan environment. p u t is g e n e r a l l y i n s u f f i c i e n t , f o r it w o u l d
reduced gain in critical a r e a s , t h u s r e l a x - O n e m i g h t a r g u e t h a t t h i s p r e s e l e c t o r is allow image noise generated in the R F a m -
ing i n t e r c e p t r e q u i r e m e n t s . m o r e e x t e n s i v e than n e e d e d . O u r goal w a s plifier to be c o n v e r t e d to the mixer IF.
A m a j o r c h a n g e in r e c e i v e r a r c h i t e c t u r e to r e a l i z e a " 1 0 0 d B " r e c e i v e r . T h a t m e a n t T h e next e l e m e n t is the m i x e r , an S R A -
c a n s o m e t i m e s m a k e a large d i f f e r e n c e . not o n l y that the t w o - t o n e d y n a m i c r a n g e 1H u s i n g + J 7 - d B m L O i n j e c t i o n . T h e
W e will s h o w a f r o n t e n d later that s h o u l d e x c e e d 100 d B . but that all s p u r i - m i x e r is d r i v e n f r o m a 5 - M H z L O s y s t e m .
e l i m i n a t e s a / I g a i n a h e a d of t h e i n i t i a l ous responses should be suppressed by the A design with fewer spurious responses
selectivity, thus achieving stellar intercept s a m e a m o u n t . O n e s u c h s p u r o c c u r r e d with w o u l d m o v e the L O to 2 3 M H z . A h e t e r o -
p e r f o r m a n c e w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g an a d - 1 6 - M H z input s i g n a l s that r e a c h e d t h e I F d y n e a p p r o a c h s h o w n e a r l i e r (Fig 6.81 A)
e q u a t e l y low noi.se f i g u r e .
In t h e last c h a p t e r w e s a w that the i n p u t
intercept (IIP3) for a +7 d B m L O type
d i o d e ring m i x e r c o u l d be + 11 to + l 6 d B m .
T h i s is the v a l u e that w e m i g h t m e a s u r e
w i l h a S O - O . w i d e b a n d t e r m i n a t i o n . A high a:
level m i x e r w i t h + 1 7 d B m L O d r i v e will
s h o w 1IP3 v a l u e s 10 d B h i g h e r , w i t h t y p i -
cal v a l u e s in the v i c i n i t y + 2 4 dBrri. 14 MHz RF
Fig 6.82 illustrates these design con- Amglifier
cepts with a f r o n t - e n d b l o c k d i a g r a m . T h e
f i r s t e l e m e n t is a s i n g l e t u n e d c i r c u i t Fig 6.83—RF
amplifier with
p r e s e l e c t o r filter. T h e w i d e b a n d w i d t h of
preselector
1.5 M H z k e e p s the insertion loss ( i L ) b e - network. This
low 0.5 d B so long as i n d u c t o r Q u e x c e e d s amplifier used
250. D e c r e a s i n g b a n d w i d t h to 3 5 0 k H z parallel feedback
w o u l d c a u s e II. to increase lo 1.6 d B , again from the output tap.
using i n d u c t o r w ith Q u = 250. Feedback directly
from the collector
T h e n e x t e l e m e n t is an R F a m p l i f i e r . A
is preferred.
b i p o l a r f e e d b a c k a m p l i f i e r w i t h a pad is
u s e d h e r e , s h o w n in F i g 6 . 8 3 . w h i c h
i n c l u d e s the i n p u t p r e s e l e c t o r s c h e m a t i c .
T h e n e x t s y s t e m e l e m e n t . F i g 6 . 8 4 . is L1:18t #22, T50-6
the m a i n p r e s e l e c t o r f i l l e r , the o n e that Tl: 10 toifilar turns FT37-43
e s t a b l i s h e s i m a g e r e j e c t i o n and p r o t e c t s
Q1: 2SC1252, 2H5109, etc.
the mixer f r o m spurious responses. T h e

14 MHz B-1.5 B-2.S kHz B-0.5 kHz

Input

RF T V v 1/ l A ,
SRAl-H Post 3H211 MC-1350P x2
Amp.

Fig 6.82—Block diagram of an early high-dynamic-range receiver. The various elements are shown in schematics. See text for
stage-by-stage discussion.

6.44 Chapter 6
Fig 6.84—Image-stripping preselector filter used with the receiver. This filter provides over 100-dB suppression of images and
other spurious responses.

is suitable. This would allow a wider pre-

selector bandwidth with reduced loss,
allowing less gain to be used in the RF
amplifier, extending dynamic range.
The next front-end element is a post
mixer amplifier, shown in Fig 6.85. This
circuit uses the t r a n s f o r m e r f e e d b a c k
Norton amplifier topology presented in
Chapter 2. That circuit has good noise fig-
ure and low IMD, but poor port-to-port
RETURN LOSS isolation. Moreover, the terminal imped-
Input Output ances are strongly dependent on the load
fie dB open at the opposite ports. This means that the
In ^ 24 dB 50 Ohm strongly varying crystal filter input imped-
[12 dB short ances would appear at the mixer output,
open 16 dB degrading IMD p e r f o r m a n c e . Placing a
50 Ohm 2 1 dB S Out pad between two iNorton amplifier stages
short 1? dB J solved the problem here. Overall ampli-
Q l , 2 : HEC 2SC1252 o r 2H5109 w i t h h e a t s i n k .
fier gain was 11.5 dB with OIP3 =
T l , 2 : wound on F a i r - R i t e 2 8 4 3 0 0 2 4 0 2 b a l u n +42 dBm and NF = 5.7 dB. The individual
cores. E a c h t u r n i s o n e p a s s t h r o u g h BOTH stages had a 4.1-dB NF. The figure
h o l e s . A l i t h r e e w i n d i n g s e x i t a t same e n d .
includes measured return loss for the
input when terminated in a variety of out-
Fig 6.85—Two-stage Norton amplifier used in the CW receiver. puts, and similar results for the output.
Overall front-end gain is low in this
receiver. The main crystal filter that this de-
sign used was a 10-element circuit
with 590-Hz bandwidth, which had a
10-dB insertion loss. The high 1L was an ac-
ceptable price for the spectacular perfor-
mance. But receiver NF would be compro-
mised if the IF was driven from the low gain
front end. So. a "roofing filter" was used to
follow the front end. This lower loss filter
with a 2.5-kHz bandwidth was followed by a
fairly low noise amplifier that then drove the
narrow CW filter. This topology compro-
mises dynamic range for very close tone
spacing, but is an otherwise useful technique.
Evaluation of this receiver produced an
8-dB noise figure (MDS = - 1 3 9 dBm) with
IIP3 = + 1 3 dBm for d y n a m i c range =
102 dB and Receiver factor R = +5 dBm.
The receiver served as a self-test vehicle
during development. The IF system
was built and used with an earlier receiver.
It then provided the narrow band-
width needed for I M D measurements.
This allowed direct evaluation of mixers,
Two-stage Norton Amplifier. amplifiers, and filters. A key to the

Transmitters and Receivers 6.45

development was the ability to insert at- used, the receiver would be subject to Although the numbers appear good in
tenuators between stages. This then allows overload by signals far removed f r o m the this design, there are a couple of details
the designer/builder to pinpoint the dis- input. On the other hand, it is now practi- that can severely degrade them. The first
tortion source. cal to keep the preselector bandwidth wide is the 70-MHz crystal filter. This element
Some interesting details emerged f r o m enough that 1L is low, which helps lo main- has a bandwidth of 20 kHz. easily realized
this investigation. Our first attempts lo use tain a low noise figure. Common practice with today's technology. But with such a
the 2.5-kHz roofing filter were frustrated uses half octave filters with two bandpass wide bandwidth, a tone separation of 50 to
by I M D in the filter, confirmed with the filters for each frequency doubling. This 100 kHz would be required to achieve the
insertion of pads in the system. A new fil- is often approximated with filters of calculated intercept. The same measure-
ter f r o m a different m a n u f a c t u r e elimi- around 5 - M H z bandwidth. Narrower fil- ments done at 10 or 20-kHz separation
nated this difficulty, leaving the mixer as ter bandwidth could be useful. would produce lower I1P3 values.
the critical element. The mixer was not Gains, noise figures, and intercepts are A second major problem relates to the
well behaved, showing better 11P3 when given with critical stages in Fig 6.86. The bandpass filters used in the design. They
operated at higher levels than it did when passive high-level ( + ! 7 - d B m LO) mixer arc typically switched with PIN diodes at
I M D products were close to the receiver resembles that of the last receiver with the filter input and output. Diodes at the
M D S . Lower level data is quoted. 6 - d B N F and conversion loss with an input arc not protected by the bandpass
The receiver was built with the front end input intercept of + 2 5 d B m . The post filters and are then subjected lo a wide fre-
segmented into several modules, each in mixer a m p l i f i e r has 12 dB gain, a low quency spectrum. Both second and third-
a shielded box and interconnected with noise figure of 2 dB, and IIP3 o f + 2 5 dBm order intermodulation distortion can then
coaxial cable. The shielding continues (OIP3 = +37 dBm.) Note that this ampli- generate products that severely compro-
through the IF. B F O . and Product Detec- fier is actually weaker (lower intercepts) mise performance. P e r f o r m a n c e can
tor. Power is supplied to the modules via than the post-amp used in the earlier sometimes be improved by increasing the
feedthrough capacitors. The 5 0 - Q inter- receiver. This is practical, for signals are bias current for conducting diodes. The
face allows easy measurement of indi- smaller, a result of using no R F amplifier. better solution is substitution of improved
vidual modules and quick changes in gain (Also, the post-amp in the previous diodes. The HP-8052-308I is recom-
distribution. It also prevents the sorts of receiver was stronger than necessary!) mended. 16 The Siemens BAR 17 or M l 204
interactions and instabilities that can (and Some design rules emerges from these are also recommended. 1 7
usually do) arise when such systems are studies: If the output intercept of one stage A vital diode parameter is carrier lifetime.
built in the open. Finally, it provides equals the input intercept of the following which should be greater than 2 ms in this
shielding against radiated and conducted stage, each will contribute equally. If one application. (Carrier lifetime is a measure of
energy from digital circuitry that might be of the two stages is to be dominant, it the life of carriers within the diode when
used in other parts of the receiver. Shield- should have an intercept at the common reverse biased after a period of conduction.)
ing "by the stage" is generally much more plane that is 6 dB above the other. Note Some high voltage rectifiers display long
important and useful than shielding that these are not "rules-of-thumb." but enough lifetimes, but lend to be lossy. PIN
afforded by one metal box around equip- results of analysis. diodes built specifically for RF switching
ment. This is an old design and duplica- Data is included in the figure for crystal display lower loss, but only some have the
tion is not encouraged. filler IL and IF noise figure. The result for long lifetimes needed for switching at HF
this receiver is an overall noise figure of and"especially MF. The popular MPN3404
10.5 dB with 1IP3 of +26 dBm and R = and similar deviccs used in this text are not
Fast Forward—Modern + 15.5 dBm. In a 500 Hz bandwidth this generally suitable for high DR applications.
Receivers would generate a two tone DR of 108 dB. Diodes need to be measured and character-
A more up-to-date front end is shown in The mixer is the critical, performance- ized for RF performance so they can be
Fig 6.86.where the incoming signal is con- determining element defining system IMD. included in a system analysis.
verted to a V H F first IF. The design shown
is not an example we have built, but one
that should be possible with existing tech-
nology. It has features not found in earlier
designs, but also introduces problems.
4 14 MHz 70 MHz
Up-conversion is typical with most mod-
ern gear. SRA-1H

The first IF in this example is 70 MH/,

with the L O running above the IF. These
up-converted designs are usually general
coverage receivers, tuning f r o m 50 kHz to
30 M H z . The example receiver uses a 70
to 100-MHz LO injection, generated by
frequency synthesis. The input low-pass
filter has a cutoff at 30 M H z and estab-
lishes image rejection. The image for this
example is at the sum of the L O and the IF,
140 to 170 MHz. Images are no longer an
issue so long as the low pass filter works
as designed. Fig 6.86—Front end typical of modern equipment, although this example is
designed for performance beyond the norm. The bandpass filter, shown for 14 MHz
A bandpass preselector filter is still used center frequency, will have a bandwidth of several MHz and will be switched with
in the front end of Fig 6.86. If none were relays or PIN diodes. See text.

6.46 Chapter 6
 A n o t h e r flaw with the up c o n v e r s i o n
block diagram arises with the V H F crystal
filter. I M D in these filters is o f t e n worse
than seen with l o w e r f r e q u e n c y filters. It
should be characterized and considered in
system analysis. T h e filter s h o u l d have
enough selectivity to allow the V H F I F
signal to be converted d o w n to a lower
frequency IF where additional processing
occurs. T h e c o n v e r s i o n should be rela-
tively spur and image free, it is c o m m o n in
current designs to a m p l i f y and heterodyne
the signal to a low e n o u g h f r e q u e n c y that
it can be applied to an analog to digital
converter (ADC), producing a digital data
stream suitable f o r digital signal process-
ing (DSP.)
Additional distortion sources are found in
the low-pass and. more often, in the
bandpass filters ahead of the mixer. Filter
intercepts depend primarily on the magnetic
properties of the inductors used in the filters.
They will also depend on the peak energy T3.T4: W i n d w i t h # 3 2 w i r e o n B H - 4 3 - 2 4 0 2
stored in the component during operation. h a l u n core. The n u m b e r of turns is s h o w n
Running 1 raW of power through a low-pass in schematic.

Alter usually results in relatively low current

flowing in the inductors used in that filter, so Fig 6.87—High-performance post-mixer amplifier. The transistors were biased to
40 mA each for OIP3 = +48 dBm. Dual power supplies are used lor amplifier bias.
small cores are suitable. But the same 0 dB m
This amplifier represents very good performance that we have not duplicated.
applied to a narrow bandpass filter may pro-
duce much higher inductor current, produc-
ing intennodulation distortion. Forexample,
we have observed in-band ITP3 of approxi-
mately +30 d B m for a three-resonator
N 6 N W P . reported 7 dB loss with square Gain = 8.8 dB and noise f i g u r e under 1
10-MHz filter with 300-kHz bandwidth.
wave L O drive. 1 8 The mixer of greater in- d B ! The a m p l i f i e r was at the limits of his
Changing from T37-6 to larger T50-6 cores
terest is the H - m o d e mixer generated by N F m e a s u r e m e n t capability, and I M D de-
increased IIP3 to about +50 dBm. We have
Horrabin. G3SBI. 1 '-' I1P3 of +55 dBm was termination was also stressed. He also re-
also observed severe I M D with inexpensive
slug tuned coils. As with all things related to reported with a conversion loss from 8 to 9 ported that t r a n s f o r m e r s had to be selected
high DR equipment, meticulous measure- dB when using the same FETs as applied for lowest I M D . Nothing is casual at this
ments should replace lore. with the Oxner mixer. A simplified version p e r f o r m a n c e level. 2 0
will be described later featuring IIP3 > +40 In a later variation of his earlier ampli-
dBm with loss at 5 dB. fiers. Makhinson used a push-pull pair of
One of these high intercept mixers may Norton f e e d b a c k a m p l i f i e r s that drove a
Moving toward higher
well h a v e O I P 3 of + 3 5 dBm or higher. T o differential pair of c o m m o n base amplifi-
Dynamic Range be dominant, post mixer amplifiers should ers. T h e second stage c o m m o n - b a s e cir-
T h e f r o n t e n d s d e s c r i b e d can be ex- have I I P 3 of + 4 0 d B m or higher. T h i s cuit provided good reverse isolation while
tended to provide even better p e r f o r m a n c e m o v e s the output intercepts into the +48 to the input t r a n s f o r m e r f e e d b a c k d e s i g n
by substitution of i m p r o v e d circuit ele- + 5 2 d B m range. Such amplifiers arc pos- a f f o r d e d l o w noise. T h e l o w e r s e c o n d -
ments. Primarily, the high-level mixer can sible with very high currents, or with mod- stage reverse isolation generated an input
be i m p r o v e d . H i g h e r - l e v e l diode rings est currents and careful design. Fig 6.87 impedance independent of output termi-
are available, s o m e using up to W shows the amplifier used by Makhinson nation for the two-stage design. 2 1
«+27 d B m ) L O p o w e r . With another 10 dB in his rcceivcr. T w o N o r t o n - t y p e trans- Another approach to balanced a m p l i f i e r
of L O c o m e s a similar increase in IIP3. f o r m e r - f e e d b a c k a m p l i f i e r s arc used in design is that of E n g c l b r e c h t , s h o w n in
Perhaps the more appealing mixers arc push-pull to achieve a gain of 8 dB with Fig 6.88 (see C h a p t e r 3.) 2 -- 2 3 T h e incom-
those using FETs, They are capable of very 0 1 P 3 of +48 d B m and N F = 2.5 dB. ing signal is split in a 3 - d B quadrature cou-
high intercepts, have 11, similar to the high- Colin Horrabin built a version of this pler. T h e t w o hybrid outputs are then 90°
est-level diode mixers, but require little 1.0 a m p l i f i e r with improved p e r f o r m a n c e . He out of phase with each other as they are
power. This docs not imply though that LO s h i f t e d to a single ended p o w e r supply, applied to the amplifier inputs. If the im-
drive can be treated with casual abandon. but increased current to 60 m A per transis- pedance match at amplifier #1 is less than
Passive FET mixers usually have LO sig- tor. He c h a n g e d transistor type lo the perfect, there will be a p o w e r reflection.
nals applied to the gates. They must be M R F - 5 8 0 A and added ferrite beads to the T h e action at the input to a m p l i f i e r #2 will
driven hard to ensure fast switching; sym- c o l l e c t o r s f o r stability c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . be identical, for the amplifiers are identi-
metry is critical to preserve balance. The T r a n s f o r m e r s w e r e hand wound on balun cal. Each reflected c o m p o n e n t u n d e r g o e s
FET ring popularized by Oxncr is capable cores and the transistors were heat sunk lo a n o t h e r 90" r e f l e c t i o n as it p r o g r e s s e d
of 11P3 up to +40 dBm or a bit higher with a c o p p e r substrate. He obtained the spec- b a c k to the input. T h e t w o reflected c o m -
conversion loss around 8 dB. Makhinson. tacular results of 0 1 P 3 = + 5 6 d B m with ponents are 180" out of phase with each

Transmitters and Receivers 6.47

 source of RF. T h e t w o resulting signals
are then applied to the center taps of trans-
f o r m e r s T 2 and T 3 . Four F E T s connect
w i n d i n g s to g r o u n d in pairs. T w o IF
From Diplexer Balanced Amplifier Crystal o u t p u t s are generated on the s e c o n d a r y
Mixer ri Filter
windings o f ' 1 2 and T3.
— © T h e F S T 3 1 2 5 M uses a 5 - V bias,
_L 550 50 | ! required by the quad logic inverters in-

" I 1 '| cluded in the IC. T h e F E T s and related

transformers are biased at half this supply
svith a resistive divider. S y m m e t r y is em-
p h a s i z e d in the c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d
shown in the photographs. A sandwich of
O h " two circuit b o a r d s c o n t a i n s the mixer,
Amplifier
diplexer and f o l l o w i n g crystal filter de-
82
scribed belosv. T h e mixer chip is on the
lower board while the diplexer and filter
are on the upper one. T h e three transform-
ers actually reside bet ween the tsvo boards,
serving as the routes f r o m one to the other
and back.
Fig 6.88—Balanced amplifier method of Engelbrecht. See text for discussion.
The digital portion of the mixer circuitry
dealing with the LO is shown in Fig 6.91.
A signal o f + 1 0 d B m is applied to the mixer
board at twice the desired L O frequency. It
is converted to a digital f o r m with tsvo
other by the time they reach the input, so fort on the part of Bill C a r v e r . W 7 A A Z . N A N D gates (74AC00) and is then routed
the inpul i m p e d a n c e is always 50 £2. Harold J o h n s o n , W 4 Z C B , and Colin to a divide-by-tsvo circuit using a 74AC109
The c o u p l e r of Fig 6.88 g e n e r a t e s a Horrabin,G3SBT—collectively referred to J-K flip-flop. T h e flip-flop contains an in-
9 0 ' phase shift at all f r e q u e n c i e s , but equal here as the Triad.24 hibit input, which is driven by the remain-
output amplitudes at only one crossover ing N A N D gates, providing a convenient
point. A b a n d p a s s / b a n d s t o p diplexer pro- means for turning the L O off. This may be
s-ides a termination at all f r e q u e n c i e s f a r The Mixer used during receiver mute periods or as a
from the design center. D e p e n d i n g on the T h e key element in this receiver is the noise blanking input. This method of blank-
nature of the crystal filter, a diplexer may H - m o d e mixer shown in Fig 6.90. T h e ing is especially effective, for it is out of
be useful at the output port as well. basic mixer was presented in Chapter 5. the main signal path and has fesv of the
This e x a m p l e uses a readily available and distorting e f f e c t s usually related to the
Front E n d s Without inexpensive q u a d - M O S F E T - B u s Switch,
the Fairchild F S T 3 1 2 5 M . T h e d e v i c e is
blanking function, other than that intrinsic
to modulation.
Early Amplifiers—The also available f r o m other vendors. (This An alternative logic section is presented
Triad Receiver part was suggested to the T r i a d by in Fig 6.92. This s c h c m c uses a V H F local
Giancarlo Moda. I7SWX.) The H-mode oscillator that is then divided by any even
T h e up-conversion system of Fig 6.86 is
mixer is o n e with R F applied to a trans- integer f r o m 4 to 18. T h i s m e t h o d is used
a child of c o m p r o m i s e , illustrating the
former, T l , which generates a balanced in the W 7 A A Z version of the receiver.
t r a d e o f f s o f t e n taken to achicve general
coverage. T h e ability to tune the entire H F
spectrum was once considered a perfor-
mance virtue. It is now. since the advent of
W A R C bands, merely an e c o n o m i c ploy.
The aggressive designer/builder need not
adhere to such guidelines. He or she can
c o n f i g u r e a system that will o f f e r h i g h
I I P 3 = + 4 3 dB*
p e r f o r m a n c e on a few selected bands. The G=12.8 dB
1IF=2 dB G = - 4 . 8 dB
S—1 dB
IF can be at H F where crystal filters can be HF=1.5 dB
G—2 dB B=2.5 kHz
narrow without severe loss and with low Input IIP3-+24 dBm
TMD. Preselector filters with only modest
loss can be used with the best available
mixers.
T h e p r o b l e m s with post mixer amplifi-
ers remain. T h e ideal solution is to merely
eliminate them. This can be d o n e with a
s w i t c h i n g - m o d c m i x e r if a crystal filter HF LO
with constant, frequency flat input imped-
a n c e can be applied. Such a block d i a g r a m
is shown in Fig 6.89. The circuit is the Fig 6.89—Receiver front end using no amplifiers before initial selectivity Is
result of several years of collaborative ef- obtained. This is the basis of the W7AAZ/W4ZCB/G3SBI receiver described beiow.

6.48 Chapter 6
Fig 6.90—Mixer portion of the high-level front end. Commercially available transformers are used in this design. U1 consists
of four MOSFET switches controlled by lines 1, 4,10 and 13, linked with the dotted lines in the figure. See Chapter 3 for
design of the 0 : 1 diplexer at the IF port for compatibility with the chosen IF.

LO to Mixer

Fig 6.91—Logic circuits provide high-frequency LO drive for the H-mode mixer. Input is at twice the needed LO frequency. The
designer/builder must add power supply connections to the ICs.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.49

 2F LO I n
T4 = 2 : 1 t u r n s r a t i o ferrite balun
T4

r r o4a|
lOOK >
+ 5v
? t f 10X
LO t o M i x e r

? ? ? " 5
ttr 2 s0
J Q
4
U3A
4 13 ft B C D Clr U4E
Preset i 3
K Q
U4C U4C12 ' EHP U5 Load 3-1
C
11
ENT
Q. U3B l

U4D
JT*

"J24 pF
13 s Pulse

—C( U2D
der Modulus A B c
+5V to Enable Blanker
<1 1 1 1 U2 - 74AC00

6 0 1 1 U3 - 7 4AC109
8 1 0 1 u/i = 7 4AC04 ^jo-
10 0 0 1 U5 - 7 4AC163
12 1 1 0
14 0 1 0
16 i 0 0
IB 0 0 D

F i g 6 . 9 2 — L o g i c c i r c u i t s a c c e p t a n i n p u t f r o m a V H F s y n t h e s i z e r . T h e o u t p u t is t h e n d i v i d e d by a n e v e n n u m b e r b e t w e e n 4 a n d
16 b e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e h i g h - l e v e l m i x e r . T h e d e s i g n e r / b u i i d e r m u s t a d d p o w e r s u p p l y c o n n e c t i o n s to t h e I C s .

The Roofing Crystal

Filter
A p o o r m i x e r termination w i l l s e v e r e l y 47 Y2 47
d e g r a d e U P 3 . A filter with a 5Q-£1 input
i m p e d a n c e at all f r e q u e n c i e s , i n s i d e a n d t ^ H ^ H ^ n
o u t s i d e t h e p a s s b a n d , is s h o w n in F i g 6 . 9 3 .
T h e c r y s t a l f i l t e r is a critical e l e m e n t in 7 T^f-
±
the o v e r a l l f r o m end and r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l
d e s i g n and a d j u s t m e n t b y the d e s i g n e r / 120
t l , T 6 : 6 b i f i l a r t u r n s # 2 6 , FT37-61,
b u i l d e r . T h e c r y s t a l f r e q u e n c i e s are p i c k e d
use t w i s t e d t u r n s .
10 p r o d u c e a p a s s b a n d that o v e r l a p s that o f 1 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 : 5 turns # 2 6 , BH61-302,
the d o m i n a n t filter in the r e c e i v e r IF s y s - tapped at 2 t .
tem, m e a s u r e d b e f o r e this filter is built. <L
T h e c r y s t a l s will then b e o r d e r e d f r o m a t n en 13 „„. 1 fl-fifl 120

r e l i a b l e s u p p l i e r . H i g h crystal Q s h o u l d be
I
s o u g h t , f o r it w i l l d i r e c t l y i m p a c t filter 1L.
T h e b u i l d e r s s a w their b e s t filters with l o s s 75^ J7-35 13"P
under 1 dB with others under 2 dB. E v e n
if the r e c e i v e r is to b e used m a i n l y o n C W ,
a w i d e r d e s i g n filter b a n d w i d t h is used in
the interest o f l o w loss.

C a r e f u l m e a s u r e m e n t s are r e q u i r e d t o
adjust this filter. A s p c c t r u m a n a l y z e r w i t h
a t r a c k i n g g e n e r a t o r is i d e a l , but s h o u l d
h a v e stability c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h n a r r o w Fig 6 . 9 3 — C r y s t a l filter s e r v i n g a " r o o f i n g " f u n c t i o n . T h i s c i r c u i t o p e r a t e s at 9 M H z ,
but can be redesigned for other frequencies within the H F spectrum. T h e variable
crystal filters. S w e e p s measuring input
c a p a c i t o r s w i t h Y 3 a n d Y 4 a r e a d j u s t e d t o m a t c h t h e o n e filter t o t h e o n e u s i n g Y 1
and o u t p u t i m p e d a n c e match s h o u l d , h o w - a n d Y 2 . T h e q u a d r a t u r e h y b r i d s a r e a d j u s t e d f o r o p t i m u m i m p e d a n c e m a t c h at b o t h
e v e r . e x t e n d e d f r o m near d c to V H F . ports. S e e text.

6.50 Chapter 6
An Amplifier t o follow plifier featuring low noise, high 1IP3, ex- in Fig 6.95, a lop coupled set of parallel
cellent input and output impedance match, resonators. Reed relays are used at each
t h e Roofing Filter and good reverse isolation. end for band switching. Extensive
Fig 6.94 shows the amplifier that fol- This circuit can be adjusted for an input decoupling (not shown) is used with the
lows the mixer. This circuit must have rea- return loss greater than 30 dB in the 3 to relays. The filters were designed to have a
sonable performance, although not as stel- 30-MHz region. Typical gain is 12.8 dB maximum insertion loss of 2 dB. A 5-reso-
lar as would be needed without the filter. with IIP3 = +24 dBm. A heat sink is built nator filter was used for 160 m while 3 or
With only two crystals per side, the roof- for the four FETs by drilling four holes in 4 were sufficient for the other bands. Tor-
ing crystal filter has limited skirt a piece of '/s-inch-thick aluminum. The oids were used for all inductors with em-
selectivity, allowing some large signals to FETs are pushed into the holes, which arc phasis on larger sizes for high unloaded Q
appear beyond the filter. then filled with epoxy. Carver has also and low IMD. A 6 mix was used for the
The amplifier is a feedback circuit with built similar amplifiers with six FETs. but lower bands with 10 for the upper ones.
four parallel JFETs. The total current is the same 100-mA total current. These cir- Most capacitors were 1 % silver mica types.
high at 85 to 100 mA, so the circuit has cuits require no heatsink. The only variable capacitors were some
good distortion performance. The circuit trimmers used for coupling on the highest
began conceptually as a transformer bands. Components were carefully mea-
matched common-gate amplifier; a topol- T h e Preselector sured prior to installation and inductor
ogy with a well-defined, low input imped- The final element in the front end is the turns were spread or compressed slightly
ance. 2 5 A winding is added to (he preselector filter. The basic form is shown
for fine-tuning. This was sufficient for the
transformer to apply some signal to the
gate. The result is a circuit that has neither
terminal as c o m m o n , yet has a well-
defined 50-H input impedance while fea- C-jk C-jk
turing low noise figure. This circuit has a
e ^ H H t - r ^
typical NF of 1.5 dB with some versions
measuring 1.2 dB. The output is trans-
former coupled with a drain load resistor I T If 2
to ensure a good output match. Relay toil Relay coil
./TYTli
Bill Carver, W 7 A A Z . modified the bifi- Vron?

T
lar output auto-transformer with another
winding that drives an adjustable capaci-
tor, C-N, to couple energy back to the gale.
This capacitor is adjusted for low reverse Fig 6.95—General form of preselector filters used for the high-performance
coupling. The result is a neutralized am- receiver. While a 3-element filter is shown, some bands used up to 5 resonators.

1i— 1> — —< i 1

-43 -43 -43 39 •
1 FB n FB nn FB .n
I J310 U u J310 IJ U J310 1)r11 C2 3t 5.2 MHz Out
\ r^P \

Y
3t } • i E L I

-43 FB -43 FB

1! -£-

3. OIK 5K
I00
78L05
T t T [>150
- uH
+12, 85 m&

Fig 6.94—Amplifier that follows the roofing crystal filter. This particular version operates at 5.2 MHz, but can be optimized for
any frequency in the HF spectrum. T1 is wound on a BN61-202 two-hole balun (binocular) core. The primary (grounded
winding) is made from small copper or brass tubing through the balun holes. Alternatively, braid from RG174 coaxial cable
may be used. The 5-turn and 1-turn windings are then wound with #28 or smaller wire. T2 consists of a pair of bifilar windings
on a BN43-202 two-hole balun core. One bifilar winding forms the two 3-turn windings while the other bifilar pair is connected
to form the 6-turn winding. Remember that one turn on a two-hole balun core is a pass through both holes. C1 and C2 are
approximately resonant with transformers T1 and T2. FL-1 is a three wire monolithic element, but can be built with discrete
components. C-N is adjusted for best reverse isolation (lowest S12.) All resistors are 1% metal film, ''U W.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.51

lower bands while the Dishal method was
applied for the upper frequencies. 2 6 - 7
The design goal for the preselector fil-
ters was a stopband attenuation of 90 dB or
more. This was realized, but it required
considerably more effort that anticipated.
The filters were all built on boards with
components in a long narrow line for best
input to output isolation. The stopband per-
21 MHz bandpass filter used In W 7 A A Z version of the Triad Receiver. No variable
formance was only realized after the tuning capacitors are used. T h e trimmers adjust coupling.
on-board grounds were isolated. Each reso-
nator was grounded directly to the large
metal plate that supported the boards. It of #12 wire wound on a 0.75-inch diameter signal is amplified and further filtered, and
was also important to carefully place the tubular form that was machined from RF is then detected. The two systems offer
various filters in the stack. A situation to grade polystyrene rod. After the rod was good agreement.
avoid was an adjacent filter that operated machined to 0.8 inch outside diameter, This oscillator, after division by 8, pro-
at an image. For example, if the receiver threads were cut at an 8-turn-per-inch pitch. vided phase noise of - 1 5 5 dBc/Hz at a
used a 5-MHz IF with LO at 9 MHz. the The inside of the rod was then removed with 20 kHz spacing. The noise dropped to
4-MHz image is 14, so the 80 and 20-m a large drill bit, leaving a wall thickness of -163 dBc/Hz at 50 to 75 kHz; at 100 kHz
filters should not be next to cach other. De- approximately '/s inch. Material was re- it was beyond the range of the measure-
tails of construction are shown in the pho- tained at one end for mounting. The #12 ment equipment. A one-on-one PLL will
tograph. This is yet another place where wire was wound and approximately spaced provide some close in clean-up. Thermal
detailed measurements are required. before being threaded onto the form. stability was good enough to allow direct
The helix has two taps. Output is use without any stabilization, although this
extracted from one l/^ turn up from ground is not common and should not be
An Oscillator while the drain is attached at turn from expectcd with similar designs.
A voltage-controlled oscillator developed ground. The outputs are buffered with a
by Harold Johnson. W4ZCB. is presented in quad buffer. One output drives the mixer
Fig 6.96. It has been applied in a number of while the other is for synthesizer use. The Overall Triad
ways including acting as the controlled os- Detailed information regarding tap place- Receiver
cillator in experimental synthesizers and ment and resonator construction is given We have described the receiver front
one-on-one phase-lock loops. The circuit in a note from W4ZCB included on the CD end. the portion that generates the wide
operates in the 80 to 110 MHz region and is that accompanies this book. dynamic range. The four-FET amplifier
then divided from VHF in the circuit shown Two different methods were used for (Fig 6.94) is normally followed by the
earlier in Fig 6.92. phase noise measurement. In one. the VCO major crystal filter used in the receiver.
The heart of the VCO is a helical resona- under test was phase locked to an HP- The bandwidth and performance vary with
tor. This element offers an unloaded Q of 8640B signal generator. The baseband out- the members of the Triad. The main IF
700. performance difficult to obtain at HF. put was filtered, amplified, and analyzed system is the design offered by Carver in
A metal lathe is needed for the construc- with an HP-312 selective voltmeter. The OST for May. 1996. a circuit based upon
tion. The resonator is housed in a section of other system uses the HP8640 as a local the Analog Devices AD600. The rest of
1.5-inch-diameter copper tubing with cop- oscillator with a high level mixer. The out- the receiver is standard, although DSP en-
pcr-pipc ends. The helix consists of 9 turns put is applied to a narrow crystal filter. The hancements are planned. The plans also

MftX-496

100

1N5153B diodi \ 100

s e v e r a l used
— + x 0 mm
V-tune ' 1 T available
t o SO Ohms
fc-(0) froat each
| output

-12

Fig 6 . 9 6 — V H F helical-resonator voltage-controlled oscillator. See text for additional detail. Although a back-to-back pair of
varactor diodes is shown, more may be required. It may also be useful to switch extra capacitance Into the circuit with relays
or PIN diode switches.

6.52 Chapter 6
 high phase noise of casual PLL synthesiz-
ers will drastically limit the performance.
While somewhat better wideband phase
noise is available from DDS, this is of little
A working
version of the consolation when the noise is merely
Triad built in replaced by numerous coherent spurious
the UK. (TNX responses. Some experimenters expect
to George exciting things to happen in synthesis in
Fare, G3QGQ.) the near future, which will help. 2 8
But synthesis is not the major problem
we face. Rather, it is the compromised
nature of the transmitters that we usually
encounter. It does little good to build a
receiver that is so free of distortion that we
become concerned about receiver damage
call for full transceive capability. not been routinely applied for experi- when we measure it. only to find that the on
The receiver performance has been out- menter equipment. The methods will work the air signals we encounter arc distorted.
standing with different triad members just as well with diode mixers as with FET Modern communications systems have
having obtained slightly varying results. mixers. been engineered with a sense of balance,
With careful adjustment of the prcselcctor The typical high dynamic range receiver using compatible transmitters and receivers.
and post filter amplifier, slightly under of recent vintage has consumed consider- The receives have kept pace with the trans-
10-dB noise figure has been measured in able power. This was generally accepted mitters, but with little extra margin. The
a receiver also showing an input intercept as the price one must pay for such perfor- radio amateur service has not. however,
of +45 dBm. This is slightly under the mance. FET mixer based designs can. grown in this way. Early stations had sepa-
early goal of achieving a 120-dB DR in an however, provide very high intercepts rate equipment for each function. We have
SSB bandwidth, but the ease of duplica- without high power. The oscillator powers had a DX based fetish for receivers, tradi-
tion of the FMT3125 mixer makes it pref- are low. and with no early amplifiers, there tionally dealing with the classic axiom that
erable over one using the Si8901. That is no compelling reason to use a high "if you can't hear 'em. you can't work "6111,"
part had a 3-dB higher conversion loss, power amplifier anywhere in the system, This left us ignoring our transmitters.
making it impossible to achieve a 10-dB especially if higher order, low loss roofing Many solutions to transmitter problems
noise figure without an amplifier in the filters can be designed. Low loss and sim- are found in the receiver design details.
"wide open" part of the front end. The plified matching should be possible with Improved receiver synthesizers will ben-
present system with +45 dBm IIP3 and 10 monolithic filter technology. We can now efit our transmitter. High-level mixers,
dB NF (R = +35 dBm) will yield DR of envision a very high dynamic range re- low-distortion amplifiers, and clean filters
121.3 dB in 50G-Hz BW. ceiver that is as sensitive as we will ever are elements common to both. The problem
There are some dramatic implications need on the HF bands that operates effi- unique to the transmitter is in the higher
embedded within this work, ones that may ciently with batteries. power stages where distortion usually
well alter the way we design the next gen- But adequate challenge remains. The occurs. Even here, there is new technology
erations of receiver. It is clear that a lossy frequency synthesis problem continues to that offers solution. Feed forward methods
mixer can be followed directly by a nar- plague us. We certainly want new trans- offer one route to reduccd I M D . 2 , - , I U I
row fi 1 ter w i thout compromi si ng 1 arge sig- ceivers to include all of the refinements Feedback and prcdistortion offer alterna-
nal performance. Use of the Engelbrecht found in the older ones, and most of these tive routes. 32 - 33 Predistortion is discussed,
technique is not new with filters, but it has features depend on frequency agility. The with references, in Chapter 10.

6.6 TRANSMITTER AND TRANSCEIVER DESIGN

System Considerations; of us used as we began our experimental example, a push-push doubler. a balanced
Transmitters with efforts in radio. It remains a good design. circuit with two diodes, will suppress the
Even with frequency multiplication, the
Mixers
fundamental drive component in the
only spurious responses are either harmon- output by 30 to 4 0 dB. Selective circuits
A block diagram for a simple CW trans- ics of the output, or harmonics of the lower afford additional suppression. Multiple
mitter was presented at the beginning of frequency oscillator. The former are sub- resonator filters are recommended over
this chapter, Fig 6.18. In the simplest form stantially reduced with suitable low pass single tuned circuits.
an oscillator is amplified, low pass filtered filtering while the latter are reduced We can calculate the performance of
and applied to an antenna. The more elabo- through bandpass filtering immediately low pass filters that might appear in a
rate scheme uses a frequency multiplier, after the frequency multiplier. transmitter output. Table 6.1 shows the
allowing the use of a lower frequency The best frequency multipliers are those suppression at the second and third har-
oscillator, isolated from the higher power with balanced circuitry. Appropriate monics of a carrier that is passed through
amplifiers later in the system. These rep- circuit symmetry will suppress the funda- a low-pass filler with a cutoff frequency
resented the simple equipment that many mental and some undesired harmonics. For \0% above the input frequency. The fil-

Transmitters and Receivers 6.53

 5 0 - f t parts and are aligned with substitu- servative results based on our results.
Table 6.1
tional measurements, outlined in the mea- Clearly, spectrum analyzer measurements
Attenuation at surement chapter. A Gilbert Cell mixer are always preferred over simpler power
N 21 3f (NE602, MC1496) is usually a high-input- level determinations.
3 10 dB 21 dB
impedance circuit. It operates with a
5 30 50
single-ended local oscillator level of 0.3
7
9
51
72
79
to 0.6 V. pcak-to-peak. usually established
Linear Power Amplifier
108
with an in-situ (inplace within the circuit) Chains
measurement. This is measured with a l Ox Design begins with a pair of equal IF
"scope probe attached to the L O or R F in- signals, or two tones. Recall that the peak
lers were designed for a 0, l-dB-ripple put of the mixer 1C. The measurement may envelopepcwrr(PEP)oftwo identical sig-
Chebyshev response. Filters with 3, 5. 7 also be done with an R F probe and high nals or tones is 6 dB above one of the tones.
and 9 components are considered. impedance dc voltmeter, although this The output from a normal (+7-dBm LO)
measurement is rarely as accurate owing diode ring mixer driven with R F =
The simpler filters are poor performers.
to levels that crowd diode thresholds. The - 1 6 dBm per tone is - 2 3 dBm per tone, or
The N = 3 low pass with two capacitors
allowed R F drive can be 0.3 V peak-to- - 1 7 d B m PEP. A typical bandpass filter
and one inductor offers surprisingly little
peak for a Gilbert Cell used in a C W trans- might have a 3-dB insertion loss, produc-
harmonic attenuation. Other passband
mitter. also established with an in-situ ing a - 2 0 dBm PEP output. Assume this
ripples may enhance performance slightly,
measurement. will be used in a transmitter with a 10 W
but the dominant effect is just the number
of components. Transmit mixers are best driven with PEP output (+40 dBm P E P or +34 dBm/
harmonically clean sources. It is often tone). The output low pass filter usually
The more c o m m o n transmitter block
worthwhile to low pass filter the L O input has negligible insertion loss, so a net gain
diagram. Fig 6.19. uses two oscillators het-
to a diode ring mixer, mainly for reasons of 6 0 dB is required. This can be obtained
erodyned together in a mixer to produce
of waveform symmetry. Excess even-or- with three stages, although four, each us-
the desired output. A bandpass filter is
der harmonic distortion may unbalance the ing negative feedback, would be preferred,
again needed to select the desired output
mixer. The clipping action of the mixer especially if wide bandwidth was needed.
component while suppressing the image
as well as various spurious products. diodes will convert a sine wave drive into Design of the amplifier chain is based
While frequency multiplier balance en- a square wave, rich in odd-order harmon- upon cascade intercept calculations if SSB
hanced performance, a balanced mixer ics. The R F input signal should be low in or other linear modes are planned. Assume
does nothing to suppress an image. The harmonics, for they can mix to generate our design goal is IMD at least 4 0 dB be-
filler must now do all of the work. Fre- spurious outputs. The usual diode mixer low each output tone (46 dB below PEP)
quencies should be chosen wisely. does not generate these harmonics in the during two-tone transmitter testing. Each
same abundance that it does odd-order L O output tone will be 6 dB below PEP, or
Although we occasionally sec a hetero-
products. Similar arguments apply to Gil- 2.5 W (+34 dBm) per tone. The related IMD
dyne transmitter using nothing more than
bert Cell mixers. must then be over 40 dB lower at -6 dBm per
a single tuned circuit, two or three resona-
The levels recommended arc derived tone. The required output intercept must then
tor filters offer much better performance
from our observations, and could vary be half of this ratio, or 20 dB above the out-
with only slight added complexity. Intu-
with different mixers. Mixers in SSB put. +54 dBm. Such levels are obtainable
ition suggests that the added insertion loss
equipment are driven at an R F level dic- with high-level class-A amplifiers. The
of a third order filter would complicate
tated by IMD requirements while mixers block diagram for this amplifier chain is
design. But one can increase bandwidth
in C W rigs are only constrained by spuri- shown in Fig 6.97. We have assigned the
with a triple tuned filter to realize the same
ous outputs far from the desired output. gain-per-stage values shown across the top
loss with greater stability, better stopband
These spurious products can and should of the figure. The intercept values for the
attenuation, and ease-of-alignment. Some
be reduced with filtering, but that is not individual stages were then adjusted to meet
special cases, such as V H F applications
possible with the closely spaced I M D the specification. The final calculated result
demand even higher order filters.
products in SSB. The levels given are con- of OIP3 = +54.2 dBm is less than the value
An o f t e n abused, sensitive parameter
is mixer drive level. A normal diode ring
(+7 dBm LO) should generally be driven
with an RF input less than - l 0 dBm. Third-
order 1MD is not excessive at this level
MP 3- 25 3 6 dBa 4 3 dBm 56
(important in SSB transmitters) and high
order mixer spurious products are low. Cain- 15 1 4 dB 1 4 dB 17
However, spurious products grow at an
alarming rate with greater R F drive.
Mixer drive level should be established
through careful measurement. Even if the
Input -
V
builder does not have a high frequency HF= 6 dB 6 dB 6 dB
oscilloscope or spectrum analyzer, he or
she can always build and use a low-level Systran P e r f o r m a n c e :
power meter, often used with a step G a i n = 6 0 d B , HF = 6 . 1 dB
attenuator. See the measurement chapter.
O I P 3 = 5 4 . 2 dBm
A high level (+17 dBm L O ) diode ring
functions well with an RF drive of 0 dBm.
Higher-level mixers are capable of even Fig 6.97—Individual stage parameters are combined for a cascade of four stages in
greater drive. Diode mixers are usually an amplifier.

6.54 Chapter 6
for the output stage itself of +56 dBm, al- phase noise of - 1 2 0 d B c / H z spaced pass filter that would normally follow the
lowing some of the distortion to occur in 20 kHz from the carrier. If the carrier is transmit mixer.
earlier stages, increased output stage gain amplified to a level of 1000 W (+60 dBm), Fig 6.98 shows a two-stage class-A
mould relax the required earlier stage per- the transmitted phase noise has a density amplifier first presented over two decades
formance. but would reduce the margin for 120 dB lower, o r - 6 0 dBm/Hz. If received ago. The design (like aging designers) is
applying feedback in that stage. As in any with a 500-Hz-wide receiver, the noise is useful and robust in spite its age. The first
practical design, this one is a collection of - 3 3 dBm, or 0.5 p W . A low power trans- stage uses a single TO-39 transistor biased
trade-off factors. mitter of this level would probably not be to about 50 mA. Emitter degeneration and
Noise figure is also calculated for the heard at any distance, but can be copied by parallel feedback crcate low input and
cascade, 6.1 dB based upon an assumed stations within a mile. The noise closer to output impedance, presenting a good
N'F of 6 dB for each stage. If we assume the carrier will be much more evident. match at both ports. The second stage uses
i moderately low noise IF followed by a The individual stages in the cascadc of a parallel pair of TO-39 or similar transis-
10 dB loss in the mixer and bandpass filter, Fig 6.97 could be simple feedback ampli- tors biased to about 250 mA. This circuit
she output noise is essentially that of a re- fiers, biased to a high enough current that has a gain of 36 dB below 4 MHz, drop-
sistor attached to the amplifier input. That the individual stage intercepts are realized. ping to 29 dB at 29 MHz. The saturated
noise is - 1 7 4 dBm in a 1 Hz bandwidth. The stages should present input and out- output is a little over 1 W. I M D measure-
Adding 6.1 dB for the NF and 60 dB for put impedances that match the adjacent ments at 14 M H z produced OIP3 of
tain, the wide band output noise density is stages, especially when wide bandwidth is +43.5 dBm, making this a good starting
-107.9 dBm/Hz. If this noise was to be desired. One may be more cavalier for a point for low power SSB equipment. This
sampled in a receiver with a 500-Hz band- s i n g l e - b a n d C W d e s i g n , although matched circuit can also be used in CW applica-
width, total power would be - 8 0 . 9 dBm. feedback amplifiers are still preferred, for tions by keying the positive supply to both
This is a very low power and would prob- they tend to preserve wideband stability. stages with a robust P N P switch such as a
ibly not be a problem for others using the The emitter degeneration may be adjusted 2N5322 or TIP-32.
vame frequency. However, if another in a single band C W design to alter stage A single-ended Class-A power ampli-
20 dB of gain was added, bringing the gain as needed for the desired output fier is shown in Fig 6.99. This was built to
output to 1000 W, the noise would be at power. This practice should be used with investigate the performance of a variety of
-61 dBm. This noise would drop into the more care when dealing with SSB. FETs as low distortion circuits. A 2N5947
background at a distance, but could be
A Class-A R F power chain can gener- bipolar feedback amplifier with measured
troublesome for other stations in close
ally be built on a single board, for gain is OIP3 of +42 dBm preceded the circuit.
proximity. This is a common difficulty
modest. However, the board should end in The first experiments used an 1RF-510
with many stations in close proximity.
a stage of around 1 to 10 W output. Higher- H E X F E T for Q i . With R2 = 1 Q . an input
Transmitted phase noise is usually powered amplifiers should have separate network consisting of R1 = 47 with no in-
imuch) greater than broadband amplifier power supply lines and an isolated ther- put transformer, and with a 15 V power
noise. Consider a poorly designed trans- mal environment. A straight-line layout is supply and bias adjusted for 0.5 A I D . wc
mitter with a synthesized LO generating recommended, separated f r o m the band- measured OIP3 = +48 dBm. Increasing the

Fig 6.99—Class-A power amplifier experiment. Several

MOSFET types were tried at Q1 while seeking high output
intercept. L1 is 4 jiH of #22 wound on a T68-2 toroid. T1 is
Fig 6.98—1-W power amplifier. Q2 and Q3 should have 10 bifilar turns #18 on an FT-82-43 ferrite toroid. T2 is 8 bifilar
robust heat sinks if long operating periods are planned. If turns #22 on an FT-37-43. R1 should have a 1-W power rating.
the 2N3553 is difficult to find, a Panasonic 2SC2988 can be Class-A amplifiers like this should be mounted on a large
considered for substitution. A single 2SC1969 might be a heat sink, for efficiency is not a feature of the design. See
good substitute for the Q2 and Q3 pair. text for details.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.S5

power supply to 25 V with 1 D = 0.75 A current used. With typical speech contain- anced modulator, the local oscillator that
yielded OIF3 = +51 dBm with 19-dB gain. ing low average power compared to the drives it is the carrier. All of the consider-
The HKXFET seemed to wanr high drain peak value, average current is low. The ations presented earlier for mixers continue
voltage and did not provide low distortion average to peak power ratio is usually in- to apply. The popular diode ring mixers per-
performance with a 12-V supply. Experi- creased with speech processing, but net form well in this application, often needing
ments with the larger I R F - 5 3 0 and the current is still far below Class A values. no adjustments for carrier suppression. The
alternative input network produced simi- An outstanding example of a medium newer (physically smaller) T U F series parts
lar results. The H E X F E T s were thermally power Class-AB F E T amplifier was from Mini-Circuits are preferred over the
unstable at high drain current without the offered by Sabin That design is on the older and larger SBL-1. both for size and
source degeneration resistance. book CD." carrier suppression.
The next tests used a F E T specified for f i g 6.100 shows a simple balanced modu-
R F performance, a now obsolete Siliconix
DV-2880T The alternative input network Balanced Modulators lator design using two diodes. This is suit-
able for simple transmitters where the ex-
provided a lower driving impedancc The voice signal from a microphone is pense of a packaged mixers is to be avoided.
for the gate. High drain voltage was amplified and converted to an intermediate The LO should be high enough to produce
again required lo obtain low distortion. radio frequency with a mixer. After up-con- output that docs not vary with L O drive,
With V d d = 25 and I D = 0.8 A, this device version, it is usually processed with a crystal usually +7 to +10 dBm. Diode type is not
produced O I P 3 = +57 dBm with 21-dB filter to eliminate one sideband. A balanced critical. Silicon switching diodes such as the
gain. The measurements were performed mixer is virtually always used in this appli- 1N4148 or similar will work well through
with outputs of +30 dBm per tone, or 4-W cation, a requirement to eliminate the local the HF spectrum. Diodes should be matched
PEP. Slightly higher standing current oscillator feedthrough. The mixer used in for forward voltage drop with a current of a
should be used for a full 10-W PEP output. this application is usually described as a bal- couple of mA.
The designer/builder could investigate
other available FETs or power bipolar
transistors. It appears that intercepts
around +60 d B m will be available with
moderately priced devices, allowing con-
struction of Class-A power chains offer-
ing stellar performance at the 10-W PEP
output level when c o m p a r e d with that
offered by commercial transceivers. The BF
r-
experimental methods presented can cer-
tainly be extended to higher power levels.
Class-A power amplifiers are very inef-
ficient with values of 25 or 30% being the
best one can expect with reasonable dis-
tortion. Indeed. 50% is the theoretical
Out

r .-1, Batten vie*

LO
In

maximum. Solid-state Class-AB amplifi-

ers are also inefficient with values of 30% 1 9 3• 9* T
being typical. But the numbers obtained I • < t I• ««
with two-tone testing are only part of the Flg 6.100—Simple balanced modulator
for use in simple transmitters. R can
story. The Class-AB amplifier uses only-
be a small trim pot with R from 100 £2
enough bias to turn the devices on. per- to 2 kQ. T Is 10 bifllar turns on an Fig 6.101—Adding balance adjustment to
haps to a maximum of 10% of the peak FT-37-43 for HF applications. a balanced modulator using the SBL-1.

6.S6 Chapter 6
 Some builders have built very effective
balanced modulators with the SBL-l and
similar Mini-Circuits mixers. Bui ihe
topology is modified slightly f r o m the
expected where audio would be applied to
pins 5 and 6, which were short circuited to
each other. A modification used by W6JFR,
shown in F i g 6.101, opens the short and
inserts a low resistance (50 to 200 12) pot
between pins. Adjustment of the pot allows
the carrier to be nulled. Drive level consid-
erations are still important.
The Gilbert Cell is an effective and popu-
lar balanced modulator. Fig 6.102 shows a
simple speech amplifier and balanced
modulator using the Motorola M C 1 4 9 6 P .
The internal circuitry for the M C I 4 9 6 is
found in the m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s data, with f u n -
damentals presented in Chapter 5. This cir-
cuit is capable of a carrier suppression ex-
ceeding 50 dB. Indeed, one can probably
adjust it to even greater suppression, al-
though it may be difficult to maintain this
p e r f o r m a n c e over time and temperature
variations. T h e output with audio drive
should be kept to about - 2 0 dBm with this
circuit. L O drive is 300 to 500 mV peak-to-
peak. usually measured (in-situ) with an
oscilloscope with a x l O probe.
T h e speech amplifier used in Fig 6.102
will a c c o m m o d a t e both h i g h and low im-
p e d a n c e m i c r o p h o n e s . F E T t y p e is not
critical. M o s t of the gain is provided by the
o p - a m p . T h e builder may wish to use a
d u a l o p - a m p with the other scction c o n f i g -
ured as an active low pass filter. A project
elsewhere in the book used this topology
with a diode ring balanced modulator.

Transmitter IF Systems
T h e modulator output is routed to an IF
amplifier. With a level of - 2 0 d B m f r o m
the modulator and a requirement for only
- 1 0 dBm for a typical transmit mixer, little
IF gain is needed. Indeed, most of the f u n c -
tion of a transmit IF amplifier is that of sig-
nal conditioning and level control rather
than gain. Fig 6.103 shows an I F system.
The first stage uses a c o m m o n base ampli-
fier. which provides good isolation
between the modulator and crystal filter
that follows. T h e amplifier also sets the ter-
mination impedance for the crystal filter.
The amplifier and follower after the filter
will establish the proper output level and
gain. The follower provides a 50-12 output
impedance to drive a ring mixer while a
10-mA bias current sets low distortion.
A c o m m e r c i a l crystal filter was used in
the IF s h o w n , part of an early trans-
Fig 6.102—Speech amplifier and balanced modulator using an MC1496P. The
c e i v e r . 3 5 T h e filter can be as simple as a
transformer is 10 bifilar turns #28 on an FT37-43 with a 3-turn output link, used at
3 MHz. The carrier- balance pot is adjusted for minimum output at the carrier 4th order Butterworth design. H o w e v e r ,
'requency. The dual in line version of the MC1496 is used here. Builders should we h a v e b e e n d i s a p p o i n t e d with these
:onsult manufacturer's data when using other variants. simple filters. Filters with 6 to 8 crystals

Transmitters and Receivers 6.57

 arc liltle more complicated than a 4-pole
circuit once the builder has been through
the crystal characterization exercise
needed when building filters. (See Chap-
W , 1 ter 3 for design details.) Yel the sideband
suppression is dramatically better. Sup-
pression is illustrated in Fig 6.104 where
overlapping 4 pole Chebyshev filter

1 0 , J
C -I-
responses are presented. The level 6 dB
down from the filter tops is marked, indi-
cating the filter "passbands". The worst-
H M K l
case sideband suppression is about 30 dB.
si 1 S occurring for a 300-Hz audio note. Sup-
pression approaches 60 dB at the highest
audio input.
I tH; A Chebyshev filter shape is recom-
— w v A/W-jJ mended for SSB applications over the sim-
! pler Cohn filter, which often suffers from
1
poor passband shape. A comparison is
- w ^ made in Fig 6.105, The Cohn response,
however, does have steep skirt attenuation,
o
comparable to a 1.0-dB-ripple Chebyshev
"-AVV £ filter. Further. Cohn (equal coupling) fil-
ters built with lower Q„ crystals tend to
have a smoother passband shape.
^ H i It is interesting also to compare avail-
able sideband suppressions with Ihe
responses of a phasing transmitter. The
o>
!i
—E phasing system has the virtue of offering
good suppression over the entire passband
including the region closc to the carrier.
Hybrid systems with a phasing exciter fol-
lowed by a filter could o f f e r spectacular
performance. (The same can be said for
SSB receivers. See Chapter 9.)

I H C W Carrier Generation
The IF amplifier of Fig 6.103 includes a
» £ crystal-controlled carrier oscillator needed
for CW generation. The oscillator and fol-
lower are relatively rich in harmonic energy,
which might normally constitute a problem.
However, the harmonics are removed by-
. O ^ passing the signal through the crystal filter.
The carrier is injected into the IF strip at the
i' "^VXAr- common base stage. The 1 -k£2 resistor can
be adjusted so the CWlevel is the same as Ihe
^ peak SSB power. An even simpler IF system
or-« is clearly in order for designs intended ex-
-W\r clusively for CW. The important criterion is
" H h U to provide the right level for the transmit

r 'mixer, but no more.

The CW carrier oscillator shown in
Fig 6.103 functioned well in this applica-
v f ^ tion. This oscillator was turned off and on
only at the relatively slow T/R rate. A
5 § 88
Oi 0. P faster rate is needed in many higher speed
applications. But keyed crystal oscillators
are subject to chirp, a change in frequency
occurring as oscillation builds in the cir-
cuit. The problem often gets worse at
Fig 6.103—IF amplifier for an SSB transmitter. Very little IF gain is usually needed lower frequency. There are several solu-
for this application. The trimmer capacitors were needed to terminate the crystal
tions to the problem. The crystal oscillator
filter used on a transceiver using this amplifier, but may not be needed for other
applications. can be configured for lower loaded crystal

6.58 Chapter 6
 isolate it from the receiver. Oscillator opera-
O dB
tion at a harmonic is often a convenient op-
10. 00
tion. The signal is then divided with a digital
dB/Diu.
di vider during key down periods. One of our
designs used a 5-MHz IF. but slight chirp
was encountered when a 5-MHz crystal os-
GAIN, dB cillator was keyed. The solution to the prob-
<S —21) lem is shown in Fig 6.106.
Even though the free running oscillator
nef. S-21
in this scheme does not operate within the
receiver IF, shielding is still required. A
steady tone was heard when the 10-MHz
oscillator was physically near the 5 - M H z
I F . a result of B F O second harmonic
energy mixing with the higher frequency
signal. Shielding and use o f feedthrough
capacitors for power and control elimi-
10.00
nated the problem.
-so.oo dB
The non-integer frequency multiplica-
FREQUENCY, Hz 1000.00 Hz/Oio. tion schcme described in Chapter 4 would
also be well suited to generation of a C W
Tua 2SOO Hz uide SSB F i l t e r s , N , 0.3 dB Chebtjsheo
carrier. That scheme divides a free run-
Fig 6.104—Two overlapping filters illustrating sideband suppression. See text. In a ning oscillator by 2, then uses one of the
practical application, the filter response is measured and recorded in the builder/ robust odd harmonics present in the square
designer's notebook. The lower frequency 6-dB point is noted (for USB generation) wave. In the prior example with a 5 M H z
and the carrier is placed 300 Hz below this point. The carrier is so marked in the I F . a crystal oscillator at 3 . 3 3 3 3 M H z
figure.
could be used. It would be divided by 2 to
produce a 1.667 M H z square wave that has
a strong harmonic at 5 MHz. This could be
filtered in a 5 MHz crystal o r L C filler.

IF Speech Processor
The - 1 0 - d B m signal developed by the
transmitter I F (Fig 6 . 1 0 3 ) is ready to drive
a transmit mixer. Alternatively, it can be
applied to an I F speech processor, shown
in Fig 6.107.
The voltage related t o a - 1 0 - d B m signal
in a 50-12 cable is only 0.1 V peak. This is
not enough to turn on a diode. However, it
can be increased with a transformer until
diode clipping occurs. After the signal has
been dipped, it is amplified and filtered.
The filtering from the second crystal filler
is necessary: without the filtering, inter-
modulation distortion products generated
by the clipping circuitry would appear
O.OO 4000.00
FREQUENCY. Hz S00.00 Hz/Div. outside the I F bandwidth. Clipping cannot
utrtuHHi. ruMruifc i Huutn HNHLYi t ^ , copyrignt w w , hhki. be done prior to initial filtering, for that
0.3 dB Chebushew Us Cohn Crystal F i l t e r s , N=4, 8=2500
clipping of the double sideband signal
would crcatc some distortion products
Fig 6.105—Two 4-element crystal filters are compared. The shape marked with within the eventual IFpassband that would
small squares represents the Cohn filter while the other was designed for a 0.3 dB not otherwise occur.
Chebyshev response. The two filters have similar skirt response, which is much
The I F speech processor has the effect of
better than a Butterworth shape, but much worse than a higher-order filter.
increasing the average power within the
speech sideband without increasing the
peak. This higher average power increases
Q. often a difficult design task. A better often a convenient solution, for R I T cir- intelligibility without excess distortion out
solution uses an oscillator that is not cuitry is already present in the transceiver. of the normal passband. This processor, with
keyed. The receiver B F O usually found in Another alternative is a non-keyed crystal the levels shown, increases the average to
a transceiver is such an oscillator, but it is oscillator other than the B F O . But one can't peak power by about 10 or 12 dB, readily
offset, operating at the wrong frequency. normally use one within the receiver IF observed with an oscilloscope.
This slight change can be compensated bandwidth, for it would be heard unless The I F processor has a second advan-
with a suitable offset in the V F O . This is monumental efforts were taken to shield and tage: It confines the I F level to prevent

Transmitters and Receivers 6.59

overdriving the transmit mixer. W i t h o u t factor in a transmitter IF system. With so a mixer driven by a distorted I F signal.
the processing, it would be desirable to add little gain r e q u i r e d , the IF system can
A L C . or " A u t o m a t i c Level Control."' This be simple. But the builder/designer should
is an A G C loop in the t r a n s m i t t e r that be c a r e f u l to be sure that distortion is not Bidirectional Amplifiers
m a i n t a i n s the level t h r o u g h the o v e r a l l an issue. It w o u l d be folly to design an O n e view of a S S B transmitter says that
p o w e r chain. e x t r e m e l y low distortion R F p o w e r it is nothing more than a s u p e r h e t e r o d y n e
I n t e r m o d u l a t i o n distortion is rarely a chain only to f e e d it with the output of .SSB receiver with signals m o v i n g in the

Fig 6.106—Alternative carrier-oscillator system for CW generation. A free-running 10-MHz crystal oscillator is divided with a
digital divider to generate 5 MHz when needed. The divide-by-2 circuit is controlled with an IC reset line. See text.

Fig 6.107—IF speech processor. Back-to-back diodes clip the IF signal. The resulting voltage Is amplified and filtered in a crystal
filter. It is then amplified and set to provide the desired - 1 0 dBm to drive the transmit mixer. Schottky diodes are used in the
clipper circuit. The diodes are driven by a 16-turn winding on an FT-37-43 ferrite toroid. The link on the 50-Q line is 3 turns.

6.60 Chapter 6
 RX In or Out Audio
to Crystal Input
Filter Filter — ( / \ )
Broad Band Filter
Xmtr Amp Output
14 MHz
5 MHz
LO Input BFO Input

Fig 6.108—Partial block diagram of an SSB

+12 V
transceiver based upon bidirectional amplifiers.

1N914 1N914

Fig 6.110—Bidirectional amplifier with

complementary transistors. Only one
transistor is on for each direction.
Operation is clear if one of the
transistors is mentally removed and the
remaining circuitry is analyzed. See text
for details.

signed for higher currenl. the 680-£2 resis-

tors are replaced with smaller resistors in
Fig 6.109—Bidirectional amplifier with bipolar transistors. Q1 and Q2 can be scries with suitable inductors.
2N5109s or similar parts. The input and output impedances are SO ft in both The junction field effect transistor is
directions. ideally suited to bidirectional amplifiers,
owing to the usual symmetry of the physi-
cal device where the source and drain
regions are identical. The drain only as-
opposite directum. The transmitter needs of operation is selected by applying Vcc to sumes drain-like properties when it is posi-
the same filters and oscillators as used one of the two control inputs. tively biased. A bidirectional amplifier
in the receiver to crcatc a SSB signal. Many Very few of the components in the using this is presented in Fig 6.111. A
transceiver designs have used this con- amplifier of Fig 6.109 arc shared with single-ended variation ("A" in the figure)
cept. A block diagram is shown in Fig switched directions. W3TS brought our shows the resonant drain network needed
6.108. All of the RF and IF chain amplifi- attention to a simple bidirectional ampli- to generate high gain. This circuit appears
ers are bidirectional: they provide gain lo fier used in some "Manpack" transceivers twice in the bidirectional version r ' B " ) of
signals going in either direction when a dc built by Plessey. 36 We adapted this to the the circuit. A PIN diode short-circuits
control signal is changed Diodc-ring mix- 50-11 feedback circuit shown in Fig 6.110, C-l when that portion of Lhe circuit is used
ers are also bidirectional circuits, as arc The amplifier shown should be operated as an input. The low impedance then
both LC and crystal fillers. Audio signals from a low V c c to ensure that the emitter- effectively short-circuits much of the
can be switched with ease with integrated base breakdown of either transistor is not tuned network. Inpul tuning can be imple-
or discrete FET switches. exceeded. No emitter degeneration is used mented. if needed, by replacement of the
Fig 6.109 shows a circuit designed by in the transistors, for each transistor is only RFC with small inductors. This circuit uses
the late Mike Metealf. W7UDM. This cir- biased to about 3.5 mA. Degeneration can the metal can U-310 rather than the more
cuit uses high F-l transistors biased lo high be added for reduced gain or improved common J-310. allowing a grounded gate
current in the feedback amplifier circuit IMD This amplifier will provide about with extremely low inductance, important
used throughout this book. The direction 17 dB gain up lo about 40 MHz. If rede- for UHF stability. 37

Transmitters and Receivers 6.61

 Fig 6 . 1 1 1 — B i d i r e c t i o n a l amplifier u s i n g
a j u n c t i o n FET in a c o m m o n - g a t e
t o p o l o g y . Part A s h o w s a s i n g l e - e n d e d
amplifier w h e r e L, C - v , a n d C-t f o r m a
resonant n e t w o r k that presents a high
i m p e d a n c e to t h e drain. Part B s h o w s
t h e bidirectional variation. S e e text.
1 vdd - i n H j
>100
(B)

Bidirectional Crystal (°HI

Filter Circuits — rloi , S.

Fig 6.112 shows a system with

diode switching, allowing a crystal filter
to be shared between receive and transmit
functions. Diode D1 routes the signal to
the filter input during rcccive while D2
connects to transmit circuits. R1 and R2 Ground f o r i n p u t a t r i g h t .
Ground f o r i n p u t a t l e f t .
set D1 current during receive. The posi-
tive voltage developed across R1 serves to -15V f o r i n p u t a t r i g h t . +15V f o r i n p u t a t l e f t .
reverse bias the diode in the off path.
Part B of Fig 6.112 shows an option with
an added transistor. Q1. in the receive path.
Q1 helps to reverse bias Lhe DI anode and
creates a low impedance to ground during
transmit, both increasing the switch on to
off ratio. Typical switch performance at +V on Receive
10 MHz will be a 45 dJ3 on to off ratio with
a 1 dB insertion loss. _ L:,R2
47 do qJ
While the diode switching looks simple Crystal y rfc
enough, it is a critical transceiver circuit.
Filter
The switching and the interfacing circuits
should present the same impedance lo the
To Receiver
filter with switching to preserve filter per-
Circuits -D3
formance. All components must be exam-
ined and. if needed, characterized for 1IP3 To
as well as switching performance.
The best diodes to use in this applica-
Transmitter
Circuits N,
J
tion are PIN types. Lower cost high — rfc v H i -
voltage rectifier diodes arc often suitable,
rfc £
although they have higher off capacitance.
We have measured IIP3 higher than +V on Transmit {'
+50 dBrn for 1N647 and 1N4007 diodes. • ^ A A r + W
Less robust, but lower capacitance switch- 47 R3
ing diodes arc often used when crystal 01
filters with a 500-fl impedance are used.
Careful experiments are then required to
maintain IMD performance.
A scheme using a shared filter is shown +V on Receive
in Fig 6.113. This method using NE602
Gilbert Cell mixers is the brainchild of tt:R2 ( +V on T r a n s m i t
K7RO, 38 Part A of the figure shows a par- .01
iL -A?Vv—
tial schematic for a NE602. This part has
good isolation between ports, a result of
01 B
balance and the virtual cascode internal
topology. This allows two mixers lo be tied
together to present a constant composite
To Receiver
Circuits 1
impedance to a filter, shown in part B of
r To Crystal Filter
Fig 6.113. The mixer output impedancc is
1.5 k f l and remains even when the part is
biased off. The input impedance is 3 k£2,
but is present only when the mixer is bi-
ased into operation. The output of U l . a
receiver front-end mixer, and U2, a trans- Fig 6 . 1 1 2 — D i o d e s w i t c h i n g of a c r y s t a l filter b e t w e e n t r a n s m i t a n d r e c e i v e
mitter output mixer, are paralleled, pre- f u n c t i o n s . S e e text for details.

6.62 Chapter 6
 i n
NES02/ NE6C2/
J T t Z ih»-i h-

; ;ii
612 612

Receiver Input
IK-Cihm Crystal Ladder I

U4
RF to
Transmitter NE602 ME602/
PS CfidJ h 612 512 ...

i
.1 ^ f47n
srx.
TT k n
— zh. 47KJ-

Audio Injiut
11K J-

nicrophonc

V-1{-

( X h e f
Tfsmsnit j

Fig 6.113—A scheme for sharing a crystal filter between functions. Part A shows a partial schematic for an NE602. Part B
presents the basic scheme generated by K7RO while C shows FET buffers that allow other mixers and filters of many different
impedances. The scheme in C has not been tried. See text for details.

Fig 6.114—Circuits used to shape keying of a transmitter amplifier stage. Part A is a general case of switching an emitter
current to ground. Part B uses a PNP switch to apply a keyed waveform to an NPN amplifier. If that stage draws 10 mA with
8 V applied, it is modeled as an 800-ft resistor, as in Part C. Analysis of C shows an asymmetry. The rise is controlled by the
equivalent of 390 £2 in parallel with 800 Q while the fall is the result of the 800-Q value alone. Part D provides nearly identical
rise and fall times. E shows a modified switch where the PNP now functions not only as a dc switch, but as an integrator that
shapes the rise and fall. See text for discussion.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.63

senting a 1.0-kQ impcdancc to the crystal f r o m the controlling dc. and fall in a dc-only circuit with an op-amp
filter. Local oscillator energy is simulta- The various parts of Fig 6,114 show a output controlling the gain of an amplifier.
neously applied to both mixers. variety of shaping circuits, outlined in the Shaping can even be done with DSP firm-
T w o more NE602 mixers are used with caption. But the most popular is the simple ware. as presented in later chapters.
a similar connection to serve as a product integrator popularized by W 7 E L shown in One sometimes sees simple transmitter
detector (U3) and transmit balanced part E. 3 9 The PNP transistor serves a dual circuits where a crystal oscillator is keyed.
modulator (U4.) Biasing is slightly altered role. The dc is switched, creating the basic The result is often better than expected.
in Q4 io adjust balance. function. But the transistor is also an This results from a general characteristic
One would ideally switch the mixers off amplifier that, in combination with the of oscillators—oscillation cannot start
and on to match their application. How- capacitor between base and collector immediately, but must overcome the delay
ever. turning a mixer off that has an input f o r m s an integrator circuit. No current related to the bandpass filterintrinsic to all
that is shared with the output of another flows when the key is up, bringing both oscillator resonators. The resonator is the
part will change the terminating imped- base and emitter to + 12 V, with the collec- high Q crystal in this ease. This behavior is
ance. The experimenter may wish to insert tor at ground. As soon as the key is usually not planned and should not be con-
appropriate b u f f e r amplifiers in the sys- pressed, currcnt begins to flow in R l , fused with design.
tem to solve these problems. causing the base voltage to begin to drop Although wc emphasize shaping to
The transceiver designed by K7RO used below +12 V. As soon as it gets to 11.3, reduce key clicks, some parts of the key-
a crystal filter designed to have the imped- base current begins to flow, forcing col- ing function must happen quickly, if an
ance required by the mixers. Greater flex- lectpr current to also flow which increases oscillator is keyed, it should occur quickly
ibility is afforded by the system in part C collector voltage. But the increasing col- using circuitry isolated from shaping. The
of the figure. Q1 functions as a common lector voltage is coupled back to the base requirement for quick starting often pre-
gate buffer amplifier, presenting a low in- through the capacitor in a direction that cludes keying crystal oscillators. But
put impedance such as might be needed "tries" to reduce the base current. This keyed oscillators often suffer stability
for a diode ring rcccivcr mixer. Q2 is a negative feedback does not let the collec- problems, adding challenge.
simple JFET follower to drive a variety of tor voltage increase quickly, but forces it Generally, the following events must
mixer types for the transmit function. Q3 to ramp up at an approximately linear rate occur in sequence when a transceiver is
is a dc switch that allows Q1 to be shut until the transistor begins to saturate. keyed:
down during transmit intervals. Resistor The action is similar when the key is 1. The receiver is operating normally.
R T i s the dominant element terminating the opened. The open Rl tries to reduce base 2. The key is pressed to start a character.
crystal filter. current, which will let the collector volt- 3. The receiver is muted, preventing fur-
age drop. But as that happens, base currcnt ther audio from exiting.
will continue to flow through the capaci- 4. Additional receiver muting is activated,
Keying tor as the collector voltage drops, again preventing overload by strong trans-
Keying is the on-off control that is linearly, until the transistor finally turns mitter signals.
applied to a transmitter stage to generate off. R l and C set the rising characteristic 5. The antenna is disconnected f r o m the
R F in the pattern of International Morse while R2 and C determine the fall. The receiver input and is attached to the
Code. The keying circuitry can also con- traditional shapes of Fig 6.115 approxi- transmitter output. (In some cases, the
trol stages in a SSB transmitter when we mate the linear ramp. Tndeed it is the ramp- transmitter output is already con-
wish to eliminate power consumption dur- ing part that is more effective in reducing nected.)
ing receive periods. In principle, keying
clicks than is the rounded corners at the 6. Bias is established on important trans-
can be applied nearly anywhere in a trans-
end of the shaping. mitter stages.
mitter. It is usually applied at an interme-
There are many methods that may be 7. Oscillators are started and/or a fre-
diate level and more than one stage is of-
used to shape keying. In another W7EL quency synthesizer is shifted and/or an
ten keyed, especially when the following
creation (unpublished), a diode detector R I T (detailed later) is shifted into trans-
stages use linear amplifiers. It is accept-
monitored the output of a transmitter. That mit mode to establish the transmitted
able to key just one stage when the follow-
signal was then compared with an ideal rise frequency.
ing stages are nonlinear where bias is de-
rived from R F input. The behavior we seek
is a low backwave, meaning that the trans-
mitted R F is low when the key is open.
B a c k w a v e levels of - 8 0 dBc are easily-
achieved.
Fig 6.114 shows several schemes for
keying. Part A switches the emitter cur-
rent, while the base is biased at about half
the power supply. The electrolytic
capacitor, the related stage current, and the
resistor values time the rise and fall of the
amplifier current. Both the rise and fall
times should occur in a period of one or
two milliseconds. M u c h shorter times
allow key clicks to be created. Testing
is normally done by examining the RF
envelope with a high-speed oscilloscope,
ideally while triggering the oscilloscopc Fig 6.115—Desired waveform that should be applied to a keyed stage.

6.64 Chapter 6
8. T h e k e y e d s t a g e s a r e s u p p l i e d w i t h t h e M u t i n g a r e c e i v e r c a n be a m a j o r c h a l - ing. T h i s p r o c c s s can o f t e n c r e a t e t r a n s i e n t s
s h a p e d d c Chat c a u s e s t h e d e s i r e d w a v e - l e n g e , e s p e c i a l l y if v e r y h i g h s p e e d is that are a s t r o u b l i n g as t h e p r e s e n c e of sig-
f o r m to b e g e n e r a t e d . d e s i r e d . T h e h i g h - s p e e d o p e r a t i o n is e s p e - nal. T h e better m e t h o d o f m u t i n g a s t a g e
9. T h e d o t o r d a s h c o n t i n u e s to b e s e n t f o r cially useful for Q S K . or break-in C W a p p l i e s a g a i n a l t e r i n g b i a s that r e d u c e s
the d e s i r e d l e n g t h . operation w h e r e ideally a C W operator can gain without c h a n g i n g o t h e r d c p a r a m e t e r s .
10. T h e k e y is o p e n e d . hear other stations between high-speed Even the " s i m p l e " circuit task of
T h e s e q u e n c e o u t l i n e d is r e v e r s e d , w i t h d o t s . T h i s f a c i l i t y is c o n s i d e r e d an a d v a n - injecting an a u d i o sidetone can be a chal-
t h e final e v e n t b e i n g t h e u n m u t i n g o f t h e t a g e in c o m p e t i t i v e o p e r a t i o n s , b u t is a l s o lenge. O f t e n a sidetone oscillator is keyed
r e c e i v e r , a l l o w i n g t h e r e c e i v e r f u n c t i o n to useful while exchanging routine or emer- o n o r o f f in a w a y that c r e a t e s a d c t r a n -
r e t u r n to n o r m a l . gency traffic messages. s i e n t . T h a t is. t h e " k e y d o w n " w a v e f o r m
A l t h o u g h n o t l i s t e d , it m a y b e d e s i r a b l e T h e s i m p l e w a y t o m u t e a s t a g e in a has an average value that d i f f e r s from the
to a c t i v a t e c i r c u i t r y t h a t " r e m e m b e r s " t h e r e c e i v e r is to r e m o v e the p o w e r s u p p l y . U n - v a l u e w h e n t h e k e y is u p . A b e t t e r s i d e t o n e
gain s t a t e of a r e c e i v e r at t h e e x a c t b e g i n - f o r t u n a t e l y . this d o e s not allow the gain to o s c i l l a t o r is o n e t h a t h a s n o c h a n g e in d c
ning of a k e y e d i n t e r v a l s o t h e r e c e i v e r c a n diminish or grow immediately, for level a s it is t u r n e d o n a n d o f f , a n d the b e s t
i m m e d i a t e l y r e t u r n t o that s t a l e a f t e r t h e b y p a s s c a p a c i t o r s w i t h i n the s t a g e m u s t o n e s h a v e s h a p i n g a p p l i e d to t h e k e y e d
t r a n s m i t i n t e r v a l is f i n i s h e d . c h a r g e a n d / o r d i s c h a r g e with the s w i t c h - waveforms.

6.7 FREQUENCY SHIFTS, OFFSETS AND INCREMENTAL TUNING

Oscillator
Modifications
Both direct conversion and supcrhel
transceivers usually include a provision to
shift the frequency of the main oscillator
w h e n t h e k e y o r p u s h - t o - t a l k b u t t o n is
p r e s s e d , c a u s i n g t h e rig t o s h i f t f r o m a r e -
c e i v e to a t r a n s m i t m o d e . T h e r e a r e v a r i -
ous reasons f o r this shift, d e p e n d i n g on
the a p p l i c a t i o n .
Jl
F i g 6 . 1 1 6 s h o w s several partial oscilla-
tor s c h e m a t i c s that a l l o w t h e f r e q u e n c y t o (B)
be s h i f t e d in a d i s c r e t e s t e p a s a c o n t r o l
Control V
v o l t a g e is c h a n g e d . T h e v o l t a g e c h a n g e s
between two well-defined levels produc-
ing t w o c l o s e l y s p a c e d o u t p u t f r e q u e n c i e s . 0K>

1
T h e c i r c u i t in F i g 6 . 1 1 6 A is an L C t u n e d
V F O . T h e f r e q u e n c y is c h a n g e d w h e n a
small v a r i a b l e c a p a c i t o r , C v a r , is s h i f t e d
into the circuit with a diode switch. W h e n
the "control" signal is positive, dc current
f l o w s in the d i o d e a n d C - v a r is p a r t o f t h e
frequency determination. However, when
t h e c o n t r o l v o l t a g e is set at 0, very little
c u r r e n t flows in t h e d i o d e s w i t c h , s o C - v a r
is r e m o v e d f r o m t h e c i r c u i t . T h e s a m e coil
t a p u s e d f o r o s c i l l a t o r f e e d b a c k is u s e d f o r
offset. Additional capacitance, Cx, paral-
(C)
leling t h e d i o d e w i l l r e d u c e s h i f t , p r o v i d - +12 Volts
ing a n a d j u s t m e n t . ms Control V
AAA/—
A crystal-controlled oscillator with a
d i o d e s w i t c h is s h o w n in F i g 6 . 1 1 6 B . T h i s
c i r c u i t is ideal f o r s h i f t s of o n l y a f e w h u n -
d r e d h e r t z . T h e s h i f t will d e p e n d u p o n t h e
crystal p a r a m e t e r s a n d t h e c i r c u i t d e s i g n ,
so e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n with C d e l t a is r e q u i r e d .
A t r a n s i s t o r is u s e d a s a s w i t c h in
Fig 6 . 1 1 6 C . T h e t r a n s i s t o r s a t u r a t e s w h e n
the s w i t c h has b a s e c u r r e n t a p p l i e d , c r e a t - Fig 6.116—Oscillator circuits, Including a means for frequency shifting.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.65

 trol to +7.5. The same result occurs when
Fig 6.117—Modification of a classic LC oscillator for small tuning with a the " R I T - o f f " switch is closed.
varactor diode. See the text for discussion of
The usual superhet transceiver gener-
component values. The tuning diode is one
with a capacitance of 10 to perhaps 50 pF V-dd ates the transmitted carrier by mixing the
when reverse biased by a few volts. V F O output with a crystal controlled
Good choices for oscillator residing in the middle of a nar-
HF applications row IF bandwidth. During transceiver
are the BB105 or construction and alignment, the crystal
BB109, or
Motorola MV-209.
Silicon power
rectifiers or high-
V-Cont
Range Set;
1 oscillator is turned on and adjusted for a
frequency that provides a desired beat note
in the receiver, usually about 800 Hz.
voltage Zener Then, during operation, the transceiver is
diodes are also tuned until an 800-Hz note is heard. Press-
sometimes used,
0 1 uF Tuning Diode ing the key then generates a signal that is
encouraging
experimentation. exactly in zero beat with the received one.
Note that this operation and alignment
is slightly different than that when SSB is
generated in a superhet. In that case, the
same circuit (usually crystal controlled)
serves as the receiver beat frequency os-
ing effectively a RF short circuit. When the frequency of both transmitter and the cillator and the transmit suppressed car-
base current is removed, the 100-kQ col- receiver to be identical. rier. It is important that an experimenter
lector resistor causes the collector voltage The RIT function might be controlled understand the frequency scheme used in
to rise, placing a reverse bias on the col- with the circuit in Fig 6.118 where an his or her transceiver and the resulting
lector. The switch is then a small capacitor operational amplifier determines the V C O operating mode. Also be careful to know
(a picofarad or two) that has less impact on control voltage. A 5-V regulator provides when the RIT is active.
the circuit. a stable voltage to drive the tuning pots
A V F O example is shown in Fig 6.117 and to power the oscillator. This is divided Offsets with Direct
where a traditional oscillator is modified to provide 3 V for the noninverting
with the addition of a varactor diode. For op-amp input. A logic signal that is high
Conversion
best stability, the "range set" capacitor is during transmit periods is applied to the Transceivers
kept small, producing no more frequency NPN, Q2. This saturates Q2 and cuts Q1 These basic superhet schemes will also
shift than needed. Also, the voltage tuning off. disconnecting the 10-kQ summing work with direct conversion rigs. Consider
range is pickcd to always reverse bias the resistor from the R I T p o t . forcing the con- a very simple 7-MHz direct-conversion
tuning diode, even in the presence of large
R F voltages. A typical circuit might have
control voltage V(- that varies between 5
and 10 V dc. If the control drops close to
zero, the RF will be rectified in the diode,
altering V c . This will often alter the Q of +12 V
the oscillator tank and, in extreme cases,
can causc oscillation to cease.
The bypass capacitor related to the tun-
ing diode is shown as a 0.1 |iF. A smaller
value may be sufficient to decouple the RF.
Values that are too large will slow the rate
that frequency can change when the con-
trol voltage is altered, producing C W
chirps or missed SSB syllables.

Superhet RIT
The most familiar application for the
variable offset is receiver incremental tun-
ing, or KIT. featured in most commercial
transceivers. R I T is a simple function:
During transmit periods, the transceiver
frequency is determined by the main tun-
ing system. But incremental tuning can
b e c o m e active during receive, allowing
the user to adjust the received frequency Fig 6.118—Circuitry to control RIT. Q1 is a TO-92 N-Channel MOSFET such as a
by a small amount around the nominal 2N7000 or VN-10 or Zetex ZVNL-110A. Q2 = 2N3904 or similar. R1 sets the control
voltage during transmit. The SPST switch is closed when the RIT is off. In this
transmit frequency. A typical range is + / - state, the control voltage should be approximately 7.5 V. The control voltage
3 kHz. Usual transceivers have a provi- should vary between 4 and 10 with RIT on. Op-amp type is not critical; it could be
sion to turn the RIT function off, forcing a 741, half of a 5532 or 358, or similar.

6.66 Chapter 6
€W transceiver using a VFO without off- 7041 kHz to listen to a similar 1-kHz audio 10-(iF capacitor and related resistors.
set or RIT circuitry. A simple switch trans- note, again transmitting off frequency. One tuning method emphasizes the
fers the antenna between transmit and Clearly, you must do something so that SPOT switch. When a station is heard that
receive functions, as needed. The trans- you transmit on the right frequency. One you wish to call, the SPOT switch is closed
ceiver is turned on and attached to a suit- simple answer uses an offset generating and the station is tuned to zero beat (zero
able antenna. The VFO is tuned, producing circuit like that shown in Fig 6.116A. This audio frequency.) This switch action is the
the expected collection of signals. A sta- circuit shifts the V FO dnwn ward by a fixed same as pushing the key with the fre-
tion is found calling CQ on 7040 kHz, amount when the control is switched posi- quency shifted to the transmit slate. Once
Assume that you had been slowly tuning tive. The exact shift can be adjusted with a the station is tuned to zero beat, the SPOT
up the band when you beard this station. frequency counter, or by ear by listening switch is opened. The station should then
If you stopped tuning and listen to an to strong signals. The schematic is dupli- be heard with a 1-kHz note.
audio note of 1 kHz, your VFO will be at cated in Fig 6.119, which now includes A second method is faster. When tuning
7039 kHz. If you tried to answer him, there needed control circuitry. and looking for stations to call, be sure
» a high likelihood that he would miss you The system shown in Fig 6.119 is com- that you are always tuning down the band,
and would merely call CQ again. He will mon forD-C transceivers. Pressing the key- taking care not to tune through zero beat.
probably listen most intensely on his trans- causes immediate PNP base current to It may be useful to mark the front panel
mitter frequency of 7040 kHz. flow. The collector goes up to +12 V, shift- with a small arrow next to the tuning knob,
A similar situation would have occurred ing the VFO frequency downward. When indicating the proper tuning direction. An
if you had been tuning down the band. You the key is let up, the frequency remains error in picking the right tuning direction
would have stopped with your VFO at shifted for a short period controlled by the will now produce a 2-kHz error.
Extended use of a D-C transceiver
reveals a subtlety: there is often interfer-
ence when the VFO is on one side of the
desired signal, but the other side is clear. It
would be useful to be able to reverse the
role of the offset. This leads to a modifica-
tion of the usual scheme called "Almost
Incremental Tuning." or AIT. shown in
Fig 6.119—Offset Fig 6.120.

j
system for a Like the simpler system, the system with
simple direct-
AIT is easy to use with a spot switch. Upon
conversion
transceiver. finding a station that you wish to work,
no—vw—4 . SPOT tune to zero beat. Then throw the AIT
switch. If there is interference, tune to zero
beat and toggle the switch again.

„ 4; !. Key Line RIT with Direct

1 PJ Conversion
An RIT system is often included with a
D-C transceiver. The utility of the feature
helps immensely to overcome the defi-
ciencies of the double-sided response. RIT
+6V
can be accomplished at two different lev-
els. W7EL popularized the simple scheme
shown in Fig 6.121. 40
Control V A varactor diode is coupled to the oscilla-
tor through a small capacitor. During trans-
mit or "zero" intervals, the bias on the diode
is maximum at the level of the 9 V regulated
supply. The voltage applied to the tuning
diode during receive is less then the regu-
c-«ri 'I2R j lated supply, causing a downward shift in
VFO frequency. The amount of the offset is
tunable via the 20-kil RIT control. This
scheme works well, providing all the adjust-
ment needed for normal operation.
The complete superhet system can also
be applied to a D-C rig.
One often encounters articles in the lit-
erature where VFO offset in direct conver-
sion transceivers is discussed. The variety
Fig 6.120—A VFO with offset capabilities and "AIT," Almost incremental Tuning. of offset options presented are sometimes
This scheme allows the downward frequency shift in the VFO to occur on either referred to as having to do with "sideband
transmit or receive, providing greater flexibility to avoid Interference. selection." This term is not correct. The

Transmitters and Receivers 6.67

 usual dircct-conversion receivers using
• Reg. but one balanced mixer are not single side-
band receivers (even though they can be
>12 used to receive SSB.) Moreover, they are
• Reft usually used to listen to C W signals thai
do not include sidebands other than the
closely spaced key clicks.

• Reg- | Key Line

- p

20K

Fig 6.121—Simple RIT system developed by W7EL. This Is a single-sided design

where Incremental tuning moves the VFO downward in frequency during receive
periods, but only on one side of the transmit frequency. The general flexibility for
effective RIT Is retained. The tuning diode used by W7EL was actually a medium-
voltage Zener diode, illustrating the simplifications that can be realized when one
understands the behavior of the components. The system built by W7EL used a
fixed capacitor where C-var is shown.

6.8 TRANSMIT-RECEIVE ANTENNA SWITCHING

An interesting design detail for a trans- that in Q l . In the receive mode without the vides a voltage from 6 to 12 V .
ceiver. and generally for any station is the relay energized Q2 base current flows When the key is pressed, or a push-
way the antenna is switched between the re- through R2 and the Zener diode. D2. The to-talk or V O X line go low. the base current
ceiver and transmitter. Something as simple Zener voltage level is not critical, but in Q2 is diverted away from the base. Q2
as a manual switch will work and is used in should be near half the supply. The base then stops conducting, causing Ql and the
some equipment in other chapters. However, current flows from the pot. R3, which pro- relay to switch on. Pressing the key, etc. also
the more common route uses either a relay
or electronic switching methods. A tradi-
tional relay switch is shown in Fig 6.122.
The RF pan of the circuitry is presented in
part A. The relay can be placed directly at the Low Pass Fitter
antenna terminal, but is shown here on the
transmitter side of the usual low pass filter.
Generally this scheme is preferred because
the filtering is useful in both receive and
transmit functions.
To Receiver
The example circuit in Fig 6.122B uses Input
a 500-Q relay coil. The relay current is
switched with Q l . a saturated switch. Gen-
erally. the base current should be the col-
lector value diminished by 10 to 20. so R l
is about 20 times the relay coil value. (The
factor 20 is called a "forced beta'' in this
example.) Diode D1 serves to "catch" the
voltage spike that will always occur when
Q l is turned off. Without the diode, the
current that had been flowing in the induc-
BH152 ^ T„
tive relay coil would " t r y " to continue i i iff"
flowing, generating the large spike as it
charges the collector capacitance of Q I .
This voltage surge can easily be large
enough to destroy Q l .
If Q2 was not present, Q l and the relay
Fig 6.122—Relay T/R switching. The RF portion of the T/R switch is in part A while
would be on. The base current in Q l is
B shows a simple means for relay control. An expanded version is shown at C
shunted to ground through the collector of
where higher relay current Is allowed. Experimenters might wish to replace some
Q2 to control Ihe relay. The Q2 base cur- of the transistors with some using built-in resistors found in parts catalogs,
rent is reduced by another factor of 20 over manufactured by Panasonic and others.

6.68 Chapter 6
•lischargcs capacitor C. Resistor R5 in series to charge through R2 until it reaches the much higher, or when additional current
•lib C restricts the current that must be con- Zener voltage. must be supplied for other transmit circuit
ducted in the key when switched. The circuit Plastic switching transistors such as functions. R6 is picked to provide a Q3
(iocs not change states immediately when the 2N3904 are fine for Q1 and Q2. base current of about 5 to 10% of the cur-
Ac key is released- Rather, switching is Fig 6.122C shows a scheme with a P N P rent that must be supplied by the Q3 col-
JeUycd by the lime interval required for C that can be used when the relay current is lector. General purpose PNPs for this
application are the 2N5322 or the T1P32.
Fig 6.123 shows a common transmitter
topology where the power amplifier ( P A ) is
50 O h m s always attached to the antenna. The P A is cut
off during receive periods, so it is essentially
an open circuit with some parallel capaci-
tance. Antenna energy is extracted through
switch SI to the receiver. This scheme is
common, but it must be applied with care.
The PA must not be conducting during re-
ceive; if it was, the collector resistance would
absorb some of the signal that would other-
wise reach the receiver. Also, conduction
would generate excess noise that would
Xnput compromise the receiver. It is also important
to tap the receiver signal from a point in the
Fig 6.123—The RF portion of a T/R switch using a single switch. The transmitter low pass filter where the response will be
is always connected to the antenna.
maintained. For example, replacing the
broadband transformer with a tuned network
might lead to a shunt tuned circuit that would
X-500 short some of the receiver energy to ground.
.X=500 ,
— f —
In some designs, a transmitter matching
01 network might present an impedance lower
FIN < F.~C 2TJ3306 than 50 Q to the PA. This occurs when the
Fig 6.124—T/R output power is more than a watt or so from
switch with a
IK J 5-01.t l — o T f a 12-V supply. It is often tempting to tap
10K shunt PIN diode.
I1K 10K the receiver signal from the PA collector.
+12 This may work, although if the impedance
is much less than the receiver input imped-
ance. the resulting mismatch can compro-
low on TX. open RX mise performance. A matching network
may be needed at the receiver input to
increase the impedance back to 50 O.
The two sides of SI are marked with A
and B. A variety of switch circuits may be
applied to generate the desired function.
One is shown in Fig 6.124. Here, the
switch is not a scries element, but a shunt
one realized with a PIN diode. The PIN
diode is a common type used for RF
switching. It departs from a normal P N
switching diode with an intermediate
region of intrinsic silicon. This has the
effect of reducing switching speed, now a
feature rather than a deficicncy. The diode
appears as a low valued resistor to radio
frequency signals, but still as a diode for
the dc controls. A PIN diode is capable of
switching an RF current that is much larger
than the dc current flowing. In contrast, a
normal switching diode must be biased to
a direct current that exceeds the peak RF
current that is to be switched. The circuit

• •
in the figure biases the diode to 6 raA dur-
ing transmit periods.

The shunt switch is effective in switch-

ing because it occurs within a tuned cir-
cuit. The usual capacitor at the end of a
Inside view of 100-W T/R switch using inexpensive diodes. 50-Q low-pass filler will have a reactance

Transmitters and Receivers 6.69

 100-W level, although only with circuit
modification. The primary parameter to
consider is the maximum current capability
X=500 X=500 of the switching diodes. The 1N4152 that
we have used in many circuits has a maxi-
mum current rating of 100 mA. The ex-
T T tended designs are discussed in a QEX pa-
per,-12 This article is included in the CD that
accompanies this book.
Another subtle, but significant problem
Fig 6.126—T/R switch with multiple PN occurs with this T/R scheme. The series-
Fig 6.125—T/R switch with shunt PN diodes in each arm. This circuit tuned LC is a tuned circuit that can interact
diodes. features improved IMD. See text.
with the tuned circuit(s) that follow to cre-
ate a multiple-tuned circuit not in the
designer's plans. The direct connection at
A
(B) often leads to severe over coupling. The
.01 D .01
coupling can usually be adjusted to a proper
y i ? n iMg level by inserting a suitable shunt capacitor
at (B). Careful analysis is required.
RFC -RFC
Although the shunt diode switches pre-
sented are very useful for low power trans-
1 h L
ceivers, they suffer from both IMD and
1 power limitations, and are restricted to a
single band. A wideband SPDT switch de-
sign with series diodes in the transmitter
and receiver path would be more general.
Our investigation of this topology begins
with a simple single pole switch, shown in
Fig 6.127, part A. This circuit is used to
measure insertion loss and IMD with both
forward and reverse diode bias. The IMD
measurements should be done for both re-
ceiving conditions and at transmitter power
Fig 6.127—Part A shows the evaluation circuit. Poor "off" performance dictates the levels when SSB use is planned.
use of two series-connected diodes in each leg of the circuit in part B. Pick R to
set the "on" current in the diodes. High-power RF switching PIN diodes are
available and discussed in the professional
literature. 4 3 However, they are expensive
around 50 fi. The antenna signal is ter is turned on, the RF causes the diodes to and sometimes difficult to purchase. Our in-
extracted from the low pass filter through a conduct, forming a relatively low imped- vestigation, encouraged by K5CX, was di-
relatively small valued capacitor, one with ance path to ground. We have measured this rected toward inexpensive solutions. Many
a reactance of about 500 SI. There is mini- topology often (every lime one is built) rectifier diodes are actually PIN structures,
mal receive loss, for it is tuned with a series with the same result: The available output for this device topology tends to increase
inductor also with a 5 0 0 - 0 reactance. When power at the receiver terminal is typically - reverse voltage breakdown. The best inex-
the junction of the two is switched to 10 dBm, easily within safe ratings for vir- pensive PIN diodes we found arc the
ground during transmit, the capacitor is tually any receiver. This power is indepen- Motorola 6A6, a power supply rectifier
merely paralleled with that in the end of the dent of transmitter power. specified for 6-A forward current and 600-V
low pass filter, which will have little im- The shunt diodes in Fig 6.125 can reverse breakdown. Diodes Inc manufac-
pact on transmitter performance. The in- compromise the receiver dynamic range. tures similar parts. A forward bias current of
ductance now in series with the receiver is Measurements with a 14-MHz example 200 mA is enough for reliable operation at
useful in attenuating transmitter energy that produced IIP3 of - 3 dBm for the T/R the 100-W level. We found identical per-
might otherwise get to the receiver input. switch, clearly a potential problem with formance with a NTE8515. We also got good
high DR receivers. A solution is found results with the 1N4006, a I-A, 800-V part.
A T/R switch of this sort is easily tested
before a receiver is attached to guarantee in Fig 6.126 where the single diodes are While the forward biased performance
that the power available to the receiver is replaced by several series diodes. Two was outstanding, the diode capacitance with
low. The receiver end (B) of the switch is diodes per leg produced IIP3 of +7 dBm reverse bias was relatively high, much
merely attached to a power meter and com- while three diodes per leg, the topology higher than found with devices specified
pared with the safe value for the receiver shown, yielded IIP3 = +13.5 dBm. The sig- for RF switching. This made it necessary to
front end. A typical receiver with a diode nals available at the receiver input put two diodes in series to obtain adequate
ring as the first active element can usually increased to - 4 and - 1 dBm for the two and reverse isolation. The SPDT topology used
tolerate 10 mW without damage. three diode per leg circuits. These levels with a 100-W amplifier is shown in Fig
The most common variation of the shunt will noi cause damage to a receiver front 6.127B. It was necessary to go to 150 to 200
T/R switch is shown in Fig 6 . 1 2 5 . T w o end. but severe overload may occur. V of reverse bias to reduce capacitance of
common switching diodes (1N4152 typi- Care is also required if these simple ' ' o f f diodes.
cal) are placed in opposition. There is no schemes are to be used at higher power. We The reverse capacitance for the 6A6
controlling dc. Rather, when the transmit- have been able to extend the methods to the diode was still 30 pF at 80-V reverse bias.

6.70 Chapter 6
 IN4006 dropped lo 3.6 p F at the same
- We also investigated a Motorola
v a n 17, a 1-A, 600-V part and measured
. rf" at 80-V bias. In our final design we
the NTE8515 for D l and D2 of
- - " 125B. while 1N4006 diodes were used
a m and D4. The 1N4006 was also satisfac-
O at D l and D2 at the 100-W level, al-
- .igh this was not used for prolonged op-
- i t i o n . The details of the T/R switch are
-^n in the QEX paper mentioned earlier.
- . -«ed high-voltage HEXFETs for the bias
• .ijhmg. The switch insertion loss was so
» that we could not measure it. Isolation
• -- dB between the TX and RX ports
* "en the A N T port was 50-£i terminated,
r • « as greater than +40 J B m in the receive
7-:r< The IMD measurement was limited by
- - -pectrum analyzer used and IIP3 may be
: • rn better.
in ten wish lo use a power amplifier
. en by a transceiver. A suitable switch-
topology for this chore is shown in Fig 6.128—A T/R switch topology suitable for use following a low- power
K is 6.128. Three switches arc shown. Only transceiver. We have not built this circuit.
••i: at the PA output. SW3. would require
higher current diodes. SWI and SW2
- J U use the less expensive IN4006 or
1*0007.
Fig 6.129 shows a single band T/R switch
aiing shunt PIN diodes, suitable for VHP Transmitter Antenna
JA well as HF application. Quarter wave-
length transmission lines interconnect the
ports and switches. The diodes have reverse
« zero bias during receive, but arc forward
.a
biased during transmit. D l . behaving as an
open circuit during receive, causes a short t - H ehhhk: IQ-HH5)
circuit to appear at the transmitter output. .01
X
But open circuit D2 allows the nominal
50-fl input of the receiver lo appear at the 7 7 7
antenna port. Switching to transmit forward
biases both diodes. D l , now a short, reflects
•V on
as an open circuit at the transmitter output. Transmit
D2. also a short circuit, protects the receiver
and presents an open circuit at the antenna
port. The antenna impedance now appears
at the transmitter output. This circuit can be
implemented with true transmission lines H L 15-
or with pi networks as shown in Fig 6.129.
The pi-network that behaves like a quarter
wave 50-H line has L and C each with a 7
50-£i reactance at the operating frequency.
This circuit is used in a !7-m DSP-based
transceiver presented later in the book. Fig 6.129—A T/R switch with shunt diodes using the impedance-reflection
properties of quarter-wavelength transmission lines.

6.9 THE LICHEN TRANSCEIVER: A C A S E STUDY

There are several suitable block dia- more parts, all basic functions are isolated T h i s format, used in s o m e early mili-
grams for single sideband transceivers. with minimal interaction. tary SSB gear, shares many of the circuit
The o n e we prefer shares only the oscilla- This transceiver, which is more efficient e l e m e n t s b e t w e e n m o d e s with signals
tors. allowing receiver and transmitter in its utilization of components, is an out- flowing in the same direction in transmit
optimization without c o m p r o m i s e of growth of an architecture used by V E 7 Q K and rcccivc. T h e transceiver is presented
interaction. 4 4 Although that scheme uses in several versions of his Epiphyte.**^-*1 here to illustrate design ideas and to

Transmitters and Receivers 6.71

present some of the steps needed to build receiver product detector and an IF-to-RF The price of simplified signal flow is
such a transceiver. converter during transmit. complex L O and carrier oscillator switch-
The original Epiphyte used NE602 mix- ing. T h e N E 6 0 2 mixers used in the
ers with no IF gain. The rig was intended Epiphyte required little p o w e r in the
Block diagram for field use in the rugged mountains of 3 - M H z LO, allowing switching with
The system with two mixers is shown in the British Columbia Coast Range. The C M O S parts. The Lichen p e r f o r m s the
Fig 6.130. The first serves as the front end Lichen uses diode-ring mixers and switching with diodes, a s c h e m e selected
mixer during receive and as a transmit includes IF gain. The 75-m-band Lichen for compatibility with higher frequencies.
balanced modulator. The second is a can be adapted to many other bands.

Fig 6 . 1 3 0 — B l o c k d i a g r a m for t h e Lichen transceiver.

Fig 6 . 1 3 1 — B l o c k d i a g r a m for t h e t r a n s c e i v e r main board.

6.72 Chapter 6
Signal flow in the "Main 1 . . ^ J M J m

Board" Front panel view.

Switch between
T h e t r a n s c e i v e r is b r o k e n i n t o s e v e r a l tuning and audio
b o a r d s , a d e f i n i t e aid t o t h e t e d i u m of gain is a sub-band
detailed m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h e " m a i n " board switch. The push-
c o n t a i n s the r e c e i v e r i n p u t p r e s e l e c t o r , a button injects an
audio tone for
m i c r o p h o n e a m p l i f i e r , the t w o m i x e r s , the
tuning.
IF s y s t e m i n c l u d i n g c r y s t a l f i l t e r , a n d L O
buffers and switching. T h e hoard includes
i n a u d i o o s c i l l a t o r to f a c i l i t a t e t e s t i n g . A
b l o c k d i a g r a m is s h o w n in F i g 6 . 1 3 1 , T h e
c o m p l e t e s c h e m a t i c is in F i g 6 . 1 3 2 .
T h e m a i n b o a r d b e g i n s at J 2 w h e r e a
signal e n t e r s the r e c e i v e r i n p u t . ( ' ' J " n u m -
bers d e s i g n a t e p a d s at the e d g e of a b o a r d . )
T h e r e c e i v e r p r e s e l e c t o r is a d o u b l e t u n e d
circuit using scries resonators formed
from molded R F chokes. The filter output 2 N 3 9 0 4 post mixer amplifier. Post-amp J F E T s Q6 and Q 8 provide IF gain.
is a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y to t h e f i r s t m i x e r . U 2 . g a i n is 19 d B . r e d u c e d to 13 d B b y the T h e s e s t a g e s a r c g a i n s w i t c h e d by Q 7 a n d
B a n d p a s s f i l t e r s f o r o t h e r b a n d s a r e listed 6 - d B p a d , and h a s a 5 0 - Q input and o u t p u t Q 9 with h i g h e r g a i n d u r i n g r e c e i v e . R e a -
m F i g 6 . 1 3 3 . T h e 1 6 0 and 8 0 - m f i l t e r s use impedance. T h e sixth-order crystal filter s o n a b l e I M D p e r f o r m a n c e is vital, f o r t h e
Q l . = 5 0 R F - c h o k e inductors while the is d e s i g n e d u s i n g the m e t h o d s p r e s e n t e d a m p l i f i e r is in t h e t r a n s m i t s i g n a l p a t h .
higher bands use toroid inductors with in C h a p t e r 3. T h i s s y s t e m ( Q 6 and Q 8 ) h a s a s m a l l s i g -
Q l = 200. An L - n e t w o r k (L4. C 3 6 ) t r a n s f o r m s nal r e c e i v e g a i n of 27 d B w i t h 7 0 to 80 d B
T h e m i c r o p h o n e i n p u t is a m p l i f i e d and the p o s t - a m p 5 0 O to the needed filter source of a v a i l a b l e g a i n r e d u c t i o n . G a i n d r o p s to
low p a s s f i l t e r e d in 111. A n R F C in the impedance. Transformer T3 matches the 12 d B in t r a n s m i t . I M D p e r f o r m a n c e is
m i x e r l i n e w i t h c a p a c i t o r s in the r e c e i v e r r e l a t i v e l y l o w f i l t e r i m p e d a n c e to the 2 . 2 - g o o d at O I P 3 = + 1 8 . 5 d B m , d r o p p i n g t o
input f i l t e r f o r m a d i p l e x e r t o c o m b i n e k H i n p u t r e s i s t a n c e of t h e f o l l o w i n g I F + 14 d B m in t r a n s m i t m o d e . I M D d e g r a d e s
audio and receiver R F signals f o r the amplifier. T3 uses a 61-material ferrite w i t h g a i n r e d u c t i o n , but the i n t e r c e p t s d o
m i x e r . T h e m i c r o p h o n e - a m p is a d j u s t e d c o r e to k e e p the loss low. T h e filter s h o u l d not degrade as fast as the gain, a require-
for a ( l o w e r t h a n n o r m a l ) s i g n a l of - 2 0 b e built and m e a s u r e d b e f o r e i n c o r p o r a - ment to preserve output cleanliness.
d B m a p p l i e d to the m i x e r . tion in t h e t r a n s c e i v e r . T h e e x a c t - 6 - d B R e c e i v e r A G C is d i s c o n n e c t e d d u r i n g
The prototype transceiver used a filter f r e q u e n c i e s s h o u l d b e r e c o r d e d f o r t r a n s m i t ; R 5 8 is s w i t c h e d in to e s t a b l i s h a
commercial crystal filter while another later use. T h e d e s i g n e r / b u i l d e r will h a v e transmit level.
i Fig 6 . 1 3 2 ) u s e d a h o m e m a d e 9 . 2 - M H z . to d e s i g n m a t c h i n g n e t w o r k s a n d t r a n s - T r a n s m i t m i x e r , U3. s h o u l d s e e m a x i -
crystal filter. The filter output drives a f o r m e r s as well as the c r y s t a l f i l t e r . m u m d r i v e of - 1 0 d B m f o r a s p u r f r e e
o u t p u t , as d i s c u s s e d earlier. T h e p o s t - a m p ,
Q 5 , i n c l u d i n g pad h a s a g a i n of 13 d B
w h i l e t y p i c a l c r y s t a l f i l t e r loss is 4 d B .
W i t h a b a l a n c e d m o d u l a t o r i n p u t of
- 2 0 d B m . the s i g n a l at the i n p u t to T 3 , j u s t
p a s t the crystal f i l t e r , is - 1 7 d B m . T r a n s -
mit g a i n of 12 d B in t h e I F b r i n g s the level
at U 3 to - 5 d B m . A slight I F g a i n r e d u c -
tion and a 3 d B p a d in t h e IF o u t p u t sets the
- 1 0 d B m level. If t h e b a l a n c e d m o d u l a t o r
h a d b e e n d r i v e n at its n o m i n a l l e v e l of
- 1 0 , the I F w o u l d b e o v e r d r i v e n , r e s u l t i n g
in o v e r d r i v e for the s e c o n d m i x e r .
This gain distribution degrades carrier
s u p p r e s s i o n to 3 0 d B . If the p o s t - a m p gain
c o u l d be r e d u c e d by 10 d B d u r i n g t r a n s -
mit, the c a r r i e r s u p p r e s s i o n w o u l d b e
i m p r o v e d by a like a m o u n t .
With a U3 mixer drive o f - 1 0 dBm, the
6 d B c o n v e r s i o n loss p r o d u c e s an o u t p u t
o f - 1 6 d B m . A 6 - d B pad a f t e r the m i x e r
a n d a b a n d p a s s f i l t e r ( d e s c r i b e d later) w i t h
a 2 - d B l o s s p r o d u c e an e v e n t u a l o u t p u t of
- 2 4 d B m , e s t a b l i s h e d by R 5 8 .
T h e a u d i o t u n e - u p o s c i l l a t o r i n c l u d e d in
Fig 6.132 can be used during normal
Top view showing LO module with "main board" to the right. The small box built operation to generate a carrier for
from scrap circuit board material contains the 14-MHz-LO bandpass filter. t r a n s m a t c h t u n i n g . It is a l s o a v a i l a b l e f o r

Transmitters and Receivers 6.73

 0.
MIC In ^—|

Except as indicated, decimal

values of capacitance are in
microfarads ( p f ) : others are
1-22 dBm[ in picofarads (pF);
resistances are in ohms;
Q14 k = 1,000, M = 1,000,000.
2N3904

Fig 6 . 1 3 2 — S c h e m a t i c for the main board. See text for detailed discussion.

6.74 Chapter 6
 Crystal filter components and terminations
determined by builder/designer

to
Audio
Amp

C 6 , C 7 , C 8 , C 9 = 0.0027 5%

Transmitters and Receivers 6.75

testing during hoard d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e mi- 2.5 V peak-to-peak at TP1 on voice p e a k s Mixer Injection
c r o p h o n e is attached at the a m p l i f i e r with a normal voicc into the m i c r o p h o n e .
input. J I . and the level al test point TP1 is T h e tune-up oscillator level, R 1 4 . is then
Switching
observed. A u d i o gain ( R ! ) is adjusted for set to producc the s a m e level. T h e 10-MHz IF version uses a 13.5 to
1 4 - M H z L O and a 10-MHz carrier oscilla-
tor ( C O . ) T h e L O must be applied to U2 in
receive while the C O drives LI3, Roles are
then reversed in transmit with the L O driv-
ing U 3 and the CO driving U2.
Each ring mixer requires nominal 1.0
power of +7 d B m . But lower power levels
are switched. Drive amplifiers Q 4 and Q 1 3
reduce the switched power to - 9 dBm. eas-
Fig 6.133—Receiver ily controlled with normal silicon
Freq, BW, C-enct C-ttuti, C-tune, L, Q-u IL,
uH dB bandpass filters diodes biased for modest current. Diodes
MHz MHz pF pF PF
1.9 0 3 2100 2300 321 27 50 2.5 using series D1 and D2 switch the signals going to U2
3.75 06 680 1000 145 15 50 2 4 resonators. while D6 and D7 route energy to U3. These
7 15 0 4 1000 1750 78 7 200 1.7
switches are controlled by signals labeled
10.1 0.3 1200 2300 53 5 200 3 5
14.2 03 680 1200 34 4 200 28 with T or R. indicating positive bias on ei-
1S.1 0.4 680 1200 20 4 200 5 1 ther transmit or receive. These signals,
21.3 0.6 510 1000 20 3 200 3 7 appearing often throughout the transceiver,
28.4 1.0 270 390 11 3 200 28
are generated on the R F p o w e r amplifier
board. The diode switches route a desired
signal to an intended load, but do not
present as much attenuation of the off path
as we would like. Shunt transistor switches
Q2. Q3, Q11. and Q 1 2 were added to pro-
vide about 50 dB reduction in the offpaths.

Although the shunt transistor switches

improve p e r f o r m a n c e , thev add a compli-
cation: E a c h input ( L O and C O j is ampli-
fied and b u f f e r e d in an a m p l i f i e r . Q 1 4 and
Q 1 5 . If those a m p l i f i e r o u t p u t s w e r e
routed directly to the c o m p o s i t e diode/
transistor switches, they would always be
short circuited. Isolation results f r o m
t r a n s f o r m e r s T7 and T9 which function as
a splitter-combiner, described in Chapter
3. T h e s e switching m e t h o d s can be
extended to UHF. L O and C O signals are
required at the board inputs with a p o w e r
of - 2 2 d B m .
T h e circuit board contains short lengths
of coaxial cable to route the L O and C O
signals. T h e two LO c o m p o n e n t s . L O I and
L 0 2 . m o v e respectively f r o m J19 to J5 and
f r o m J 2 0 to J 1 4 on cable. T h e C O signals
C O I a n d C 0 2 m o v e respectively f r o m J 1 6
to J 4 and J17 to J 1 3 . T h e best place to
Close up of the main board. measure L O chain p o w e r is just b e f o r e the
mixers. Lift C 2 9 or C 5 9 at the pad ends
and measure the p o w e r coming f r o m the
L,0 system. Those p o w e r s should both be
close to + 1 0 d B m . T h e L O a m p l i f i e r s use
2 N 3 9 0 4 s . but the less robust M P S 3 9 0 4 is
not suitable. The M P S H 1 0 (Fairchild and
Philips) is also an excellent choice.

Transmit Bandpass
L: U d t molded RFC, Q>50 Filter
C-v: 65 pF p l a s t i c t r i r m e r . T h e M a i n board R F output al 3.5 to
4 M H z has a 23.4 to 24 M H z image. The
Fig 6.134—Triple-tuned 3.S to 4-MHz bandpass filter for the output of the lower r a n g e is selected with the filter
transmit mixer. shown in F i g 6.134. This circuit is best

6.76 Chapter 6
 a s s e m b l e d and tested in a 5 0 - Q e n v i r o n -
m e n t prior to use in the transmitter. A table
L C-tune L u-cune t u-tui of c o m p u t e r generated values is given in
-r ^j. ^.TVY-vi ^ »_rv"W"\ Fig 6.135 for several additional bands.
• rp ?
?-end C-mid C-mid
The Local Oscillator
The 1.0 tunes from 13.5 to 14 M H z with
C e n t e r Freq BW C-end C-mid C-tune L Qu I L.
the heterodyne system of Fig 6.136. Q 4 0 2
MHz MHz pF pF pF tiH dB
is a 2.5 to 3 - M H z Colpitis oscillator b u f f -
;- 0.22 2200 3300 307 27 50 3.6
ered with a c o m m o n - b a s e amplifier, Q 4 0 5 .
; 75 07 470 1000 143 15 50 2.1
Output is kept low, for only - 1 0 d B m is
1j 0.4 820 1750 78 7 200 17
needed by diode ring mixer U 4 0 2 . T h e
•-4 2 0 55 500 1200 34 4 200 2.5
output is established with the pad driving
I! 2 0.65 390 820 20 3 200 3 2
200 24
the R F port. This level, and that at the
28 4 1.1 180 390 11 3
mixer L O port should be m e a s u r e d during
construction.
A 3 6 5 - p F variable capacitor tunes only
» >; S 135—Triple-tuned bandpass filters for several HF bands. The required half of the range. T h e other half is tuned by
vloaded Q (vital) is also given.
switching in an additional capacitor, C402.
T h e switching is p e r f o r m e d with a pair of
PIN diodes, D401 and D402. W h e n a posi-
tive voltage is applied to J 4 0 1 . Q401 is
saturated, c a u s i n g both PIN diodes to con-
duct.
A crystal controlled 11-MHz oscillator
p r o v i d e s the drive f o r the d i o d e - r i n g
mixer. The t w o oscillators are both placed
inside the shielded L O e n c l o s u r e , along
with the ring mixer. T h e o u t p u t is then
routed through coaxial cable to a triple-
tuned L C b a n d p a s s filter, Fig 6,137.
A c h a n g e in IF f r o m 10.0 M H z will re-
sult in the need for a new L O f r e q u e n c y on
the part of the designer/builder.

The Carrier Oscillator

A carrier oscillator ( C O ) drives the bal-
anced modulator in transmit and the B F O
«3'n board removed from cabinet. Circuitry below crystal filter is for the LO and in receive. T h e C O must have the same
•-i-rier oscillator buffers and switches. Upper right corner contains RF Input - 2 2 d B m level as the L O when applied to
bandpass filter. the M a i n b o a r d . T h e C O circuit is shown in

Transmitters and Receivers 6.77

 T401: 23t »26, T50-6,
2t output link

Fig 6.136—Transceiver LO system produces output at 13.S to 14 MHz. The bandpass circuit of Fig 6.137 filters the mixer
output.

F i g 6.138. The output p o w e r is set at

- 2 2 dBm by adjustment of R5 in the oscil-
LI,2,3: 15t H26 T3D-6 lator collcctor. The power supply is
regulated more as a means to stabilize
amplitude than frequency.
Fig 6.137—LO We measured the crystal-filter response
bandpass filter. during circuit development. Knowing the
exact lower 6 dB passband edge, we placed
the carrier oscillator at a frequency 300 Hz
below that edge. The resulting 10-MHz
USB signal is inverted to become a LSB
output at 3.8 MHz. Slight frequency ad-
justment may be done to optimize signals.

The Receiver Audio

System
Fig 6.139 shows the audio system. The
product detector output reaches the board
via coaxial cable where it is amplified by
Q301 and Q303, and applied to an off
board audio gain control. The result is then
Po=-22 flBm
into 50 Oluns amplified in two op-amp stages. U301. and
applied to headphones.
The signal at the gain control is sampled
L1,L2: 1 uH irolded RFC. and routed to op-amps U302 for full wave
Yl=10.000 MHz at 18 bF rectification. This charges the A G C sam-
pling capacitor, C315. a 1 p.F stacked metal
(tune to 300 Hz below ltmer
crystal f i l t e r 6 dB edge) film type (Panasonic V-series or similar.)
change r3 or r5 to set P-out. R325 controls attack time while R324 sets
recovery. U303A is a follower to drive the
IF system with dc. Normal audio muting is
Fig 6.138—Carrier oscillator. not required. AGC was disconnected from

6.78 Chapter 6
Fig 6.139—Audio system and AGO detector.

Audio Amplifier.

Carrier Oscillator.

the I F d u r i n g t r a n s m i t w i t h D 4 . D 8 , and T h e first t w o stages use a 2 N 3 9 0 4 while H F spectrum. W e realized another 3-dB
Q 1 0 on the M a i n b o a r d . the third uses a 2 N 3 8 6 6 with a small heat gain at 5 0 M H z w h e n Q 1 0 1 and Q 1 0 2 w e r e
sink. T h e three are respectively biased at 10, c h a n g e d to M P S H l O s . I M D was m e a s u r e d
17 and 5 0 m A . A 6 - d B pad is placed after the at 14 M H z f o r the driver chain, producing
The R F Power C h a i n first stage, p r o v i d i n g a c o n v e n i e n t place to O I P 3 = + 3 9 d B m with either transistor type
A four-stage RF power chain, alter gain f o r u s e o n other bands. Fig 6.141 in the first t w o stages. T h e nominal output
F i g 6 . 1 4 0 . c o m p l e t e s the t r a n s c e i v e r . s h o w s gain vs frequency for the three stage for Q I 0 3 is + 1 0 d B m p e r tone with a
Three bipolar transistors drive a H E X F E T bipolar driver. Although gain is d r o p p i n g , t w o - t o n e test, or + 1 6 d B m (40 m W ) P E P .
P A for a 5 - W o u t p u t . the driver c h a i n is u s e f u l t h r o u g h the entire T h e P A . an I R F - 5 1 0 H E X F E T . is b i a s e d

Transmitters arid Receivers 6.79

0)
s
o
•r
at
•q
o
o>

Fig 6.140—RF driver chain for the Lichen transceiver uses 4 stages for an output of 5 W. The T/R relay is a Nals DS2Y-S-DC12V or similar.
 1 Frora Output
/ Detector
J
A
4

I 55 50 -14 -35 -JO -2f -50

Frefwacy.MHs
_
• 12V 1
Fig 6.141—Small signal gain vs Fig 6.143—Gain compression UK >4
frequency for the three-stage bipolar measurement for complete RF
Stiver chain. power chain.

Fig 6.144—LEO driver circuit that can

IMD 23 dB below one tone be driven by the output peak detector.
Pout = 5.3 watt PEP Op-amp is a 741,1458, LM358, LM324.
desired carrier down 30 dB or similar part.
tones
opposite sideband
-23 down 43 dB

IMD,
IMD.

6000 8(500

Fig 6.142—Spectrum analyzer view of transmitter output under two-tone testing. A view of the 14-MHz bandpass filter
For software, see wwiM.monumental.com/rshorne/gramdl.htnil. used for LO in transceiver.

from a pot driven by UI01, a 78L05. Bias A peak detector is included at J107, use- negative feedback to the IF.
current with no drive is set for about ful during transmitter setup. It can also be An TF speech processor was described
40 mA, a level producing excellent gain and used to drive a front-panel LED through a in an earlier section where limiting within
distortion acceptable for QRP efforts. Trans- circuit like that shown in Fig 6.144 where the IF constrained the output level. That
mitter output is shown in the two-tone test an op-amp serves as a comparator. Alter- scheme had the added advantage of pre-
spectrum of Fig 6.142. This was obtained natively, the detector could drive an auto venting excessive levels in the transmit
with a FFT spectrum analysis program, level control (ALC) circuit to provide mixer and following amplifiers, eliminal-
Spectrogram, running on a laptop computer,
augmented with a converter. (See spectrum
analysis discussion in Chapter 7.) Third or-
der IMD is only 23 dB down from each tone,
or 29 dB below PEP. The 30-dB carrier sup-
pression is also shown. Opposite sideband
suppression was 43 dB for a 1700-Hz single
audio tone. Earlier driver chain measure-
ments confirm the FET PA as the distortion
Printed circuit
source. audio amplifier.
Fig 6.143 shows power chain output (TNX to K7TAU)
power as a function of drive power. This
gain compression measurement was done
with single-tone drive. The amplifier is
relatively linear up to the +33 to +35 dBm
output. This is a measurement that can be
performed in the home lab that has yet to
include a spectrum analyzer.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.81

Breaaboaraea carrier oscillator and TX low-pass filter for a
14-MHz version of the transceiver by K7TAU.

Front panel of 75-meter version built by AA7QU. One of the

buttons activates a "Freq-Mite" frequency keyer that then reads
the frequency and presents it in morse code. Printed Circuit Version of RF Power Chain. (TNX to K7TAU)

ing the need for ALC. The IF limiter has Control Circuits vide a similar + 1 2 V - R to control the
the minor disadvantage of requiring an- receivc function. PA bias is shorted with
The transceiver uses push-to-talk (PTT)
other crystal filter. However, it would be Q I 0 4 during rcccive periods. Both sec-
operation, realized with the control cir-
a dramatic virtue in this transceiver. Not tions of the DIP antenna relay are paral-
only would it enhance transmitter perfor- cuitry included in Fig 6.140. When the
leled for the T/R switching.
mance. but it would generate excellent microphone PTT button is pushed, a line
receiver skirt selectivity. goes low at J103 to saturate P N P switch
A seventh-order low pass filter follows
Q106. That transistor powers antenna Extensions and Results
the FHT power amplifier, as shown in relay. K l , and feeds a +12V-T signal to Once the boards are built and measured,
Fig 6.145. The filter is built on a separate the many places in the transceiver marked they can be assembled and combined.
board, isolated from the rest of the PA. with T * " Q107. 108. and 109 then pro- The system using a 10-MHz IF is rea-
sonably clean with the second harmonic at
- 5 7 dBc as the dominant spur. Three non-
harmonic spurs were found with strength
LlflJ Coax to from - 6 7 to - 6 2 dBc. A 9.2-MHz IF ver-
coax (rtm J I M ob BF j-yyy^ ^ ^ ('VYY\
/ Ssteasa
Power Clialn Board Coaaector sion (built by A A 7 Q U ) had similar perfor-
ir^r mance. We were disappointed in the IMD
hi »i r !"••
123 c m I jells T-
I MO • performance offered by the H E X F E T PA.
£121
Receiver performance was adequate for
the 75-m band. The relatively high noise
figure of 18 dB is not a problem for this
L1Q2,L1®4: 2. T M 22 close packfd turns H22 Kieroaetal* T - 5 0 - 2
frequency. Measured 1IP3 was +16 dBm
L103: 3.01IH 24 turns H22 K i c r o r a t a l a 1 - 5 0 - 2
and two-tone DR was 92.7 dB. The
Fig 6.145—Low-pass filter for the 75-meter Lichen. Capacitors can be silver mica dynamic window is skewed to favor high
or ceramic. intercept rather than low noise. A low-

6.82 Chapter 6
 • -e RF amplifier with modest gain few, al lowing the designer/bui Ider to mea- and audio board are also band-independent,
i -j[d substantially improve noise figure sure those parameters so critical to success. suggesting a multi-band design. Relay
• ;h little DR penalty, making this gen- If the Main board was built without the input switching is recommended in the receiver
r J topology useful at higher frequency. preselector filler, it would contain no band- front-end over PIN diodes to avoid second-
Several boards were used in favor of a specific components. The RF power chain order distortion problems.

6.10 A MONOBAND SSB/CW TRANSCEIVER

Although this transceiver was designed project is often less tedious than other side- with up to 6 resonators. The next block is
: operation on any single band within band transceivers, for the receiver can be an IF amplifier. The recommended design
*: HF spectrum, there is no fundamental finished and made operational before deal- here is that presented in Fig 6.50 using
it will not also function at VHF. ing with the transmitter. cascode connected J310 JFETs. Designs
*e the Lichen presented earlier, it is A collection of small circuit boards was using some of the more up-to-date inte-
- i~ed upon homebrew crystal filters fabri- used. Some were etched while others were grated circuits f r o m Analog Devices
cated by the designer/builder. merely breadboarded. The use of many should also be considered. Neither the
This radio was designed for flexibility small boards rather than just a few large front-end nor the IF will be discussed here.
ind performance. A common local oscil- ones provides improved isolation between The RF power chain is also shaded in
-Mi system and common B F O / C a r r i e r O s - functions and enhanced testability. A the block diagram of Fig 6.146. A similar
. ,'ator are shared between the transmit transceiver block diagram is shown in module developed for the Lichen trans-
. - a receive functions. The other functions Fig 6.146. ceiver would be suitable. Substitution of a
.'„- independent, allowing each to be opti- The block diagram includes some different PA is recommended if the sys-
/ e d to meet the needs of the designer/ shaded areas where circuit modules al- tem is built for bands at the high end of the
• -:lder/user. This seemingly inefficient ready presented are applied. The receiver H F range, or for VHF. The poor IMD per-
. - p r o a c h becomes practical and inexpen- begins with the "General Purpose Mono- formance of the IRF510 would also be jus-
ivhen one builds his or her own crvs- band Receiver Front-End" of Fig 6.68. tification for a new PA design.
- filters. Although more extensive, the That board includes a crystal ladder filter The monoband transceiver version

General Purpose Receiver Front End BX IF an® tlGC

Fig 6.146—Block diagram for the SSB/CW transceiver. The version we built is for the 6-m band, but can be adapted to any
band from 1.8 to 144 MHz. The system shown in the block diagram uses a non-heterodyne VFO system.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.83

 d e s c r i b e d h e r e w a s built f o r the 6 - m V H F
b a n d u s i n g a 1 0 - M H z IF. H o w e v e r . Ihere
is n o t h i n g s p e c i a l a b o u t that f r e q u e n c y .
10.7 M H z is a g o o d g e n e r a l p u r p o s e TF
s u i t a b l e f o r both H F a n d V H F . 4 . 9 1 5 M H z
has b e e n u s e d in s e v e r a l H F Q R P t r a n s -
ceivers with good succcss. based upon
available computer crystals.
O u r 6 - m t r a n s c e i v e r initially u s e d only
4-pole crystal filters. They were cut for a
2.5-kHz bandwidth with 5 0 0 - Q termina-
t i o n s and a B u t t c r w o r t h s h a p e . W h i l e t h e
fillers p e r f o r m e d well, we often wished for
b e t t e r s t o p b a n d a t t e n u a t i o n in b o t h f u n c -
t i o n s . T h e o r i g i n a l t h o u g h t , that a c a s u a l
4-pole filter would be suitable for V H F
a p p l i c a t i o n s , was c l e a r l y not valid w h e n
the 6 - m b a n d o p e n e d in the s p r i n g m o n t h s !
F i g 6 . 1 4 7 s h o w s the c a l c u l a t e d r e s p o n s e
of a 9 . 2 - M H z s i x t h - o r d e r C o h n filter with
a 2 . 5 - k H z b a n d w i d t h . T h i s is an e a s y f i l t e r
to build and d u p l i c a t e f o r b o t h f u n c t i o n s .
T h e plot also includes a plot for a
Fig 6.147—Crystal filter responses for two crystal filters. The Cohn is the preferred Butterworth filter with four crystals. T h e
design for this transceiver even though the low crystal Q u rounds the passband aggressive designer/builder might expand
corners. See text. his o r h e r filter e f f o r t s t o i n c l u d e e x t r a f i l -
t e r s to e n h a n c e r e c e i v e r p e r f o r m a n c e and
for transmit IF speech processing.

LO System
T h e local o s c i l l a t o r s y s t e m f o r t h e 6 - m
t r a n s c e i v e r is s h o w n in F i g 6 . 1 4 8 , begin-
n i n g with a c o n v e n t i o n a l 4 - M H z H a r t l e y
V F O . A n e m i t t e r f o l l o w e r b u f f e r s t h e out-
put to a d i o d e ring m i x e r . A c a p a c i t o r
( C 9 1 5 ) is selected to e s t a b l i s h a f o l l o w e r
o u t p u t o f - 1 0 d B n i . T h e V F O uses a 9 - V
r e g u l a t e d p o w e r supply e s t a b l i s h e d with a
Z e n e r d i o d e . T h a t r e g u l a t e d v o l t a g e is
routed out of (he s h i e l d e d e n c l o s u r e on a
f e e d t h r o u g h c a p a c i t o r to a f r o n t panel pot.
T h e voltage g e n e r a t e d is run back inside
t h e shield w h e r e it c o n t r o l s b i a s o n a
varactor diode. D900. The diode tuning
r a n g e is set up to b e a b o u t 10 k H z . T h e
m a i n tuning c a p . C 9 1 0 . uses a l a r g e k n o b
with no v e r n i e r d r i v e , o f f e r i n g m e c h a n i c a l
s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . This s c h e m e h a s b e e n sur-
prisingly effective, even with a tuning
r a n g e of 3 5 0 k H z , a direct result of a l a r g e
tuning k n o b on a s m o o t h c a p a c i t o r . D i g i t a l
r e a d o u t p r o v i d e s the n e e d e d resetability.
T h e d i o d e r i n g m i x e r and a 3 5 . 9 - M H z
third-overtone crystal oscillator occupy
the s a m e enclosure with the V F O . The
m i x e r o u t p u t is then a p p l i e d to a c o a x i a l
c o n n e c t o r t h r o u g h a s h o r t r u n of c o a x
c a b l e . T h e L O box o u t p u t is r o u t e d on c o -
axial c a b l e to a 4 0 M H z b a n d p a s s f i l t e r ,
s h o w n in F i g 6 . 1 4 9 . A triple t u n e d filter is
used to e n h a n c e s p e c t r a l p u r i t y . W e m e a -
s u r e d 8 0 - d B r e j e c t i o n of t h e 3 5 . 9 - M H z
Fig 6.148—VFO for the 6-m transceiver. L1 is unspecified, but will generally be
c o m p o n e n t a n d the 3 2 - M H z i m a g e .
around 5 p.H. The many resonator capacitors allow flexibility in setting the
frequency. Details are set by the designer/builder. T h e filtered L O signal is r e l a t i v e l y weak

6.84 Chapter 6
 Front panel of the 6-meter transceiver. The very large tuning
knob allows surprisingly smooth tuning without a vernier
The audio amplifier and product detector board for the drive. The knob below the main tuning controls a varactor
Universal Monoband Transceiver. fine tune function.

(about - 2 0 d B m ) as it exits the ring mixer

and bandpass filter. T h e level is increased
with the two-stage feedback amplifier
shown in Fig 6.150. The second-stage out-
put is low-pass filtered and applied lo a
hybrid splitter that delivers two isolated
signals, each with a p o w e r of +7 to
+8 d B m . The hybrid input impedance ter-
minated in a pair of 50-11 loads is 25 fit. A
I CI,2,3: 5-65 pF p l a s t i c trimmer low pass filter, initially designed for 5 0 - Q
terminations, was then modified for a 25-Q
fig 6.149—Triple-tuned 40-MHz bandpass filter. This circuit was built on a small
load using the procedure of Chapter 3.
scrap of circuit board material (approximately 1 x 3 inches) with coaxial
connectors mounted at each end. After the filter was tested, a wall was built from
V i n c h brass sheet and soldered to the board. A lid was soldered to the brass
•rails after filter tuning. The filter was designed for a 2-MHz bandwidth. The
BFO/Carrier Oscillator
inductors had an unloaded Q of 130 at 40 MHz. A traditional Colpitis crystal controlled
oscillator g e n e r a t e s 1 0 - M H z e n e r g y ,
s h o w n in Fig 6.151. The oscillator was
m o d i f i e d with i n d u c t o r L 3 0 0 a l l o w i n g
oscillation below crystal resonance. T w o
r r b u f f e r e d outputs are available, providing
+ 7 d B m to the product detector and the
-i- i
transmitter balanced modulator. A + 1 2 T
i t 1 5 supply is applied to only one b u f f e r during
transmit periods.

S S B Generator
T h e SSB G e n e r a t o r b o a r d . F i g 6.152.
begins with an o p - a m p speech a m p l i f i e r
f o l l o w e d by an R C active l o w pass filter.
A test point allows the a u d i o signal lo be
To IX Mixer m o n i t o r e d to p r e v e n t o v e r d r i v e of the bal-
n » _ r i u i
< J — M i _L anced modulator. The peak-to-peak
a u d i o signal at T P 6 0 0 s h o u l d be 0 . 4 V
1 1 ' 1 1
T200, 202, 202: 6 miliar turns on FT 17-11 or similar. f o r - 1 0 d B m a v a i l a b l e ai the b a l a n c e d
m o d u l a t o r input, which uses a T U F - 1 or
1.200: 250 nH T30-6
S B L - 1 mixer.
1.201: 130 «H 730-6 Q 6 0 0 a m p l i f i e s the D S B signal f r o m
U 6 0 0 and also sets the driving i m p e d a n c e
Fig 6.150—LO amplifier feeding 40-MHz energy to the two ring mixers used for the
receiver front end and the transmit mixer. T200, 201, and 202 are all 10 bifilar turns for the crystal filter. R617 is picked to have
#28 on a FT-37-43 toroid. L200 is 8 turns of #24 on a T30-6 core. L201 is 6 turns of the s a m e value as R615, which is the de-
#24 on a T30-6. sired termination value for the crystal fil-

Transmitters and Receivers 6.85

 ter. Further gain is obtained with Q603,
7BL05 604, and 605. R635 allows a level to be
picked that will not overdrive the transmit
mixer, U601.
The mixer output drives a 50-MHz LC
bandpass filter shown in Fig 6.153. This
triple tuned filter is build in an isolated
box with the same methods used for the
L O filter of Fig 6.149 and has a bandwidth
of 2.5 M H z .

Transmitter Power
Chain
Fig 6.154 shows the driver stages for
the R F power chain. This is a class-A de-
sign with increasing current in each stage
through the chain. A heat sink is needed
for the second and third stages. Gain
for the chain is 47 dB with an output of
300 m W . The output low pass filter was
included for Q R P use before a "brick" was
added. The low pass could be eliminated
(or abbreviated) if a higher power ampli-
fier is planned to follow Q3. A 2SC2988
might be a suitable substitute for Q3 oper-
ating at 50 MHz.
T h e power amplifier used with this
transceiver is based upon the Mitsubishi
M57735 hybrid integrated circuit,
Fig 6.155. The hybrid (obtained from
Down East Microwave) is an especially
convenient part to use, providing 21 dB of
Fig 6.151—BFO and carrier generator. T301 and T300 each have a 15-turn primary small signal gain f r o m a two-stage class-
with a 5-turn secondary on FT-37-43 cores. The amplifier input resistors, now 6.8
AB circuit. Power output is 14 W for the
kn, can be changed to set the output power.
IC. The chip, which includes a built in low
pass filter, is built on a flange that bolts
directly to a grounded heat sink. A strip of
scrap circuit board material is bolted next
to the IC, offering a convenient place for
additional circuitry.
Three terminals on the R F module re-
quire a power bias. T w o use 12 V and feed
the two collectors while the third provides
base bias networks with 9 V. The 9-V sup-
ply should be regulated. In the process of
setting up a L M - 3 1 7 T regulator, we real-
ized that it could also function as a pro-
grammable circuit. This modification is
included in Fig 6.155 for complete power
control over the amplifier. The bias on pin
3 of the IC module is 9.1 V in transmit,
dropping to 1.27 V during receive.
The decoupling capacitors used are
those suggested by the manufacturer. We
measured these networks, finding that the
22-jxF electrolytic capacitors we used are
modeled with an inductance of 65 nH with
very low Q. A better wideband bypass
might be several parallel 0.01 (lF.
Although the M 5 7 7 3 5 is ideal for gen-
eral-purpose applications, it is an expen-
sive part. Fig 6.156 shows a Q R P power
amplifier that can be used in place of the
The RF power amplifiers up to about +23 dBm output. hybrid. The output from this stage is 3 W

6.86 Chapter 6
R g 6 . 1 5 2 — S S B generator. R615 and R624 should be picked to equal the desired terminating resistance for the crystal filter,
arfiich is a designer/builder-determined element. R614 can be varied to change gain, if needed. R63S is adjusted for 0.4 V peak
to peak at TP601 during transmit. That level should be identical in C W and S S B .

Transmitters and Receivers 6.87

 " J7 1* ^

Llf C2 >L2 C3

h Fig 6.153—Triple-
tuned 50-MHz
bandpass filter.

1.1,2,3: I t u r n s (24 130-6

CI,2,3: 5-65 pt p l a s t i c trtnjer

Tl,2,3: 3 M i l l a r t u r n s tt30. L3,4,5: 1 t u r n s *24, T3J-6

F a i r - R i t e 2143002402 0 1 , 2 , 3 : 2H5109 o r s i m i l a r .
Use h e a t sinfcs on 0 2 , Q3. Fig 6.154—Transmitter chain.

The large board is the SSB generator and transmit mixer. This
version used SBL-1 mixers. The transmit bandpass filter is in
the box fabricated from scrap circuit board material. The control
board is above the bandpass filter.

Close up view of SSB generator.

6.88 Chapter 6
 M57735

^ T T f T

Coll
Fig 6.155—Power amplifier for 50 MHz
using the Mitsubishi M57735 hybrid
integrated circuit. L1 is 8 turns #22, '/«
inch ID.
»•« f
-
'kj- I t

2* X
r

11 Si diod

*x F1J 43-HI

r r f — *f liM OK T3»-«
, -L
X x £

1.1,7 - 11* ait V a . i t tpi

€1,2,3,4: lt ll* pf Ulna Fig 6.156—A Q R P Power amplifier for

the 50-MHz band. This circuit is
suitable for S S B or CW, and can be
111- xsctttt vitl teat sink
adapted to lower frequencies with
suitable network changes.

Receiver RF
amplifier and
preselector filter
for the 50-MHz
portable station.
The variable
capacitor tunes
the transmitter
VXO.

View of RF power amplifier using the

Mitsubishi Hybrid. Output is up to 14 W.

Transmitters and Receivers 6.89

with a power gain of 11 dB. This circuit
can be adapted to any of the lower-fre-
quency bands, with higher power gain
expected. The 2 S C I 9 6 9 transistor is very
robust, modestly priced, and available
from Mouser.

Receiver Circuits
The receiver circuits resemble others
used in this chapter and will not be
repeated here. This transceiver uses a low
gain R F amplifier, which would not be
required for the lower HF bands. We used
a shielded double tuned circuit built as a
small, measurable filler module as the
preselector ahead of the diode ring mixer.
The post-mixer amplifier was a 2 N 5 1 0 9
with 30-mA bias.

Control Circuits
Fig 6.157 shows the control circuitry used Fig 6.157—Control circuits for the SSB transceiver.
with this transceiver. The design is quite
general and is suitable for any transceiver
with a relay for T/R. With some modifica-
tion. it should also be suitable for use with signal, generates the shaping required to
suppress clicks.
Results
PIN diode antenna switching.
The board generates three outputs: Most of the signals available at the board This transceiver has generally been a use-
+12 relay. +12 transmit, and +12 keyed. are inputs. These include a +12 V supply, ful and enjoyable addition, having pro-
These are produced by T O - 3 9 P N P tran- a ground-active key line, a similar ground- vided an enjoyable sampling of "The Magic
sistors. We have used 2N540I a n d 2 N 5 3 2 2 active push-to-talk (PTT) line, and a Band." But it is an evolving design that we
in this application. About any P N P c a p a b l e +12 SSB line. S400B is a DPDT front panel plan to modify with better crystal filters and
of switching about 500 mA (often less) switch that provides +12 SSB during a different receiver IF amplifier. The cir-
will do as well. The TIP-32 should work. receive and transmit while in SSB. and cuit is suitable for operation from a batter)',
Q403. which provides the +12-V keyed + 12 CW while in transmit mode in CW. allowing some portable activity.

6.11 A PORTABLE DSB/CW 50 MHZ STATION

A favorite activity for all Ihree of us is - 3 dBm with the worst spurious response modulator output is increased to +14 dBm
V H F operation from interesting locations, at - 6 4 dBc. through M A R - 3 and MAV-11 amplifiers.
usually areas inaccessible to all but one The V X O output is now routed to the U 6 and U7. This then drives a 2N5947
traveling on foot or kayak. Equipment transmitter circuit (Fig 6.159) where it is class A amplifier. Suitable substitute tran-
must be fairly light weight. This 6-m trans- increased to +8 dBm with U4. a MAR-3 sistors would include a 2N5109. The
ceiver weighs 3 pounds and has an output amplifier, and applied to a TUF-1 operat- output is about 0.3 W in C W or DSB. The
of 0.3 W . ing as a balanced modulator. U 4 is driven PTT switch on the microphone will ground
The rig uses a VXO-control led D S B and with either audio f r o m a microphone or dc the key line that also activates the antenna
CW transmitter. An 8 - M H z direct-conver- to provide a C W signal. The - 1 6 d B m relay circuitry.
sion receiver is coupled with a simple
converter. The transmitter V X O . shown
in Fig 6.158. uses an off-the-shelf
14.318 M H / color burst crystal. This os-
cillator is on at all times, but no output is
present at 5 0 MHz until the key or
push-to-talk (PTT) switch is closed. U1
then divides the signal by two. producing Front panel view
a 7 - M H z square wave from circuitry pre- of the portable
sented in Chapter 5. The seventh har- DSB/CW
monic, occurring in the desired part of the transceiver.
6-m band, is selected with a double-tuned
circuit, amplified with a Mini-Circuits
MAR-2 amplifier and further filtered in
a second bandpass. The filter output is

6.90 Chapter 6
 The receiving converter, shown in we were building this station anew, the 6. W, Carver, "A High-Performance AGC/
t ig 6.160. begins with a single limed cir- minimalist phasing SSB transceiver de- IF Subsystem", QST. May, 1996.
. -it driving a M AR-2 RF amplifier with a scribed in Chapter 9 would probably be pp 39-44.
u r n of about 12 dB. A double tuned cir- used. The VXO used with this rig would
. jit then prcsclccts the signal before it is 7. Ibid,
provide the needed 50-MHz injection,
implied to a TUF-1 mixer followed by a 8. For further discussion of AGC loop
- \ ? 1 0 9 post mixer amplifier. A switched dynamics, see U. Rohde and T. Bucher,
I -dB pad can reduce the signal before
-c product detector, A PIN diode at the
REFERENCES Chapter 5, Communications Receivers:
Principles and Design. McGraw-Hill,
_
; \ e r offers additional attenuation. 1. Krauss, Bostian. and Raab. Solid Slate 1988.
The converter output is 8 MHz, used Radio Engineering. Wiley. 1980. 9. W, Hayward, "A Competition-Grade
- e r e l y because a 42-MHz crystal was 2. An excellent summary of modulation is CW Receiver," QST. Mar, 1974. pp 16-
•s-jilable in the junk box. A betler choice given in Krauss. Bostian. and Raab. Solid 20, 37 and Apr. 1974, pp 34-39. Also see
- _ uld be 43 MHz. The D-C receiver could State Radio Engineering, Wiley. 1980, W, Hayward and J. Lawson. "A Progres-
-en function on the 7-MHz band. The Chapter 8. sive Communications Receiver." QST.
V \R-2 RF amplifier with its input filter Nov. 1981. pp 11-21.
3. W. Hayward. Introduction to Radio
. jld also be eliminated for typical appli- 10. W. Carver, "A High-Pcrformancc
Frequency Design. ARRL, 1994. pp 205
, r u m s . keeping only the double tuned cir- AGC/1K Subsystem". OST. Mav. 1996.
and 349.
preselector. pp 39-44.
Fig 6.161 shows the 8-MH/ VFQ 4. H. T. hriis, "Noise Figures of Radio
with the receiver. This circuit Receivers." Proceedings of the IRE. 32. 7 11. Personal correspondence between the
w-r,es a fully shielded board containing (Jul. 1944). pp 419-422. or R. Pettai, Noise author and Ulrieh Rohde. 1997.
*c product detector, audio amplifier with in Receiving Systems. John Wiley & Sons. 12. W. Hayward. Introduction to Radio
- vhed attenuator, and sidetone oscil- 1984. Frequency Design, pp 219-232. Also see
r. This module is described in Chap- 5. www.ham-radio.com/n6ca/50MHz/ K. Simons. "The Decibel Relationship Be-
12. 50appnotes/lT310.html: See also tween Amplifier Distortion Products."
Gonzalez, Microwave Transistor Amplifi- Proceedings of the IEEE. 58.7 (Jul. 1970).
Double sideband offers a very simple
ui get a phone signal on the VHF ers, Analysis and Design, Prentice-Hall. pp 1071-1086.
* J > . one that is compatible with SSB. If 1984 for designing for lowest noise. 13. W. Hayward. Introduction w Radio

Transmitters and Receivers 6.91

Fig 6.159—Transmitter portion of the 6-meter station.

The audio amplifier and product detector for 8-MHz direct-

conversion IF system are all in a Hammond 1590B box with
coax and feedthrough capacitor interface connections. The
42-MHz crystal oscillator and 8-MHz low pass filter are on the
small boards. The long board across the bottom of the figure
is the VXO and x3.5 frequency multiplier chain.

6.92 Chapter 6
 8 MHz out to Prod. Detector

(Coax) " »-W

^ 220 (Coax)
68 > 685
560

111,L12=18t#26, T30-6
51 10bft,FT37-43
L8=12t #26, T30-6 +12 — V A r - f — ^
LS,L10=10t #26, T30-6 -1 T I l 2 2
MAR2 2.7U
fCoax)
Rx I n
150 5-

) .1 i i <coax!
2SC1252
or
9 2NS109

42 MHZ 3rd O.T. D1=MPN3404 PIN diode

+12v for attenuation.

L12=12t #26, T30-6, 2 t link.

Fig 6.160—Receiving converter used with the 6-m portable station.

Frequency Design, p 209.

14. W . W a y w a r d , " F u r t h e r T h o u g h t s on
+12 5000):
Receiver Specification." "Technical Cor-
r e s p o n d e n c e , " QST, N o v , 1979. pp 4 8 -
49.
15. W . H a y w a r d , " A C o m p e t i t i o n - G r a d e
CW Receiver." QST, Mar, 1974.
p p 16-20, 37 and A p r . 1 9 7 4 . pp 3 4 - 3 9 .
A l s o see W . H a y w a r d a n d J. L a w s o n . " A
Progressive Communications Receiver,"
QST, N o v . 1 9 8 1 , p p 11-21.
16. U. R o h d e . " K e y C o m p o n e n t s of M o d -
e r n R e c e i v e r D e s i g n , " QST, M a y . 1994,
p p 2 9 - 3 2 . J u n , 1994. pp 2 1 - 3 7 and J u l .
1994, pp 4 2 - 4 5 .
17. P. H a w k e r . " T e c h n i c a l T o p i c s . " Radio
Communications, D e c , 1995. pp 70-73.
IS. J. M a k h i n s o n , " A High-Dynamic-
L14 = 14t #22, T50-O, It L_nk. R a n g c M F / H F R e c e i v e r F r o n t E n d . " QST,
Feb. 1993. pp 23-28.
19. C. H o r r a b i n in P. H a w k e r ' s " T e c h n i -
Fig 6.161—Eight megahertz VFO for the 6-m station receiver. Tank capacitors are cal T o p i c s , " Radio Communications, Oct,
selected to establish resonance at the desired operating frequency 1993. p p 5 5 - 5 6 .

Transmitters and Receivers 6.93

20. C. Horrabin in P. Hawker's "Technical Technology and Applications: A Review 36. D. Holman, "Receivers and Transceiv-
Topics." Radio Communications. Sep. and Update." QEX, Sep/Oct. 2000. pp 3-12. ers" reprinted by P. Hawker, "Technical
1993. pp 54-56. Also personal correspon- 29. W. Sabin and F„ Schoenike. Chapter Topics," Radio Communications, Sep.
dence between W. Hayward and C. 13 by H. Silagi. "Ultra-Low-Distortion 1986. p 638-
Horrabin, Nov 1995 and Oct 2000. Power Amplifiers." Single Sideband Sys- 37. M. Thompson, "A Bidirectional Am-
21. J. Makhinson. "A Termination Insen- tems and Circuits. Second Edition. plifier for SSB Transceivers." RF Design.
sitive Amplifier," QEX. Jul. 1995. pp 21- McGraw-Hill. 1995. Jun, 1990. pp 71-72.
29. 30. H. Seidel, "A Microwave Feed-For- 38. J. Liebenrood, "The Cascade: A 20/75
22. R.S. Engclbrecht, US Patent ward Experiment," Bell System Technol- M SSB Transceiver," QRI'p. Dec. 1995.
3.371,284, "High Frequency Balanced ogy Journal. Nov. 1971. QRPp is ihe quarterly journal of NORCAL,
Amplifier," Feb 27, 1968. 31. R. Meyer, R. Eschcnbach and W. the Northern California QRP Club.
23. Kurokawa and Engclbrecht, "A Edgcrley, "A Wide-Band Feed Forward 39. R. Lewallen, "An Optimized QRP
Wideband Low Noise L-Band Balanced Amplifier." IEEE Journal of Solid-State Transceiver," QST. Aug. 1980, pp 14-19.
Transistor Amplifier," Proceedings of the Circuits. Vol SC-9. No. 6. Dec. 1974. 40. Ibid.
IEEE. Mar. 1965. pp 237-244. pp 422-428.
41. Ibid.
24. C. Horrabin. I) Roberts and G. Fare. 32. M. Johansson and T. Mattsson. "Trans-
42. W. Havward. "Electronic Antenna
"The CDG2000 HF Transceiver," Radio mitter Linearization Using Cartesian
Switching." QEX. May. 1995, pp 3-7.
Communications, Jun. 2002, pp 19-22. Feedback for Linear TDMA Modulation."
IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference. 43. W. Doherty and R. Joos. "PIN Diodes
25. U. Rohde. "High Dynamic Range
1991. pp 439-444. Offer High Power HF-Band Switching."
Two-Meter Converter." Ham Radio, Jul
Microwaves and RF. Dec, 1993.
1977. pp 55-57. Also see W. Hayward. 33. E. Pappenfus, W. Bruene and E.
pp 119-128.
Introduction to Radio Frequency Design. Schoenike. Chapter 13. Single Sideband
p 216. Principles and Circuits. McGraw-Hill, 44. W. Hayward. "A QRP SSB/CW
1964. Trancciver for 14 MHz," QST. Dec, 1989.
26. M. Dishal, "Alignment and Adjust-
pp 18-21 and Jan. 1990, pp 28-31.
ment of Synchronously Tuned Multiple- 34. W. Sabin, "A 100-W MOSFBT HF
Resonant-Circuit Filters." Proceedings of Amplifier," QEX. Nov/Dec, 1999. pp 31- 45. QRPp. quarterly journal of the North-
the IRE. Nov, 1951. pp 1448-1455. 40. ern California QRP Club. Sep, 1994.
27. A. Zverev. Handbook of Filter Synthe- 35. W. Hayward. "A QRP SSB/CW 46. SPRAT, Summer 2001.
sis. Chapter 9. Wiley. 1967. Tranceiver for 14 MHz," QST. Dec. 1989. 47. S. Price, "Sideband Can Be Simple."
28. B.Goldberg. "Frequency Synthesis pp 18-21 and Jan. 1990. pp 28-31, Radio Communications, Sep, 1991.
pp 41-45.

6.94 Chapter 6
 CHAPTER

Measurement Equipment

7.0 MEASUREMENT BASICS

Measurements are fundamental to all equipment needed by the beginner men- is examined in isolation from the rest, with
- . v e do as radio experimenters. The be- tioned above, but expand to include the test equipment substituted for some com-
. -.ner needs a voltmeter to debug the kit gear needed by the hard-core experi- ponents. Clearly, this is a major distur-
i>r she has just built, a simple power menter. This equipment is based upon bance; the studied system ceases to func-
- .tor to evaluate it, and a bridge to use in some specific guidelines: tion during the measurement. However,
- r a n g up an antenna to use with it. At the 1. The experimenter should measure ev- things can be evaluated that cannot be
-.T extreme is the designer/experi- erything that he or she can. Even if you measured in situ. An example of a substi-
- .--ter who lives with the equipment do not have the "right tool." you can tution measurement would be determina-
.-•Jed tor the design efforts. often perform an approximate determi- tion of receiver sensitivity. An oscillo-
There was a time when the test equipment nation. The most casual measurement scope or voltmeter can't measure the sub
. - t i bv the radio amateur was no more than is still more informative than none. micro-volt signals that are applied to the
indicator level gear needed to huild basic 2. Test equipment need not be refined. antenna terminal of the receiver. So. we
. j- i VOM and dipper) with the "high end" That is. simple equipment is still ad- examine the receiver output while apply-
-!M!.!ing of service equipment. Today's cx- equate if you can perform a calibration ing a calibrated signal source to the input.
-cuatiiins demand more. Not only do wc wish that provides information. Substitution measurements provide the
*>uild some of the equipment that we use, but 3. The equipmenl in this chapter is de- basis for radio frequency electronics.
want to understand the performance. Our signed for the RF experimenter with a We will often describe the measure-
—estions probe further as we seek to design primary interest in building radio ments we discuss as being substitution or
*jt equipment, placing greater demands on equipment. It is easy to become a "test in situ. It is important to isolate the two.
- ;j>urements. Traditional service gear is usu- equipment junky" by building and pur- for a piece of equipment suited to one
inadequate, lacking range and accuracy. chasing a great collection of good test mode may be useless for the other. Some
i A it i.s impractical to purchase the laboratory gear, with no resources left for the equipment can move into both worlds so
.'.•jipment we would really like to have. The original experiments. Individual goals long as it is applied with care.
; v _?ertmemer"s measurement gear is often spe- must be the guideline.
, jiszed. aimed at performing a few fundamen-
. -.ej>urcmcnts. but doing so with meaning- Using This Chapter
-accuracy. In Situ vs Substitution
We will describe a variety of test equip-
This represents a research attitude, emu- Measurements ment in the following pages. Some is
lating the way we might examine a new Measurements usually fall into two simple while some is more complex. The
field where no instrumentation exists, but classes. The in situ or in place measure- order of presentation docs not generally
» l e r e the questions must still be an- ment is one where instruments are attached coincide with complexity or utility, leav-
swered. The researcher expects to develop to a working sy stem. A goal is to extract as ing the beginner searching for the suitable
new skills as he attacks his or her work. much information as possible without dis- starting point.
The usual engineer is only expected to turbing the system any more than is abso- The novice experimenter should begin
possess the skills at the beginning of a lutely necessary. Most of the measure- with the simplest gear such as a voltmeter
project, willing to deal with technology, ments we do with an oscilloscope or a for kit building. Add an instrument for
mithout an expectation to develop it. voltmeter occur in situ. Such measure- measuring inductor and capacitor values as
This chapter addresses measurement ments are the basis of analog electronics. you progress beyond these beginnings. If
seeds by describing some fundamental test The contrasting measurement uses a you are building any RF communications
equipment. We begin with some of the substitution. In this case, part of a system gear you will want a power meter or some

Measurement Equipment 7.1

other means for power determination. the timing measurements of digital elec- mental concepts tell us that it should? This
As your commitment to experimenta- tronics. The oscilloscope then becomes means that the test equipment is in constant
tion deepens, you will want more test Ihe foundation for numerous other mea- use during construction of a project. Each
equipment. An inexpensive oscilloscope surement tools. stage in a complicated system is evaluated
is probably one of the most useful tools But. no matter what equipment is being and confirmed as the system grows. The
one could acquire. It is useful for the clas- used, simple or sophisticated, keep your user should divorce himself from the over-
sic in situ analog measurements, the sub- goals in mind. Our goal is to understand: simplified idea that test equipment is
stitution measurements of RF, and even Does the gear we build perform as funda- merely a tool for final evaluation.

7.1 DC MEASUREMENTS
The most basic instrument of electron- sure dc and ac voltage and current and dc user should be careful when using DVMs.
ics is the galvanometer of fundamental resistance. Some have becomc so good and for they create some unique problems.
physics. Current flows in a coil to produce so inexpensive that it is justified to purchase Probably the greatest is the assumption
a magnetic field, interacting with another a general-purpose instrument to build into a that they are as accurate as their resolu-
field to cause force against a spring. The special application.1 The typical DVM will tion. We should not assume that a meter
resulting motion has an attached scale to have an input resistance of 10 M i l when reading a voltage to 1 mV or better is ac-
indicate current. measuring dc voltage. Some traditional curate to that level. See the meter's
The simple 0 to 1 mA meter movement VTV'Ms also had a 10-MJ1 input resistance, manual. Another often-overlooked prob-
is a modern equivalent. This meter usually but also had a resistance (1 M£1 or more) lem is the '"burden" of these meters when
has a very low internal resistance of 25 to built into the tip of the probe used with the measuring current. Burden is the voltage
100 0 . Larger currents are measured with instrument. This allowed the probing of sen- drop across the meter when measuring
meter "shunt" resistors while voltage is sitive circuits with little loading, even at high current. This can often be several tenths of
measured with a scries "multiplier" resis- frequencies. While the modern DVM will a volt for high currents, a departure from
tor. A 1 mA meter movement would need not cause problems with dc loading, the long the classic multimeters of the past.
a 10-kQ resistor to measure 10 V. Hence, test lead can certainly cause problems for We often wish to measure audio signals
a voltmeter so built would toad the circuit circuits containing signals at audio or higher from the output of receivers. This is best
being measured as if a 10K resistor was frequencies. done with a true RMS responding voltme-
attached to ground. See Fig 7.1. While the resolution and accuracy of a ter. Some of the newer D V M s from Fluke
The loading problems are significantly modern D V M is outstanding, many users and other vendors includc this highly use-
reduced when active circuits append the still prefer an analog indication when a ful feature. The user without older meters
meter movements. The traditional active circuit is being adjusted. Some D V M s can still perform true RMS audio measure-
instrument is the classic VTVM, or vacuum approximate an analog meter movement ments by building an appropriate adapter. 1
tube voltmeter. A modem equivalent is a with a digital bar graph. This paper is included on the CD that
voltmeter using an op-amp with an example In spite of their justified popularity, the accompanies this book.
shown in Fig 7.2. The input signal is applied
to a very high impedance voltage divider,
resulting in a signal lo the non-inverting in-
put of an op-amp. The I kfi in series with the
meter, Rcal- c a n become a 2-kQ pot i f cali-
bration is required.
Most experimenters tend to purchase
general-purpose meters rather than build
them from scratch. The typical unit is a
digital voltmeter, or DVM that will mea-
ca-3140
15V

15V

Fig 7.2—A simple op-amp based voltmeter. The meter is one normally intended for
Fig 7.1—A basic 0-1 mA meter (A); use as a 0-15 V meter where a 0-1 mA movement is used with an external 15-kQ
measures higher current (B), or voltage multiplier. The 0 to 15 indication on the meter is now used to register 0 to 1.5 or 15 V,
(C) with the addition of resistors. but with a 15-MQ input resistance. This circuit operates with an op-amp voltage gain
Resistance can be measured with these of about 7, generating an output of 7 V for a full scale response. With a 9-V supply it
through application of Ohm's Law. becomes virtually impossible to damage the meter movement with excess voltage.

7.2 Chapter 7
 Fig 7.4—Linear ramp applied to the X
axis of a CRT. A repeated ramp is called
a saw tooth waveform.

Fig 7.3—Cross section view of a cathode ray tube.

7.2 THE OSCILLOSCOPE

The ultimate measurement tool for the Fig 7.5—The
time domain (explained later) is the cath- appearance of an
ode ray o s c i l l o s c o p e , or just o s c i l l o s c o p e oscilloscope
or scope. This is an instrument that usually faceplate while
measures a v o l t a g e that varies as a func- examining a
sinusoid. This ac
tion of time and displays the result as a
voltage moves
feme graph. Other measurements are also from zero to
possible and will be outlined. 1.5 V, back to
The basis for a traditional o s c i l l o s c o p e zero, to - 1 . 5 ,
and again to
n the cathode ray lube, shown in F i g 7.3.
zero, with the
This d e v i c e begins at the left with a heater
sequence
*ad a cathode, the electron-emitting ele- repeating for a
ment in the structure. T h o s e unfamiliar long time. This
with the basics of vacuum tubes can e x a m - signal is
ine their construction and operation in the measured as 3 V
ARRL Handbook. T h e C R T c a t h o d e is peak-to-peak. The
display shown
much like that in any other vacuum tube,
has a vertical
although it is usually a flat or planar sur- sensitivity setting
face. Directly to the right of the cathode is of 0.5 V per
« grid. Normal bias slightly negative with division.
respect to the cathode prevents the elec-
trons from l e a v i n g the region c l o s e to the
cathode. Changing the grid bias slightly in
i positive direction a l l o w s s o m e electrons The electron beam l e a v i n g the gun axis. A signal applied to the grid next to the
tii escape. T h e y are then accelerated to-
p a s s e s b e t w e e n d e f l e c t i o n plates, often no cathode is called a t axis or intensity modu-
ward an e l e m e n t called an anode. This,
m o r e than parallel sheets o f metal. The lation.
plus other electrodes not s h o w n , causes the
beam passes first through the vertical, or Y There are numerous applications for this
electrons to be formed into a beam, or ray.
plates, and then enters the horizontal or X versatile configuration. For e x a m p l e , if a
i2 accordance with the c l a s s i c name. The
deflector. A voltage applied b e t w e e n the fast ramp is repeatedly applied to the X
fart of the C R T described is c a l l e d the
plates generates an electric f i e l d causing axis ( c a l l e d a raster) w h i l e a s l o w o n e
tieciron gun.
the e l e c t r o n s to m o v e toward the more drives the vertical, the entire faceplate area
The region after the electron gun con- p o s i t i v e plate. T h e electrons are m o v i n g is scanned. M o d u l a t i o n applied to the
tains the d e f l e c t i o n electrodes. T h e s e will quite fast as Ihey enter the d e f l e c t i o n intensity controlling grid then a l l o w s tele-
liter the beam direction and a l l o w it to region, so the c h a n g e in direction brought v i s i o n to be displayed.
rventually strike the faceplate where it will about by the d e f l e c t o r s may be slight. But O s c i l l o s c o p e m e a s u r e m e n t s usually
i m p i n g e on a phosphor, a material that a f e w volts across the horizontal plates will begin with a ramp, a voltage that grows
gives o f f light w h e n struck by energetic c a u s e a beam originally headed for the linearly in time, applied to the X axis. A
particles. faceplate center to strike at the e d g e . signal being studied then drives the Y axis.
Most of the electron gun is biased nega- The voltage applied to the X plates will If that signal, for e x a m p l e , is a s i m p l e sine
tively at a potential of - 5 0 0 to - 2 0 0 0 V cause the beam position to vary with the w a v e , the user s e e s a sine pattern on the
» h i l e the d e f l e c t i o n region is c l o s e to applied voltage. If w e apply a voltage that f a c e of the CRT. This result is shown in
ground. The rest o f the CRT is also near is a linear ramp with time, s h o w n in F i g 7.5.
{round potential f o r s i m p l e 'scopes. Higher F i g 7.4, the resu 11 is a horizontal line across The operation just d e s c r i b e d w o u l d
performance instruments often include a the faceplate. work well if the C R T was very bright and
high voltage post deflection acceleration T h e e l e c t r o n s m o v e predominantly just o n e s w e e p occurred. The s i n u s o i d
<PDA) region for greater brightness. along what is usually referred to as the ' V w o u l d be seen right after it occurred, but

Measurement Equipment 7.3

would then decrease in intensity as the
phosphor decays in Lime. Most of the signals 2
we study arc repealed in time and wc use a
low intensity beam that appears again and
again. If we did this without doing some-
thing special to force the horizontal sweep
and the vertical excursion to synchronize,
we would have a display like that of Fig 7.6
where no information is conveyed.
Fig 7.6—The sine
The elements that cause this synchroni- wave of Fig 7.5
zation are called trigger circuits, critical viewed without
parts of an oscilloscope now shown in triggering. See text.
greater detail in the block diagram of
Fig 7.7. The trigger is a circuit that looks
at the signals present in the vertical chan-
nel. Oncc a predetermined level set by a
front panel control (trigger level) is
reached, a pulse is generated that is sent to
two parts of the system. The pulse reach-
ing the sweep circuit where Lhe sawtooth
wave is generated starts the ramp. The
pulse reaching lhe Z-axis system un-
hlanks the electron gun. turning on the
electron beam. Once just one sweep is fin- Vertical Amplifier
ished. it terminates, but starts again when
a new trigger pulse is generated.
Most 'scopes have an automatic trigger
mode that causes a continuous sequence
of sweeps to occur. However, as soon as a
valid trigger pulse is generated by a verti-
cal signal, that action dominates. While the
vertical signal is lhe most obvious and
u s e f u l source for triggering, others can
also be used. An external trigger terminal
is useful for sources that have a well de-
fined associated signal. It is also useful ki Hnrizontal
trigger f r o m the 60 Hz line, allowing re- L Amplifier

lated (hum) signals to be examined.

The scope vertical input drives a resis- Fig 7.7—Partial block diagram for an oscilloscope. See text for details.
tive attenuator thai establishes vertical
sensitivity. The most sensitive position is
typically 10 mV per division, increasing to
9 Meg
10 V per division in a 1-2-5 sequence. All
modern scopes a r e d c coupled, although the
user has the option of ac coupling. That is. 5 JF
applying a dc voltage will produce change
in the sweep position that remains as long
50 »F
as the dc is present.
The availability of two or more vertical
channels is also c o m m o n . A variety of
schemes are used to share one electron gun
Fig 7.8—A 10X oscilloscope probe. Part A shows the probe and the input to the
with the two. attached scope while B shows an equivalent circuit. See text.
The horizontal sweep is usually cali-
brated with a wide range of sweeps. One
of the instruments used for much of our 20 pF. As such, the loading imposed by nation drives the input RC of the scope.
work is a Tektronix 453 with sweep rates the 'scope is not severe. However, it can The capacitor is adjusted to produce clean,
of 0.5 second to 0.1 microsecond per divi- still be substantial, often dominated by the sharp edges when driving the probe from
sion. Bolh lhe vertical and the lime base capacitance of the cable needed to connect a 1-kHz square wave, the usual calibrator
can be operated in un-calibrated modes in the instrument to a circuit being tested. built into most oscilloscopes. Wilhoul the
most scopes. Further, both X and Y chan- A typical oscilloscope accessory is a 10X probe, the scope input has a low pass
nels have related position controls, allow- 1 OX probe, used to reduce the capacitance characteristic formed by the circuit resis-
ing lhe display to be moved lo fit (he in- seen by a circuit being tested. A 1 OX probe tance and the scope input capacitance. The
coming data. circuit is shown in Fig 7.8. A fixed capaci- two capacitors of Fig 7.8B form a low pass
The input impedance of the typical ver- tance parallels a 9-M£l resistor to drive the - high pass combination with effects thai
tical channel is 1 M f l paralleled by about cable and a variable capacitor. The combi- cancel (an all pass filter), extending per-

7.4 Chapter 7
formancc to the p r o b e tip. they are in p h a s e with each other. But a ducing a digital version of a picture that is
It is common to find beginners who ac- 90 degree phase difference will produce a eventually presented for viewing on an
quire a new oscilloscope, but do not get the circle when both have the same amplitude. inexpensive display. The performance is
probes to go with it. Don't! The 'scope with- These are called Lissajous patterns. T h e often impressive, as are the prices.
out the 10X probes is an invitation to mis- X-Y mode is also useful with other instru- As you b e c o m e accustomed to a new
leading measurement attempts resulting ments that include their own time basis oscilloscope, you will find n u m e r o u s ways
from the loading from high oscilloscope in- (sweep,) such as a homebuilt spectrum to apply it. It is effective in measuring dc
put capacitance. Almost all high frequency analyzer discussed later. levels as well as the ac signals within a
measurements done with a 'scope are per- The up-to-date oscilloscopes offered for circuit. C a r e f u l triggering and setting of
formed with the 10X probe. Even this load- industrial and research applications differ horizontal position will allow surprisingly
ing is extreme in many applications. from the traditional picture we have accurate f r e q u e n c y m e a s u r e m e n t s , al-
Most oscilloscopes also have an X - Y painted. While many of the changes relate though not up to counter standards. We
mode where one vertical channel drives to extended features, others deal with the will c o m m e n t on various applications
the Y axis, but the other is attached to the very nature of the products. Modern scopes throughout the rest of this chapter.
X axis. If you use this setup with two sine rarely feature the high performance CRTs A good general p u r p o s e r e f e r e n c e on
waves, you can infer something about the of earlier times. Rather, the input connec- traditional oscilloscopc m e a s u r e m e n t s is
phase relationship between them. T w o tors drive amplifiers that then drive high the paper by K 7 0 W J , which is included
« n e wave signals of the same frequency speed Analog to Digital converters, pro- on the C D that accompanies this b o o k . 3
will produce a slanted, 45 degree line if

7.3 RF POWER MEASUREMENT

One of the first things the b e g i n n i n g beyond their normal rating for short inter- two parallel 100-SX 2-W resistors. In prac-
communications e x p e r i m e n t e r wishes to vals. One termination we use for 100-W tice, 1 - W resistors would work well f o r
sieasure is radio frequency power, usually measurements consists of 30, 1,5-kQ 2-W short tests. The circuit at (B) is actually
from a transmitter. Although not hard in resistors. T h e s e m e t h o d s arc generally two p o w e r meters with one meter move-
concept, it can be a difficult measurement confined to 50 M H z and lower. ment. This scheme functions because Ihe
a perform with good accuracy. W e can add a voltmeter to the circuits of typical milliampere meter has a low inter-
The simplest way to measure R F power Fig 7.9 for a stand alone instrument requir- nal resistance.
w e s a termination with a dissipation ing no external meter. T w o versions are The two ranges of the meter at Fig 7.10
exceeding the highest power to be measured, shown in Fig 7.10. The one at (A) uses are quite different. The one at the right
i diode, and a capacitor in a peak detector, a 1 - m A meter m o v e m e n t with a 15-kO hand input is much like the others dis-
shown in Fig 7.9. A transmitter to be tested resistor to form a voltmeter with a maxi- cussed while the left input has a 50 m W
a attached to the load and the signal is recti- mum of 15 V. Using Eq 7.1, the m a x i m u m full-scale reading (+17 dBm). This range
fied by the diode, which then charges the power would then be 2.43 W, so the 5 0 - Q is best calibrated against a calibrated
capacitor. The capacitor will rcach a voltage load resistor should have this dissipation signal generator. Alternatively, a higher
.nearly equaling the peak ac value. Although rating or greater. A valid choice would be p o w e r m e t e r can b e used to m e a s u r e a
•nrtually any meter can be used, one with a
high dc impedance is preferred. A D V M
«orks well, although if adjustments are be-
Fig 7.9—A peak
tas done, analog action is still useful. 1H4152
detector (A) measures
Assuming a diode drop of 0.6 V, the RF R 2 <B> the peak RF voltage
power is given by E q 7.1 where R is usually T*To voltmeter To voltmeter across a load,
50 f2. The breakdown voltage for the allowing calculation
1N4152 diode is 100 V. so dc levels of
I - of RF power. The
scheme at (B) allows
50 V can be measured, corresponding to a (A) higher powers to be
little over 25 W. One can use higher break- determined without
down diodes or tap the diode part way down taxing diode
the resistor to measure higher power, shown breakdown voltages.
in Fig 7.9B. One must, however, alter the
ojuation to reflect the voltage division.
5€ iriff Input
p _ (Vdc+0-6)2 Eq 7.1

R1 can be a parallel or series combina-

tion of resistors to reach the needed dissi-
pation. T w o or three watt resistors can b e
stacked between parallel sheets of circuit
board material to reach the 100-W level. If
the resistors are spaced from each other, Fig 7.10—(A) shows an instrument with built in meter while the version at (B) has
a i d open to the air, they can be stressed two RF inputs available. See text for details.

Measurement Equipment 7.5

 dB Arithmetic
V across a 150-0 resistance (7.5 mW) as +8.75 dBm,
Two RF powers are compared as a ratio, or in dB form
even though this is not the result we would read if the
with
related power source was applied to a 50-Q power meter.
With most measurements, an increment from one value
dB-10lag(ji) to another occurs with a step value of the same units. For
example, we change the length of a 50-inch antenna by
one inch to becomes 51 inches. The inch unit is used in all
...where the powers P-, and P 2 are both in the same cases. But this is not the case with dB and dBm. An
units of W, mW or jiW. The dB, as well as other logarith- absolute power of 20 mW (+13 dBm) is increased with an
mic forms is useful because a change in power ratio is amplifier by a factor of 5 (7 dB) to 100 mW (+20 dBm.) A
analyzed with addition or subtraction. dB is defined only dBm value is altered by adding a dB value to become a
when two powers are considered. new dBm value. The ratio of two powers is obtained by
We often specify a power in dB terms with respect to taking the difference of their dBm values to get a power
some reference. dBW is dB with respect to 1 W. The ratio in dB.
familiar dBm is power referred to one mW. These are it is usually not correct to "increase a +27 dBm power
both ratios, with the 1 (mW) understood. While many by 3 dBm," which would literally mean increasing 500
power measurements we perform that read out in mW mW by 2 mW. What was probably intended was to double
happen in 5CM1 systems, this is certainly not necessary. (3 dB increase) the power of a +27 dBm (one half watt)
There is nothing to preclude us from referring to 1.5 peak source (500 mW) to 1000 mW (+30 dBm or one watt.)

_L 22

CA3140 —
l IK ~ p-'"
02S
I Fig 7.11—This power meter, based on
the work of W7EL, has full scale
.LM358 readings of 0.3 and 3 volts RMS with
sensitivity of less than - 1 0 dBm. The
circuit can be adapted to other ranges.
R3 can be changed to 6 kC2 if a 0-1 mA
movement is used. See text for details.
1.62K u. IV

I '

suitable source such as a Q R P transmitter.

A step attenuator is then used to decrease
Ihe power in known steps to calibrate the
50-mW input. The more sensitive meter
can detcct powers as low as I or 2 mW.
The intended purpose of power meters
with small maximum power is not to test
very small transmitters. Rather, ii is to
measure R F power in the early stages of
transmitters or in receiver LO systems. A
very common example is when setting up
50-Q power meter using the
compensation method of W7EL. a diode ring mixer using hot carrier diodes
for L O power o f + 7 dBm (5 mW.) This is
Inside view of the W7EL type power
a substitution measurement where a source
meter.
is set for an available power of 5 m W into
50 Q, even though it is attached in practice

a
to a less ideal termination.

/ 0 4 , 8 PAD
Microwatt Meter
Circuits
Several methods can extend the sensi-
Thirty parallel 2-W, 1.5-kQ resistors
sandwiched between postcard-sized tivity of power measurements, allowing
pieces of circuit board material form a lower levels to be read. One uses an
medium power termination. Although op-amp to follow the RF detector. This
the rating Is only 60 watts, the wide guarantees a high impedance load for the
spacing between resistors allows 100 A 10-dB pad built into a small box is a
defector. Then a matching diode is placed
watts to be dissipated for modest times. valuable piece of test equipment as
The wire hooks are convenient places to well as a station accessory suitable for in the op-amp f e e d b a c k path, which
attach an oscilloscope 10X probe. reduced power experiments. essentially removes the effects of diode

7,6 Chapter 7
 offset. This method was presented by
Grcbenkemper in 1987 and ihen applied
lo an in-line QRP power meter by
Lcwallcn in 1990. Both papers are out-
standing and are included on the book
CD, 4 5 Both instruments included built-in
directional couplers that allowed them to
be used for in-line power and VSWR mea-
surement.
The simple power meter shown in
Fig 7.11 was adapted from Lew alien's
design. The input is a 50-Q termination
followed by the detector. The following
op-amp includes a diode within the feed-
Nine parallel 470-Q resistors form the back path. The major effect of this diode is
RF load for the 20-W power meter. The to cancel the effcct of the voltage drop
tee box contains three power meters diode detector and meter multiplier across the detcctor diode, forcing the
•fth full scale responses of 100 mW, hang on one side. The BNC connector
meter to generate a reading closer to the
2 w, and 20 W. mounts the board to a wall.
RF value. The panel meter available when
this was buill had a 0-3 raA movement, so
the instrument was set up for full scale
readings of 0.3 and 3 V, RMS. This does
not mean that a true RMS voltage is being
read. It's still essentially a peak reading
circuit, but is calibrated with regard to the
related RMS value. Resistors were se-
lected at R1 and R2 to establish the ranges.
Lewallen used pots in his meter. The cir-
cuit in the figure easily responds to signals
less than - 1 0 dBm.
Fig 7.12 shows a power meter using two
other methods to obtain greater sensitiv-
ity. The first is bias: The diodes arc
Ftg 7.12—Low-level power meter capable of well under 1 |iW full scale. This circuit biased at about 20 (lA in this system. Two
is calibrated against a calibrated signal generator, or against an attenuated QRP diodes are used in a differential arrange-
transmitter that has been measured with a simple power meter. ment to reduce temperature drift. The bias

U2
78105

1
R3 Reg
IN OUT
6.8 GND
C6-
0.22' X
C5-L

n.c.

470
ELL
MP VPS EN6 INT

INM COM OFS OUT

T T
- -J-C3
r-A/W

'po.i
Except as indicated, oeclmai r i i r r i
values of capacitance ore
En microfarads ( uF); others
are in picofarads (pF);
resistances are in ohms;
k « 1,000.
n.c. - No connection

Fig 7.13—Logarithmic power meter capable of reading signals from -80 to +13 dBm.

Measurement Equipment 7.7

allows us to see signals o f - 1 0 d B m or bel-
ter al R1. Leaded or surface mounted hot
carrier diodes are used. This circuit
worked with IN4152 diodes, although the
sensitivity was reduced by a couple of dB.
This detcctor functions well to over 1 GHz.
An op-amp provides an interface between
the diodes and the meter, and protects the
meter against damage from overdrive.
Sccond, we enhance sensitivity with
amplifiers before detection. Here, we use
some of the inexpensive monolithic mi-
crowave integrated circuits (MMlCs) from
Mini-Circuits. Discrete feedback amplifi-
ers could also be used.
This power meter will detect signals as
low as - 4 0 dBm full scale. T h i s circuit Fig 7.14—Power tap with 40-dB attenuation. Part A shows the basic concept while
displays about 10 dB of change in the B shows the version built See text and original paper on the book CD.
meter motion, making it ideal for careful
adjustment of filter circuits. The simpler
peak detector power meters (Fig 7.9) typi-
cally had 18 dB or higher scale range. scribed can be extended to higher levels the tap. The designer/builder should run
Even greater sensitivity is available with a variety of methods. One is a power the circuit only for short periods a t full
from the circuit of Fig 7.13. This power attenuator, described later. Another is the power, for the resistors used in the tap are
meter is based on a logarithmic amplifier 4 0 dB "tap" shown in Fig 7.14. This is otherwise taxed.
integrated circuit from Analog Devices, essentially a small metal box with a wire The power meter using the AD8307 was
the AD8307. This circuit functions as a connection through to an output attached originally described in a QSTarticle that is
logarithmic detector, accepting signals to a high power termination, or dummy included on the CD. The tap information is
from audio up to 500 MHz over a power load. But the path is sampled with a large in that paper. 6
range f r o m around - 8 0 d B m up to over value resistor that then drives a 50-£i The in-line power meter referenced ear-
+ 10 dBm. T h e output is then a dc signal terminated connector leading to the power lier by G r e b e n k e m p e r used two simulta-
that tracks with spectacular accuracy, meter. The power available at the lap is. in neous detectors attached to the forward
changing by 25 mV for each dB input this example. 4 0 d B below that flowing in and reflected ports of a directional cou-
change. The chip has a sensitivity that the main path. The M ire between J1 and 32 pler. This allowed both components to be
drops with f r e q u e n c y , but the circuit is actually a p i e c e of metal, approximately displayed at once. Further, calculations
shown is compensated to be flat to beyond I x 1.5 inches, trimmed to fit the box. a could be performed on the resulting data.
500 MHz. This power meter is described H a m m o n d 1590A. With the compensated ( O p - a m p s would probably be used.)
in detail in a paper on the C D that accom- power meter of Fig 7.13 with a maximum N 2 P K has used a pair of A D 8 3 0 7 ICs to
panies this b o o k . 6 power of + 1 3 d B m , signals beyond obtain similar p e r f o r m a n c e with reduced
Any of the low level power meters de- +50 dBm, or 100 W can be measured with powers.

7.4 RF POWER MEASUREMENT WITH AN OSCILLOSCOPE

Fig 7.15 shows how R F power is mea- pler or tap (described earlier) in the inter- is accurate.
sured with an oscilloscope. A key connecting cable. An often used, but generally inaccurate
element is the 5 0 - f i terminator. This is a A 10X probe forms the second recom- measurement is shown in Fig 7.17. An ex-
50-11 resistance that can be paralleled with mended method for R F power measure- ternal dummy load is used, but the intercon-
the oscilloscope input connector. The usual ment, shown in Fig 7.16. A power nect is realized with sections of 50-12 cable.
'scope vertical input is 1 M i l paralleled by termination (dummy load) is connected to The difficulty results from transmission line
20 pF. essentially an open circuit for low the transmitter with a coaxial cable. The behavior. We wish to examine the voltage
impedance RF. The terminator is effective voltage across the load is then measured across the 50-12 termination while configur-
in setting impedance to 50 £2. A terminator with the probe. This method is generally ing the lines so that a 50-Q load is presented
used for power measurement should suitable for powers up to 100 W a t HF, 3 to to the transmitter under lest. A 50-12 load at
always appear at the scopc end of the coax 30 MHz. The ground lead should be one end of a coaxial cable with 50-Q charac-
cable and never at the transmitter end. clipped to the ground part of the load. teristic impedance presents 50 ft at the other
This method is limited to the power dis- Voltages exceeding around 300 V can end. These measurement requirements are
sipation of the terminator used and by the damage the usual oscilloscope probe, and satisfied by the setup of Fig 7.15, but not
vertical input limits. Higher powers can additional de-rating is required above with that of Fig 7.17.
be measured by adding a 50-12 attenuator 10 MHz or so. For example, a 10-X probe Once a voltage measurement has been
in the line. Much higher power can be may well present an impedance of only performed, it is easily converted to power
measured by routing a transmitter output 5 k£l by the time you reach 10 MHz, even with one of several equations, shown in
to a 5 0 - Q load through a directional cou- though the resulting voltage measurement Fig 7.18.

7.8 Chapter 7
 Coax' Cable

10X Scope
Probe
50 Ohm Terminator
at 'scope V-input
OK
Coax' Cable from
Transmitter Under
OK Test

R f 7.15—Power is measured with an oscilloscope and a 50-Q Fig 7.16—A 10X probe is used with an oscilloscope (or power
terminator at the scope input connector. measurement.

Fig 7.17—Random
V
interconnection of a load RMS
to a scope with coax P ( watts ) • -
sections can produce R
severe error. See text.
V V
peak pkjpk
P( watts)
2-R 8-R

P(mW_50_Q ) = 2.5 V p k j k -

Fig 7.18—Equations used to calculate

power from oscilloscope readings.

Attenuators
Attenuators form one of the most im-
AdB
• -taut a n d u s e f u l c o m p o n e n t s in a n y R F
Pad
• .:»uremem laboratory- T h e y b e c o m e
; - x v i a l l v u s e f u l in a h o m e l a b . f o r t h e y
Fig 7.19—
easily constructed and calibrated with Schematics and
,. Once available, they can be used to Pi Tee Bridged-Tee design equations
*cnd n u m e r o u s m e a s u r e m e n t s t o l o w e r for three popular
, ( « I attenuator forms.
• nigher levels. * i v» R i *
r f
To design any of
I hree a t t e n u a t o r n e t w o r k f o r m s arc
U the attenuators,
- -m in F i g 7 . 1 9 . T h e s e r i e s r e s i s t o r s h a v e pick R and A in dB
..>.• S a n d the p a r a l l e l o n e s a r e s i s t a n c e P. and calculate V
• "en t e r m i n a t e d in R ( u s u a l l y 5 0 O ) at the p _ R ( l - V) „ R f i - v, _R-(l- V)
with the formula
s
• .-lit. the input r e s i s t a n c e l o o k i n g in at the
s» shown. The
1-V 1- V V parallel resistor,
: ' ; « i l i a l s o be R. T h i s c o n d i t i o n l e a d s to
P, and the series
j m a t h e m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the „ 2-R : -P R J - S1 one, S, are then
w r i e s a n d the parallel r e s i s t o r s . S e t t i n g the
P« —
i? - R
2 2-S s calculated with
attenuation. w h i c h e s t a b l i s h e d the o u t p u t the equations.
• oltage V f o r a 1 V i n p u t , a l l o w s a n o t h e r
e q u a t i o n for e a c h t y p e t o be d e r i v e d . S o l v -

Measurement Equipment 7.9

 10 dB Pad ,270
fttrt
(6x) 560 30
32.8 W

t \
WWrtta y
10 w
20 dB Pad
51.9 W 5.2 W 470

T
Fig 7.20—Power dissipated in each resistor is shown for a
10-dB pad with 100 W applied. The numbers are also All 2v, xicon, type 262-xxx unless noted.
percentages.

Fig 7.21—Power it attenuators built by Fred, W2EKB. The

resistors were purchased from a catalog of electronic
components. The 262-xxx numbers are from a Mouser catalog.
ing these two produces design equations
included in Fig 7.19. If we pick A=4 dB as
an example. V will be 0.631. resulting in
P=22l n and S = 2 4 Q for the pi. P=105 Q to the input. The powers dissipated in the the input should he carefully labeled.
and S = l 1.3 Ci for the Tee. with P=85.5 £1 output and the three resistors are shown. Care must be exercised when picking
and S = 2 9 12 for the Bridged-Tee. The numbers are also the percent of the resistors for attenuator applications. Many
The pi and Tee both use three resistors input power dissipated in each element. power resistors use wire wound construc-
and are equally useful. The pi may fit bet- Clearly, for example, over half of the ap- tion. often hidden in ceramic, making them
ter with switches (described below.) The plied power appears in the first resistor. too inductive for R F use. Carbon composi-
bridged-Tec uses 4 resistors, hut only two Analysis of this sort will allow one to de- tion and the various types of film resistors
need changing for different attenuation, so sign higher power attenuators. Two high are generally suitable for R F through UHF.
it tends to be a good topology for further power pads built by W 2 E K B are shown in Fixed attenuators have two significant
design of adjustable circuits. F i g 7.21. When asymmetric pads are built. applications for the experimenter. The ob-
The dB attenuation value is a weak func-
tion of the actual resistance values, allow-
ing one to use close 5 % values to build
practical circuits. For example, building Power Resistors at Radio Frequency
the 4-dB Tee pad mentioned earlier with
] 2-Q series resistors and a 100-12 shunt Several resistors were evaluated with an H P - 8 7 1 4 network analyzer to
would produce a 4.2 dB attenuation with establish suitability for use a s R F terminations or a s elements in
input resistance of 50.3 Q. attenuators. T h e results are shown in the attached figure. T h e R F
m e a s u r e m e n t s were performed at the listed measurement frequency,
One must use care when designing at- establishing R F resistance and inductance. A maximum frequency w a s
tenuators for use with transmitters deliv- then calculated a s that where the inductive r e a c t a n c e g o e s up to half of
ering modest to high power. Fig 7 . 2 0 the R F resistance. Clearly, traditional wire-wound power resistors are
shows a 10-dB Pi-pad with 100 W applied not suitable a s R F loads.

I Spec. R RFR ^ ^ |
[—'wv — = — Freq. for R F Maximum
L at R F Measurements Frequency
Part Spec. R DC R RF R (MH) (MHz) (MHz)
A 50 52.2 51.5 6.4 3.5 0.64
B 100 99.6 99.4 0.194 30 40.8
C 50 56,2 59 0.24 30 19.6
D 47 47.2 49 0.0099 250 395
E 47 46 47 0.0095 250 394

Parts Key
A: Lectrohm 1 0 W Wirewound
This photo shows some typical termina- B: Tru-Ohm 2 0 W Non-Inductive
tors. The smaller two are surplus with C: Sprague Kookbhm 5W
power dissipation of 2 and 5 W. The box D: Xicon 3W Metal Oxide
is a homebrew terminator containing E: Allen Bradley 2 W Carbon Composition
four paralleled 200-Q, 2-W resistors.

7.10 Chapter 7
 corresponds to VSWR=1.2. The receiver
with the pad is now a good impedance
match. W e o f t e n use pads in the out-
put of signal generators to force a clean
output impedance.

The Step Attenuator

The core of many basement R F labora-
tories is a step attenuator. Although simple
and even relatively inexpensive, such an Rl: plastic insulated panel
A step attenuator for the HF spectrum instrument allows measurements per- mounted linear.
is easily built with slide switches and formed at a modest level where they are
U4-W resistors. This design used a easy to be extended lo other powers where Fig 7.22—Continuously variable
brass box with the switches soldered in attenuator with about a 4-dB range.
they are difficult. A step attenuator con-
place. This was hard on the plastic
parts of the switches, making hardware sists of fixed pads that arc attached to a
mounting preferred. switch. Each pad is then switched in or out
of a signal path, allowing a total attenua- by adding shields across the center of each
tion to be established by adding the indi- switch section. 7 Shriner and Pagcl built a
vidual values. similar design, using shields between sec-
»icms one is that of reducing power by a Several switch types can be used. Most tions. Bramwell did a more recent version
known amount. The other, often just as of our experience is with inexpensive of this classic where careful attention was
important, is lhat they serve to establish DPDT slide switches (eg. CW Industries G devoted to maintaining the 50-Q charac-
impedance level. Assume you have a re- and G F series) found in component teristic impedance within the trough struc-
ceiver that you wish to use for measure- catalogs. Use those with mounting flanges. ture.® The last two papers arc included on
m e n t in a 5 0 - Q system. The input imped- The attenuator is built in a trough-like en- the C D thai accompanies this book.
ance of the typical receiver is rarely well closure fabricated from scraps of PC board It is sometimes useful to have a continu-
matched to 50 12, even if it was designed material. Rectangular holes are cut for the ously variable attenuator. Fig 7.22 shows
for use with a 5 0 - Q antenna. However, in- switch handles and the switches are an attenuator that we have used in the out-
serting a suitable pad alleviates the prob- mounted in a line. The resistors are then put of homebrew signal sources. This de-
lem. If. f o r e x a m p l e . we used a 10-UB pad. mounted with very short leads. Short wires sign has an attenuation ranging from 2.5 to
the return loss we would measure looking are attached to extend one switch section 6.7 dB. The exact range obtained will de-
into that pad would be 20 d B when the to the next. WB6A1G and WA6RDZ de- pend on the surrounding impedances. This
output was left open, and would improve scribed this circuit in a classic paper and design will certainly be compromised at
»ith any termination. A 20 d B return loss found that vhf performance was improved higher frequency.

7.5 MEASURING FREQUENCY, INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE

Frequency needed. We find that 1 Hz or better reso- Some inexpensive counters only have
Determination lution is especially useful when measur- high (1 Hz) resolution when digital cir-
The frequency counter is now the most ing parts for use in crystal filters. cuits are investigated. An example is from
practical instrument for measurement of fre- Battery operation is also a useful fea- RadioShack. catalog no. 22-306. A simple
quency up to a few GHz. The It's that form ture. A battery operated counter will let interface can be built that will accept a low
the basis for such measurements are avail- one build numerous simple instruments level RF input while providing a TTL or
able in virtually all digital formats and arc all that can then be carricd into the field for C M O S compatible output, shown in
relatively easy to use in this application. We antenna measurements. F i g 7.23. This circuit will usually function
are not going to say much about counters in It has b e c o m e popular to build counters
this chapter, but note that a simple and inex- f r o m single chip microprocessor of the
pensive counter was described in Chapter 4. PIC or BASIC Stamp variety. This offers
That circuit could be adapted for general some hardware simplification and a use-
purpose counting with little additional ef- ful task to use as a mechanism to learn
fort. We have built versions with 2 . 3 . and 4 more about the use of these processors. It
digits, but would recommend 6 or 8 for a also o f f e r s some unusual possibilities. For
general purpose lab instrument. example, one kit vendor (Small Wonder
Counters are available in all price and Labs) offers a frequency counter designed
frequency ranges, often at less than $100 for use with low power transceivers where
for a unit that will count to beyond 1 GHz. the counter uses no visual frequency dis-
Resolution at low frequency is typically play. Rather, when a button is pushed to
10 Hz, although some units are found lhat start the circuit, the frequency is counted Fig 7.23—Low-level RF to TTL/CMOS
with the value sent to the user in Morse converter for simple counting applica-
will count to I Hz. The higher resolution
code. In another design, a single digit dis- tions. The 10kQ/4.3kfl resistive divider
is easy to build if one is brewing an instru- sets the collector voltage at about 3
play is used sequentially to read up to
ment for the home lab and is well worth times the 0.7 V emitter-base offset,
the extra effort for those cases when it is 8 digits, offering economy and simplicity.® guaranteeing bias in the active region.

Measurement Equipment 7.11

with inputs of -20 dBm at 10 MHz or
-10 dBm at 30 MHz (substitution mea-
surements from a 50-0 signal generator).
Kulli-y VRniM .Hf-
Using counters is not difficult, although
it is always useful to read the manual. The Ta Ftet. (otttct
[=1 i p c r
longer gate times, sometimes controlled by J 2MI9M
rut 1 i £ I
the user, will provide greater resolution,
but with longer time between readings. ••1 ' 1"
Many counters have a 50-fl input
impedancc, but also have a maximum
input power. Don't over drive them for it
will damage the counter. Instead use an
m-amti, »»», mti, bt-ih hi
attenuator after you have used a power Ll: UK TH 2 t«r01d, « »t
meter to examine the source you plan on
counting. Often a 10X 1-MI2 oscilloscope
probe works very well at the input to a Colpitis Mma
counter, even with 5(Ml inputs.
Some users will attach a small link to a
picce of coax driving the counter. The link
is then used to sniff the circuit under test.
This may work, although the power to the ,u i f i f — — f
?
counter is not well defined. .Moreover, if : r
the source is rich in harmonics, you can Ciul
end up counting a harmonic instead of the
fundamental. Don't try to use the counter
as a spectrum analyzer: it may be an inter- Fig 7.24—"The LC Tester" offered by Bill Carver, W7AAZ, In Communications
esting measurement anomaly, but it is not Quarterly, Winter, 1993. The two modes essentially offer identical performance.
a good method. See text.

L and C measurement performed, (not necessary with every mea- boarded the circuits, we also tried a Colpilts
The traditional experimenter measured surement) bv placing a known capacitor be- variation that allowed larger capacitor
inductance or capacitance by finding a tween the C and the ground posts with L and values to be determined. Either large C
resonant frequency with a dip meter. An C still shorted. A good calibration value or small L between the C and ground termi-
unknown C was paralleled by a known would be a 1000 pF \ fc capacitor. A new nals can cause oscillation to cease. The
inductor, the combination was "dipped," frequency is measured with the CAL cap in two topologies are otherwise identical.
and the value was calculated. An identical place. From the two frequencies and the Once the instrument is built and in use.
process measured an unknown L. But the known CAL capacitor value, the net fixed a computer or calculator program can be
frequency measurement was poor, leaving capacitance and the inductance value can be written to expedite calculations. Carver
the experimenter wondering about his or calculated. C n and L„. includes such a program in his paper.
her results. Measurements arc now performed by Carver's paper also mentioned a pre-
The same general method can be applied parallel or series connections of the un- liminary version of the instrument that
today, but the dipper is completely elimi- known components. The instrument is used a PTC microprocessor, performing the
nated from the measurement. A stable LC turned on and an initial frequency, Fj, is counting function as well as the calcula-
oscillator is built in its place with a buffer counted. An unknown inductor is then tions. Since that paper was published, a
to drive the frequency counter. Unknown attached either between C and ground, or similar instrument has arrived on the mar-
components are then attached to the oscil- between L and C. The new frequency, Fi. ket by Almost All Digital Electronics,
lator to alter its frequency. This produces is measured. Knowing Co, a new induc- which is offered as an easily constructed
the data needed to obtain the L or C. This tance can be calculated. If a scries con- kit. (www.aade.com/)
method was the basis for a simple instru- nection was used, F : <F, and L is found by The experimenter has a choice of building
ment built by Bill Carver.1" This instru- subtracting L„ from the measured value. his or her own LC Tester or purchasing the
ment is shown in Fig 7.24. If a parallel connection was used, F,>F|, kit from AADE. Whatever the choice, the
The instrument is ruggedly built with and the measured I. will be less than that modem experimenter cannot afford not to
three binding posts labeled L C and Ground. of the one connected. The same resonance have this measurement capability. This in-
Operation always begins by placing a wire concepts give capacitance results. strument essentially replaces the classic grid
between the L and the C terminals and mea- Carver's original circuit used the dipper for the electronics experimenter of
suring frequency. Calibration can then be Hartley circuit shown. When we bread- the 21st century!

7.12 Chapter 7
7.6 SOURCES AND GENERATORS
A signal s o u r c e or g e n e r a t o r is n e e d e d
J i g n and adjust most projects, or f o r
- f u n d a m e n t a l circuit experiments.
"" ">i or m o r e arc r e q u i r e d f o r m a n y o t h e r
r s r i m e n t s . In this section w e p r e s e n t a
• j e v a r i e t y of s o u r c e s
The one i n s t r u m e n t that would do most
• * hat w e need is a " t a b quality R F signal
. .-.erator." But there is m o r e to the n a m e
-si. suspected. A traditional signal gen-
-Mr used f o r servicing c o n s u m e r radio
. • s TV receivers c o n s i s t e d of a wide tun-
; range oscillator c o v e r i n g all input and
- - r m e d i a t c f r e q u e n c i e s that the s e r v i c e
-•--M>n might e n c o u n t e r . T h e s e boxes usu-
. . had m o d u l a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y , a l l o w i n g
- user to align A M receivers. H o w e v e r ,
' o J i d not q u a l i f y as the lab q u a l i t y
• irument w e really want. A good signal
. . - e r a t o r will h a v e the mentioned c h a r a c -
. - sties plus a c c u r a t e f r e q u e n c y readout, a
- i i output i m p e d a n c e , low phase noise.
•» Npurious o u t p u t s close to the carrier Fig 7.25—A simple audio generator for transmitter testing.
'.-juency. excellent buffering, good
i j t i o n f r o m the p o w e r s u p p l y , and
. - - c o m p r o m i s e d shielding. L o n g t e r m sta-
• '(\ and low h a r m o n i c content are also an R C high p a s s f i l t e r . O s c i l l a t i o n o c c u r s
- -.-;ul. but are not d o m i n a n t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . at t h e f r e q u e n c y w h e r e the total p h a s e s h i f t
M a n y i n s t r u m e n t s p r e s e n t e d as signal is 3 6 0 d e g r e e s , half p r o v i d e d by t h e
i-eneraiors d o n ' t qualify because they frequency dependant feedback network.
c w ' i be m a d e w e a k e n o u g h to test a re- O u t p u t is e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e c o l l e c t o r ,
ceiver that is u s e f u l for c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , attenuated, low pass filtered, and applied
When you d i s c o n n e c t the g e n e r a t o r , but to an o u t p u t level c o n t r o l . T h i s o s c i l l a t o r
x r h a p s attach an a n t e n n a to a receiver un- o p e r a t e s at 1200 H z . T h e r e is n o t h i n g s p e -
Jer test, the g e n e r a t o r is still heard. T h e cial a b o u t the e x a c t c o m p o n e n t v a l u e s .
problem may be p o o r shielding, signal c o n - T h i s o n e w a s b a s e d u p o n a h a n d f u l of
duction through the p o w e r supply, or both. 0 . 0 0 2 7 u F c a p a c i t o r s on h a n d . T h e m e a -
T h e s o u r c e s w e d e s c r i b e in t h i s c h a p t e r sured 2nd h a r m o n i c w a s 4 0 d B b e l o w the
• ill not result in a lab q u a l i t y i n s t r u m e n t . desired output.
Rather, we will describe specialized T h e circuit is built on a s m a l l s c r a p of
t o u r c e s that w i l l s a t i s f y s o m e of t h e s e circuit board material. Another board
s e e d s , b u t n o t in o n e i n s t r u m e n t . T h e s u r - s c r a p is m o u n t e d to the o r i g i n a l to h o l d a
plus m a r k e t is full of g o o d e q u i p m e n t that B N C o u t p u t c o n n e c t o r and a l e v e l c o n t r o l .
• ill f u l f i l l m a n y of t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s T h e m a x i m u m o u t p u t f r o m this circuit A simple audio oscillator for transmitter
s e e d s . H a v i n g o n e of t h e s e is u s e f u l a s a is a b o u t 2 0 0 m V p e a k - t o - p e a k , m o r e than testing.
m e a n s to c a l i b r a t e h o m e built s o u r c e s . that s u p p l i e d by m o s t m i c r o p h o n e s . U s e
b e g i n s by a t t a c h i n g a m i c r o p h o n e to a
s p e e c h a m p l i f i e r in a t r a n s m i t t e r . A f e w suitable active low pass filters are a d d e d .
Audio sources words into the microphone while looking T h e t w o signals of about 3 V p e a k - t o - p e a k
A whistle or a few w o r d s s p o k e n into a at t h e a m p l i f i e r o u t p u t w i t h a n o s c i l l o - are added and attenuated in U 3 A while U 3 B
m i c r o p h o n e may serve as a f i r s t f u n c t i o n - s c o p e a l l o w s us to set a u d i o g a i n . T h e mi- p r o v i d e s a 6 0 0 - U output i m p e d a n c e .
ality test f o r a p h o n e t r a n s m i t t e r . H o w e v e r . c r o p h o n e is t h e n r e p l a c e d w i t h the T h e r e a r c m a n y o t h e r w a y s to b u i l d
•*'e need s o m e t h i n g m o r e w h e n t e s t i n g a a u d i o o s c i l l a t o r w i t h the level set to e s t a b - audio sources including s o m e special
transmitter. A s i m p l e g e n e r a t o r is s h o w n lish the s a m e m a x i m u m level. This can function generator ICs. These are circuits
in F i g 7.25. This circuit is battery o p e r a t e d then b e u s e d f o r e x t e n d e d b e n c h t e s t i n g . i n t e n d e d to g e n e r a t e t r i a n g l e a n d s q u a r e
from a 9-V cell, a very c o n v e n i e n t f e a t u r e F i g 7 . 2 6 s h o w s a t w o tone g e n e r a t o r use- w a v e s , but w i t h m o d i f i c a t i o n s to also a p -
when s e e k i n g g o o d isolation f r o m o t h e r ful f o r testing S S B transmitters. O n e gen- p r o x i m a t e a sine w a v e . T h e E x a r X R - 2 2 0 6
• o u r c e s . T h i s t o p o l o g y is called a phase erator operates at about 650 H z while the and the M a x i m M A X 0 3 8 are e x a m p l e s . A
shift oscillator. T h e transistor is biased as o t h e r is at 1650, a n o n - h a r m o n i c higher fre- D S P - b a s e d s o l u t i o n is a l s o p r e s e n t e d in
an inverting a m p l i f i e r (180 d e g r e e phase q u e n c y . A W i e n Bridge circuit, s h o w n in C h a p t e r 11.
shift) with a voltage gain of j u s t u n d e r 50. the inset, is used for each source. E a c h os- T h e t w o - t o n e g e n e r a t o r is a t t a c h e d to a
established with f e e d b a c k and biasing. T h e cillator had a m e a s u r e d third h a r m o n i c that t r a n s m i t t e r m i c i n p u t and the level is a d -
output is routed back to the input through was only s u p p r e s s e d by a b o u t 30 d B . so j u s t e d f o r the d e s i r e d o u t p u t . O n e tone c a n

Measurement Equipment 7.13

 1684 Hz 51 100

'"p22

H t — - ^ - f j t ^ j
.1 24OK I —
I—\A/V-# V'A

Ul.. 2,3: 1458

f=-
1 R C
ZE,

56K
1H4152 Matched pair. I-

Fig 7.26—Two tone audio source. Each oscillator uses a matched pair of diodes with matching done with a DVM in the diode
test position. Matching was done to 10 mV.

be turned off with S1 so single t o n e p o w e r

can be measured. W i t h two tones present,
the c o m p o s i t e signal m o v e s through all
stages of the S S B transmitter lo p r o d u c e a
t w o tone output that can be observed with
an oscilloscope or s p e c t r u m analyzer, or
ideally, both. T h e intermodulation distor-
tion products (or flat topping in a ' s c o p c
display) are then the result of distortion in
the transmitter. It is vital that the source be
f r e e of these products.

General Purpose RF
Sources
N o lab is c o m p l e t e w i t h o u t a general
p u r p o s e R F g e n e r a t o r . Like p o w e r sup-
plies and step attenuators, one m o r e is
always useful. T h e early sources we built
consisted of an L C oscillator, link coupled
to a f e e d b a c k a m p l i f i e r and pad lo provide
an o u t p u t p o w e r of + 5 d B m or m o r e ,
e n o u g h to drive a diode mixer. A l t h o u g h
the design was useful, the b u f f e r i n g w a s
s o m e t i m e s inadequate, especially for crys-
tal filter testing. T h e addition of a c o m - Two-tone audio generator for SSB transmitter 1MD measurements.

7.14 Chapter 7
 5n/FT •
+12v

CI: 10-400 pF dual section cap.

C2: 5 - 2 0 pF d u a l s e c t i o n cap.

O.i C3: 2 - 5 pF p a n e l m o u n t e d cap.

T l , T2: 12 b i f i l a r t u r n s FT37-43

LI: 44t#28, T50-6, t a p at 8t, 3t link.

L2; 15t#22, T 5 0 - 6 , t a p a t 4t, It l i n k .

D1,D2: PIN switching diode. 1H647 or 1N4006 suitable.

Fig 7.27—General purpose oscillator tuning the range from 3 to 45 MHz in two ranges. See text tor details.

General purpose RF source tuning from

3 to 45 MHz.

mon-base b u f f e r amplifier has solved

these p r o b l e m s .
A w i d e t u n i n g r a n g e o s c i l l a t o r is s h o w n
in Fig 7 . 2 7 . T w o H a r t l e y o s c i l l a t o r s are
tuned b y d u a l s c c t i o n c a p a c i t o r s . C I a n d
C2. T h e H a r t l e y t o p o l o g y is o p t i m u m , f o r
it uses an i n d u c t o r t a p to o b t a i n f e e d b a c k .
As s u c h , all r e s o n a t o r c a p a c i t a n c e c a n b e
variable, providing the widest possible
t u n i n g r a n g e . T h i s c i r c u i t a c h i e v e s 2.9 to such a w a y that the i n o p e r a t i v e o s c i l l a t o r s w i t c h e s to g r o u n d . T h i s c a p a c i t o r w o u l d
10 M H z in o n e of the o s c i l l a t o r s w i t h the d o c s n o t d i s t u r b the other. T h e b a n d s p r e a d then be switched between oscillators with
o t h e r t u n i n g 10 to o v e r 4 5 M H z . C I is a f f o r d e d by C 3 a l l o w s the g e n e r a t o r to be t h e d i o d e s . B u t b e c a u s e it r e a c h e s the r e s o -
the m a i n t u n i n g w h i l e C 2 p r o v i d e s b a n d - set a c c u r a t e l y , e v e n at the high e n d . n a t o r t h r o u g h a link, it t u n e s o v e r a p r o -
spread. Even greater bandspread is A n o t h e r s c h e m e that c o u l d p r o v i d e portionally smaller range.
provided b y C 3 . n o w a single s e c t i o n ca- bandspread would add a variable capaci- B a n d s w i t c h i n g is p e r f o r m e d with a
pacitor. C 3 is c o u p l e d to both r e s o n a t o r s in t o r f r o m t h e c a t h o d c of t h e P I N d i o d e S P D T toggle switch with a center-off

Measurement Equipment 7.15

 Fig 7.29—Crystal controlled oscillator
used for receiver testing. This unit
doubles as a spectrum analyzer
calibration source with a 7-MHz output
of -20 dBm.

1.1,2: l « t T3«-«
Li: l*t TJI-«, » liak.

Fig 7.28—Signal Generator Extender.

range may be added with the "extender"
shown in Fig 7.28. An available 19 M H z
junk box crystal was used in a cry stal con-
trolled oscillator driving a diode ring
position. The "oft"" mode has been useful the basis for much of o u r test gear. If dual mixer. The signal generator is applied at
to completely extinguish a signal without section capacitors arc not available, single the inpul above the crystal frequency and
changing other sellings. The toggle switch range versions of this oscillator may be al a level of - 1 0 d B m or less. The mixer
applies power to one of the two oscillator built. The circuitry is generally simple, output is attcnualed in a pad and low pass
circuits and biases a FIN diode that routes tolerant of component value changes, and filtered. This unit is especially useful, for
the output to the buffer amplifiers. A high inexpensive except f o r the variable capaci- the original generator amplitude calibra-
speed switching diode ( I N 4 1 5 2 . etc) tors. T h e s e oscillators are running at tion is retained with a 9 - d B offset. We
should nor be substituted here, although moderately high power with over I0-V have also used this s a m e box as an audio
many rectifier diodes work well. The peak-to-peak across each resonator. While source. A 19-MHz V X O can then be used
diode switch output is applied to the com- this is ideal for low phase noise, il means in placcof a signal generator. The low pass
mon base b u f f e r amplifier, preferred over that one cannot casually substitute a filter following the mixer has a cutoff just
a common emitter amplifier or an emitter varactor diode in these circuits. above 10 M H z . the maximum output fre-
follower. The output stage is a 2N3866 quency for this box.
The dual range source has been used for
common cmiller feedback amplifier with a numerous applications, ranging from an- A useful variation of this instrument
3-dB pad. A bit of the output energy is tenna measurements to I M D testing. would use a high level (+17 d B m L O i
tapped and supplied to an auxiliary output There are many generators found on the mixer. More 19 MHz L O energy would be
feeding a frequency counter. The output surplus market that cover ranges from required. This would then allow operation
power from this source is around + 10 dBm 10 M H z upward. E x a m p l e s include the al 10 dB higher levels, needed for some
on both bands, although it is not as flat HP-608 and HP-8654. A useful lower IMD measurements.
(constant amplitude with frequency) as we
would like. But this is also the case with
many very good signal generators, such as
the classic HP-608 series and the surplus
URM-25 line. A PIN diode leveling loop
could be added to solve this problem, hut
should be d o n e with considerable care,
for such loops can generate additional
problems.

Single band variations of the oscillator

of Fig 7.27 have been built, all with a vir-
tually identical circuit. One version was
built into the remains of a surplus BC-221
frequency meter. The tuning range was
purposefully restricted t o about 30 kHz
around 5 M H z . The oscillator is then used
for crystal and crystal filter measurements.
These Rl- generators d o not lend them- Outside view of matching crystal controlled RF sources used for receiver testing.
selves to easy duplication owing to the The outboard amplifiers provide the higher signals needed for testing mixers and
unique components used. T h e junk box is high-level amplifiers.

7.16 Chapter 7
Crystal controlled within the 7 M H z a m a t e u r b a n d , so it s e r v e s pensive, standard "color burst" crystal to gen-
well as a g e n e r a l a l i g n m e n t tool. T h e har- erate signals at 7.16 M H z and at 50.125 M H z .
sources m o n i c s at 14, 21, and 2H M H z are a l s o use- The marked crystal frequency is 14.318 M l l z .
M o s t of t h e c a r e f u l r e c e i v e r m c a s u r e - ful. T h e 7 M H z o u t p u t is - 2 0 d B m . T h i s This is f r e q u e n c y divided in a 7 4 H C 7 4
aients w e d o r e q u i r e good stability in both unit is built i n t o a H a m m o n d 1590B box divider circuit to produce a squarewave at
the receiver and the e q u i p m e n t used to test with a battery c o n t a i n e d o n the inside, pro- 7.16 M H z . S o m e low pass filtering strips
it. T h e ideal ( a f f o r d a b l e ) s o l u t i o n u s e s viding the u l t i m a t e p o w e r supply filtering. most of the harmonic energy away for use at
crystal c o n t r o l l e d test o s c i l l a t o r s . F i g 7 . 2 9 V H F experimenters are always in need of 7 M H z . The 7th harmonic of the square wave
i h o w s a general p u r p o s e s o u r c e that w a s a source to test Iheir equipment, and a crystal is extracted with a double-tuned circuit to
o r i g i n a l l y b u i l t as a s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r controlled oscillator will often serve this provide the needed source for the 6-m band.
calibration s o u r c e . T h e crystal c h o s e n lies need. Fig 7.30 shows a source using an inex- This source was built by K A 7 E X M .

Fig 7.30—Crystal controlled source providing output on the 7 and 50-MHz bands.

Measurement Equipment 7.17

 is attached to the receiver (AGC still off)
and the receiver is tuned to the generator
frequency. Attenuation is then added to
weaken the source. The source is momen-
tarily turned off and the noise level is noted
in the audio meter. The source is turned on
again and the attenuation is adjusted until
the meter response is 3 dB above the noise.
The strength of the source less the added
attenuation is then the M D S .
It's worthwhile to listen to the receiver
as a means for growing a "calibrated ear."
Although this signal is weak, it is clearly
audible above the noise, even if the band-
width is a kHz or more. As receiver band-
width drops, the MDS will b e c o m e smaller
but there is less difference between the
measured MDS and that perceivable by
ear. When running a relatively wide SSB
bandwidth, a signal at m e a s u r e d M D S
sounds rather loud. It is not surprising that
many weak signal VHFenthusiasts includ-
ing E M E aficionados will use the wider
bandwidths when Q R M is not an issue.

Fig 7.31—Crystal controlled oscillator tor receiver MDS measurements. The output
is set for about -100 dBm. A builder may wish to add a small resistor or an Crystal Oscillators for
inductor between the feedthrough capacitor and the 0.1 y.F capacitor. A few turns
on a ferrite bead should work well. L1 is chosen for resonance at the crystal Intercept Measurements
frequency—the one or two-turn link provides output. Having measured receiver MDS. we
now need "loud" generators thai can be
used to measure the strong signal perfor-
mance, the receiver input intercept, 11P3.
A Weak Signal Source output is set. a shield lid is soldered to the The measurement was described in detail
for MDS measurement box. If double sided board is used, be sure for an amplifier or mixer in Chapter 2 and
The source shown in Fig 7.31 is similar, that the inside and outside are attached to then applied to a receiver in Chapter 6. The
but has considerable attenuation included each other at the lid. basic source we use for receiver testing is
within the box. This unit is predominantly The unit is calibrated with a C W shown in Fig 7.32. The crystal oscillator is
used as a weak signal sourcc for receiver receiver and another signal generator. The carefully tailored to operate with current
minimum detectable signal (MDS) mea- crystal oscillator is tuned with the recei ver limiting, avoiding the Q degrading voltage
(AGO o f f ) and the output is measured with limiting. The following buffer has an input
surements. The oscillator is bui It at one end
an audio voltmeter. The signal generator impedance dominated by a single resistor,
of a narrow box fabricated from scrap PC
but then operates as a limiter, developing
board. Shields are then added with sections is then tuned to the same frequency and
an output substantially independent of
of attenuation between. The attenuation is the amplitude is adjusted until the same
drive level. That output is low pass filtered
then set to establish the desired output. output response is observed. The level is
and attenuated in a 6-dB pad and then
Levels a r o u n d - 1 l O t o - l O O d B m are good, noted in your notebook and is marked on
applied to a common base output ampli-
for they are easily attenuated further in a the outside of the MDS generator.
fier. picked for good reverse isolation.
step attenuator to drop to the M D S levels MDS can then be m e a s u r e d with the
often found with H F receivers. After the oscillator and a step attenuator. The source W e use two identical versions of the
source of Fig 7.32, usually separated by
about 20 kHz. The sources are always
checked ahead of each use, confirming
power and match between units. The out-
put level chosen is 0 d B m for each source
These are usually applied to 6 dB-pads and
then to a 6-dB hybrid combiner. The com-
Inside one of the
crystal controlled biner, described later, is a return Iom
RF sources. bridge used in a different way. The hybrid
output is attached to a 15 MHz low pass
filter and then to a step attenuator. This
setup, shown in Fig 7.33, provides signal*
of - 1 2 dBm per tone and lower. The role
of the hybrid is to add the two signal*
while preventing the output of one source
from reaching the other. If the output fro®
one oscillator reached the other, inter-

7.18 Chapter 7
modulation could occur, creating spurious
iignals at the same frequencies as pro-
i a c e d by the third order IMD thai is
Eiually measured with this system. low pass
filter
There are alternatives to the 6-dB Receiver
t
6 da step under test
fc>brid. A 3-dB Splitter-Combiner is some- hybrid atiersuatoi
ames used and can offer excellent perfor-
\ (age off)

mance. Some experimenters will even use

i, 50-12 power divider, which preserves
impedances but provides no isolation. A
/ -12 dBm/tone
Audio
Voltaeter

50-12 power divider consists of three 50-Q

resistors in a "A" configuration, or three Fig 7.33—Test setup for determining a receiver IIP3, or "input intercept." See
details in Chapters 2 and 6.
1S-Q resistors in a "Y." The 6-dB hybrid
it recommended.
Assume that the two generators have
siysiab to put their frequencies at 14.03 We tune to either of these IMD output is again 50 mV. We have increased
lad 14.05 MHz. Tuning to either of these responses to measure them, seeing a loud, the attenuation by 80 dB to depress the
tignals produces a large meter response. but still manageable response. Assume an main signals to the point where they pro-
These signals impinging on the receiver audio signal of 50 mV when tuned to one duce the same response as was seen from
from end will intermodulate, generating of the distortion frequencies and that this intermodulation. The intermodulation dis-
distortion products above and below the occurs with the step attenuator set at tortion ratio. IMDR, is then 80 dB. The
t « o desired signals, at 14.01 or 14.07 MHz. 30 dB. The signals are then - 4 2 dBm/tone input intercept is then given by
These products are created within the re- at the receiver antenna terminal. But how
ceiver, usually in the circuitry ahead of the strong is this response compared with the
main IF filter. With the two test signals input signals? We find an answer by tun-
/ \ / \ IMDR ( d B )
icparated by 20 kHz, the distortion signal ing the receiver to one of the main tones IIP, ( d B m ) = Pin (clBm) + —
»ill be 20 kHz above the upper desired sig- and increasing attenuation. When the net
21I and 20 kHz below the lower one. attenuation inserted is 110 dB, the audio Eq 7.2

Measurement Equipment 7.19

 For this example, P j n = - 4 2 d B m and a good idea to not have the h e a d p h o n e s on (Analyzers and their design are described
I M D R = 8 0 dB, so !1P3= - 2 d B m . during these e x p e r i m e n t s ! ) We now add later.) T h e test setup is given in Fig 7.34.
L e t ' s repeat the e x p e r i m e n t , but start a t t e n u a t i o n until the r e s p o n s e f r o m a F r e q u e n c y spacing is adjusted as needed
with less attenuation. Instead of 30 d B in strong tone is again 10 mV. This occurs for the c o m p o n e n t being investigated.
the beginning, stall with 2 4 - d B attenua- with a total attenuation of 127 dB. This is The test setup is more illuminating than
tion to apply signals that are 6 d B stronger. 91 dB lower than (he signals that p r o d u c e d the receiver evaluation, for it is a swept
The response at the distortion f r e q u e n c i e s the distortion responses. m e a s u r e m e n t s h o w i n g the main signals
is now m u c h larger, s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e This experiment has illustrated the real and the distortion products on a calibrated
than the 6 dB increase in the m a i n tones. m e a n i n g of receiver t w o - t o n e d y n a m i c screen, all at the same instant. A step that
A s s u m e that i t ' s about 4 0 0 mV in the au- range: D R is the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the should a l w a y s be d o n e is to apply the sig-
dio voltmeter. W e record this level and w e a k e s t signal we can hear with that nal f r o m the step attenuator directly to the
then tune the receiver to one of the main receiver and the strength of one of a pair of spectrum analyzer, prior to inserting the
signals and increase the attenuation. A f t e r signals that will produce intermodulation c o m p o n e n t . A n y distortion seen w o u l d
adding 6 8 - d B attenuation, for a net attenu- distortion at the same level as that mini- then be occurring in the analyzer or in the
ator selling of 92 dB, we observe 4 0 0 m V m u m . This is a severe test, but it is measur- g e n e r a t o r s . O n c e a d i s t o r t i o n - f r e e test
of audio. T h e applied p o w e r is - 3 6 d B m / able with carefully built test equipment. setup is c o n f i r m e d , the a m p l i f i e r is in-
tone and I M D R = 6 S dB. so E q 7.2 predicts serted. the a n a l y z e r input attenuation is
The high attenuation levels needed for
readjusted to keep the main signals on the
T1P3= - 2 d B m . DR m e a s u r e m e n t s , especially the direct
screen, and the data is recorded. T h e gain
This e x a m p l e illustrates the utility of the one. may be intimidating. Tt's hard to ob-
of the amplifier (or w h a t e v e r ) is now ob-
intercept c o n c e p t . If we know the input tain over 100 dB of attenuation, especially-
served, equal to the c h a n g e in s p e c t r u m
intercept f o r the receiver, we k n o w what ill casual h o m c b u i l t designs. F o r this rea-
a n a l y z e r sensitivity n e e d e d to k e e p the
the r e s p o n s e will be to any input signals. son, an indirect m e a s u r e m e n t is o f t e n
main signals in the s a m e position on the
Tf we allow the mathematics to get a little easier. T h a t is. m e a s u r e IIP3 with t w o
screen. W e k n o w the input levels, for we
m o r e c o m p l e x , we can even predict the moderately well shielded strong sources
measured t h e m b e f o r e inserting the ampli-
r e s p o n s e to input signals of u n e q u a l with levels that can be c o n f i r m e d with a
fier, and the I M D ratio can be observed
amplitude." power meter, a s p e c t r u m analyzer, or ter- directly on the screen, so the input inter-
L e t ' s say that this receiver had M D S of minated oscilloscope m e a s u r e m e n t . Per- cept, 1IP3. can be calculated from Eq 7.2.
- 1 3 9 dBm, a reasonable sensitivity for a form an i n d e p e n d e n t m e a s u r e m e n t of T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g output intercept, 0 1 P 3 ,
CW receiver with a b a n d w i d t h of perhaps M D S with a special generator you have is j u s t 11P3 plus the a m p l i f i e r gain.
5 0 0 Hz ( N F = 8 dB). T h e t w o - t o n e DR built for just that purpose. Then calculate
would then be DR f r o m Eq 7.3. It is, h o w e v e r , best to It is very i n f o r m a t i v e at this time to vary
w o r k with w e a k e r " s t r o n g " signals, for the strength of the input tones used to test
most receiver mixers will then be " w e l l the amplifier, achieved by a d j u s t i n g the
DR ( d B ) = 4 • ( u p , (dBm ) - MDS (dBm ) )
3 b e h a v e d . " as defined in C h a p t e r 6. step attenuator. The desired output signals
T h e p r o c e d u r e w e r e c o m m e n d elimi- should change on a d B - f o r - d B basis with
Eq 7.3
nates the M D S m e a s u r e m e n t , replacing it the inputs. H o w e v e r , the distortion prod-
with a noise f i g u r e d e t e r m i n a t i o n . T h i s ucts above and below the desired two sig-
or, 91.3 dB in this e x a m p l e . But what does will be discussed later. nals will m o v e on a 3 dB per one dB input
this m e a n ? change rate. It is not necessary to collect
all of the data to actually plot traditional
T h e m e a n i n g of two-tone D R is clari- Component Intercept intercept curves, such as were shown in
fied with a m o r e direct m e a s u r e m e n t , still
using the e x a m p l e receiver we have been
Measurements Chapter 2 of this book.
examining. First, we use our weak signal While the receiver builder may wish to Measurements normally performed
source with the step attenuator to m e a s u r e p e r f o r m ITP3 and M D S m e a s u r e m e n t to with a spectrum a n a l y z e r can also be done
M D S . A s s u m e that the receiver gains are obtain DR, the designer is equally inter- with a receiver. It will be necessary to put
set to produce an output of 10 m V with the ested in evaluation of c o m p o n e n t parts of an a t t e n u a t o r ahead of the r e c e i v e r to
w e a k signal source. W h e n we turn the a receiver or transmitter. T h e t w o t o n e control the levels r e a c h i n g it, always tak-
source o f f , the level d r o p s by 3 dB to source is again used, driving the c o m p o - ing care that I M D in the receiver is not
7 mV, Receiver A G C is still off and we nent, f o l l o w e d by a s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r . dominant. One then proceeds to add an am-
d o n ' t touch any of the gain controls.
W e now- replace the weak source with
(he two tone generator setup of Fig 7.33.
W e tune the receiver to one of the distor-
tion p r o d u c t f r e q u e n c i e s and a d j u s t the Spectrum Analyzer
attenuator until we get the s a m e r e s p o n s e
we saw with the M D S m e a s u r e m e n t , low p a s s
10 m V on the meter. W e tune the receiver filter
to one side and the other of the distortion I 6 dB
Component Under
- 6 dB Test (Amplifier,
product to be sure that the response drops hybrid
to the noise f l o o r of 7 mV. This h a p p e n s in
our e x a m p l e with the attenuator at 36 dB,
Mixer e t c )

oo o
o o
which places a strong signal o f - 4 8 d B m a!
the receiver input. W e record these levels
in our n o t e b o o k and then r e t u n e the
receiver to one of the strong tones. ( I t ' s Fig 7.34—Test setup for testing components.

7.20 Chapter 7
plifier, followed by further attenuation to
maintain signal levels at the receiver in- 10 b f t , FT-37-43
+15v HWV
put. If a receiver is to serve this function,

I1
a must have much better shielding and Pout=+10 dBm
decoupling than it would for normal use, 5 _|f »-W
for we don't want signals f r o m our gen-
erators to enter the receiver via any path
I n p u t Pad,
as needed. 1.5K
150 ?
>36 T
150 >
?
other than the antenna terminal. .1

It is even possible to test receiver com-

ponents (mixers, amplifiers, etc) that arc r ? f^VH--^
pan of a receiver while using that receiver
for the m e a s u r e m e n t s . Essentially one
Joes intercept measurements as described,
1< 470 f

± 1 1
22 <
S 10 <
<

followed by a repeat measurement with a

fixed attenuator added between stages. If
2N5109 plus Heat Sink
the IMDR does not change when the pad is All resistors 1/2 w a t t .
added, the distortion is occurring before
the pad location. Fig 7.35—Feedback amplifier used following each IMD generator to increase the
Some components may required larger power to +10 dBm per tone. Amplifier gain is 22 dB at 14 MHz, which is reduced to
signals for testing, a prime example being 16 dB with tlje.ftJitpuijjpd^JJsing a 6-dB input pad with the source of Fig 7.8
high level switching mode mixers. Such provides +10 dBm/tone output.
circuits may have IIP3 of +30 dBm or
more. To examine such circuits, we place
in amplifier after each generator. Fig 7.35
ihows some sample feedback amplifiers Fig 7.36—Extra
*hile the application is shown in Fig 7.36. low pas: amplifiers
Even greater p o w e r may be obtained filter increase the
power available
with another stage or by eliminating the 6 dB step
hybrid attenuator for component
•>utput pad. Eventually the point is reached testing. This
where I M D in other elements may come setup provides a
tato play. W 7 A A Z and the other members +4 dBm/tone pair of +4 dBm
of the "Triad" (see Chapter 6) reported tones.
seeing IMD in hybrid combiners. scratchl.vsd

7.7 BRIDGES AND IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT

We are always interested in measuring part, the null is not complete and an error are adjusted to produce the desired perfect
impedance, be it for antenna experiments appears at the detcctor port. null. The alternative places meaning on the
or to set up a termination for a filter. These There are two ways that the bridge cir- indication at the detector port. We will
measurements are difficult with homebuilt cuit can be used. The traditional examines examine both applications here.
equipment, but they are becoming less so the '"detector" port between x and v as a W e can form simple bridges with the
with the changing technology we enjoy. place to seek a null. The bridge elements circuit shown in Fig 7.37. (This one even
Traditional bridge circuits included built- works with dc.) When all three resistors
in diode detectors, a restriction that is no are 50 O (use 51 if building one), the input
longer necessary or even desired. will appear as 50 0 to the R F source when
Shown in Fig 7.37 is the circuit for a the unknown becomes 50 Q. The voltage
basic Wheatstone bridge. Assume that 1 V between points x and y is roughly the volt-
is applied to the R F i nput. If R1 and R2 are age reflection coefficient, which goes to
equal, point "x" will be at 0.5 V. Point "y" zero for a perfectly matchcd 50-12 un-
will also be at 0.5 V if the unknown known Z. Such a bridge can be used to
impedance is 50 Q resistive. A detector tune an antenna or transmatch. We will
between x and y will show no output and show some practical examples later.
a null is detected. If the unknown departs A useful variation is adjustable. In this
from 5 0 + j 0 in either the real or imaginary Fig 7.37—A basic bridge circuit. form. R1 and R2 are replaced by a 100-H

Measurement Equipment 7.21

pol with the arm serving as "x." Assume gion. Directivity is the change between the
the bridge is loaded with 25 LI as the un- open circuit response and that when the
known and the pot is tuned until a null is unknown-Z port is terminated in 50 LI.
produced. Analysis shows this to occur Performance was flat throughout the
when the pot arm is 1/3 of the way up from lower part of the HF spectrum. However,
the ground end. as the frequency moved toward 30 MHz
RF bridges with variable resistors have and higher, the 5 0 - 0 point on the scale
long been popular with the experimenter. moved toward the high R end. Further
The traditional instruments included a refinement is required.
built-in diode detector and meter as the A series-tuned LC circuit can be cas-
null indicator. They suffer a common
problem: the sensitivity suffers with low
I caded with the unknown port for the mea-
surement of reactive impedances, shown
RF drive owing to the threshold voltage Exterior view of RF Resistance bridge in Fig 7.39. The capacitor (or inductor) is
presented by most diodes. Measurements after calibration. then adjusted to deepen the dip. Repeated
that do not rely upon diode detection of a R1 adjustment may be necessary. A tradi-
low level RF signal are preferred. tional instrument would have suitable
Fig 7.38 shows an RF resistance bridge scales, but that is not necessary . Rather,
with an external detector. This circuit was after adjustment of a trimmer capacitor, it
designed to measure RF resistance while could be measured with an instrument like
using a sensitive power meter, spectrum the W7AA7, l.C tester or the similar
analyzer, or 50-11 terminated oscilloscope instrument from AADM. See Fig 7.24.
as the detector. An unknown resistive im- If the resistance bridge is used without
pedance is attached to the bridge and K1 is the auxiliary tuned circuit, complex termi-
adjusted for a minimum response. The nations will produce shallow dips. It's
bridge is normally driven with a low level common to look at the meter scale and er-
source of around 0 dBm. Less, power is roneously conclude that the impedance has
used when the termination will be an ac- a magnitude close to the value shown. This
tive circuit: more may be appropriate for is rarely a valid interpretation, further jus-
antenna measurements. When working tifying the reactance measuring options.
with antennas, it is useful to alternately Exterior view of return loss bridge. The bridge of Fig 7.38 was calibrated at 14
tune the signal frequency and pot R1 to get MHz with a handful of carbon resistors with
the deepest null. the values then marked on the panel. While
The instrument was calibrated at 14 MHz this is handy, it may not be necessary. Con-
with resistors from 10 to 1000 SI. Tl is sider the variation shown in Fig 7.40. This is
wound on a low permeability, low loss core. equivalent to the other bridge at RF where the
Primary inductance was about 50 jiH. al- capacitors are virtual short circuits. How-
lowing operation down to 2 MHz or less. ever, the design with capacitors can be mea-
Transformer T2 is a common mode choke sured with a digital voltmeter attached to the
with about 20 (all per winding that isolates "unknown" port. The dc measurement tells
Fig 7.39—Tuned circuits can be added
the Tl secondary from ground. This bridge to the bridge to extract complex the user the status of the pot. allowing the RF
had over 30 dB directivity over the HF re- Impedance information. resistance to be inferred.

HT Input
RF Input

Uxluosn
liqtedance chip

chip
clip
-rrvT^ x1
' InpedtmL C
II: J5t n o OB m i - ( l , it output 11 ml;.
T2: 2 faitilor t o r n EB-13-t01
( o ) Detector
Fig 7.38—RF bridge for HF measurements. R1 is ideally a
100-£2 linear pot, but all we had was 200 Q. The Clarostat
1/2-inch diameter conductive plastic parts should offer
reasonable performance, although we have not used them in
this application. Fig 7.40—Optional variation of the resistance bridge.

7.22 Chapter 7
 Interior view of return loss bridge.
This one is built with 49.9 £2, 0.1 W
1% resistors. RF impedance bridge with built in
meter. A reference must be attached
for measurements.

r=-*-ior of the RF impedance bridge.

i«-irnetry and short lead lengths are
est ntained during construction. Long
are okay with the dc parts of the
o-cuit.

""here is v i r t u e in the m o d i f i e d b r i d g e : t e r m i n a t i o n is a t t a c h e d a n d the n e w d e t e c - O n e c a n u s e a s h o r t circuit i n s t e a d of an

.-• a c a l i b r a t e d dial is n o t n e e d e d , it can tor level is r e c o r d e d , a g a i n in d B m . T h e o p e n f o r c a l i b r a t i o n . In p r i n c i p l e , t h e t w o
• -ilt with small t r i m m e r p o t s w i t h m u c h d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the t w o in d B is c a l l c d r e s p o n s e s will be i d e n t i c a l .
u-r R F c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a n e n c o u n t e r e d t h e r e t u r n loss. There are two f r e q u e n c y dependent
* ~ pots w i t h s h a f t s . T h i s will a l l o w t h e s e It is a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g to o b s e r v e v o l t a g e R L B c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that i n d i c a t e p e r f o r -
r . j i t i o n a l m e t h o d s to be e x t e n d e d to ( r a t h e r t h a n p o w e r ) at t h e d e t e c t o r p o r t . m a n c e . O n e is c a l l e d d i r e c t i v i t y ( D . d B ) ,
r ,-ier f r e q u e n c y . ( T h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s rc- A s s u m e w e o b s e r v e V 0 w h e n the b r i d g e is w h i c h is the i n d i c a t e d r e t u r n loss w h e n a
**- rs on o u r " t o d o " list at t h i s w r i t i n g . ) t e r m i n a t e d in an o p e n circuit a n d a s m a l l e r g o o d 5 0 - f l t e r m i n a t i o n is a t t a c h e d to the
I ig 7 . 4 1 s h o w s a r e t u r n l o s s b r i d g e V | w h e n l o a d e d . T h e r a t i o V ] / V 0 is t e r m e d u n k n o w n p o r t . T h e o t h e r is t h e d B d i f f e r -
.«.LB.) a c i r c u i t w i t h no a d j u s t a b l e the voltage reflection coefficient, often e n c e b e t w e e n an o p e n circuit and a short
? :ments. The signal coming f r o m the s i g n i f i e d w i t h an u p p e r c a s e G r e e k c i r c u i t ( O / S ) at the u n k n o w n port. T h e s e
. .--tor p o r t i n d i c a t e s t h e q u a l i t y of the G a m m a . T. R e t u r n Joss is r e l a t e d to F by p a r a m e t e r s d e f i n e the e x p e r i m e n t s w e d o
- r c J a n c c m a t c h . B r i d g e use b e g i n s with R L , = - 2 0 l o g ( D . A l s o , r is d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d when building a bridge.
. . a U b r a t l o n . w h i c h p l a c e s an o p e n c i r c u i t to VSWR by VSWR=(l+|r|)/(l-|r|). T a b l e 7.1 shows the results obtained with
:ne u n k n o w n port. T h e d e t e c t o r level is Hcnce. V S W R = 2 corresponds to Return an expert menial RI -B. This represents the best
. . r e f u l l y n o t e d in d B m . T h e n the u n k n o w n Loss = 9.54 dB and r=0.333. transformerfat HF) w e f o u n d after examin-

Input

Fig 7.41—A return loss bridge is also

known as a 6-dB hybrid. The detector Fig 7.42—A RLB also finds use in combining two signal generators. The power
impedance should be 50 £2 for accurate delivered to the load is 1/4 of that available from each generator when the bridge is
calibration. balanced.

Measurement Equipment 7.23

Fig 7.43—A bridge suitable for use through UHF. The Fig 7.44—7 MHz transmatch and resistive bridge for portable
symmetry of the schematic should be followed when building operation. Variable capacitors are screwdriver adjusted, mica
the Instrument. Drive 1s 100 mW to 1 W. The "known" compression types. All resistors are 1/2 W. S1 Is a DPDT
termination usually used is a 50 or 75-C1 coaxial terminator. slide or toggle switch. This design is suitable for transmitters
up to about 3 W If the tuning is done quickly.

To tl ansT.lt: ft [Operas;
it m » in
• tfc-
; tatttu
1M
I
JJ1® f ,
SC tram
BP Bridge

R: 91 Dim, 5% i n
aon-iadoctiw
Corsiao FM0.
51: 7 wafsr rotary switch
Sii rotary wafer switch
L; picked by designer/builder
CI,2; picked by dengasrAiwilder

Fig 7.45—Higher power version of a transmatch with a

resistive bridge. This unit is rated for 40 W or slightly more
for short periods. The topology shown presents a 50-Q load
to the transmitter while attenuating the signal put on the air
by 12 dB. If the resistors specified for R cannot be purchased, Fig 7.46—Audio meter replacement scheme for transmatch
parallel combinations of 2-W resistors can be used. tuning. See text.

ing several. This bridge used 5 1 - 0 . '/m-W bridge are illustrated in Fig 7.42. Generator This circuit functions into the UHF area,
resistors and a transformer consisting of 10 V | causes voltages x and y to be equal and in realized by small lead length and careful
bifilar turns of #28 on a FB73-2401. The high phase if the bridge is balanced. Hence, none symmetry. A photo shows the inside of the
permeability core is preferred, providing an of this power ends up in R 2 , the impedance of circuit. This bridge works well at 144 and
inductance of 175 |lH for each winding. the other source. But V 2 also sees a balanced 432 MHz. as well as the HF spectrum.
A different transformer improved V H P bridge. The power delivered by V 2 forces the A simple resistance bridge with
performance at the cost of H F directivity. node with R, to be at signal ground, so none included detector is often used for the
We saw 30-dB directivity at 144 M H z of the V 2 power ends up in R,. These charac- adjustment of low power antenna tuners.
when the transformer used 5 of the 6 holes teristics provide the isolation that we need This is often preferred over an in-line
in a multi-hole bead, a FB43-5111. This when combining signals from two generators directional power meter, for the transmitter
configuration produces an inductance of for 1MD testing. is always properly terminated during tun-
8.4 n H per winding. A conventional resistance bridge circuit ing. A circuit used with portable transceiv-
The hybrid qualities of the return loss with built-in detector is shown in Fig 7.43. ers is shown in Fig 7.44 where the compo-

7.24 Chapter 7
 - • * are appropriate for the 40-meter band, balance. Performance is poor, especially quency modulated by the bridge signal
•r -lidc or toggle switch is put into the for low power transmitters, tor visual out- with the pitch becoming higher with
position to adjust the circuit for best put is zero unti I about 1.6 V biases the LED. greater mismatch. The circuit is used by-
. i It i> then returned to the "operate" pu- But meters are often heavy, difficult to find, sending a siring of dits into the transrnatch.
r: A higher power home station version and expensive. Some refined circuits use The pitch becomes identical for key up and
•.•»n in Fig7.45. The low power variant fertile transformers for greater sensitivity. key down when the match is perfect. The
•£• a germanium diode while a silicon An alternative scheme is shown in primary purpose of Q1. the JFET input, is
• '.Ring diode is used at higher power, Fig 7.46 where ail audio oscillator replaces to generate a dc offset from ground, so
•vine builders have used a light emitting the visual output. The oscillator, a simple JFET type is extremely non-critical. An
in replacc the meter indicating bridge multi-vibrator using 0 2 and Q3. is fre- op-amp w>ould also serve this function.

7.8 SPECTRUM ANALYSIS

What is a Spectrum
Analyzer? of interesl and the tuning control is at-
tached to a motor through a suitable pulley.
it sweeps from left to right.
The on-screen vertical position is also
One of the most useful instruments the The motor also drives a potentiometer thai calibrated in the laboratory spcctrum ana-
a d i o experimenter could have is the spcc- develops a voltage proportional to the fre- lyzer. While we obtained a voltage from
Iram analyzer. Commercial versions are quency. The voltage from Ihe pot indicat- the receiver to apply to the "scope vertical
«ff»bislicated and expensive, bul excellent ing frequency is routed to the horizontal axis, we calibrate with regard to the power
examples arc beginning to appear on the axis of an oscilloscope while the signal related to the signal that developed that
wsrjtlus market. And there are now many from the receiver's AGC, indicating signal voltage. The top of the screen is called the
mailable components that allow the enter- amplitude, is applied to the 'scope vertical. reference level, leaving the bottom with
j r i . m g experimenter to build his or her The result is our spcctrum analyzer. no special significance. When we see a
«"•.! spectrum analyzer. The usual spectrum analyzer is cali- signal on screen thai just reaches the refer-
The first question we must address is brated in frequency, so we know the fre- ence level, we know that it has a strength
S*r most fundamental: What is a spectrum quency representing the scrccn center. We equal lo that level. The usual spectrum
* u l \ z c r . ' In the general mathematical also know the frequency span, the number analyzer displays signals logarithmically,
tense, the signals we encounter are gener- of kHz or MHz associated with the dot as so the calibration will be in terms of a num-
illy collections of sine waves of the form:

A • sin(2 • It • f • t)

...where A is an amplitude, f is frequency Oscilloscope

as Hz and t is time in seconds. We can regard in X-Y Mode
«his function as either one of time, I. or of
frequency, f. In the most general sense, any
function of time has a related spectrum or
frequency domain representation. The two
domains or viewpoints arc related through a
Tuihematical operation called the Fourier
Transform.'- 1 3 Also see Chapter 10 of this
iwlumc.
Setting formalities aside, we look at
electronic signals in the time domain with
t - oscilloscope or examine them against
•-•quency with a radio frequency spectrum
i-jlyzer. We arc already familiar with ra-
: • frequency spectra of several sorts, al-
- tugh they may not have been presented
-- »uch. A rudimentary spectrum analyzer,
- ->cii un-calibrated, is shown in Fig 7.47.
have extracted our communications
receiver from normal service and opened it
to attach wires to the S-meter, a panel meter Fig 7.47—A rudimentary spectrum analyzer formed by applying motor drive to
receiver tuning and to a pot that generates a voltage that Indicates the tuned
indicating the strength of received signals. frequency. This voltage controls the X axis of an oscilloscope. The vertical Y
This voltage is usually derived from the axis Is derived from the receiver S-meter circuitry. (Thanks to Bob Bales from
receiver AGC. The receiver is set to a band Tektronix, Beaverton, OR who suggested this explanation.)

Measurement Equipment 7.25

 put. We see no output until the local signal
generator is tuned to 140 MHz when the
input signal is convened to the 110-MHz
IF. Changes in the input amplitude can
easily be observed. We could use this
instrument to tune a 30-MHz filter or
amplifier. Tuning the local generator to
170 MHz allows 60 MHz to be received,
allowing us to measure the second har-
monic of the input signal. The 90-MHz
third harmonic could be measured with the
LO set to 200 MHz except that the 70-MHz
input low pass filter would attenuate this
response. (We could eliminate the input
low pass filler from this instrument to pro-
duce aii instrument that would allow the
entire HF and VHF spectrum to be seen,
Fig 7.48—Measurement receiver allowing rudimentary spectrum analysis. Although although results would now be obscured
this instrument is presented primarily to illustrate concepts, this unit could be built by images.)
and would be useful. The amplifier could be a MAR-3 driving a MAV-11 (both from
Mini-Circuits) with a 6-dB pad. The mixer might be a TUF-1 or similar part. We now attach an antenna to the
receiver and see considerable energy when
tuned to the AM broadcast baad around
1 MHz. However, we can't isolate one
ber of dB per vertical division, for the deci- to +30 dBm, or one watt. A "proper" spec- signal from the other because the 110 MHz
bel is also a log function. If we have our trum analyzer uses a front end that is strong bandpass filter is 2 MHz wide. The entire
spectrum analyzer set up for 10 dB per enough to produce no internally generated BC band fills the filter at once. This defi-
major division, have a reference level of third order IMD when all input signals are ciency is altered with a 110 MHz filter with
- 3 0 dBm. and see a signal peak two divi- kept below the reference level, or "on a narrower bandwidth. While crystal
sions below the top, we conclude that the screen." filters are possible at VHF, the more prac-
signal power is - 5 0 dBm. tical solution converts the signal to a sec-
ond, lower IF.
Spectrum analyzers come in many-
forms to cover many different frequency
Analyzers the A second problem occurs when we tune
ranges. One that we will discuss in more Experimenter can Build the analysis receiver to look at a low fre-
detail tunes from 0 to 70 MHz Instruments The equipment described above is not quency: A spurious response is observed
continuously sweeping and tuning from 0 the ultimate, but merely the norm, repre- even with no applied input signal. This
to 2 or 3 GHz are common. Band sw itch- senting what has been common within occurs because the LO is at 110 MHz, the
ing units often tune from 0 to 21 GHz or industry for the past 20 years or more. intermediate frequency. This is a common
even more. Equipment offering this performance is characteristic of most swept front-end
The property of selectivity in a receiver still rare in the basement lab of the typical spcctrum analyzers. Improved balance in
becomes resolution in a spcctrum ana- experimenter. It would be a monumental the input mixer increases mixer LO to
lyzer. Resolution is the ability of an ana- task to duplicate a high performance labo- IF isolation to reduce the "zero spur"
lyzer to resolve two signals that are close ratory instrument. But that is not our goal. response.
to each other in frequency. This is speci- Rather, all that we ask is to do some of the Another subtlety becomcs apparent
fied by the analyzer resolution bandwidth, measurements, as needed for our experi- when we actually build the analysis
RBW. usually equal to the 6-dB width of ments, with instruments that are simpler, receiver of the figure: The balanced mixer
the filter in use. It is common for high but manageable. The concepts and some must be reversed from the normal applica-
performance spectrum analyzers to have of the methods of the high end instruments tion. Most balanced diode ring mixers,
resolution bandwidth selectable from will be applied to realize these goals. such as the TUF-I or SBL-1, have trans-
3 MHz down to 10 Hz. The extremely nar- Consider a very simple spectrum analy- former coupled "LO" and "RF" ports with
row bandwidth is useful for such tasks as sis receiver, shown in Fig 7.48. This is a dc coupled " I F ' port. If low input fre-
examining 60 Hz sidebands on carriers or based upon a power meter that was quencies are to be examined, the dc
for digging way into the noise. described earlier in the chapter in Fig 7.13. coupled port must be used as the RF input.
The typical analyzer is not a very1 sensi- The meter measured signals from approxi- The instrument of Fig 7.48 is not a spec-
tive instrument when compared with our mately - 8 0 to +10 dBm. We precede this trum analyzer, for it lacks a graphic dis-
receivers. A routine communications meter with a 2 MHz wide bandpass fil ter at play. This is usually obtained by sweeping
receiver might have a noise figure of I 10 MHz center frequency.' 4 A remote the frequency with time in unison with a
10 dB to yield MDS of - 1 3 7 dBm in a signal generator is the local oscillator sig- sweep of the display. This begins by re-
500 Hz bandwidth. A typical NF might be nal for a diode ring mixer followed by an placing the signal generator 1.0 with a
25 dB for an analyzer, resulting in MDS of amplifier and pad. The amplifier termi- voltage controlled oscillator. The VCO is
- 1 1 9 dBm in a 1 kHz RBW. The analyzers nates the mixer and adds gain, allowing then swept with suitable circuitry. VCO
are not lacking in dynamic range though. smaller signals to be seen. A low pass fil- design was discussed in Chapter 4.
A typical analyzer will have a basic refer- ler with a 70-MHz cutoff precedes the in- A basic swept voltage generator is
ence level of - 3 0 dBm. but will include strument. eliminating images. shown in Fig 7.49, beginning with the
an input attenuator with a 60-dB range, Let's assume that we inject a 30-MHz integrator circuit of part A. Starting with
allowing the reference level to be extended signal from another generator into the in- the capacitor discharged, apply a negative

7.26 Chapter 7
 voltage to V i n . This is c o u p l e d to the
inverting input, which causes U l ' s output
to begin increasing. But this is c o u p l c d
back lo the i n v e r t i n g input through the
capacitor. The equilibrium wc require of a
closed f e e d b a c k loop in an o p - a m p is real-
ized when the UI output voltage r a m p s lin-
early upward. T h e current in the capacitor
then equals that in the resistor, V i n /R. H a d
we applied a positive input we would gen-
erate a negative going ramp.
Fig 7.49—Part A In part B of the figure, we drive the
shows an integrator
input of the next stage with the ramp.
circuit. This drives
a level detector Assume U1 is ramping upward and that the
with hysteresis, U2 output of U2 is negative against the
in part B. Feedback - 1 5 V power supply. The non-inverting
then creates a input of U2 reaches 0 when U l ' s output is
sawtooth generator. +7.5 V. a consequence of the voltage divider
See text. action. At this instant, the output of U2
changes state, now "slamming" against the
+15 V power supply. If the U 2 output be-
comes the driving source for the integrator
input with the dotted connection, we obtain
the sawtooth waveform shown for V I .
A practical s w e e p circuit g r o w s slightly
from that described. D i o d e s provide dif-
f e r e n t slopes for the positive and negative
going portions, for we use the left-io-right
as the s w e e p and the other as a retrace.
P o t e n t i o m e t e r s or switched resistors and/
or capacitors are added to change s w e e p

Fig 7.50—Block diagram of a spectrum analyzer the experimenter can build. A practical realization of this design is on the
book CD. The 60-dB step attenuator can be an external accessory or built into the instrument.

Measurement Equipment 7.27

 rates. V I is ready to drive the X-axis of an
oscilloscope while additional op-amps
buffer the ramp and offset it as needed to
l i ^ I * 1 .u drive the V C O .
An analyzer begins to emerge, shown in
50
OlSBS J_ the block diagram of F i g 7 . 5 0 . A commer-
cially available varactor tuned V C O
1.8-10
serves the L O function, with buffering to
T1.T2: 39t *30 on Fair R i t e 5961000301 or Amnion FT-50-61,
reach a level o f + 1 7 dBm. Dual conversion
l i n k = 3t M24 over other winding.
is employed to obtain a resolution band-
Y: ECS 4-pole f i l t e r in two cans, Mouser 520-107-1513
width narrower than afforded by the VHF
C: 1.8-10 pF, Mouser 242-1810 or s i m i l a r .
filter. High level mixers are used for re-
duced IMD.

Fig 7.S1—4th order monolithic crystal filter. This is a practical design that that has been
widely duplicated.15 Details are presented
in the articles, which appear on the C D that
accompanies this book. The rest of our dis-
cussion of spectrum analyzers is confined to
general comments and thoughts for refine-
ments of the QST design.
i l l fL*JI 1 T w o resolution bandwidths are avail-
able in the QST spectrum analyzer. One
; T« A with a bandwidth of 300 kHz uses an L C
filter while the other uses a commercial 30
kHz bandwidth crystal filter. Our 1 -st and
2nd IFs were 110.0 and 10.0 M H z , but
110.7 and 10.7 allow commercial crystal
Fig 7.52—8th order crystal filter using two of the filters from Fig 7.51. Each filter
filter elements at 10.7 M H z to be used.
block consists of a capacitor-filter element-capacitor-filter element-capacitor
combination. These filters were the efforts of Jack Glandon, W B 4 R N O , and Fred These are ECS types X703ND and were
Holler, W 2 E K B . purchased from Mouser or DigiKey.

To Regulators

LI: 1.IS o» T5t-6, 32

Q -218.
5.6 '•» ^
pT »-«> PF 4 3
WV |f—• f
"177
f—1{-
(§)—?—IF
AD603AQ AD8307AN «
I01
T T
" 2 * f CA3140
^ — ' V1.'—-IS? 1
— J «•*
1

Front
Taafl
IF Gaia

78L
SiCFT
lot FT 05

rr ' j
f x
4%
_L

Fig 7 . S 3 — T h i s IF and Log A m p section using more accurate integrated circuits and replaces all circuitry of Fig 5 of the
original article (see the book CD.) IF gain is variable from 10 to 50 dB. Resistors around the LM317L can be adjusted to set
the 10 V level.

7.28 Chapter 7
 which then is routed to the added 2 dB per
division board (dcscribcd below) and then
to the oscilloscope Y axis.
The analyzer contains a video filter,
which consists of nothing more than a ca-
pacitor that is switched to parallel the
video line to the oscilloscope Y-axis. This
component, with the driving output resis-
tance. serves to smooth the noise that
otherwise crcatcs a fuzzy line. The origi-
nal video filter used a SPST toggle switch
and a 0.1 |iF capacitor. This has been re-
placed with a SPDT/Center-off toggle
switch. Two capacitors of 0.1 and 3.3 jjF
are available, shown in Fig 7.54. The
heavily filtered response is especially use-
ful for lioisc measurements. Either filler
may be useful in creating a trace that is
more easily read on screen.
Fig 7.54—Circuit adding 2 dB per division to the spectrum analyzer. The video The spectrum analyzer user soon no-
W e r circuit is also included. tices that the sweep rate must be changed
with changes in filtering. This is usually a
consequence of sweeping. The signal
coming out of a filter can respond only as
fast as the bandwidth of the filter allows.
If, for example, our analyzer had a band-
width of 1 MHz, we would expect to see
10 dB 2 dB
output changes at the log amp commensu-
T rate with I fiS. Any sweep rate available in
the QS7* analyzer would be slow enough to
keep up with such a bandwidth. But
switching a 30-kHz filter into Ihe system
will cause the response shape to distort,
never reaching the peak response seen
with a slow sweep. Narrow video filtering
does the same thing. Modern analyzers
will automatically adjust sweep rates to
Fig 7.55—A 10 dB/div. signal at the left is adjusted to fill much of the screen. match the selected resolution and video
Switching to 2 dB/div. produces the display at the right. Adjusting the offset bandwidths.
controls R1 and R2 allows moving the response anywhere on the CRT screen.
Our spectrum analyzer is configured to
produce 10 dB of change for every major
division on the CRT screen, assuming an S
Fig 7.51 shows the schematic for a 4 pole a picture of the filter shape over the com- division vertical range. This is in line with
filter using two packages. (One "product" plete dynamic range ol'the analyzer, so (he many traditional instruments. There are
from Ihe catalogs includes two filter pack- filter should have a clean, spur-free many situations when greater amplitude
ages.) The termination for this filter is response over this range. resolution is needed. One might be, for
3 k£2 at each end, realized with ferrite The £>ATanalyzer used the received sig- example, a measurement of resonator Q
transformers. Owing to filter loss consid- nal strength indicator (RSSI) function where one needs to accurately see a 3 dB
erations. a Type 61 core is preferred over from an early Motorola 1C for the log change. This measurement is facilitated
the higher permeability cores. amplifier. The parts were inexpensive and with the circuit of Fig 7.54. A front panel
Although the performance was impres- available at the time of publication. The switch is added that allows the user to
sive. the stopband attenuation for the AD8307 from Analog Devices is now toggle between 10 and 2 dB per division.
4-pole filter was not adequate. Two stages commonly available and offers signifi- The first op-amp of Fig 7.54 is set for an
of the circuitry of Fig 7.51 are cascaded to cantly better performance. The AD8307 inverting voltage gain of 2 while the second
form an 8th order filter, shown in Fig 7.52. has a wider dynamic range, improved ac- has an inverting gain of 2.5 for a net of 5. The
This filter has a stopband attenuation in curacy, better temperature stability, and is circuit can be offset by a large amount, which
excess of 90 dB, allowing a wide range of the recommended part. However, it is not can be dialed in with R1 and R2. Any signal
measurements. The filters arc aligned for a a pin-for-pin replacement, and it uses a that appears on the screen in the 10 dB/div
compromise of rounded peak shape, low different input power window, so the de- mode can be offset to appear anywhere on
insertion loss, and stopband attenuation. signer/builder will have to do some circuit the screen with the 2 dB per division mode,
Alignment can be done with the working development. The original system used illustrated in Fig 7.55.
analyzer and any convenient input signal. discrete parts for the IF amplifier. An up- A crystal oscillator presented earlier
IF filters for spectrum analyzer use arc dated version that includes an AD603 as (Fig 7.29) is useful as a calibrator for the
more critical than those used in a receiver. the IF amplifier, is shown in Fig 7.53. This analyzer. It could be built in with a front
The analyzer operation essentially paints circuit drives R2, the "log amp c a P pot, panel BNC connector, or as a battery pow-

Measurement Equipment 7.29

ered stand alone unit. The calibrator ampli- mum bandwidth of 30 kHz and a noise fig- short leads.
tude is adjusted with circuit component ure around 20 dB. so the minimum In other cases it is handy to attach a
changes lo deliver a level of-20dBm while discernable signal is around -109 dBm. BNC chassis connector with ground lug
using a calibrated source as a "standard." Yet we routinely use (his instrument with to a short length of small coaxial cable
The calibrator or a signal generator can 100 W transmitters. That power is +50 (RG-174 or similar) with the other end of
be used lo calibrate the instrument. A sig- dBm. 159 dB above the analyzer MDS, the cablc soldered into the circuitry. The
nal of - 2 0 dBm is applied to the analyzer This is the attenuation that must be pro- probing end should have a maximum
input, which is usually run with at least 10 vided in the overall measurement setup to ground length of perhaps one half to one
dB of input attenuation. The IF gain is set be able to do good measurements. Part of inch with a similar length for the center
to generate a reference level response. The this results from shielding and part comes conductor for HF and low VHF applica-
attenuator is then switched in 10 dB steps from testing the transmitter with a non- tions. The end of the center insulation is
to move the response down the screen. If radiating termination. removed and soldered to a circuit board. It
the signal does nol line up on the major The popular boxes offered by is vital to solder the cable ground to a cir-
screen markers the log amp gain is Hammond, available in many catalogs, cuit board ground close to the place where
changed and the process is repeated until afford excellent shielding. These cast alu- the measured signal currents flow. For
reasonable log accuracy is realized. Ana- minum boxes have tight fitting bolt on lids example, if the output of a feedback am-
lyzers using the AD8307 log amp are so and arc easily drilled. A box is used for plifier was to be examined, you might
accurate that the oscilloscope's vertical each major block in the RF chain, so one '"lift" a blocking capacitor from the output
position control functions much like the box contains the first mixer, post mixer signal line. That capacitor can then be tack
IF gain control. There is no significance amplifier, the VCO. and its buffer ampli- soldered to the cable centcr conductor. The
to the "screen bottom" setting in the 'scope fier. The input low pass resides in a sepa- ideal place for the cable ground is the
in this application. rate box with the 110 MHz first IF filter in board ground foil directly under the ca-
another. The only "open" board in the pacitor position. Removal of solder mask-
The AD8307 log amp accuracy is as
analyzer contains the time base. Signals ing may be required in some cases. Alter-
good as or better than that of log amps in
move into and out of the box on coaxial natively, the ground connection for the
many spectrum analyzers found on the
cablc while de bias and gain control lines bypass capacitor related to the feedback
surplus market, allowing the builder/de-
are attached to feedthrough capacitors. amplifier output could be used.
signer to realize outstanding performance
with modest cost. Consumer communica- The VCO tunc line is on coax. Wires ex- It is rarely valid to merely attach a cable
tions ICs with built-in RSS1 functions do tending through rubber grommets in box ground at the edge of a board at. for ex-
not fare as well. But moderately accurate walls are not suitable and should never be ample. a mounting hole. This procedure
measurements arc still possible by careful considered for RF application. works well enough for high impedance
application of the step attenuator. Use what is available for coaxial con- probes from an oscilloscope while per-
Consider a spurious response evalua- nectors. SMA or SMB are excellent, but forming in-sim measurements. The feed-
tion of a transmitter as a typical example expensive and not generally required for back amplifier, in that case, still ha.s the
of a measurement that asks for a dB ratio HF and VHF. BNC cables have become output currents flowing to a following
between two power levels. The transmit- more affordable with the popularity of stage. That termination was broken for our
ter is applied to the analyzer, taking care to computer networks. A crimping tool is substitution measurement. Examine the
beep all signals on screen. An extra attenu- needed to take advantage of these parts. complete loop starting and ending with the
ator or power tap may be needed to safe- Inexpensive phono plugs and sockets place where the centcr conductor and coax
guard the analyzer from the high outputs (RCA) are suitable if carefully applied. cable braid split. That loop should gener-
available from a transmitter. The display ally be small. If you arc trying to evaluate
level of the spur is carefully noted, per- the presence of spurious signals, you
haps by using the 2 dB/div mode for im- Application Hints should not allow the loop to contain extra
proved accuracy. The analyzer is tuned to The spectrum analyzer is not merely an stages that might be carrying some of the
the carrier signal and attenuation is added evaluation tool to test the rigs that are fin- contaminating signal.
until the on-screen response equals that ished. although many folks treat it as such. Some applications are presented in the
observed for the spur. This procedure is Rather, the SA is used to measure things paper on the CD that accompanies this
enhanced if I dB steps are available in the throughout the experimental experience. book. 16 The applications related to power
step attenuator. The spur level in dB with First and foremost, it is a sensitive meter meters, again on the CD, are also gener-
respect to the carrier (dBc) is then the used to examine signal levels, even when ally useful with spectrum analyzers. 17
amount of attenuation added. This mea- they arc too weak to be seen with an oscil- Spectrum analyzer measurement of inter-
surement is as accurate as the step attenu- loscope. The sensitivity is the result of nar- modulation distortion was discussed ear-
ator and has little lo do with the analyzer row bandwidth. Utility is maintained as a lier in this chapter in the section on signal
characteristics. Harmonic distortion is a result of sweeping, eliminating the need to sources.
special case discussed later. retune for various signal components. A common problem encountered when
The spectrum analyzer is almost always breadboarding a new circuit is a spurious
a tool for substitution measurements. As oscillation. More often than not. this will
Shielding such, it is usually necessary to break a occur at very high frequencies, often
One of the first questions ask when a 50-Q signal path and attach the spec- approaching the F T of the offending tran-
designer embarks on the construction of a trum analyzer. This is done in a bread- sistor. A spectrum analyzer tuning only to
spectrum analyzer is "how much shield- board by bolting a BNC connector to a 70 MHz will never see this directly, but
ing is needed." While difficult to quanti- ground lug and then soldering that lug to the result is often still apparent on screen.
tatively answer, a little thought shows that the ground foil near the circuit under test. This appears as a low level signal that
shielding must be very good. The QST The connector can be moved later, so it moves in frequency as a hand or tool is
analyzer we have discussed has a mini- can be placed close enough to maintain placed close to the circuit. This is the rc-

7.30 Chapter 7
 connector. T h i s is a barrel or bulkhead
connector in B N C cables or the equivalent
in other cable types. It is important lo use
the same cables for the calibration as arc
used with the amplifier. The response is
noted with the through connector. The
amplifier is then inserted in its original
position and the new response is noted. 2
dB per division is used for both measure-
m e n t . The gain is then the difference be-
tween the two levels.
Newer commercial equipment is usually
fairly accurate in the l o r 2 d B per division
ranges, so log errors are not major. How-
ever, when a homebrew analyzer based
upon an IC RSS1 function is used, the
measurement should be done with a step
attenuator rather than with numbers from
the screen. This is a wise procedure with
older commercial analyzers or with any
measurements performed near the bottom
of the log amplifier ranges, or with any
measurements where noise levels are
being compared.
Commercial spectrum analyzers feature
Hg 7.56—Return loss (VSWR) is easily measured during bench testing with a
highly refined frequency readouts. A cur-
simple bridge.
sor function can be activated thai marks a
trace on screen. The exact frequency is
then displayed. Some instruments can be
Fig 7.57—Low pass extremely accurate in this mode. The pro-
Tunable filter and tunable cedure is much more casual with the (JST
15 MHz ripple-cutoff. .05 dB Trap trap are used to and other simple homebrew instruments.
Chebyshev LPF evaluate harmonic When we see a signal on screen with an
distortion in the unknown frequency, we carefully note the
730 nE front end of an
horizontal position, disconnect the input
TV analyzer. These
circuits were used cable and attach a signal sourcc adjusted
Toroid to evaluate for the same response, and read the fre-
>14 " analyzer quency f r o m a counter attached to the
performance for source.
J-
B-140 pF measurement of
14-MHz harmonics The analyzer can be modified to incor-
from a transmitter. porate a frequency counter. The frequency
sweep would be stopped by opening the
line from the center arm of the sweep rale
pot. 1 8 There would still be horizontal mo-
suit of mixing between the spurious oscil- measurements. tion on screen, but the amplitude would be
lation and harmonics of signals thai excite Generally, the best procedure is to place fixed at thai corresponding to screen cen-
the circuit. no trust in the equipment that has not been ter. This is called a "zero span" mode. The
Il is often useful lo investigate the qual- earned. This applies especially to the VCO could then be counted. Subtracting
ity of impedance mulch, even with small homebrew spectrum analysis equipment the first IF f r o m this value gives a "center
signal amplifiers.. A return loss bridge (dis- described in this book, but is also impor- frequency."
cussed earlier in this chapter) is driven by tant for the best laboratory instrumenta-
a signal source and applied to a circuit tion available.
under test. The generator power is turned Assume that we plan lo measure the gain
Harmonic distortion
down to a level that will not overdrive the of an amplifier, and that we wish to get measurements
amplifier under test. The return loss, which the most accurate number possible. The am- Although common, ihis seemingly-
is directly related to VSWR. is then mea- plifier is set up with the appropriate power simple chore can be complicated by har-
sured as shown in Fig 7.56. supply, a signal generator, and the spectrum monics created within the spectrum ana-
analyzer or power meter. The set up is turned lyzer. Measurements are meaningful only
on and generally checked. The calibrations when wc have confirmed the analyzer per-
Calibration During that have already been done for the analyzer formance.
Measurements arc enough to get things started. The evaluation can be done with several
A calibrator circuit was described ear- Once the system is working as expected, experiments. The first applies a signal to
lier. a convenient means for checking ana- wc now do a test set-up calibration. The the analyzer from a generator and looks at
lyzer amplitude and frequency calibration. amplifier is disconnected from the two the harmonic levels. The attenuation in ihe
But there is more to calibration for RF coaxial cables and replaced with a through analyzer front end is changed. If both the

Measurement Equipment 7.31

A close up photo of a 4th order titter built by WB4RNO. Clean-up gear to reduce the harmonic content of a signal
Any small trimmer capacitor with a suitably low minimum source. This is used when evaluating a transmitter or other
capacitance can be used. source for harmonic distortion.

/ v -

l/
Fig 7.58—High-pass filter used for
harmonic measurement. See text.
Fig 7.59—Front end for a triple conversion spectrum analyzer tuning to the low
UHF spectrum. This analyzer has yet to be built, but is planned.
fundamental and the indicated harmonic
change in unison, the distortion is prob-
ably real and not an analyzer spur.
A sccond experiment places a low pass for distortion. A measurement is per- ters are available. A V H F 2nd L O will be
filter in the line f r o m the generator to the formed without the trap to establish the needed, which could be free running or be
analyzer. This will improve the generator fundamental power. The trap and pad are multiplied up from a lower frequency
performance, allowing the first experiment then inserted and the analyzer sensitivity crystal oscillator.
to be repeated with greater sensitivity. is increased by the pad loss. The harmonic A triple conversion version of the ana-
Again, identical tracking of fundamental power is read to calculate a dBc value. If lyzer is shown in the block diagram of
and distortion tend to vindicate the ana- necessary, the trap can be cascaded with Fig 7.59. This version tunes to 400 MHz
lyzer. now al a level commensurate with the high pass for further attenuation of the with a first IF al 500 M H z . The second IF
the new harmonic attenuation level. fundamental. is then 110 MHz using the circuitry from
Traps can be used for further analysis. A the original design. This upgrade could be
tunable trap is shown in Fig 7.57. The trap built as a supplement to the QST analyzer
is placed in the line between generator and Expanding Performance without disturbing (he functionality of the
analyzer and is tuned to attenuate the fun- The QST spectrum analyzer tuned over original. T h i s U H F extension uses only
damental signal. If the trap is sharp, it can a restricted range of 0 to 70 MHz with only- +7 dBm mixers, so the new design will not
dramatically attenuate the fundamental two available resolution bandwidth posi- be as strong as the first with regard to dis-
with little impact on the harmonics. A 20 tions. The V H F experimenter will want tortion measurements. The 2nd L O could
dB or greater attenuation of the fundamen- higher frequency performance. be homebrew or might use a second Mini-
tal without altering the harmonic guaran- Expanding the tuning range to higher Circuits part.
tees the fidelity of the analyzer. frequency is easily realized, beginning The present analyzer can be supple-
An analyzer can still be useful for analy- with a review of the latest catalogs mented with a block converter in much the
sis even when it is generating harmonics from Mini-Circuits and other vendors. A same way that we add converters ahead of
of its ow n. All that is required is to reduce 100-200 M H z V C O was the basis for the receivers for the higher HF or the VHF
the fundamental signal reaching the QST design (Fig 7.50). but this could be bands. A very simple block converter that
analyzer without altering the harmonic- replaced with other parts. One variation we built uses a POS-2(X) (100-200 MHz)
energy. This can be done with a high pass would use the POS-535 tuning f r o m 300 V C O driving a T U F - t mixer. A 4 dB pad
filter, shown in Fig 7.58. The high pass is to 525 M H z as the first LO. The first IF in the signal path sets the overall conver-
preceded by a 10-dB pad, establishing a would become 300 MHz. A good choice sion gain at - 1 0 dB. The 144 M H z ama-
proper impedance environment for the for a second IF would then be 21.4 MHz teur band is converted to 30 MHz when
generator (or transmitter) being evaluated where commercial monolithic crystal fil- the LO is at either 114 or 174 MHz. Recall

7.32 Chapter 7
 - the 3 rd harmonic of a LO is generated sponses, but is nonetheless a useful and then drives a log amp. There are two out-
«• :hin a diode ring mixer, often creating simple tool. puts. One is a built in meter while ihe other
• f x but also allowing third harmonic Figure 7.60 shows a narrow tuning is a jack to drive a DVM. This instrument
t ting. So selling the VCO to 157.3 MHz range approach to spectrum analysis. This was originally configured to measure
-.-:«.•> an effective LO of 472 MHz. circuit was configured as a measurement carrier and sideband suppression in single
- - will convert 432 MHz to appear as receiver. It uses an outboard local oscilla- sideband transmitters, but has also found
- MHz. Mixer conversion gain is less tor to drive a diode ring mixer followed by use in the pursuit of spurs from frequency
» th harmonic mixing and depends on the a traditional post-mixer amplifier. The synthesizers using direct digital synthesis.
T-irmonic being used. The block converter post-amp output is then applied to a nar- The instrument could also be configured
'.•.put is filled with numerous spurious re- row bandwidth 5 MHz crystal filter that for baseband measurements close to dc. It

I \
| Mea sured I / \
— /
\ \
j Caiculal ed
/
/ / \
/ \
/ /
/ \
\

Crystal filter, log amp, and output driver for 9 M iS

"Measurement Receiver."
Retain fnfKK}. kHc

Fig 7.61—Crystal filter response for the circuit used in the

measurement receiver. See text.

Fig 7.60—Measurement receiver for measurement of SSB transmitters. This unit used an available 10-mA meter movement
with a high resolution scale, but can be adapted to available meters. This Instrument can be adapted as a narrow tuning range
spectrum analyzer, a refinement that we have yet to complete.

Measurement Equipment 7.33

 70-UHz . . . MHz
110- P
LOW - Pass f1™* Bend
Bond-- Pass
Pass Second
Second
W

•
Fate Ml«W Am(> FBtef JSS

™ Step % h 6 o - j > T ^ T 6 o - —
/ / /, Attenuator
VCO/Buffer
110- 180 MHz
Spectrum Analyzer

< S H > 4
Outside of measurement receiver.

from the analyzer could be brought to suit-

able connectors to drive the narrow band-
width unit. The video output could
0 - dBm OutpHii be routed directly to the Y axis. The
0 - 70MHZ
same sweep circuit and related panel con-
trols would Ihen control both spcctrum
0SC / - V analyzers.
Tracking Generator A stand-alone swept V C O would be
H O h - Q J needed for the narrow bandwidth adapter.
r ~ r 7 iiomhz
This, however, is not a difficult design
Fig 7.62—Functionality of a tracking generator and the mating spectrum analyzer task. It is wide bandwidth VCOs that o f f e r
front end. The complete design is included on the book CD. greater challenge.

Tracking generators
and filter measurements
Swept instruments are ideal for the
alignment of filters of all types. Having a
swept signal means that the entire fre-
Converter for quency response can be displayed at one
baseband spectrum time. A tracking generator (TG) converts
analyzer on a PC. a spectrum analyzer to perform this task.
Used for evaluation If we think of a spectrum analyzer as a
of IMD in an HF
transmitter. spccial purpose receiver, a tracking gen-
erator is nothing more than a transmitter
that transceives with the receiver. A block
diagram is shown in Fig 7.62.
A sample of the swept first oscillator
f r o m the spectrum analyzer is required for
the tracking generator. This signal is am-
plified and becomes the L O for a high
level mixer. U4. The R F input for that
m i x e r i s a crystal controlled signal exactly
at the spectrum analyzer first intermediate
would then be useful for noise measure- inductance of 9 8 mil and average unloaded frequency. This frequency is easily mea-
ments in connection with oscillator phase Q over 200,000. The crystals were sured by injecting a signal f r o m a genera-
noise evaluation. matched within 10 Hz. This response tor into the first IF with the spectrum
The narrow crystal filter used in the shape is generally very tolerant of compo- analyzer set for the narrowest possible
measurement receiver is designed for a nent variations. Note that the traditional resolution bandwidth. This measurement
Gaussian-to-6 dB shape. Measured and symmetry in component values is not needs to be done after the analyzer is fin-
calculated responses are shown in present in this filter, even though the ter- ished and working, but prior to ordering a
Fig 7.61. This filter shape is ideal for mea- minations are equal at 500 Q at each end. crystal for the TG.
surement applications, a consequence of Avoid narrow Chebyshev filters in ana- This TG has an output of 0 dBm, This
the rounded, unambiguous peak with rea- lyzer applications. signal is a swept one that is always tuned
sonable skirt response. The prospective This measurement receiver could be to the same frequency that the analyzer
builder is encouraged to design his or her reconfigured as a spectrum analyzer with sees. The great utility of a tracking gen-
own filter, for the component values relative ease. A simple way to d o this erator over a simpler stand-alone swept
will depend on crystal characteristics. The would be to modify the existing QST ana- oscillator is that the S A - T G combination
crystal used in this filter had a motional lyzer. Power supply and a sweep voltage allows observation in the narrow band-

7.34 Chapter 7
 width of the analyzer. This results in a
10 dB/ - 5 d§
dramatic increase in measurement dy- TO ! 1
60
namic range. T h e evaluation of filter 1
SO
stopband attenuation details at levels well ii
AUDIO AO
No RF Hdw
below the - 1 0 0 d B c levels are possible • 30
with a S A - T G combination. Full details of 20
f^t*,
the T G are included on the C D that accom- O f f s e t Hz
2EM 500 7 so 10too Hz
panies this book. 10600
The extreme dynamic range comes with
:— i . .4
a price: The shielding of both the tracking Fig 7.63—High resolution spectrum of a signal generator. The noise is phase noise
generator and spectrum analyzer must be on the generator. 120-Hz hum modulation is readily observed as well.
very good. A s mentioned earlier, t h e
S A - T G combination behaves like a
transceiver. H o w e v e r , unlike the usual
transceiver we might build for c o m m u -
nications, the receiver and transmitter
must both function at the same time! Sig-
nals that might leak from the TG to the SA
will interfere with the intended one when
testing filters. The observed result will
often be a distorted filter shape with the
edges of the filter skirts dipping into the
analyzer noise floor. Another tell-tale in-
dicator of these problems is a filter shape
that changes with the position of some of
the interconnecting coaxial cables.
As useful as the SA-TG combination
can be. it presents a problem for the serious
experimenter: Filters a r c so easily
"tweaked" that builders may be tempted to
ignore designing the fillers in favor of
empirical methods. Don't fall into this trap!
observed with a spectrum analyzer running on a PC.
DFT Spectrum Analysis
The spectrum analyzers discussed so far
have been of the swept front end type. The j o r advantages over swept tools: First, speed signal is remembered, it can be read
case where a block converter preceded a they are capable of very high resolution at a lower speed and displayed as a time
swept front end analyzer produced a swept (narrow bandwidth). Second, the spec- signal. The data can also be presented to a
IF analyzer. There is another popular ana- trum shown represents the spectrum at one F F T "engine," or computer to generate a
lyzer that has become very common in instant in time. corresponding spectra. While usually
rcccnt times, the Fourier Transform Spec- A F F T analyzer is very useful as a mea- lacking the dynamic range of an analog
trum Analyzer. In this type, an incoming surement tool. Fig 7.63 shows an example spectrum analyzer, a spcctra with a dy-
signal is converted to a digital stream of where a signal generator was being inves- namic range of 50 dB or better is common
data with an analog to digital converter. tigated for phase noise. The noise shown with such oscilloscopes.
The analog data feeding the converter is in the figure is indeed noise, for a cleaner A block converter can be used to move
filtered with a low pass or bandpass filter oscillator operating with t h e same p a n o f an R F spectrum down t o audio
to restrict the resulting digital data. The analyzer parameters produced a similar where it can be examined with a FFT type
time domain representation is then sub- spectrum, but without the noise. The reso- spectrum analyzer with an example shown
jected to mathematical calculations result- lution bandwidth f o r this example is in Fig 7.64. An external step attenuator and
ing in a frequency domain representation 2.6 Hz! The hardware and software used (optional) bandpass filter precede the con-
of the signal, a spectra. This is then graphi- for this example are discussed in much verter. A diode ring mixer then moves the
cally presented. T h e analysis used is a more detail in Chapters 10 and 11. signal down. The rest of the circuitry is
Discrete Fourier Transform, or DFT. The Although FFT methods often concern very much like that found in direct conver-
most popular D F T form is the so called audio or "baseband," the concepts are ca- sion receivers. This c o n v e n e r can be used
Fast Fourier Transform, or FFT 1 9 pable of much more. So long as a signal ahead of the FFT analyzer implemented
The radio amateur is familiar with this can be sampled in time and converted to with the D S P hardware from Chapters 10
method as a software technique. Audio sig- digital data, it can be transformed to the and 11. We have also used it with a per-
nals are presented to the sound cards of per- frequency domain. Many modern oscillo- sonal computer sound card and modest
sonal computers. The resulting digital data scopes are built with relatively low speed cost software. 2 0 One must be careful with
is Fourier transformed in suitable software displays. But '.he incoming analog signal any of these schemes to avoid overdriving
programs and displayed in one of several is anything but slow. The incoming data is the A-to-D converter; overdrive can turn
forms including the "waterfall" popular with amplified and/or attenuated and presented the entire screen to unrecognized gibber-
digital communications modes. to a high speed "scan c o n v e n e r , " essen- ish! Sound card solutions seem less robust
tially an A to D converter. Once the high than the devoted DSP tools.
DFT spectrum analyzers have two ma-

Measurement Equipment 7 . 3 S
 A block converter and a baseband F F T included earlier in this chapter. performance becomes important when a
analyzer arc ideal for evaluation of SSB The narrow resolution available from an SSB transceiver is used to process narrow
transmitter IMD. What had always been a F F T based analyzer will also allow the bandwidth information such as encoun-
difficult laboratory measurement is now experimenter to measure in-band transmit- tered in PSK31. Again, the availability of
available to almost all experimenters. A ter distortion. A tone spacing of around measurement tools provides the experi-
traditional two-tone audio generator was 100 Hz then becomes appropriate. In-band menter with great opportunity.

7.9 Q MEASUREMENT OF LC RESONATORS

Several schemes have been used for Q ensures that the external loading is light so of configuring the resonator as a lossy fil-
measurements over the years. They can all that bandwidth is determined only by reso- ter. we now configure it as a trap, a circuit
work well when carefully executed. T w o nator loss. that produces high attenuation at one fre-
schemes are presented here for LC tuned The measurement is done with a signal quency. The generator is tuned to find the
circuits. The first method measures the generator and sensitive detector such as a null in the output response. The null depth,
bandwidth of a tuned circuit configured as spectrum analyzer, a 50-f2 terminated which can be very large, becomes a mea-
a symmetrically loaded bandpass filter oscilloscope, or one of the power meters sure of the resonator Q.
with very high insertion loss. The sche- described earlier. The generator is tuned Either a parallel connected series-tuned
matic is shown in Fig 7.65. for a peak response and the center fre- circuit or a series connectcd parallel-tuned
The two coupling capacitors should be quency, f () . is read with a counter attached circuit can be used as traps. There is usu-
approximately equal. This prevents heavy- to the generator. The output amplitude ally little virtue of one type over the other.
loading by the input with weak output response is also noted. The signal genera- W e generally prefer the series-tuned cir-
coupling which could create high inser- tor drive is then increased by 3 dB, caus- cuit because a grounded and calibrated
tion loss with a wider than minimum band- ing the output to increase by the same variable capacitor can be used in the reso-
width. Equal values guarantee that the amount. The generator is then tuned first nator. A photo shows a test fixture with a
input and output each contribute equally above, and then below the peak until the 140-pF variable capacitor and binding
to the loading. High insertion loss then response is identical lo the original ampli- posts.
tude. The frequencies of the upper and The generator is tuned to find the null
lower - 3 dB points are noted and the dif- response and the level is carefully noted.
ference is calculated as the BW. Then Q u A spectrum analyzer is ideally used as the
SO Uhm = fp/BW where both are measured in the detector and should be in a 1 or 2 dB per
Generator C-out
same frequency units. If the insertion loss
I w , — } hJ t JI I 50 0hm
is 30 dB or more, the measured Q is very-
^ Detector
close to the unloaded value. See section
-1
3.3. The measurement can be done with
lower IL, but corrections will then be re-

Fig 7.65—Measuring Q by determination

of 3-dB bandwidth. The coupling
quired lo calculate Q u from the measure-
ment Q.

Another scheme for Q measurement uses

I'MfM
capacitors, Cin and Cout, should be
approximately equal and should be resonator elements in a trap circuit, shown
small enough that the insertion loss is in Fig 7.66. Again, a tunable generator and
30 dB or more. a 50-Q detector are used. However, instead

10,996
Ohms
Series TC St"

i Ii1 Z=50

Ohm
516.9 J_
»F T1
c
1 UH{

0.176 |
I

cv
Parallel TC I •
A test fixture simplifies Q measurement
with the parallel connected series tuned
trap method. The inductor shown was
13 turns of #14 enamel-covered wire
Fig 7.66—Measuring Q by determining the attenuation of a trap. A 7-MHz tuned wound on a 3.5-inch-diameter PVC pipe
circuit is used in this example with L=1 jiH. The 0.176-fi resistor In the series-tuned fitting. This coil had a measured Q of
circuit and the almost 11-k£2 resistor in the parallel tuned circuit are models 371 at 7 MHz. The test fixture includes a
representing a 7-MHz Q of 250. The series-tuned circuit (STC) will have an grounded post allowing additional fixed
attenuation of 43.1 dB while the PTC has 40.9 dB. capacitance to be added.

7.36 Chapter 7
division sensitivity to provide amplitude
resolution. The resonator is then discon-
nected and the generator is connectcd to
the detector through a step attenuator. The
Mtenuation is adjusted until the analyzer
response is exactly the same as produced
M the null. The attenuator value is then the
sull attenuation, A. in dB. Values of 60 dB A(Rs)=-20-iog
(2¥77Z)
or more are possible with some high Q
toned circuits.
This same measurement setup can be
used to determine inductance if a cali-
brated capacitor is used. The unloaded Q
is related to attenuation by

4-ji-f L„ ( a
Qs=- 10*> - 1 Eq 7.4
V J
f. MHz; A, dB; L u , u H ; Z, O h m s Series Resistance, Okras

if the series tuned circuit form is used, Fig 7.67—Attenuation vs R for the series impedance. See text.
or

A \ It is important that a solid 5 0 - Q load tively, a very well low pass filtered signal
and source impedance (Z in the equations) generator could be used with any detector
Qp=- -•I i o 2 0 -1 Eq 7.5
it- f • L„ be used in this measurement. If the i mped- with adequate sensitivity.
a n c e i s in question, use a l O d B pad at both The virtue of the trap scheme becomes
f. MHz; A, dB; L „ , u H ; Z, Ohms the generator and detector. apparent as soon as the two methods are
It is also important to prevent harmon- compared. The traditional 3-dB bandwidth
ics f r o m c o n f u s i n g the results. This is measurement depends on precisely estab-
...if the parallel tuned circuit is applied. guaranteed if you use a narrow bandwidth lishing the 3-dB down level. A fraction of
Frequency is measured in MHz, A is in dB, detector such as a spectrum analyzer. A one dB error could still impact accuracy. In
and inductance is in |iH for these equations. wideband detector (a power meter or a contrast, the depth of a null is often quite
Z is the characteristic impedance of the mea- 50 Q terminated oscilloscope) will re- large for high Q resonators, and is easily
surement environment, usually 50 Q . respond to harmonic energy that is not measured with a step attenuator.
It is useful to plot series resistance attenuated by the trap. The spectrum ana- An accurate capacitance measurement
against attenuation for the parallel con- lyzer used for Q measurement could be tool such as the A A D E or W 7 A A Z meters
nected series impedance. This is shown in very simple. S o m e t h i n g as simple as a mentioned earlier is quite useful as a
Fig 7.67, The experimenter may wish to single tuned circuit preceding an oscillo- supplement to a Q m e a s u r e m e n t setup.
build a similar curve for the series con- scope would work so long as a pad was With such a tool, accurate calibration of
nected parallel impedance. used to establish impedance. Alterna- capacitors is ensured.

7.10 CRYSTAL MEASUREMENTS

A quartz crystal is modeled as a series with the frequency and capacitor value,
RLC paralleled by a capacitance, Fig 7.68. yield the motional capacitance, C m . The
Crystals are of special interest, for they are (n i I motional inductance. L m . is then calcu-
— — =
1 - w — | ^ —
-
often used in construction of narrow fil- LI lated from series resonance, which is well
ters. For this purpose, we need to know all approximated by the oscillator frequency
of their parameters. Great precision is when the switch is closed. The design
Fig 7.68—Model for a quartz crystal.
needed in knowing resonant frequency, for equations are included in the figure. F is
that strongly controls filter tuning. The the frequency while D F is the frequency
knowledge of the other parameters is refined measurements are desired for fil- shift, both in Hz. when the switch is
needed at an accuracy similar to that en- ter design. An extremely useful, yet simple toggled; C s and C p . in Farads, are f r o m
countered in an LC filter. oscillator was also presented in Chapter 3 the circuit. And as usual, U)=2jiF.
There are numerous measurement and is repeated here as Fig 7.69. A Colpitts If this test oscillator is built with Colpitts
schemes that will produce the four values. oscillator with an emitter follower drives a capacitors of C p = 4 7 0 p F and a series ca-
A 5 0 - Q measurement setup was presented frequency counter. A capacitor in series pacitor of C s =33 pF, the circuit will func-
in Chapter 3. Results from it are informa- with the crystal, C s , may be short circuited tion (fundamental mode) with crystals
tive, especially if a batch of "junk box" •with a toggle switch. This produces a f r o m 2 to 25 M H z . Simple equations are
crystals is encountered. However, more change in frequency that, when combined valid when C p is more than IOxC v It is

Measurement Equipment 7.37

 AF
2H3904
C =2-C •
m s

or -C

Fig 7.69—Colpitis oscillator lor crystal testing, based on an Fig 7.71—Sweeping two crystals while investigating their
insightful suggestion by G3UUR. properties as traps. One has a Q of 40,000 while the one
producing the deeper notch has a Q of 200,000. Notch depth
is measured to determine Q.

low notch represents a low Q crystal with spectrum analyzer is not necessary. ESR
Q u = 4 0 , 0 0 0 . The deeper and narrower can be 100 to 1000 Q for very low fre-
notch corresponds to Q u = 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 . The quency crystals, so the series connected
crystal Q relates to attenuation A in dB, parallel tuned circuit method might offer
motional L in Henry, frequency in Hz. and better measurements here.
terminating resistance Z in Q with... Parallel capacitance, C fJ , is easily mea-
sured with other tools such as the A A DF.
Fig 7.70—Using the trap nature of the or W7 A AZ circuits. They are effective be-
crystal for a Q measurement.
10 cause those instruments operate at low fre-
Eq 7.6 quency, around 1 MHz, well away from
Q = 4-ir-f-L- typical crystal resonance. With all four
also important that the C s value be deter- crystal paramelers available, the designer/
mined by measurements that include the We performed an experiment with a builder can proceed with the filter designs
switch. The 33 p F capacitor in our test sel crystal that had also been measured with presented in Chapter 3.
plus switch capacitance produced a net earlier methods. The notch method for Q The equipment described has also been
C s =41 pF. measurement yielded Q U = 2 0 2 , 0 0 0 with used to evaluate HF ceramic resonators.
The crystal is essentially a series tuned ESR=17.5 Q. This was within a few per- In one measurement on an ECS type
circuit when operating near series reso- cent of the earlier measurements. The ES R ZTA358MG (from Mouser) we saw
nance. so the scries trap scheme described values for crystals are higher than we usu- L M =761 |iH, C m =2.74 pF, C 0 =31 pF, and
earlier for LC tuned circuits will also pro- ally see with an LC resonator, so the QL7=636. Series resonant frequency was well
vide Qjj. as shown in Fig 7.70. Computer notches are not as deep. This allows mea- below the marked 3.58 MHz frequency at
generated plots arc shown for two differ- surement with a power meter such as Ihe 3.38 MHz. The part is normally used in os-
ent 10 M H z crystals in Fig 7.71. The shal- AD8307 based design described earlier: a cillators with a series capacitance.

7.11 NOISE AND NOISE SOURCES

Noise is generally the part of the filter, the signal appearing on screen is a circuit was designed by W 0 I Y H and
response generated by our receivers that is picture of the filter response. While not described in a paper included on the CD
undesired. However, we can also use noise nearly as useful as a tracking generator, it that accompanies this b o o k . - ' The noise is
as a measurement tool. By injecting noise is still a simple and useful way to examine generated by current flowing in D1 with
into a communications system or compo- a filter. Gain stages can be added to the SI in the position shown in the figure.
nent and examining the response, we can design to obtain even higher noise output. When the switch is toggled, current flows
extract information about the system. The noise source of Fig 7.72 is not very to forward bias the diode, preserving the
Figure 7.72 shows a simple noise flat with frequency. An improved source source output impedance in the " o f f ' state.
source that is quite strong. This circuit could be built with a Zener diode biased Paul Wade. W 1 G H Z . has also done
delivers a noise output reaching - 5 0 dBm for a current of a few raA. with coupling some excellent work with noise genera-
at 10 MHz on a spectrum analyzer with a into a high gain amplifier designed to have tion, which is also included on the book
300 kHz resolution bandwidth. This is gain that is flat with frequency. CD. 2 2 Wade noted that an excellent noise
more than 40 dB above the analyzer noise A noise source suitable for noise-figure source can be built with the emitter-base
floor. If wc apply this noise source to a measurement is shown in Fig 7.73. This junction of a microwave transistor, using

7.38 Chapter 7
ihe diode as a Zencr. Wade reports good
results with the noise diodes operating as
series elements.
The noise source of Fig 7.73 had an ex-
Fig 7.72—Noise in
cess noise ratio (ENR) of 178 in the HK D1 is amplified In a
spectrum. This means that the noise power two-stage amplifier,
available from the source is 178 times (22.5 resulting In a
dB) stronger when the diode is biased into strong noise
avalanche breakdown (Zener action) than source suitable for
when it is forward biased. If we were to measurements.
Virtually any diode
attach this source to a perfect amplifier,
or transistor types
one with no noise of its own, the resulting can be used in this
output noise would also change by 22.5 dB source.
as the switch is toggled. An imperfect, real
world amplifier will generate some noise
of its own, so the output noise change will
be less than 178 times when the diode is
toggled. The output noise change is called
the Y-fact or and this measurement tech-
nique is called the Y-factor method. Noise Output SMA
factor is related Y factor by

0 ENR
h =
y | Eq7.7

... where both EN R and Y are power ra-

tios rather than dB values.
The noise sources are generally not dif- Dl: Moise-Cois HC302L
ficult to build. However, calibration can
• - 1206 SWT p a r t s
be difficult. We borrowed a noise source
LI.2. 100 UH RFC
to calibrate ours. See the two CD noise
papers for more calibration information.
Noise figure for a receiver is measured Fig 7.73—Noise source providing a flat frequency response over a wide bandwidth.
Our source was built with surface-mounted components where possible. The diode
with the test setup shown in F i g 7.74. The
was purchased from Noise Com, East 64 Midland Ave, Paramus, NJ 07652; tel 201-
noise source is attached to a receiver 261-8797.
antenna port with receiver A G C is turned
off. The audio output is then applied to a
true R M S reading voltmeter. We have
used a surplus HP3400A and the Fluke
Model 89 DVM. Alternatively, one can Noise Receiver Video HlghZ
under . Audio
DC
build an instrument using an Analog De- Source" Test
Voltmeter Filter
Voltmeter
vices AD636 that converts an arbitrary ac
wave form to a dc signal proportional to
the true R M S of that waveform. A paper Fig 7.74—Test setup for noise figure measurement. The HP3400A is a true RMS
describing this instrument is included on audio voltmeter. This setup includes a video filter driving an oscilloscope, a
the book C D . 2 3 True R M S measurements refinement that may not be required. See text.
are also done with relative ease with D S P
software; see Chapter 11.
Consider an example: W e toggle the
switch to observe a 15.6 dB increase in v^y I vz:/ b.i Fig 7.75—A simple video filter reduces
audio output. This corresponds to a Y Tv meter-reading errors when working with
factor of 36.3. From E q 7.7. the noise fac- narrow bandwidths.
tor is then 5.04. which is a noise figure of
7 dB.
A practical detail complicates noise
measurements when the bandwidth is nar-
row, such as the 500 Hz found in many
C W receivers: The statistical variation
with time of the noise f r o m the receiver
causes many meters to vary, making it dif- Fig 7.76—Test setup
ficult to obtain an accurate reading. The Noise i L-- for noise figure
video filler of Fig 7.75 averages the noise Source measurement of an
to reduce this problem. The dc output is ) O C amplifier or other
WMR lr component.
applied to a high impedance voltmeter or te»t
^ectra SnalTwi
oscilloscope.
The noise figure of amplifiers may be

Measurement Equipment 7.30

evaluated with a spectrum analyzer in the produce an increase in output noise. Pow- ferred for this measurement. The amount
test setup of Fig 7.76. The key element ering the amplifier under test should again of added attenuation is then the Y factor in
here is an auxiliary low noise amplifier increase the on-screen response. Switch dB. Converting this to a power ratio al-
(LNA) placed between the amplifier the spectrum analyzer to a 1 or 2 dB per lows Eq 7.7 to be used.
under test and the spectrum analyzer. This division vertical sensitivity and use exten- The auxiliary low noise amplifier we
is needed because the noise figure of the sive video filtering to replace trace " f u z z " used consists of a M R F 5 4 4 followed by a
typical analyzer is quite high. The L N A with a smooth line representing averaged C o m m - L i n e a r C L C 4 2 5 operational ampli-
produces a cascade with a low combined noise. Carefully note the on screen level fier. 2 4 Another suitable amplifier could be
noise figure not compromised by 2nd stage of the noise. Then switch the noise source built with a cascade of MiniCircuits M A R -
noise. See the discussion of noise figure in to the high noise position. Rather than 3 amplifiers, or similar parts, with a M A R -
Chapter 2. reading a level f r o m the screen, add at- 6 input stage, a configuration that should
Begin a m e a s u r e m e n t with the noise tenuation in the analyzer front end until have a noise figure around 3.5 dB. Low
source and both amplifiers off. Applying the trace is at the level seen earlier. An noise figure designs were described in
power first to the auxiliary L N A should attenuator with 1 dB steps (or less) is pre- Chapter 6.

7.12 ASSORTED CIRCUITS

Testing AGC in
cuit of Fig 7.78. The crystal controlled
receivers oscillator at 25 M H z drives the diode ring
response with a diode ring. The receiver
was tuned to 2.44 M H z . This is the result
The circuit shown in Fig 7.77 is useful at the standard +7 dBm level. Clearly, of the 11 th transmitter harmonic beating
when observing the dynamics of a recei ver whatever crystal is available would be with the third LO harmonic. A chirp-free
A G C system with an oscilloscope. Named suitable. response was confirmed. A preselector fil-
the "ditter," the circuit is an electronic In one application, we wished to check ter can be used to reduce spurious re-
switch with an off-to-on ratio of 80 dB at a 7-MHz transmitter for chirp, or slight sponses for many applications.
14 MHz. The switching elements are change in frequency with keying. The best
inexpensive PIN diodes that are cascaded way to detect this is to listen to a harmonic.
to obtain the desired off-to-on ratio. The The receiver was attached to one of the Evaluating Noise in
circuit is balanced for the R F signal. How-
ever. the dc drive that turns the RK on and
mixer ports (either one is okay) and a 1 OX Local Oscillator
off is single ended. This prevents the
oscilloscope probe was attached to the
other through a step attenuator. The trans-
Systems
control signal from creating a click that mitter. set for output at 7.04 MHz, was The "'critical path" for the construction
o v e r w h e l m s the receiver. The topology of better communications equipment to-
terminated in a load and the probe was at-
was suggested by K7RO. day is the local oscillator system in use.
tached to the termination. Third harmonic
A slow pulse generator u s i n g a 5 5 5 timer mixing was to be used, so we depend on a Low distortion receiver front ends are
drives the R F switch. Capacitor CI con- 75-MHz L O injection, a naturally strong becoming easy to build. Crystal Filters with
trols the timing while the pot sets a duly
cycle. A sample of the pulse provides a
trigger signal for osci 11 oscope con trol. The
signal biasing the diodes is filtered with Input f r o m
T r a n s f o r m e r s 12 I fit11ai turns, FT37-43
Signal
C2 to prevent key clicks from an other- Off-to-On > :
Generator
A l l diodes MPH3401 PIH a t 14 M H z
wise too fast rise and fall lime. The circuit
as shown has about a 1-mS rise, but a
longer fall. Although the circuit was use-
ful in studying some of the receivers in O u t p u t to
this book, a better timing circuit would be Receiver w i t h
useful. One could use an external pulse AGC system
under test.
generator or build a more refined one,
probably using more than one timer.
The drive level should be confined to
0 dBtn or less, which is adequate to over-
whelm almost any receiver. Larger signals
are partially rectified with the chosen PIN
diodes.

A Experimenter's
Receiving Converter
There are many situations where one
wishes to receive signals at V H F to facili-
tate an experiment. A junk box crystal and Fig 7 . 7 7 — T h e Ditter, a circuit for generating keyed receiver input from a signal
diode rinir mixer form the basis for the cir- generator.

7.40 Chapter 7
additional signal processing can provide
outstanding selectivity, both close to a sig-
nal and well away from it. The various
forms of frequency synthesis available to
the builder all offer good frequency stabil-
ity with the added bonus of electronic tun-
ing. But the LO systems are compromised.
Phase locked loop (PLL) systems tend to be
plagued with phase noise. Synthesizers us-
ing direct digital synthesis (DDS) are often
dominated by coherent spurious responses.
Although difficult problems to solve, the
measurements are not that difficult. We il-
lustrate the problem here with two measure-
ment examples, the first with a commercial
receiver using a synthesizer with both DDS
and PLL. A crystal controlled oscillator (Fig
7.29) built with an internal battery, all
housed in a well shielded box, was attached
to the receiver input through a 10-dB pad
and a step attenuator, initially set to 0 dB.
The available input signal was confirmed to
be - 3 0 dBm at 7.018 MHz. The receiver, in
CW mode, was tuned to this frequency with
the setting stored in receiver memory. The
receiver was then tuned downward while
Fig 7.78—
listening for responses with a well defined Receiving
tone. AGC was on. for there is no provision converter for
to turn it off in the compromised receiver. A experiments.
spur was found within a couple of kHz. The
spur frequency was recorded in out note-
book. The amplitude response was noted on
an audio voltmeter attached to the receiver
output. The tuning was then returned to the
main signal and attenuation was inserted
until the audio output equaled that seen with
the spur. This occurred with 58-dB attenua-
tion. so we infer the LO spurious response to
be at 58 dB below the carrier, or at - 5 8 dBc.
This procedure was repeated as wc found a
large collection of spurious responses above
and below the desired signal with results Response of a receiver with a "Hybrid" Synthesizer
plotted in Fig 7.79. (DOS+PLL) to a crystal oscillator Input signal.

There are difficulties encountered with

this procedure. One must be sure the
source is spur free. This was confirmed by Input Signal: -30 dBm
repeating the experiment with a receiver
using a traditional LC oscillator. You must
also be sure that the signal f r o m the source
oscillator is not reaching the receiver by-
routes other than the antenna terminal.
This can be confirmed by disconnecting
the source from the attenuator to confirm
that the signal disappears, or drops well
below the level of the measured spurs.
Our second example evaluates phase
noise with essentially the same procedure.
Again start with a very strong signal, a
- 3 0 d B m input. Then tune away f r o m the
source f r e q u e n c y to a spacing of. for
example, 10 kHz. Note the response in
a true R M S reading audio voltmeter
attached to the receiver output. Turn the Frequency, kHz
source off momentarily to be sure that the
noise decreases, f o r we wish to measure Fig 7.79—DDS-related spurious responses found with a commercial recer*

Measurement Equipment 7.41

 Control box, DVM, and board with a suitable bypass capacitor and
"environmental the three wires needed to both power the
chamber" for device and to extract a signal. The output
oscillator testing. The
is read with a standard DVM with a sensi-
chamber has the lid
removed so an tivity of 10 m V for each degree C change
oscillator can be in temperature.
placed inside. The lid The oscillator under lest is placed in the
is then place on the chamber and the lid is put in place. The
box. A light bulb
oscillator is allowed to warm up while
heater resides under
the press wood base viewing output frequency on an external
with holes. A 12-V fan counter and initial temperature data is
moves the air within read. The light bulb is then turned on,
the box. Cables to the allowing the temperature to cl i mb. It' s use-
oscillator under test ful to cycle the bulb off and on, forcing the
and the IC used for
temperature to increase slowly. Once you
temperature measure-
ment are routed under have increase T by perhaps 20 degrees C,
the lid edge. the fan is turned on for a short burst and
the bulb is turned off. forcing the tempera-
ture to stabilize. If T seems fairly stable,
new frequency data can be measured and
TCF (Temperature Coefficient of
Frequency) can be calculated. It is not gen-
erally necessary to reach high tempera-
the noise a b o v e the normal receiver back- This problem disappears when you do
tures. although an initial run up to perhaps
ground floor. H a v i n g recorded the your own measurements.
80C will serve to relieve stresses in the
response at 10 k H z offset, we return the
inductors resulting from the toroid wind-
tuning to the input signal. Attenuation is An Oven for Drift ing. After a little data has been obtained,
then added to bring the response down to
Compensation the lid can be removed, the bulb turned
the noise response level. In one measure- off, and the fan turned on. This will force
ment of this type reported in Chapter 4, A photograph shows an oven that we use
the temperature to drop to room value in
w e observed a noise response 110 dB for the evaluation and compensation of os-
just a few minutes. The time is used for
d o w n at a 5 kHz spacing. The receiver cillators. The basic measurements were out-
calculating the value of the temperature
being measured had a 500 Hz noise band- lined in section 4.2. The "oven" is quite
compensating capacitors needed.
simple, starting with a Styrofoam box pur-
width, so the spectral density of noise was
chased at a local super market. The volume The temperature compensation process
27 dB ( l O x L o g f B W l ) lower on a per Hz
is approximately 600 cubic inches. The is one that has left us with some very strong
basis, or —137 dBc/Hz. It is necessary to
lower half of that space is occupied with a impressions:
normalize the response related to white
60-W light bulb mounted in a ceramic 1. An oscillator that we had regarded as
(evenly distributed) noise, for that noise
socket attached to a wood strip. The cord for being "pretty stable" with normal compo-
will change in proportion to bandwidth.
the bulb is run through a hole in the box. nents drifts dramatically with the simple
In this example we attributed the observed
A wood shelf with numerous I-inch oven. This is not a minor, subtle effect, but
noise to a V C O being tested, although it
holes divides the box. The upper region dominant behavior.
could have been the receiver LO. It
contains a small dc fan that can be turned 2. Once we begin to apply compensa-
was still a clean response compared with
on to circulate the air and enough room for tion to the oscillator, just 2 or 3 runs will
a typical D D S system like the one of
the oscillator module being tested and the be enough to produce excellent stability.
Fig 7.79.
temperature measuring circuitry. This 3. A circuit that started as a "pretty
We often see equipment reviews where oven measures temperature with a Na- stable" circuit is easily converted to "rock
plots appear showing phase noise. Coher- tional Semiconductor L M 3 9 1 1 integrated solid.''
ent spurs also appear in these plots. A circuit that is mounted in a small heat sink 4. Circuits using really bad components
per-Hz normalization is usually applied to and then attached to a small circuit board. regarding drift (such as varactor diodes)
the plot, for that is the most useful infor- The L M 3 9 1 I has been discontinued, can still yield practical performance.
mation form for pure noise. That normal- replaced by a much better part from The whole proccss is an easy one. The
ization may or may not also be applied to National, the LM45 that is supplied in a one drawback is that it is somewhat time
the coherent spurs. The normalization, if SOT-23 surface mount package. The part consuming, so we integrate it with other
applied, is not always slated in reviews. can be soldered to a small scrap of circuit casual activities.

7.42 Chapter 7
REFERENCES
1. W. Sabin. "A Series-Regulated 4.5- to 9. R. Stone, "The UniCounter—A 17. W. Hayward and R. Larkin, "Simple
25-V, 2.5-A Power Supply." 2003 ARRL Multipurpose Frequency Counter/ RF Power Measurement".
Handbook, Ch. 11 at 25-28. Electronic Dial". QST. December 2000. 18. W. Hayward and T. While. "A
2. W. Sabin. "Measuring SSB/CW pp 33-37. Spcctrum Analyzer for the Radio
Receiver Sensitivity", QST, October 1992. 10. W. Carver. "The LC Tester". Com- Amateur".
pp 30-34. munications Quarterly. Winter 1993, pp 19. R.W. Ramirez. The FFT; Funda-
3. D. Bramwell. "Understanding Modern 19-27. mentals and Concepts. Prentice-Hall.
Oscilloscopes." QST, July 1976, pp 18-19. 11. W. Hay ward. Introduction to Radio 1985.
4. J. Grebcnkemper. "The Tandem Match Frequency Design. Prentice-Hall. 1982, 20. R.S. Home, Spectrogram. Version
—An Accurate Directional Wattmeter", and ARRL, 1994. 6.0.8. 2001, www.monumental.com/
QST. January 1987, pp 18-26. 12. R. Bracewell, The Fourier Trans-form rshorne/gram.html
5. R. Lewallcn. "A Simple and Accurate ami its Applications. McGraw-Hill, 1969. 21. W. Sabin, "A Calibrated Noise Source
QRP Directional Wattmeter", QST, 13. M. Engclson, Modern Spectrum for Amateur Radio". QST. May 1994, pp
February 1990, pp 19-23, 36. Analyzer Theory and Applications, 37-40.
6. W. Hay ward and R. Larkin, "Simple RF Artech House, 1984. 22. P. Wade, "Noise Measurement and
Power Measurement", QST. June 2001, pp 14. W. Hayward, "Extending the Double- Generation", QEX, November 1996.
38-43. Tuned Circuit to Three Resonators", QEX, PP 3-12.
7. G. Daughters and W. Alexander, "Low March/April 1998, pp 41-46. 23. W. Sabin. "Measuring SSB/CW
Power Attenuators for the Amateur 15. W. Hayward and T. While, "A Receiver Sensitivity".
Bands," 73 Magazine. January 1967. pp Spectrum Analyzer for the Radio 24. S.O. Smith, "Build a 1-dB Noise
40-41. Amateur". QST. August and September Figure Amplifier for 50-ohm Systems",
8. D. Bramwell, "An RF Step Attenuator." 1998, pp 35-43 (Aug), 37-40. June 27, 1994 Analog Applications Issue.
QST. June 1995. pp 33-34. 16.Ibid. Electronic Design.

Measurement Equipment 7.43

 CHAPTER

Direct Conversion
Receivers
8.1 A BRIEF HISTORY
In the early days of radio, signals were needed for AM. and (inevitably) early RF
collected on a wire, converted from RF amplifiers using vacuum tubes were mar-
voltage and current to audio voltage and ginally stable, which lead directly to
current with a crystal detector, and con- the discovery of regenerative receivers.
verted to acoustic energy with headphones Some RF amplifiers oscillated at two fre-
(Fig 8.1). This worked well for spark and quencies at once—which lead directly to
later AM broadcast signals, but with con- the discovery of the superreeencratixe
tinuous waves, the output of the crystal receiver. Cascading two regenerative de-
detector was just a very weak dc voltage. tectors. one at HF and one at a superaudible
A number of schemes were used to con- frequency around 30 kHz. resulted in the
vert the CW to A M at the receiver, but the superaudiohetcrodyne receiver, which
most sensitive method for detecting CW was tricky to adjust and received every
signals on a crystal detector required the Fig 8.1—A fundamental crystal radio signal at two places on the dial.
design.
use of an oscillator located near the Regenerative receivers were simple,
receiver, as shown in Fig 8.2. When the inexpensive and worked well enough for
oscillator was tuned close to the transmit- amateur AM and CW work that receiver
ted signal frequency, audible beats were innovation stalled for more than a decade,
produced by the crystal detector, The use until the bunds became crowdcd enough
of a "local oscillator" has been standard in that more selectivity was needed. The
receivers ever sincc. superheterodyne had been further devel-
The audible beat signal at the crystal oped for AM broadcasting, and by the mid
detector is very weak. Early experiment- 1930s, the transition to the superhetero-
ers purchased the most sensitive head- dyne for amateur high frequency work was
phones they could afford, and erected nearly complete. High Frequency Regen-
large antennas to collect as much signal as erative receivers remained in The ARRL
possible. Tuners included adjustments for Handbook until the mid 1960s, and
both peaking the desired signal and supcrregens are still widely used in toy
achieving maximum power transfer walkie-talkies, radio controlled cars, and
between the antenna and detector. The garage door openers.
technology for building highly sensitive Signal gain ahead of the detector is
headphones was already mature in the desirable if a diode is used to envelope
early days of radio, because the telephone detect AM. but for the linear modes. SSB
system predated vacuum tube amplifica- and CW, the first stage of the receiver may
tion by several dccades. The first applica- be a lossy frequency converter, directly to
tion of vacuum tubes in receiver circuits audio. Such receivers arc capable of out-
was for audio amplification. The "crystal standing performance at very high fre-
detector" diode is considerably less sensi- quencies—something to think about the
tive as an envelope detector for AM than it next time a State Patrolman recovers a
would be with sufficient LO injection to weak echo from your speeding vehicle
serve as a product detector for CW, but with a direct-convcrsion microwave
early receiver lore involved using very low receiver.
Fig 8.2—A classic radio enhanced with
level LO injection. RF amplification was
a local oscillator. All of the technology—diodes. trans-

Direct Conversion Receivers 8.1

 formers, local oscillators and audio
a m p l i f i e r s — was available by 1920 to
build high-performance direct conversion
receivers f o r C W . There was little motiva-
tion for amateurs to develop such receiv-
ers at the time because regenerative
receivers were adequate, simple and inex-
pensive. There was also a perception in
that era that voice modes were the realm of
experimenters and C W the realm of prac-
tical c o m m u n i c a t o r s . The situation is
reversed today, with most technically
advanced amateurs experimenting with
non-voice modes, from minimalist H F C W
Fig 8.3—A block diagram of a basic direct-conversion receiver.
stations through microwave systems for
1000-km tropospheric paths.
A radio experimenter is driven not by
the desire to duplicate existing circuitry, version receiver dynamic range and sensi- A small group of experimenters stub-
but by the need to put a station on the air tivity exhibits gaps in understanding. bornly continued to develop the direct con-
using whatever means are available, pref- While the Q R P Society provided the version receiver. Roy Lewallen's design 2
erably without making expensive trips to direct conversion receiver with a home, from 1980 is a timeless example of an op-
the parts store. Marginal finances often their fundamental philosophy also ham- timized DSB design with CW filtering, and
unleash a wealth of ideas (the philosophy pered its development. The Q R P commu- Gary Breed's 1988 design 3 nicely illus-
behind PhD programs and other monastic nity embraces simplicity, and many of trates the practicality of eliminating the
experiences). In the 1960s, when most HF their designs are indeed simple and only audio image. The KK7B designs published
stations operated at the 100 W level, the just adequate. Examples of optimizing for from 1992 through 1995 4 " 15 were originally
Q R P Society embraced the philosophy of simplicity are the numerous N E 6 0 2 intended to serve as V11F tunable IFs wilh
putting simple radio stations on the air and receiver circuits, which have surprising microwave no-tune transvcrtcrs. but were
working DX using operator skill instead performance for so few parts. The usual designed for broadband operation al any
of transmitter power. Radio experiment- frequency from 25 kHz to 5 GHz. These
first impression upon listening to a simple
ers quickly expanded the Q R P skill set to designs have more components than the
direct conversion receiver is that it sounds
simplest superhets, but offer several per-
include radio design and construction, very good, but after making a few contacts
formance advantages including freedom
with an emphasis on elegant simplicity. most operators want something better. The
from birdies, ease of use throughout the
With the disappearance of AM from the something better is almost always a
radio spectrum, and superb in-channel
bands, and the emergence of CW as the superhel. Wes Hayward correctly slated
audio fidelity.
e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s favored mode, the time in Solid State Design for the Radio Ama-
was ripe f o r a reexamination of basic teur1 that a direct conversion receiver with By the year 2000, direct conversion
receiver circuitry. The '60s implementa- audio image rejection is at least as compli- receiver designs (Fig 8.3) pioneered by
tion of the direct conversion receiver was cated as a simple supcrhet. This is even amateurs were making significant inroads
developed in parallel by a number of inde- truer today, after another quarter century into practical communications gear includ-
pendent experimenters. All of the pieces of superhet receiver evolution. The matu- ing family radio service transceivers,
were described in the mid "60s ARRL rity of crystal ladder IF filter design has cordless phones, and cellular handsets. The
Handbook, but the editors clearly did not eliminated IF filter cost as a drawback for number of papers on direct conversion pre-
envision connecting them together into a superhets. and easy-to-use ICs have sented at professional conferences has
receiver without an IF. Even the 1970s reduced parts count below what was pos- jumped from a few per decade to over a
ARRL Handbook description of direct con- sible in the mid '70s. hundred in one year.

8.2 T H E BASIC DIRECT CONVERSION BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig 8.4 is the block diagram of a direct noise floor in a 2-kHz bandwidth, during signals can produce signals of tens of mil-
conversion receiver system for 40 meters. the evening, in the north central United livolts in a few meters of wire. The 13th
Unlike other figures in this text, the an- States. Strong foreign broadcast stations and 15th harmonics of 7 M H z are in the
tenna and headphones are included in the may reach millivolt levels. C o m p u t e r F M broadcast band, and most wideband
diagram. The first block is the antenna. Its noise and "touch lamp" interference can mixers will downconvert signals near odd
function is to collect as much of the de- reach 100-mV levels if the o f f e n d i n g harmonics of the LO. The TUF-1 mixer
sired signal, and as little noise and inter- appliances are in the near field of (he recommended for several projects in this
ference, as possible. While this seems ob- dipolc. All of these signals are present at book has 34 dB more loss as a 13th or 15th
vious, few amateur or professional the downeonverter. harmonic mixer than as a fundamental
engineers actually think about the antenna Another important set of signals present mixer, when measured using a 7-MHz LO.
when designing a receiver system. A at the downeonverter input are F M broad- A 1-mV signal at 91.5 MHz (easily ob-
4 0 - M dipole may provide a 1 - m V rms cast stations. In urban areas. FM broadcast tained on a few meters of wire at KK7B,

8.2 Chapter 8
 Low-noise Audio
8 MHz Audio Preamp Amplifier
Low-pass 3 kHz Audio
50 dB Headphones
Low Pass Audio FBter
Tuner

.t
JTYTI
^YtM^K^
T
-I
i I
VFO

Fig 8.4—Block diagram of a 40-meter direct-conversion receiver.

Portland) is zero beat when the direct con- with conversion gain, and more serious re-
version receiver LO is tuned to 7.038 ceivers have mixers with conversion loss. . TUF-1 .
MHz. and the 34 dB of cxccss conversion Lossy mixers may be either the com-
loss rcduccs it to the equivalent of a mon diode ring and variations, or made up
20-jiV 40-mcter signal at the antenna. It is from transistors used as switches. A num-
easy to prevent these signals from arriving ber of excellent passive FET mixers have
at the RF port of the mixer by using a low been designed in the past few years, and ^/l9""5 Noise Figure N o , s 6 Fl
9ure
13 dB Gain 5 7 d B S s
pass filter right at the mixer. They are VHF they are now widely used in a variety of
signals, so VHF construction techniques applications.
must be used. It is also important to pre- Mixer gain or loss does not affect Fig 8.5—A preamp diode ring direct-
vent these FM broadcast signals from en- conversion receiver.
receiver noise figure as much as might be
tering the receiver cabinet on power sup- suspected. Compare two receivers, each
ply wires, speaker wires, headphone leads, with a 2-dB noise figure, I3-dB gain RF
CW key leads and microphone cords—all preamplifier. Receiver #1 in Fig 8.5 has a . Gilbert Cell ^
of which tend to be the right length to make Mini-Circuits TUF-1 mixer with 5.7-dB
efficient FM broadcast antennas. loss and 7-dB noise figure, followed by an
The mixer itself can be any of several audio stage with 5-dB noise figure-
types, but the diode ring is a good choice Receiver #2 in Fig 8.6 has the same RF
for people who want simplicity, good per- preamplifier in front of a Gi Ibert Cell mixer l ^ i ^ T Noise Figure Noise Figure
with 8-dB noise figure and 10-dB gain, 13 dB Gain 10<jBGain
formance, and understanding of how the
mixer works. The details of the NE602 driving the same 5-dB noise figure audio
Fig 8.6—Block diagram of a preamp
schematic are unpublished, and the bias amplifier. Using the cascaded noise figure Gilbert direct-conversion receiver.
controls to improve its performance are formula presented elsewhere. Receiver # I
locked in placc on the die. has a calculated 3-dB noise figure, and Re-
Commonly used mixers have noise fig- ceiver #2 has a 2.5-dB noise figure.
ures between 6 and 10 dB. and may have Now consider the fact that the Gi Ibert Cell If the antenna provides 1 |iV of noise
either conversion gain or loss. At first receiver has 23-dB gain before any selectiv- floor and the headphones require 10 mV
glance, conversion gain would seem to be ity. and remember that short-wave Broad- for comfortable listening, the receiver
an advantage. A receiver needs about 100 cast signals often reach millivolt levels. needs 80-dB gain. Very quiet locations
dB of gain between the antenna connector After the mixer downconverts the entire fre- may have a 0.1 -|iV 40-m noise floor, and
and headphones, and mixer gain makes the quency spectrum present on the antenna and low-sensitivity headphones might require
rest of the receiver easier to design. But folds it in half around zero Hz. the circuitry 100 mV—which increases the gain re-
there is a catch. Mixer gain occurs before connected to the IF port of the mixer selects quirement to 120 dB. Receivers without
any channel selectivity. The filter before a narrow portion of the spectrum and then AGC require less gain than receivers with
the mixer in a direct conversion receiver amplifies it. Selectivity between the mixer AGC, and also need a different listening
passes an entire band, and the filtering and first audio amplifier is needed so that the style. A receiver described in the next
after the mixer selects the desired signal. first stage of audio does not have to linearly chapter has more than 80 dB of undistorted
The mixer must linearly handle all of the amplify the entire HF spectrum at once. A headroom above the receiver noise floor.
strong and weak signals in the entire band, simple 10-kHz low-pass filter will narrow Some operators are accustomed to listen-
without distortion. If the mixer has gain, it the frequency range to just 20 kHz centered ing for weak signals with the receiver gain
amplifies all of the strong, undesired sig- around the LO frequency. Further band-lim- turned all the way up, and the receiver
nals right along with the weak desired sig- iting is normally included in the audio noise floor just below the pain threshold.
nal. High performance receivers, whether amplifier stages, but a wide-open direct If a click, pop or loud signal suddenly
superhcts or direct conversion, limit the conversion receiver sounds better on CW appears in the passband. the receiver is
amount of gain before the channel filter. and SSB signals than any other receiver type, (theoretically) capable of providing an
Thus, minimum-parts-count casually and should be experienced as a baseline for output that will break eardrums and melt
designed receivers tend to have mixers further receiver experimenting. headphones. Human ears have remarkable

Direct Conversion Receivers 8.3

The "ugly" MicroRi. The MicroRi built on a board.

dynamic range. It is far more natural to on a FB 2410 ferrite bead. A transformer paragraphs is a nice illustration of how
listen to weak signals 60 dB below the pain made often trifilar turns of plastic covered simple a "real" communications receiver
threshold and match the receiver in-band bell wire on a large ferrite RF1 suppression can be. It also illustrates some of the chal-
dynamic range to the ear's capability. core salvaged from a computer printer lenges of simple receivers. Crystal control
in previous years the author has merely cable also works well. Diodes are 1N4148 strictly limits tuning range, and limited
acknowledged that there are different lis- or similar, and the three transistors are selectivity requires skill in digging signals
tening styles, and some styles of listening 2N3904 or similar small-signal NPNs. out of crowded bands. The challenges
require AGC more than others. How- The two stage audio amplifier has more inherent in simple equipment arc not nec-
ever—two of our close friends (and stron- than enough gain to bring the 40-m band essarily disadvantages—it takes more skill
gest advocates of AGC), are nearing US West Coast noise floor up to the to cross a harbor in a sailing dinghy than a
retirement with serious hearing loss. Both audible level in portable CD player head- motor boat. Copying signals from across
were licensed as novices in the early phones. Coupling and feedback capacitors the oceans with a three transistor circuit is
1950s, and have spent half a century were selected by ear and back-of-the- similarly rewarding.
depending on receiver AGC to protcct envelope calculations from available Just as sailors always want a bigger boat,
their ears. Setting receiver gain so that the values in the author's junk box. Gain is radio experimenters always want to improve
noise floor from the antenna is well below intentionally kept low for ear protection, their receivers. The following paragraphs
the pain threshold and training the ears to and to eliminate the need for special con- dig into the technical fundamentals needed
listen is good hygiene. Weak signals will struction techniques, a volume control, or to understand direct conversion receivers at
then be weak, strong signals will be strong, shielding. The double tuned circuit on the adepth that allows performance to be pushed
and only rarely will AGC be desired. RF input solves any harmonic mixing or to superhet levels and beyond.
AM broadcast detection problems, and the
three adjustments may be tweaked to opti-
A Minimalist Direct mize signal power transfer from the Direct Aversion
Conversion Receiver antenna to the receiver. When signals are Before proceeding with the technical
Not all direct conversion receivers have strong and shortwave broadcast interfer- discussion, it is worthwhile to note that
to be designed for high performance. Since ence is a problem, the coupling capacitor many otherwise rational human beings
the historical appeal of direct conversion may be reduced and the input circuit opti- have an emotional aversion to direct con-
is simplicity, it is appropriate to present a mized for desired signal-to-interference version receivers. The basic block diagram
strict minimalist design. Simple NE602 ratio rather than just maximum signal is so simple and appealing than many
based circuitry is presented elsewhere in strength. The independent 9-V battery unsuspecting designer-builders and engi-
the text. For this circuit, the use of special- supply, balanced antenna and headphone neering managers have fallen into the trap
ized components is avoided. The receiver connections, and no external ground con- of believing that direct conversion is the
in Fig 8.7 has each of the functional blocks nection eliminate ground loops and com- "holy grail" of receivers, able to outper-
from Fig 8 J - Ql and its associated com- mon mode problems. Current drain from form the old. obsolete superheterodyne
ponents is a simple Pierce oscillator. With the 9-V battery is about 8 mA. architecture at a fraction of the cost. Most
the component values shown, it oscillates This simple receiver is fun to listen to. attempts to build something cheaper and
with every crystal tried from the author's particularly when it is open on the bench better than an existing, mature technology
junk box. The frequency may be trimmed with all parts visible, and signals from will fail. When the holy grail turns out to be
a few kHz with a small (about 20 pF) trim- 10.000 km away are rolling in. The a cracked clay cup. the designer involved
mer capacitor in series with the crystal. accompanying photos show two different may end up with a lingering bad taste in his
Since both ends of the trimmer capacitor construction styles. Parts may be pur- mouth. Experienced professional and ama-
are floating, an insulated tuning tool or chased new. or salvaged from old com- teur technical writers tend to either love or
shaft should be used. puter boards and transistor radios. hate direct conversion receivers, and this
_ T1 is 10-trifilar turns of enameled wire The receiver described in the preceding bias has often appeared in print.

8.4 Chapter 8
 +
100UF3

I
1k

lOOOpF

H H
HQ\- 30 ohm stereo
headphones
20pF "W i
150k
-9b Q3

M / W H
Q2
Q1 fl
•047UF-
poly r

220pF,~
1 s
J_
+
101 (rililar
K M 10uF^
on FB
2401-43

o 50 ohm
o
3
balanced
<
(D antenna
<0
o
feedline
3 201 pri 20[pri
5t sec 5IS0C
3D
<S T50-2 T50-2

2<
o

<D

CO
ui
8.3 PECULIARITIES OF DIRECT CONVERSION

The level of understanding represented gain. Often oscillations can be cured by in direct conversion receivers with several
in the preceding paragraphs is enough to moving around the wires carrying audio layers of magnetic shielding. The T o k o 10
build dircct conversion receivers and use signals and power. RB series of shielded inductors has been
them to m a k e contacts on the amateur Inductors in the early stages of a direct used for years, although the shielding is
bands, but they will exhibit some strange conversion receiver should be of a self not perfect and ihey will pick up h u m f r o m
behavior that is not explained by conven- shielding type. Conventional Iron E core nearby transformers. A small steel or
tional superhet thinking. Explaining the audio transformers are best avoided, mumetal enclosure around the audio pre-
peculiarities of direct conversion receiv- although they have been successfully used a m p stages of a direct conversion
ers, and more importantly, designing and on the input to high gain audio amplifiers receiver can reduce hum pickup by many
building a new generation that outper-
forms previous attempts, requires further
study and a deeper understanding.
~T
High Audio Gain
i
There arc significant d i f f e r e n c e s
between the block diagrams and gain dis-
tributions of superhets and direct conver-
sion receivers. Direct conversion pecu-
liarities fall into two classes: problems
f r o m high audio gain and the effects of
local oscillator radiation. AM demodula-
tion. a common problem with direct con-
version receivers, is a symptom of both
high audio gain and LO radiation.
A typical direct conversion receiver has
about 100 dB of gain from the mixer to the
output. The output might be a 1-mA cur-
rent flowing in a wire to the headphone
jack. The ground wire coming back from
the headphones also carries 1 mA. If the
ground wire has 1 milliohm resistance, the
voltage drop will be 1 |iV. which is 100
times larger than the weakest audible sig-
nals. This sets up an ideal condition for Standard
audio oscillation or regeneration. Since it
is impractical to reduce the resistance of
all ground wires (#24 copper wire has
about 2 milliohms per inch), it is very
important that any ground return carrying
output signals be separated from any input
signal ground return. The easiest way to
insure this is to use a separate ground wire
J
for every component, and connect them
all together a single point. It is particularly
important to treat the speaker or head-
phone jack as a component, and bring it's
ground lead all the way back to the c o m -
mon ground connection rather than just
grounding it to the radio case. This bears
repeating: use two wires, a signal and a
ground wire, to connect to the headphone
j a c k or speaker, and d o not ground the
speaker or headphone j a c k to chassis
ground. With a simple receiver, it is
possible to actually connect the grounded
leads of all c o m p o n e n t s to the <ame
point. Fig 8.8 is a schematic showing how
Single-Point
this can be done with the receiver in Fig
Schematic
8.7. T h e r e are also magnetic and
capacitive feedback m e c h a n i s m s that
become important at audio with 100 dB of Fig 8.8—Compare the "standard" MicroRI schematic above to the single-point
schematic below.

8.6 Chapters
 Low Pass
V LO Leakage

Z
L
LO
Reflected
Leakage
HSH>
©
LO

Fig 8.9—Local oscillator radiation. Fig 8.10—A mixer/LO with reflection coefficient.

dB. G o o d direct conversion receivers tend This is not usually a problem at H F with phase, b e c o m e s a I UO-jJ V dc voltage at the
to include h i g h - p a s s filters in the a u d i o large outdoor dipoles, but H F direct con- IF port of the mixer and input to the audio
chain, aggressively rolling off the audio version r e c e i v e r s c o m m o n l y exhibit amplifier. This voltage is t o o small to se-
response b e l o w about 300 H z . d i s a p p o i n t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e with wire riously u n b a l a n c e the mixer, and is
M i c r o p h o n i c s , the loud clicks and pops antennas connected dircctly to the back of b l o c k e d f r o m the f o l l o w i n g audio ampli-
when the receiver is b u m p e d , arc o f t e n the radio. A c h a n g i n g local e l e c t r o m a g - f i e r b y the series i n p u t c a p a c i t o r . H o w e v e r ,
blamed on high a u d i o gain, but they are netic environment around the antenna can if the connection to the load is broken, for
actually a s y m p t o m of Local Oscillator be a particular p r o b l e m at V H F and micro- e x a m p l e , by disconnecting the B N C con-
radiation, and can o f t e n be cured by waves where antennas are small and good nector, the r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t j u m p s
improving receiver shielding. reflectors are n u m e r o u s . f r o m 0.2 at 4 5 d e g r e e s to 1.0 at some other
L O radiation and p i c k u p by the antenna a n g l e . T h e signal at the R F port of the
b e c o m e s more significant when either the mixer j u m p s f r o m 2 0 0 |iV at s o m e p h a s e
Local Oscillator amplitude or p h a s e of the L O signal at the to 1 mV at some other phase. At the I F
Radiation R F port of the mixer is time dependent. port, the signal j u m p s f r o m 100 |iV dc to
Local oscillator radiation raises a whole T h e r e are three m a j o r classes of time varia- 5 0 0 |iV dc. T h e " b e f o r e " and " a f t e r " volt-
new set of p r o b l e m s . F i g 8.9 s h o w s a tion in the L O signal: transients, D o p p l e r ages are both dc, but the j u m p between
simple d i r e c t - c o n v e r s i o n receiver f r o n t and m o d u l a t e d scatterers. E a c h of these them is a transient, and is a m p l i f i e d by the
end with local oscillator radiation arriving will be treated separately. audio amplifier. The output of the audio
at the R F input port of the mixer. Since the a m p l i f i e r with a short transient into the
LO is at the R F f r e q u e n c y , there is no pos- input dc blocking c a p a c i t o r is the impulse
sibility lo use R F selectivity to r e d u c e the Transients in LO r e s p o n s e of the amplifier. (If we recorded
level of L O at t h e m i x e r R F port (in a radiation and reflection the shape of the a m p l i f i e r output pulse on
superhet, the L O and R F are separated by O n e of the m a j o r a n n o y a n c e s with a digital oscilloscope, we could then per-
the IF, so the R F selectivity necessary f o r direct conversion receivers is microphonic f o r m an F F T and see the f r e q u e n c y re-
image rejection usually r e d u c e s the L O clicks and p o p s w h e n a n y t h i n g in the sponse of the amplifier.) 4 0 0 flV is a big
signal between the antenna and RF port of system e x p e r i e n c e s a mechanical change. signal, and probably drives the a m p l i f i e r
the mixer). At first glance, it appears that F i g u r e 8.10 s h o w s a mixer and L O system into saturation. T h e output is a very loud
the L O signal at the m i x e r R F port will c o n n e c t e d to a high-gain audio f r e q u e n c y p o p in the h e a d p h o n e s . T h e level of L O
have no practical e f f e c t , b e c a u s e it is IF a m p l i f i e r and a load with s o m e arbi- isolation in a direct conversion receiver
exactly zero beat. T h e mixer multiplies the trary reflection c o e f f i c i e n t . As an ex- can be quickly j u d g e d by simply discon-
RF port L O signal with the L O , and the
ample, suppose that the mixer is a Mini- necting the antenna while listening. A loud
output is pure dc:
Circuits T U F - 1 and the L O is at 50 M H z . p o p indicates poor LO isolation.
T h e data sheet s h o w s 57 dB of L O to R F As shown in equation Eq 8.1, the dc
low pass {a cos(27tf a t + i|>) cos(2rtf 0 t)} port isolation in this mixer at 5 0 M H z . output of the mixer d e p e n d s not only on
= a/2 cos $ Eq 8.1 With a +7 d B m L O , - 5 0 d B m of L O p o w e r the level of the L O signal at the R F port,
leaves the R F p o r t of the mixer and is but also on its p h a s e <|>. An abrupt c h a n g e
. . . w h e r e f 0 is the L O f r e q u e n c y , a is the reflected f r o m the load connected to the in phase with no c h a n g e in reflection coef-
amplitude of the L O leakage, and <j> is the R F port. L e t ' s pick an arbitrary reflection ficient magnitude will also induce a pop in
phase d i f f e r e n c e between the L O and L O c o e f f i c i e n t , say 0.2 at an angle of 45 the h e a d p h o n e s .
leakage. degrees, f o r the load. T h e magnitude of M i x e r L O port to R F port isolation is
D C at the I F will unbalance a balanced the reflection c o e f f i c i e n t will stay the only one way for L O to leak out of the
mixer, which causes it to radiate m o r e LO. same, but the angle will c h a n g e as we vary system and return to the R F port. A n y leak-
T h e additional L O radiation might be the length of 5 0 - Q transmission line con- age f r o m the L O c o m p a r t m e n t results in a
reflected by nearby objects or an imper- necting the mixer to the load. - 5 0 d B m signal that may be picked up by the an-
fect antenna match. If the new term is in in a 50-S2 system is 1 m V peak. T h e mag- tenna. Often a direct conversion rccciver
phase with the original radiated L O , this nitude of the reflection is (0.2)xl mV or that works exceptionally well in the lab
will f u r t h e r u n b a l a n c e the mixer. Thus the 200 n V . The 200-|a V signal reflected f r o m when connected to signal generators ex-
a m o u n t of L O radiation is a function of the the load arrives at the mixer, and with hibits all m a n n e r of p e c u l i a r b e h a v i o r
physical e n v i r o n m e n t near the a n t e n n a . 6 - d B conversion loss and the appropriate when c o n n e c t e d to an antenna. As long as

Direct Conversion Receivers 8.7

the LO leakage is small and docsn' I change directly overhead at 500 miles per hour per square meter) falls off as the surface of
with lime, there will be no observable ef- (220 m/s) would induce a Doppler shift of an expanding sphere:
fects. If the LO leakage changes suddenly, 2x220/40 = 11 Hz. Airliners d o n ' t nor-
1 P
however, there will be an audible re- mally fly that fast when they are close to / \ o
Power Density (watts/meter / = -
sponse. A loose screw in a metal radio the ground, and 11 Hz is well below the 47tR""
cabinct can cause a scratching sound when audio range of interest, so we can ignore
the radio is tuned, by changing the amount Doppler effects at HF. At 2 m, the Doppler Eq 8.3
of LO that leaks out of the case and is shift from a .100 M P H airliner is 220 Hz.
picked up by the antenna. Direct conver- but airplanes flying that fast are normally where P 0 is the total radiated power and R
sion receivers that work well when first a long way f r o m the antenna. At micro- is the distance between the source and the
packaged in a shiny new aluminum enclo- waves, however, the story is entirely dif- power detector
sure often b e c o m e microphonic as they ferent. A 10368 M H z direct conversion At l km. the power density is about
age and the mating surfaces corrode. CW receiver with L O leakage can dctect 10- 1 " watts/m 2 . Suppose this radiated L O
Direct conversion receivers soldered up in all kinds of moving objects. With 3 cm energy bounccs off of an airliner 1 km
boxes made f r o m copper-clad PC board wavelength, the Doppler shift from the away with an effective radar cross section
age more gracefully. airliner becomes 2 x 220/0.03 = 14.7 kHz of 100 m-. 10"s watts will be bounced of
which is at the top of the audible range. the airliner. The spherically expanding
Cars at 50 M P H . however, have 1.47 kHz scattered wave will have a power density
Doppler Effects echoes, right in the middle of the audio of about 1()-' 5 watts/m 2 after traveling the
Since direct conversion receivers can passband for a conventional receiver. An 1-km distance back to the receiver. A
detect differences in the phase of a reflec- audio phase-locked loop to recover the 2-m dipole has an effective capture area of
tion. they are very sensitive to reflections weak echo and an audio frequency countcr about Vi m 2 , so the signal bounced off of
from moving objccts. Doppler becomes can be used to remotely measure the speed the airliner is about 5 x 10"' 6 watts, or
most important when the motion is fast of automobiles at ranges out to a mile or - 1 2 3 dBm at the receiver antenna termi-
enough that the Doppler modulation on the so. with very little radiated L O power. The nals. This is about 10 dB above the noise
radiated L O signal is in the audio ampli- direct conversion microwave receiver is floor of a typical SSB receiver.
fier passband (Fig 8.11). The maximum sensitive not only to constant motion, but A more typical receiver will have much
Doppler shift for a signal radiated from to vibration as well. Above 1 GHz extra lower L O radiation, but moving objccts
point A. reflected from a moving object at care should be taken to make antennas for within 10 meters of the antenna often
point B, and received again back at point direct conversion receivers mechanically result in a detectable output in the antenna.
A is: rigid. Some types of antennas, like horns, A half-wave dipole with a toggle switch in
arc less susceptible to reflecting surface the middle is a useful V H F direct conver-
Doppler Frequency = 2 V (1 A Eq 8.2 vibrations than dish antennas, and Yagi sion receiver diagnostic tool. If you can
antennas with mechanically resonant ele- hear the switch click in the headphones,
At 40 m. an airliner (Fig 8.12) passing ments will induce spectral lines in the you are delecting LO radiation.
receiver audio output that can be seen
using an audio FFT analyzer. Tunable or Common
It is a useful exercise lo estimate how Mode Hum
far away objects can be and still produce
One of the direct conversion receiver
Doppler effects in a receiver. Assume we
peculiarities that puzzled early workers is
have a 2-m receiver with very poor L O
the phenomenon of tunable hum. Receiv-
isolation, radiating 0 d B m f r o m the
ers would have a particularly ragged
Fig 8.11—An illustration of RF Doppler. antenna. Radiated power density (in watts sounding ac line noise h u m that varied
with changes in receiver (uning. This hum
was particularly annoying in receivers that
used a single high-Q tuned circuit at the
R F port of the mixer—the common f o r m
of early direct conversion receiver. There
were numerous theories for tunable h u m —
a few of them humorous in hindsight. In
typical amateur fashion, lore developed
that offered a set of fixes for tunable hum,
including using an outdoor balanced
antenna, using ferrite beads on the power
supply leads, and using a battery power
supply.
There is a difference between wisdom
( d o n ' t eat raw pork) and understanding
(Wow! Look what we see under the micro-
scope!). Wisdom comes from experience,
and understanding comes from study. For
practical people like radio amateurs, wis-
dom usually comes long before complete
understanding. Unfortunately, with the
Fig 8.12—2-m radiation from an airplane 1 km away.

8.8 Chapter 8
 \

DC
Receiver
/ AC Sidebands

1
i1 ,' i1 i 1i !i i ii
480 360 240 120 f
! I! I
120 240
! I ! I
360 480 Hz
0

Fig 8.15—The spectrum of a re-radiated LO.

Fig 8.13—A tunable hum experiment.

(fnFTbr^
\ the LO to the RF port of the mixer (there
W2
usually is), then at some point in the RF
tuning, the hum will drop into the noise
floor. Often the hum is eliminated at a
point in the tuning where the sensitivity
has been reduced to an unacceptable level.
Tt is interesting to observe that tunable
Fig 8.14—A power supply schematic. 555 hum is absent from image-reject direct
Timer conversion receivers. Common mode
hum may still be present, but it is not tun-
able. An image-reject direct conversion
proliferation of computer design, we are receiver has two mixers with LO (or RF)
entering an age where folks are reluctant C-||||-i-] 9 V ports 90° out of phase. After some base-
to do anything that can't be modeled math- band phase shifting, the IF outputs of these
ematically and simulated. It is a good thing Fig 8.16—A hum probe. two mixers are added. If one mixer has
our ancestors weren't saddled with such zero common-mode hum, the other will
nonsense, or they would have continued have maximum hum. The sum will then
sticking their hands in the fire until medi- have constant common-mode hum, re-
cal science told them to stop. On the other waveform is very rich in harmonics. The gardless of any phase shifts in spacc or in
hand, it is understanding that permits us to spectrum of a typical re-radiated LO signal the receiver RF path. Experimenters with
push the state of the art. is shown in Fig 8.15. The LO signal itself imagc-rejcct direct conversion receivers
We now understand tunable hum well is at dc, and doesn't make il through the who break the I and Q signal paths and lis-
enough to dispense with the ferrite beads audio amplifier (although it may unbal- ten to each channel separately often com-
on battery power supplies and use indoor ance the mixer—increasing the strength of plain that "one channel has a lot of hum, but
antennas on direct conversion receivers the radiated LO), but the sidebands are the other is fine" and try to eliminate the
if we must, but much of old lore is still recovered by the mixer, and particularly hum in the "bad channel" with improved
good. Battery supplies and a full-size out- the higher harmonics at 240 Hz, 300 Hz, bypassing and power supply decoupling,
door antenna are recommended for 420 Hz etc. are subject to the full gain of which is, of course, ineffective.
reasons other than hum elimination. the audio amplifier. It is interesting to study receiver LO
Fig 8.13 shows a typical tunable hum This explains the hum, and the harmonic leakage with a "common-mode hum
experiment. The direct conversion re- content explains the raunchy sound, but probe" consisting of an antenna, diode
ceiver is connected to an antenna directly why is it tunable? Refer again to equation modulator, and modulating signal source.
on the back panel. Right next to the an- Eq 8.1. The IF output of the mixer is a A modulating tone should be chosen that
tenna is a power cord going to a plug-in dc function not only of the amplitude of the is not harmonically related to 60 Hz. At
power supply. The power supply cord is a signal at the RF port, but the phase <|>. Tn HF and VHF. a small loop antenna with a
parasitic element of the antenna system. fact, if the phase of the LO signal at the RF diode and a 555 timer works well. At
The power supply schematic is shown in port is exactly 90° different from the LO microwaves, a dipole consisting o f a diode
Fig 8.14. Note that the power supply sche- drive, there is no detection of the sidebands and its leads serves well. Fig 8.16
matic is almost identical to the diode bal- at all. With a sharp single tuned circuit on illustrates the circuit. If the probes are
anced modulator in the previous chapter. the RF port, the phase varies more rapidly small enough, they may be used to find the
The modulating frequency is 120 Hz, due than the amplitude response as the tuning LO leaks in a direct conversion system.
to the full-wave rectifier. The LO is picked moves through resonance. At resonance,
up from the antenna wire, and then re- the phase shift through the tuned circuit
radiated with the 120-Hz sidebands. This will be zero, but off resonance the phase Eliminating LO
wouldn't be much more than an annoy- will smoothly tune from +90° to -90°. If Radiation Effects
ance, except that the 120-Hz modulating there is some other phase shift path from Understanding common mode hum and

Direct Conversion Receivers 8.9

other L O radiation s y m p t o m s allows us to lation at 144 M H z . while a g r o u n d e d gate is r e c o m m e n d e d for all direct conversion
eliminate them. If we d o not permit any U 3 1 0 with 10-dB gain has 2 8 - d B m e a - applications. T h e most e f f e c t i v e way to
L O signal to leak out into the R F environ- sured reverse isolation. A cascaded pair of prevent L O radiation f r o m c o m p o n e n t s is
ment around the antenna, then c o m m o n g r o u n d e d gale U 3 1 0 s on the input to a to e n c l o s e the entire L O in a shielded
m o d e h u m cannot occur. There are several direct-conversion 2 m receiver can e f f e c - enclosure. Small tin cans work well, and
primary leaks that we must consider: tively e l i m i n a t e L O e n e r g y c o u p l e d can be easily soldered in place. A PC board
1. L O coupling through the mixer to the through the mixer through the R F amplifi- enclosure with soldered s e a m s is superior
R F port and through the RF circuitry onto ers o n t o the a n t e n n a . At m i c r o w a v e s to a m a c h i n e d a l u m i n u m box held together
the antenna. the d i f f e r e n c e s can be even larger. T h e with screws.
2. L O energy radiating f r o m L O c o m p o - 12.5-dB gain M A R - 2 has reverse isolation It is meaningless to enclose the LO if
nents on the circuit board. of 17 dB at 1296 M H z . while the 16-dB there are holes in the enclosure with wires
3. L O e n e r g y on wires connected to Ihe gain T r i Q u i n t 9 1 3 2 has more than 4 5 - d B going in and out. The wire will pick up
radio cabinet (Fig 8.17). reverse isolation. energy inside the box and c o n d u c t it
R e d u c i n g the a m o u n t of L O energy at Even if the m i x e r has good L O to R F outside, where it can be radiated or con-
the antenna c o n n e c t o r involves mixer L O port isolation a n d the R F a m p l i f i e r has ducted onto other wiring. T h e L O signal
to R F port isolation, eliminating coupling good r e v e r s e isolation, the L O can still itself should c o m e out through coax or a
f r o m the LO c o m p o n e n t s into the R F c o u p l e onto the antenna c o n n e c t o r if there coax connector, and dc wiring should use
stages, and the r e v e r s e isolation of any is no shielding inside the radio case. The e f f e c t i v e f e e d t h r o u g h c a p a c i t o r s and
a m p l i f i e r s in the system. There are big antenna connector should connect to the d e c o u p l i n g n e t w o r k s . T h e most careful
d i f f e r e n c e s in the L O to R F isolation of R F a m p l i f i e r input with small coax, prop- V F O compartment shielding can be ren-
various mixers. S o m e unbalanced mixers erly grounded at each end. dered useless if the V F O capacitor shaft
have no L O to R F isolation at all. T h e All of the c o m p o n e n t s in the 1 , 0 circuit goes through a hole in the c o m p a r t m e n t
mixers most suitable f o r direct conversion can radiate L O energy. T o gain some intu- wall. Capacitor shafts can be significant
receivers are balanced. At 7 M H z . the L O ition for h o w e f f e c t i v e c o m p o n e n t s are as radiators if they are not grounded to the
to R F isolation of a T U F - I mixer is more a n t e n n a s , c o m p a r e their size in w a v e - wall near the entry hole (Fig 8.18). At
than 7 0 d B and the SBL-1 is around 65 d B . lengths to the size of a m o b i l e w h i p VIIF, a few inches of tuning control shaft
This is sufficient for acceptable direct con- antenna on 80 meters. A typical m o b i l e through the radio panel can c o u p l e L O
version receiver p e r f o r m a n c e with n o R F whip might be t w o meters tall, 0.025 w a v e - energy to the outside world. A grounded
amplifier. At 144 M H z , the TUF-1 L O to lengths at 80 m. In a 4 0 - m V F O , the indi- pane] bearing is one option, but the com-
R F isolation has d r o p p e d to 50 dB and the vidual c o m p o n e n t s are very small in wave- mon 1/4-inch sleeve types d o n ' t provide
SBL-1 has dropped to 45 dB. This is low lengths, and would t h e r e f o r e m a k e poor reliable grounding, and will result in com-
enough to cause problems. radiators. In a 2 - m V F O , 0 . 0 2 5 wave- mon mode scratchcs as the radio is tuned.
Additional isolation can be obtained by lengths is only 0.05 meters, or about two A belter solution is to use a grounded
using an R F amplifier ahead of the mixer, inches. A two-inch long PC board trace sleeve bearing wilh a 1/4-inch non-metal-
as r e c o m m e n d e d in the excellent papers c o u l d be as e f f e c t i v e a radiator as an lic rod for the tuning s h a f t , and a shaft
by N i c k H a m i l t o n . 1 6 This is good practice 80-meter mobile whip. Small magnetic an- coupler to the capacitor shafl inside the
e v e n at l o w e r H F b a n d s w h e r e an R F tennas can be very e f f e c t i v e . T h i n k about sealed V F O c o m p a r t m e n t .
amplifier may not be needed for noise fig- the size in w a v e l e n g t h s of an A M radio The same rules for keeping L O energ}
ure. It is i m p o r t a n t to note that reverse ferrite loopstick. Small tuning coils and f r o m radiating to the inside of the radio box
isolation varies widely between a m p l i f i e r R F c h o k e s are o f t e n the m o s t significant and being pickcd up by the RF circuitry
types. A M i n i - C i r c u i t s M A R - 2 with sources of L O energy inside a radio cabi- apply to keeping L O energy from radiating
12.5-dB gain has only I 8 - d B reverse iso- net. T h e use of shielded coils and toroids to the outside world on power supply.
/

Fig 8.17—A wire pickup in an LO box. Fig 8.18—Capacitor shaft pickup in an LO box.

8.10 Chapter 8
 -taker, microphone and key leads. All dc
."J audio leads should be properly
. ;.oupled for RF. This can be a problem
: speaker leads, since bypassing them to
chassis of a direct conversion receiver
• .:h high audio gain will introduce ground
«->p feedback. One way around the prob-
•;TI is to use a separate powered speaker,
-•--•ferably with internal batteries, plugged
•,:o the headphone jack of the receiver.
A conservatively designed and built di- 100 dB
Audio Gain
rect conversion receiver is double
shielded, with internal enclosures around Fig 8.19—AM demodulator.
the VFO and RF circuitry, often a small
»teel or mumetal enclosure to reduce ac
Sum pickup around the audio preanip
receivers with poor shielding have a dif- done continually in real time, it must be
inductors, and an outer shielded enclosure.
ferent set of problems, like multiple inter- recognized that adaptive])' nulling a signal
All RF connections are made using
nally generated spurious responses, poor by adding a sine-wave adjusted for precise
Aielded connectors, preferably BNC at
image and IF rejection, and responses to amplitude and opposite phase is a form of
HF and SMA at VHF and up, and all dc and
strong out-of-band signals near harmon- phase-loeked-loop. Since both phase and
Midio connections to the outside world
ics of the oscillators. Good mechanical amplitude are variables, loop stability
properly bypassed. Care is also exercised
« j that mechanical connections like vol- construction,/shielding of individual analysis becomes complicated. Designing
ume controls and the main tuning knob stages, and proper bypassing and an LO suppression loop that offers real
••haft do not conduct signals into or out of decoupling of power supply and audio benefit and remains stable over a wide
the receiver enclosure. leads makes a tremendous improvement range of operating conditions is an ambi-
in performance, whether the receiver is a tious exercise. Another difficulty is that
One technique that has been part of the conventional superhet, direct conversion, intentionally unbalancing the mixer to
Sore for years is using a VFO followed by a obtain a precise amplitude and phase car-
or a spectrum analyzer. Good mechanical
frequency doubler. A balanced mixer is
construction is too expensive for mass rier signal will null the LO at the expense
insensitive to energy at 1/2 or twice the LO
produced or even kit radios, but is just a of mixer 2nd order distortion performance.
frequency. The expression below shows
matter of planning, carc, some worthwhile
multiplication of a low level 1/2 frequency
>ignal with the LO. There is no output at dc.
mechanical skills, and time for a designer- AM Demodulation
builder of a single radio. This is one area
where a designer-builder can far exceed A common problem with direct conver-
a cos [27t(2f0)t + <|>] cos 27tf0t = the mechanical quality and electrical sion receivers is demodulation of AM sig-
i/2 cos [27c(3f„)t + <(>] + a/2 cos f2jtf„t + <|>] integrity of a mass-produced receiver built nals anywhere in the RF passband of the
Eq 8.4 under severe time and budget constraints, receiver. This is most often observed on
for example, a Collins 75S3C. 40 m when foreign broadcast signals are very
Care must be taken to avoid radiating the strong. Fig 8.19 illustrates the problem. Any
frequency doubled signal, but a passive dou- mechanism in the mixer that produces a dc
bler right at the mixer port could be used. Adaptive Mixer Balance output at the mixer IF port from a signal at
Then only the actual doubler circuitry must Some balanced mixer types may be eas- the RF port will result in the envelope of an
he shielded, and there are not even any dc ily adjusted for LO radiation. The familiar AM signal appearing as weak audio, right at
power leads connected to stages carrying the "carrier balancc" resistor adjustment in the inpul to a 100-dB gain audio amplifier.
cn-frequency LO signal. In particular, the Gilbert Cell mixers is an example. It is DC outputs occur when a mixer has second
VFO shaft and capacitor body only have possible, in concept at least, to measure order distortion. Second order distortion is
half-frequency energy, and may be left the instantaneous LO level at the receiver common when balanced mixers become
unshielded. The 40-m sleeping bag radio antenna terminal, and vary a set of volt- unbalanced. Since the usual way that bal-
described later was built to test frequency- ages in the mixer to force the LO leakage anced mixers unbalance is the presence of
doubling, and there is no separate shielding to zero. This technique permits eliminat- LO signal at the mixer RF port, it is evident
around the half-frequency VFO. As a fringe ing not only stray LO energy from inside that AM demodulation is a symptom of
benefit, a CW transmitter using a frequency the mixer, but energy that arrives via other both poor LO to RF isolation and high audio
doubled VFO is much less susceptible to paths by canceling it with an equal-and- gain. Improving the shielding around the
chirp than one with the VFO operating opposite mixer leakage signal. The mixer VFO, and LO to RF isolation often
directly on frequency. adjustment may be done once, during improve a receiver's immunity to AM
It might seem that it takes an awful lot of alignment or each time the radio is pow- demodulation. Receivers that use VFOs op-
extra effort to build a good direct conver- ered up, and then the balance adjustment erating at half (ortwice) the signal frequency
sion receiver than to build a good superhet. locked in for normal operation. usually have better AM rejection than
This is not true. A good superhet requires There are sobering cautions that need to receivers with fundamental VFOs, due to
exactly the same construction. Superhel be mentioned. If the balance adjustment is improved LO to RF isolation.

Direct Conversion Receivers 8.11

8.4 MIXERS FOR DIRECT CONVERSION RECEIVERS

The general properties of mixers are rations have dynamic range and noise other at 77K. It is very important to mea-
covered in a separate chapter, but the front- advantages over both Gilbert Cells and sure the resistance of the cold resistor, to
end of a direct conversion receiver is a diode rings. Considerably less has been make sure it is still 50 Q. Most resistors
unique application that puts some differ- published about passive FET mixers, change value when the temperature drops
ent demands on the mixer. To reduce LO although they are standard in cellular tele- that low. A series or parallel combination
radiation to an acceptable level. LO port to phone handsets. This is an important area can be experimentally determined that
RF port isolation is needed. This usually for amateur experimentation. Experiments provides a cold 50-Q resistor. The output
requires a balanced mixer, but some other are encouraged using both integrated quad of the audio amplifier is connected to an
topologies are promising. The anti-paral- analog switches and matched FETs on a averaging true RMS voltmeter reading in
lel diode pair driven by a 1/2 frequency LO single die in small multi-pin packages. dB. and also a speaker or headphones. It is
has been reported to work well, but has Since the LO drive to a passive FET mixer useful to listen w'hile making the measure-
limited dynamic range and critical LO goes to the high-impedance FET gate, little ments. because the difference between hot
drive level requirements. Shunt FETs in LO drive power is needed. The passive and cold resistor noise can be heard in the
switch mode have built-in LO to RF isola- headphones, and the measurements will be
FET itself doesn't have a power supply.
tion. A number of experimenters have corrupted by any extraneous interference
Thus passive FET mixers for direct con-
pickup, which can also be heard on the
reported good success with different con- version receivers offer the potential for the
headphones. Fig 8.20 gives noise figure
figurations of series FET switches using highest performance al the lowest operat-
as a function of the difference between
CMOS parts for several decades. The most ing current of any mixer type.
the noise output from the hot and cold re-
common direct conversion mixers arc Gil-
sistors in dB. The noise figure of the
bert Cells like the NE602 and LM1496. and
diode rings, both homebrew and commer-
Direct Conversion grounded base audio preamplifiers with
cial. Gilbert Cells have usually been used Noise Figure diplexcrs in the receiver circuits in this text
ranges from 5 to 7 dB.
lor low-cost-low-performance applica- The noise figure of a direct conversion
tions, but they should not be ruled out for receiver mixer is generally different than The second step in the measurement
higher performance receivers. the noise figure of the same mixer used in process is to measure the conversion loss
The important specifications for a a superhet application, because of 1/f of the mixer. This can be done with a
direct conversion front-end mixer are noise. Mixer noise figure does not have a known RF signal at the RF port, a low-pass
noise figure (particularly 1/f noise figure neat and tidy definition, and mixer 1/f filter and 50-Q termination on the IF
when used with an audio TF), two-tone noise is even less well understood. Be- port, and an RMS voltmeter across the
third-order dynamic range, 2nd order cause of 1/f noise, diode ring mixers have 50-Q resistor.
dynamic range, and LO to RF port isola- noise figures in direct conversion receiver The last step in the measurement is to
tion. Conversion gain or loss is less impor- applications thai range from within IdB of measure the excess IF noise when the
tant. as it can be made up with gain their conversion loss to 1 5 o r 2 0 d B worse. mixer is connected to the audio amplifier
elsewhere, and can not make up for poor The increased noise figure is a result of and the LO is turned on. The input to the
noise figure. excess noise at the IF port when the mixer audio amplifier is switched between a
is driven by the LO with the RF port termi- room temperature resistor and the mixer,
nated in a room temperature 50-Q load. with LO drive and the RF port terminated
Mixer The noise spectrum is not necessarily a in a room temperature 50-Q load. At 14
recommendations smooth 1 /f curve, so merely observing the MHz, a small sample of TUF-1 mixers
shape of the noise spectrum across a re- produced between I and 6 dB more noise
For the simplest direct conversion
stricted audio passband is not enough to output than the 50-Q room temperature
receivers, Gilbert Cells offer good perfor-
identify 1/f noise. Mixer noise figure is termination. Two homebrew diode ring
mance at low current. The gain of a Gilbert
further complicated by the presence of mixers using hand-wound toroids and
Cell does not enhance receiver perfor-
noise on desired and image frequencies, 1N4184 diodes had less than 1-dB excess
mance. since it occurs before any effective
noise in the bands around the harmonics noise. A small stJmplc of TUF-5 mixers
channel selectivity, but it does reduce the
of the LO, and the fact that the different operated at 1296 MHz and ADE-35 mix-
total receiver parts count. For some appli-
contributions to mixer noise figure may be ers at 2304 MHz had more than 10-dB ex-
cations—carrying a rig into the mountains
partially correlated. Rather than attempt- cess noise. Special low-l/f noise diodes
for a casual non-contest weekend back-
ing to precisely define direct conversion
packing trip, for example—the receiver is
mixer noise figure, this text will present a
far less likely to fail from overload than
few measurements that provide some
from dead batteries. For such applications, £0
insight into noise in receiver systems, and ? 6
"performance"' takes on a different mean-
will at least allow comparisons between
ing, and a receiver that draws 5 mA outper- §> 5
different mixers and direct conversion C
forms one that draws 50 mA. For home
receiver front-ends. O
station use or any kind of contest environ- 3 3
CL
ment, a receiver with poor dynamic range
The first measurement is the noise fig-
can be as useless as one with dead batter- 8 2
ure of the audio amplifier itself. We have
ies. and far more frustrating. For such ap- made this measurement with a hot-cold
?
o
1

plications, diode rings are recommended. noise source. The audio amplifier is run at •5 0
*
2 4 6 10 12 14
For the designer builder, they have the full gain in an environment with no hum or Noise Figure
advantage of a wealth of applications other noise pickup. The input to the audio
information and a published schematic. amplifier is switched between two 50-Q Fig 8.20—Hot-cold resistor noise figure
Passive FET mixers in various configu- resistors, one at room temperature and the differential.

8.12 Chapter 8
ire used in 10-GHz direct conversion re- fier with enough gain to define the system Based on these limited measurements
eeivers for Dopplcr Radar applications. noise figure. In this case it may be benefi- and theory, a few guidelines for direct
This is a very small data set, and it is un- cial to include a resistive attenuator on the conversion receivers may be suggested. A
wise to draw firm conclusions based on mixer output to optimize mixer dynamic homebrew diode ring with common
this limited information. More measure- range. 1N4148 silicon sw itching diodes, as used
ments are needed. When used ahead of a DSB direct con- in Roy Lewallen's "Optimized QRP
When the excess noise is low. a reason- version receiver, a low-noise RF amplifier Transceiver" 1 7 , with low-loss RF input
able approximation to direct conversion will have equal noise output on the desired circuitry and a grounded base audio am-
receiver noise figure is just the baseband and image bands. The image noise will plifier. will provide an effective receiver
amplifier noise figure plus the mixer con- reduce receiver output signal-to-noise noise figure around 10 dB. which is usu-
version loss. When excess mixer noise is ratio by 3 dB. Image noise may be sup- ally better than is needed at 7 MHz. Be-
present, the mixer loss and noise lend to pressed by a narrow filler after (he RF cause the LO to RF isolation of homebrew
dominate receiver noise figure, and amplifier (practical for fixed-frequency mixers may not be as good as commercial
baseband amplifier noise figure is less applications), or by phasing, discussed in packaged mixers using matched quads of
important. One experiment that may be the following chapter. Schottky diodes, the use of an RF ampli-
done on the bench is to add attenuation Mixers with conversion gain, for fier ahead of the mixer is recommended.
between the mixer and baseband amplifier example the Gilbert Cells used in LM1496 This will tend to negate any 1/f noise ad-
»hile observing-ceceiver sensitivity. A and NE602 integrated circuits, reduce the vantage of the homebrew switching diode
3-dB 50-11 attenuator will drop the desired need for low-noise audio gain. The NE602 mixer. In our HF designs, wc tend to use
wgnals by about 3 dB. but it may also has low noise figure, which makes it small commercial packaged mixers, and
drop the receiver noise floor by about attractive for simple receivers without RF about 10 dB of high reverse-isolation RF
J dB, leaving the signal-to-noise ratio amplification. The LM1496, biased for gain. This results in receivers that have
unchanged. Signals do not drop by pre- improved mixer linearity, is a better choice noise figures in the 10-dB range, have very
cisely 3 dB, because the mixer impedance when an RF amplifier is used. In DSB low LO radiation, and work well with com-
»nd the baseband amplifier input imped- direct conversion receiver applications mon commercial packaged diode ring
ance are not exactly 50 Q. with no provisions for suppressing image mixers. At VHF, we usually use about
One way around the mixer excess noise noise, each of these has the same 3-dB 20 dB of RF gain, and phasing to suppress
uncertainty is to use a low-noise RFampli- image noise penalty. image noise.

8.5 A MODULAR DIRECT CONVERSION RECEIVER

The "High Performance Direct Conver- for receiver sensitivity below 10 MHz. but the antenna. Third, with a buffer amplifier
sion Receiver" published in August 1992 in a direct conversion application, there between the antenna connection and the
QSP* is a good benchmark. The ten-year- are other benefits to using an RF prcamp. mixer R F port, the mi xer environment docs
old design stands up well against more First, with RF gain up front, there is less not change when the antenna moves in the
recent work, and the description is recom- need to design for low loss through the breeze. Fourth. Direct Conversion Receiv-
mended reading. The circuitry presented mixer IF termination and diplexer net- ers need good low-pass filters on the
here takes a slightly different approach, work. This permits the baseband circuitry inputs, and the low-pass matching net-
and takes advantage of a few improve- to be optimized for selectivity and proper works in and out of the FET provide all the
ments in our understanding during the past termination of both the mixer and diplexer attenuation needed. Finally, the simple
decade. A basic 40-m circuit is shown, but network. Second, a grounded-gate FET mute switch turns the R F low-noise-
few changes are needed for operation on amplifier typically has over 40 dB of re- amplifier into a strong 40-dB attenuator,
other bands. verse isolation, which adds directly to the which prevents any strong signals (for
The block diagram is shown in Fig 8.21 LO to RF isolation of the mixer, and helps example from a companion transmitter)
and the schematic in Fig 8.22. The antenna reduce the amount of LO radiation from from arriving at the mixer diodes.
is connected to a grounded-gatc FET RF
low-noise amplifier. The mixer is a Mini-
Circuits TUF-3. with an audio diplexer and
low-noise headphone amplifier. The VXO Low-Pass
circuit provides clean sine-wave +7 dBm Tuned RF
Low Noise Audio Outsit
AmpMer Diode
drive to the mixer. For speaker output, a Audio Preamp AmpBfier
battery powered external speaker from Ring M t a r Volume
RadioShack. or an amplified computer ) I ^s Diplexer
Audio
* r s •
speaker is recommended. ' I /
1-10 dB -6dB -2dB +50 dB
Rller

-6dB
f L?
+50 dB
1

RF Low-Noise Amplifier
The receiver gain distribution was de-
signed for approximately 10-dB of RF
gain ahead of the mixer. RF gain ahead of
a diode ring mixer is not normally needed Fig 8.21—A modular receiver block diagram

Direct Conversion Receivers 8.13

 121
180 10k 51 FT37-43
|—\A/V 1— - v w r
T TL+
- v w
open to I -L
mute J o.i u J 0,1 u J JlOuF Low Noise Audio
J6 i 7 MHz RF Amplifier
Amplifier
2T30-6 <
361 361 191 ( Mixer
130-6
0.1 UF 22 T30-6 T30-6 I 0.1 UF
II
TUF-3 Audio Diplexsr
Antenna 3Mw
5
100pl
I J31D
,00pf 390pJ 270pJ
o
220pF 3 3mH eauF

-wv- —Ih^-

f •© 1 5uF
u2 r n «
~J~ 4mA O
330 330
I Poly

Universal VXO
0.1 UF 1.0uF
•7 dBm 33uF
Poly 22 <
ilOnF Xi100
I 11 p J - N - W N - !
12 ttrifllar FB -L -L
2401 43 pXc( 100

470 pF for 3.5 MHz 4.7 uH to 3.5 MHz

XC 100 220 pF for 7 MHz X i 1 00 2.2 uH to 7 MHz
100 pF for 14 MHz 1.1 UH to 14 MHz
68 pF for 21 MHz 750 nH for 21 MHz

note 220 pF below 10 MHz, 150 pF 10 to 15 MHz; 100 pF above 15 MHz

+ 12
Headphone Amplifier

Poly Poty Poly

| If 1 I If j I If 1

| p^rnn I I I I I
Phones

A / W —
100uF !> 150

' ' y T T *i 1 ' W T T ' T I V • I

J_ 100mH _[_ 100mH J_ 100mH J_

0,39UFF O.BSUFF
Poly J. Poly J. 0.56UFF
Poly J . 0.39UF|*
Poly J.
Audio Diplexer standard design, very similar to the head- replaced to put the receiver on a different
phone amplifier used in the Binaural frequency, or borrowed for a different
The diplexer network is designed to pro-
Receiver 1 9 published in March '99 QST. project.
vide good selectivity before any wideband
Generally speaking, receiver circuits
vxo
audio gain. This greatly improves the
built prototype-style on separate picccs of
receiver close-in dynamic range, and per-
unetched copper-clad circuit board work
mits the use of a grounded-base audio LN A The V X O circuit is another old favorite, better than PC board circuits. This is
operating at low current (0.5 niA) to set the evolved over many years f r o m a circuit because the unctched copper-clad board
impedance to 50 Q . This audio diplexer is published by Joe Reisert 2 0 as a frequency permits both the short ground leads
a little more selective than the ones standard. There are a number of subtleties, required by RF circuitry and the single-
described in the phasing chapter, because including stiff regulation of the voltage on point grounding required by low-fre-
there is np^ieed to precisely match ampli- all three terminals of the oscillator transis- quency high gain amplifiers. Receivers
tude and phase between two channels. tor and the use of a Zener diode operated that must be mass-produced using P C
in the 4.7-V zero-temperature-coefficient boards often require many PC layout revi-
Audio low-noise sweet-spot. This V X O circuit tunes over sions to overcome the problems that arise
amplifier about 5 kHz at 7 M H z . provides +7 dBm when the prototype circuits are transferred
output and drifts a few Hz at turn-on. to PC board construction.
There are many audio low-noise ampli-
fiers that will work in direct conversion The more components a receiver mod-
receivers, but this one works well and has Construction ule has, the more practical it is to spend
been widely duplicated for several time developing a PC board design. For
The receiver was built on separate
decades. It has no flaws that impair perfor- simple circuitry like the modules pre-
pieccs of unetched copper-clad circuit
mance in this application, so the design sented here, it is often more practical to
board. The R F amplifier is on one piece,
effort was focused elsewhere. use prototype construction, and avoid the
the V X O on a second piece, and the mixer
headaches associated with PC board
and audio amplifier on a third piece. The
Filters audio filters are on separate pieces. There
ground faults.

Passive audio filters work well, draw no arc a number of reasons for building the
current, and use inexpensive components receiver on separate boards. The first is Applications
available f r o m several sources. The SSB entirely practical—cach piecc is an
evening project than can be built and tested The modular high-performance direct
and C W bandwidth filters shown arc old
as a stand-alone module. The sccond con- conversion receiver presented here works
favorites.
sideration is equally important: the R F equally well connected to an antenna, or
amplifier is good for only one band; the as part of a superhet receiver. The well-
Headphone amplifier V X O can be easily modified for different defined near 5 0 - i l input impedance to the
The headphone amplifier provides H F f r e q u e n c i e s ; and the mixer-audio RF preamp provides a good termination
audio gain to boost the signals from the low- board can be used on any frequency from for simple crystal filters, and the VXO cir-
levels in the signal processing components 50 kHz through 250 MHz. By making the cuit is a good B F O with enough tuning
up to comfortable listening volume. This is a pieces separate, any of them may be range to cover both sidebands.

8.6 DC RECEIVER A D V A N T A G E S
For much of their history, direct con- cuit in Fig 8.7. Build it ugly style in a few her if she hears the kind of weak, warbly
version receivers have been viewed as an hours the Thursday evening before Field one and she say yes and then 1 tell her he's
adequate, simple substitute for more seri- Day or the November CW Sweepstakes, in St. Petersburg. Russia—her eves light
ous receivers. It is time to redefine direct string up a temporary 40-m dipole Friday up. Now that's magic!
conversion as an alternative architecture evening, and spend a few hours over the Superhets for SSB and CW have images,
that poses a unique set of problems, but weekend listening. Simplicity is appealing. higher order undesired responses, and
also offers significant advantages. Some Much of this text is devoted to pushing the internally generated birdies. A direct con-
of the important advantages arc: performance envelope for designer built version receiver with a low-pass filter
radio equipment. Spending two years between the antenna and mixer hears only
building a receiver system that offers an signals within a few kHz of the LO. Period.
1. Simplicity
incremental performance improvement It is theoretically possible to design
2. Few spurious responses
that must be measured to be perceived is an superhet receivers for arbitrarily good
3. High spurious-free dynamic range
interesting activity, but with a serious flaw. image and IF rejection, but in practice
4.Very low distortion of the desired
Suppose the number to be exceeded is the superhets must be designed to place
signal
magic "100-dB SSB Bandwidth Two-Tone images and IFs in parts of the spectrum
5. Frequency range independence
Third Order Dynamic Range." Magic to with few strong signals. When image sig-
6. Compatibility with DSP-based receiver
whom? Certainly not my teen-age daugh- nals are 90-dB stronger than the desired
architectures
ter! But she will spend a few minutes signal, they will find a way into the re-
7. Compatibility with adaptive receivers
politely listening to CW oil headphones ceiver and causc problems. This severely
and antennas
connected to a hand full of parts with a constrains the choices of IF for frequency
9-V battery and some wires going out into bands in heavily used portions of the spec-
Simplicity is best illustrated by the cir- the trees in the back yard—and when 1 ask trum. For example, what IF should be used

Direct Conversion Receivers 8.15

 External Nase
Lj
H-
m
FW

Lr RF
Filter
MIxar

fl Audio
Amplifier

Desired Signs!

u
n Local
OsdSalor

Fig 8.23—Advanced receiver architecture.

f o r a 14410 148 M H z receiver? The indus- to appear in amateur equipment. the same sense that the term ""wireless"
try standard IFs at 455 kHz, 10.7 M H z . The same block diagram works for allows people who have no understanding
and 21.4 M H z provide a selection of off- direct conversion receivers whether the of radio to claim the title Wireless Expert.
the-shelf filters. 455 kHz is too low for frequency of interest is 24 kHz or 24 GHz. Such good natured competition between
adequate image rejection. 10.7 is useful, A superhet designer will draw completely traditional radio designers and digital sig-
but a bit low for providing good image different block diagrams for a SSB nal processing artists is a natural part of
rejection across a 4 - M H z wide frequency receiver for those two frequencies. Fur- the evolution. Both camps need to realize
range without retuning the R F amplifier. thermore. superhet frequency conversion that receivers of the future will use both
21,4 MHz is attractive, except that with plans must be designed with an under- skill sets. There is magic in simple radio
low-side injection, the image falls in the standing of the levels of all the potential circuits, but there is also magic in watch-
FM broadcast band, and with high side in- sources of image, higher-order spurious ing a signal below the noise level appear in
jection. the image is in T V channel 12. responses, and birdies. A receiver opti- a waterfall plot on a computer monitor.
Direct conversion offers a technique for mized for 10 M H z might have a com- Finally, in it's second hundred years,
tuning across a wide frequency range and pletely different frequency conversion radio will experience significant changes.
recovering 10-nV signals surrounded by plan than one optimized specifically for For six dccades the usual way to collect
10-mV interfering signals. That is 1 2 0 d B 14 M H z . For the amateur interested in a and process HF and VHF signals has been
of spurious-free dynamic range. the entire spectrum, the lessons learned a Yagi-Uda antenna with a single feed line
Because direct conversion receivers and the time spent optimizing a 10-MHz connected to the back of a complex
have only one frequency conversion stage, direct conversion receiver apply j u s t as superhet receiver. Space diversity and
and it operates before significant receiver well to a 2.4-GHz satellite receiver. adaptive antenna interference cancellation
gain, mixer distortion does not signifi- As D S P systems improve and become have been impractical because of the
cantly contribute to in-band inter- more widely used and understood, it amount of hardware required and severe
modulation. The quality of the recovered becomes less and less attractive to com- amplitude a n a p h a s e matching constraints.
audio is almost entirely determined by the promise the signal with multiple fre- The hardware problem is solved if each
distortion properties of the audio ampli- quency conversion. A G C . and crystal dipole antenna element has its own direct
fier chain. Since audio engineers have filter delay and ripple before it enters the conversion down-converter, all of them
spent decades reducing the distortion of DSP. Direct Conversion offers a way to driven by a single LO, and each connected
high-gain audio amplifiers, simply follow- simply translate a desired radio signal to to a separate input port of a computer
ing a diode-ring mixer with a low-noise the frequency range needed by the A to sound card. The actual hardware is very
preamplifier and high-fidelity audio D converters ahead of a D S P engine simple, and with more than two dipoles,
amplifier will produce a receiver with sig- (Fig 8.23). Soft-Radio advocates call this image-reject techniques can be combined
nificantly lower in-channel distortion than Direct Sampling and claim that there is no with noise cancellation in the arrival-angle
any commercial superhet. Audio engi- conventional radio at all—the computer is domain and adaptive C W interference
neers have also developed low-distortion connected straight to the antenna. Such cancellation in the frequency domain to
gain control and gain compression tech- claims obscure the truth. Direct Sampling produce an output signal-to-noise and
niques thai operate strictly at audio, and is just a different and convenient name for interference ratio f a r better than the best
that "audio A G C " technology is beginning entirely conventional I and Q mixing, in conventional, single feed line system.

8.16 Chapter 8
REFERENCES
W. Hayward and D. DcMaw, Solid 9. R. Campbell, "Single-Conversion 1995, ARRL Publication Number 200, pp
>"jie Design for the Radio Amateur, Microwave SSB/CW Transceivers." QST. 94-106.
; K R L . 1986,
May. 1993. pp 29-34. 14. R. Campbell, "The Next Generation
; R Lewallen. " A n Optimized QRP 10. R. Campbell. " A Single Board No- of No-Tune Transverters.'" Proceedings of
T'jnsceiver." QST. Aug. 1980, pp 14-19, Tune Transceiver for 1296 MHz." Microwave Update '95, Arlington, T X ,
5. G. A. Breed, "'A New Breed of Proceedings of Microwave Update 93, October. 1995. A R R L Publication
teceiver," QST. Jan, 1988. pp 16-23. Atlanta. GA, ARRL Publication Number Number 208, pp 1-22.
4 R. Campbell, "Getting Started on the 174. 1993. pp 17-38. 15. R. Campbell, " A Small High-
Microwave Bands," QST, Feb, 1992, pp 11. R. Campbell. "Subharmonic IF Performance C W Transceiver," QST,
15-39. Receivers," reprinted from the North Nov, 1995. pp 41-46.
Texas Microwave Society Feedpoint in 16. N. Hamilton."lmprovmg Direct
1 R. Campbell. " N o Tune Microwave Proceedings of Microwave Update '94,
Transceivers." Proceedings of Microwave Conversion Receiver Design." Radio
Estes Park, CO. A R R L Publication Communications, Apr, 1991.
Update '92, Rochester, N.V, ARRL Number 188, 1994, pp 225-232.
Publication Number 161, 1992, pp 41-54. 17. R, Lewallen, "Optimized QRP
12. R. Campbell, "Simply Getting on the Transceiver. C « T . Aug, 1980, pp 14-19.
% R. Campbell, "High Performance
Air from DC to Daylight," Proceedings of
Direct Conversion Receivers." QST. Aug, 18. R. Campbell, "High Performance
Microwave Update 94. Estcs Park. CO,
1992, pp 19-28, Direct Conversion Receiver," QST, Aug,
ARRL Publication Number 188. 1994, pp
' R. Campbell. "High Performance 1992, pp 19-28.
57-68.
Single-Signal Direct Conversion 19. R. Campbell. " A Binaural I-Q
13. R. Campbell, " A VHF SSB-CW
Receivers." QST, Jan. 1993, pp 32-40, Receiver." QST, Mar, 1999, pp 44-48.
Transceiver with VXO," Proceedings of
V R, Campbell. " A Multimode Phasing the 29H Conference of the Central States 20. J. Reisert. "VHF/UHF Frequency
Exciter for 1 to 500 MHz." QST. Apr. VHF Society, Colorado Springs. CO. Jul. Calibration." Ham Radio, Vol 17, Nr 10,
' « » 3 . pp 27-31. Oct, 1984, pp 55-60.

Direct Conversion Receivers 8.17

 CHAPTER

Phasing Receivers and

Transmitters

9.1 BLOCK DIAGRAMS

The phasing method of single-sideband How times have changed. During the move the unwanted sideband. Since the
generation and reception has been dis- '90s the vintage radio craze hit the amateur filter passband frequency is fixed, the re-
cussed in the literature and incorporated in bands, and amateurs across the US began sulting SSB signal must be heterodyned to
commercial products for over 50 years. hearing signals from old Central Electron- the desired final output frequency. Since it
The phasing method fell into disuse in ics transmitters, carefully restored, prop- is difficult to build SSB bandw idth filters
amateur products from the late '60s erly aligned, and conservatively operated. for frequencies above 50 MHz. there may
through the '80s due to the popularity of By comparison, the modern transceivers need to be multiple frequency conversions
transceivers built around a single IF crys- sounded thin and distorted. Modem radios to reach a microwave frequency. Fig 9.2 is
tal filter used for both sideband generation have had to scramble to recapture the lost the block diagram of a phasing SSB ex-
and receive selectivity. During this period, sound quality of the old rigs. Sociology still citer. The signal frequency networks all
prices of old phasing transmitters dropped being what it is, there is now a market for have considerable bandwidth, so operat-
until they were only used on the air in low-distortion transmitters, and one ama- ing the SSB modulator on the final output
modest stations scraped together on a bud- teur manufacturer has even introduced a frequency is an option. Heterodyning the
get, often by folks with no appreciation of full-sized transceiver with a Class A power phasing exciter output to the desired out-
the art of maintaining vintage radio gear. amplifier. The lore has changed, and phas- put frequency also has merit, and was the
Sociology being what it is and amateurs ing transmitters and receivers now have the method of choice in vintage gear. Fig 9,3
being human, phasing transmitters were reputation for sounding better than conven- shows a conventional superhet receiver
soon associated with poor signals, and tional systems that use filters for opposite with a SSB bandwidth IF filter to provide
their unfortunate operators were encour- sideband suppression. As usual, careful rejection of interference outside the de-
aged to upgrade or get off the air. Even study reveals that there is an element of sired bandpass, including rejection of the
scholarly authors during this period often truth in conventional wisdom, but that opposite sideband. Fig 9.4 shows a
used a little over-simplified mathematics deeper understanding provides freedom superhet receiver with a phasing SSB de-
to show that the phasing method was inca- from the bonds of lore. modulator at the IF. Note that the phasing
pable of generating acceptable signals for system just rejects the opposite side-
Fig 9.1 is the block diagram of a con-
the modern amateur bands. band—conventional selectivity is still
ventional SSB exciter using a filter to re-

Fig 9.1—A block diagram of a conventional SSB exciter using a filter to remove the unwanted sideband.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.1

 Balanced
Modulator

Speech Audio Ail-Pass

Network
A Power
RF
Amp Bandpass / \ Amp
Low-Pass

1
» raits
Filter Filler

Balanced
Modulator
All
Network

10
Phase-Shift
Network

© Carrier
Oscillator

Fig 9.2—Block diagram of a phasing SSB exciter.

V RF RF Image IF IF IF IF Product AF
Ar
Filter LNA Filter Mixer Amp Filter Amp Filter Detector Amp

©r \ beat Frequency

Fig 9.3—A conventional superhet receiver with a SSB bandwidth IF.

V RF
Filter
RF Image
Filter Mixer
IF
Amp
IF Roofing
Filter
IF
Amp Amp

1-0" \ 10

Demodulator
Analog
Signal
Processor
hM
©
/v ^ Local
v j Oscliialor
©
r A Beat Frequency

Fig 9.4—A superhet receiver with a phasing SSB demodulator at the IF.

needed to protect the receiver from inter- builder needs to be familiar with the ben- don't apply to transmitters become impor-
ference at other frequencies. Fig 9.5 is the efits and limitations of cach before con- tant. The treatment here will take the op-
block diagram of a phasing direct conver- cluding that a particular radio architecture posite tack, and discuss phasing direct
sion receiver (high performance direct is best for a particular application. conversion receivers in detail. There arc
conversion receiver techniques are dis- Traditionally, phasing is presented as a several justifications for this. The first is
cussed in Chapter 8 of this book.) Phasing transmit topic, with receivers tacked on that exploration of high performance
is added in Fig9.6 with baseband process- as an "oh by the way, you can also..." This phasing direct conversion receivers has
ing functions handled using a pair of ana- is fine until one wants to actually begin been a major focus area for the author for
log-to-digital converters and a digital designing and building a receiver using over a decadc. and many of the observa-
signal processor. Each of the systems phasing methods, at which point none of tions. much of the analysis, and the math-
shown in the block diagrams is optimum the math really makes sense, and signal ematical treatment have not been previ-
for certain applications, and a designer- levels, noise, and distortion terms that ously published—or at least not for a very

9.2 Chapter 9
 JH
I Mixer Low-Pass

All-Pass
RF
Network
Filter LNA Amp

RF
Splitter
Low-Pass

IS*
All-Pass
Network

LO IQ
Splitter

© Local
Oscillator

Fig 9.5—A block diagram of a phasing direct conversion receiver.

I Mixer

Fig 9.6—High performance direct conversion receiver technique with phasing added—with baseband processing in DSP.

long time. T h e second is that most o f this a s (t)cosf2rtf s t + the discussion be- most likely a hybrid superhet that includes
decade o f study has been a purely amateur c o m e s independent o f modulation type, a band-Iimiling filter f o l l o w e d by some I F
activity, pursued because listening to that and serious students o f communications gain and then a phasing product dctcctor.
first phasing direct conversion r e c e i v e r systems will have no d i f f i c u l t y convert- This is certainly the approach being taken
ten years a g o w a s such a profound revela- ing to c o m p l e x - e n v e l o p e f o r m , adding by makers o f high-end amateur transceiv-
tion. Phasing direct conversion receivers correlated and u n c o r r e c t e d noise terms, ers, and the technology will trickle down
are an optimum c h o i c e f o r many applica- and including the e f f e c t s o f various types into the l o w end o f the market, as it is less
tions. amateur and p r o f e s s i o n a l , when- o f distortion. expensive than relying solely on mechani-
e v e r cost, distortion, spurious-free-dy- T h e emphasis will be on direct conver- cal. quartz crystal and ceramic filters f o r
namic range, frequency agility or sion phasing receivers, rather than superhet selectivity. The major difference between
adaptability to d i f f e r e n t bandwidths and receivers with phasing last-converters, be- using the phasing system at the front-end
modulation types are important. Further- cause the direct conversion receiver gener- o f a direct conversion receiver or as the
more. they are a rich f i e l d f o r experimen- ally presents a more difficult set o f prob- product detector f o r a hybrid superhet is in
tation and contribution to the amateur and lems. However, it should be mentioned at the gain, selectivity, and noise distributions
professional literature. F i n a l l y , by de- this point that the ultimate receiver f o r in the receiver. These considerations will
scribing the r e c e i v e r mathematically us- weak C W and SSB signals in the presence be discussed in detail in the R2pro design
ing a general band-limited input signal o f noise and strong-signal interference is exercise.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.3

9.2 I N T R O D U C T I O N T O T H E M A T H

Some mathematics is necessary for un- If the signal frequency f. is lower than 2 c o s ( 2 ; t f 0 t + < p „ - j r / 2 + 8)(l + e)
derstanding how phasing receivers work. the LO frequency f 0 , then the difference
Fortunately, all of the necessary functions expression (f 0 - f s ) is a positive number. a s ( t ) c o s [ 2 j r f s l + <ps ( l ) ]
and identities may be found in a high
= (l + e)a< ( t ) c o s
school algebra and trigonometry textbook.
That said, there is nothing trivial about the Low-Pass Filter [2n ( f 0 + f s ) t + <ps ( t ) + <p0 -71/2 + 5]
treatment that follows. It is deliberate and In a receive downconverter application,
complete. Tt is also much less interesting the difference frequency expression is se- + ( l + e ) a s (t)cos
than the pictures and schematics of the lected by a low-pass filter following the
projects, and many of the subtleties were mixer, and the sum frequency (f 0 + f s ) ex- [ 2 « ( f 0 - f , ) l - q > s ( t ) + < P o - « / 2 + 8]
not appreciated by the author until long pression is rejected. The downconverter
after the first signals began pouring out of output frequency range may extend from Eq 9.7
the working receiver's speaker. Readers zero Hz up to the cutoff frequency of the Once again, the low-pass filter rejects
with an aversion to math in any form are low-pass filter, and this frequency range is the sum frequency and passes the differ-
invited to skip this scction. Designer- referred to as "baseband.'' The baseband ence frequency, so we are left with:
builders who want to procccd dircctly to output is then:
the R2pro design and projects section are h^ ( t M ' + f-K (0COS
encouraged to skim quickly through the
b,(<)
math. Electrical Engineering graduate stu- [ 2 « ( t ; - f J t - « p , ( t ) + q > 0 - J c / 2 + 8]
dents should work slowly through the ma- = a s ( t ) cos [27t(f 0 - f s ) t - (f.s ( t ) + (p0 ]
Eq 9.8
terial step by step, because this stuff will Eq 9.4
be on the exam. Refer to Figs 9.7A-G that
appear after the equations.

The Basic Image-

Reject Math From
Receiver Point Of View
Any band-limited basic signal may be
described as:
Audio Phase-Shift
Q Channel Networks
In a phasing system, a second mixer In an image-reject receiver, the I and Q
Sj ( l ) = a s (t )cos [271 I t <|>s ( t ) ] E q 9 . 1 multiplies the identical signal by a LO with outputs of the mixers are then applied to
k/2 phase delay. The two mixers and their the ports of a pair of all-pass networks that
...where f s is ihe signal frequency; a 5 (i) is signals are referred to as I for "in-phase" add aq. additional n/2 phase delay to the
the time-varying signal envelope; and and Q for "quadrature."' Since these ex- signal1' at the output of the Q mixer. An
<j>4(t) is the time-varying signal phase pressions represent real signals and elec- ideal all-pass network would introduce no
tronic components, they are not perfect. I n additional amplitude or phase errors, but
particular, the amplitude of the signal at such errors occur in practice. In addition,
Mixer the 0 mixer may not be identical to the i the all-pass networks at baseband may
In an ideal mixer, alocal oscillator mul- mixer amplitude, and the phase difference have many octaves of bandwidth, and the
tiplies this signal: between the I and Q mixers may not be amplitude and phase errors will vary-
exactly re/2. We can incorporate these dif- across the baseband frequency range. We
L j ( l ) = 2 cos (2 it f () t + (p„ ) Ei} 9.2 ferences by introducing error terms into combinc all of the amplitude errors into a
the signal and LO expressions. single baseband frequency dependent er-
ror term £(f) and all of the phase errors into
a single baseband frequency dependent
s q ( l ) = (l + e ) a s ( t ) c o s [ 2 j i f 4 1 + <ps ( t ) ] phase error term 8(f). We also recognize
Eq 9.5 that in practice the IQ all-pass network pair
and does not simply leave the I channel alone
and add a constant rc/2 phase delay to the
L q ( t ) = 2 c o s ( 2 irf0 t + tp0 - it/2 + 5) Q channel, but introduces a frequency
...where the constant 2 simplifies later dependent phase shift to each channel,
expressions, f„ is the LO frequency, and Eq 9.6
chosen so that the phase difference be-
<)>„ is the LO phase. tween the I and Q channels remains a
Multiplying the LO limes the signal: ...where £ is the amplitude difference be-
(nearly) constant %!2. We combine this
tween the I and Q signals and 8 is the error
frequency dependent phase shift with the
2 cos (2 jrf0 t ^ <p 0 )a s (t)cos[2rf s t ^ <ps ( t ) ] in the n/2 phase delay. Note that the signal original LO phase $ 0 and denote the result
Sq(t) at the input to the Q mixer is the same
<|>0(f). With the additional jt/2 phase delay
= a 5 (t)cos [2n (f 0 + fs ) t + (ps ( t ) i- <p0 ] as Sj(t) at the input to the T mixer except for
and all of the modified error and phase
the error E.
+ a, (t)cos [2 7t (t 0 - f s )t - p s ( t ) + <p0 ] terms, the all-pass network Q baseband
Multiplying the phase-shifted LO and
output becomes:
E q 9.3 signal together in the Q mixer:

9.4 Chapter 9
 ...where 2 i t ( f 0 - f s ) t - 0 s ( t ) + $ , , ( 0 = a W e n o w u s e a second a p p r o x i m a t i o n . Tf
[l + F.(f)]a s (t)cos
E and 8 are less than 0.1, then their p r o d u c t
and 8 ( f ) = b must b e less than (0.1) 2 = 0.01. T h u s the
2«(f„-fs)t-%(l)+1S»(f) last term a b o v e is a l w a y s m u c h less than
- it/2-1/2+s(f) the other three terms. O n c e again, the ap-
proximation error becomes vanishingly
= [l + e ( f ) ] a s (l)cos b
q ( 0 = ~ a s (t)cos small f o r high p e r f o r m a n c e s y s t e m s . Dis-
c a r d i n g the last t e r m , t h e Q signal at the
[ 2 * ( f o - O l " < f t (l)*% (f)_,l+ii(f)] ^ ( t o - f J t - P s ( 0 + ? » (f)]«'s[6(f)] o u t p u t of the b a s e b a n d all-pass n e t w o r k
is:
E q 9.9 + a fi (t)sin
T h e I b a s e b a n d output at the output of
the all-pass n e t w o r k is: M f « - 0 ' - < P s ( 0 + f o (f)]sin[a(f)] b
q («)= - a 5 ( t ) c o s
- e(f')as (t)cos
bi(«)- [2*(f0-^)t-1>5(t)+1><,(f)]
a [2*(f0 - f s ) t - 9 s ( t ) + ' P „ ( r ) ] cos [ 8 ( f ) ] + S ( f ) a s (t)sin
s (t)cos[2jt(f0 - f s ) t - ( p s (t)+«p0 ( f ) ]
E q 9.10 + fi(f)as (t)sin
M f o - O t - * (O+v., ( 0 ]

[ 2 « ( f 0 - f s ) t - V s (t) +P o (f)]sin[s(f)] -c(f)a5(t)cos

SO f—(p— <t>i i b'l (1) M f . - f j t - q . , (t)+«P„ ( f ) ]

E q 9.15
Li(t) Fig 9 . 7 D At this point, it is convenient to m a k e E q 9.19
o u r first a p p r o x i m a t i o n s . F o r p h a s i n g sys-
tems with o p p o s i t e s i d e b a n d s u p p r e s s i o n T h i s signal is a d d e d to the I signal at the
' R e t u r n i n g to the b a s e b a n d Q term, u s e o u t p u t of the b a s e b a n d all-pass n e t w o r k :
of m o r e than 30 d B , the a m p l i t u d e and
the trig identity:
p h a s e error t e r m s e and 8 m u s t both b e less
b'j ( t ) = a s ( t ) c o s
than 0.1. Setting 8(f) to a m a x i m u m value
cos (a - jt) = - cos a Eq9.11
of 0.1 and p l u g g i n g it into the sine and [2 " (r 0 - ft ) t - (.)+V(> (f)]
cosine expressions:
to obtain
sin (0.1000) = 0 . 0 9 9 8
c o s (0.1000) = 0 . 9 9 5 0 to obtain:
(t)=-[l + fi(f)]a,(t)cos

[ 2 a ( f „ - f , ) t - < p 1 (t)+<p0 ( f ) + 8 ( f ) ] ...we m a y then use the " s m a l l a n g l e " ap- LSB out = + 8 ( f ) a s ( t ) s i n
proximations:
E q 9.12 [2*(f0-fs)t-Vl(t)+q>0 (f)]
sinq> ® (p E q 9.16
- s ( f ) a s (t)cos

Sq« i ( p i b'oM costp = l E q 9.17 Mr n -Oi-<p s (t)+<f>0 ( 0 ]

E q 9.20
Lq(t> Fig 9.7E knowing that the approximation errors are
very small in the range of interest. T h e ap-
proximation errors b e c o m e vanishingly
small when we reducc 8 still further, to the
Suppressing the Image limits needed for high performance systems.
Using the small angle a p p r o x i m a t i o n s ,
T h e b a s e b a n d I and Q all-pass filter
the f o u r Q t e r m s at the o u t p u t of t h e
outputs are a d d e d to i m p l e m e n t the i m a g c -
b a s e b a n d all-pass n e t w o r k b e c o m e :
r e j e c t f u n c t i o n . T o m a k e the a d d i t i o n
easier, the Q output m a y b e b r o k e n d o w n
into separate terms: b
'q ( t ) = - a s ( t ) c o s

- as (i)cos [ 2 , t ( f 0 - f s )t-<ps ( t ) + < p 0 ( f ) ]

N o t e that the equal and o p p o s i t e signal
M f o - l s ) ' - ^ (0+1>o(f)+s(f)] + fi(f)as ( t ) s i n c o m p o n e n t s have a d d e d to zero, and only
the error t e r m s r e m a i n . A l s o note that the
- c(f ) a s ( t ) c o s [ 2 * ( f 0 - O t - q . , ( t ) + <P0(f)]
e f f e c t of a 0.1 -radian p h a s e error is identi-
- s ( f ) a s (t)cos cal to the e f f e c t of a 0.1 a m p l i t u d e error.
[2*(r0-r,)i-<p,(t)+<f0(f)+s(f)]
Finally, note that the t w o error terms are
E q 9.13 M f o - O t - v , (0+<p«»(f)] o r t h o g o n a l (one is a sine, and the other is
W e m a y also s e p a r a t e the p h a s e error a cosine), so that e a c h m u s t be i n d e p e n -
+ s ( r ) e ( f ) a s (t)sin
5 ( 0 out u s i n g the trig identity: dently r e d u c e d to z e r o — a n a m p l i t u d e er-
ror will not c a n c e l a p h a s e error. T h e Iwo
Mf„-fs>-<P s (t)+cp0 ( f ) ]
cos (a + b) = cos a cos b - sin a sin b e r r o r v o l t a g e s add to m a k e a r e s u l t a n t
E q 9.14 E q 9.18 e r r o r signal, with m a g n i t u d e :

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.5

 that the m i n u s tc/2 p h a s e shift f r o m the all- p l i t u d e and p h a s e e r r o r s a r e r e d u c e d .
p a s s n e t w o r k has c a n c e l l e d the p l u s rc/2
phase shift from the L O .
Sideband Suppression
Recovering the Desired P e r f o r m i n g t h e s a m e s t e p s as b e f o r e to
Expressions
r e d u c e the s i g n a l at t h e Q b a s e b a n d all-
Signal p a s s n e t w o r k o u t p u t to s e p a r a t e c o m p o - In s u m m a r y , it h a s b e e n s h o w n that sig-
N o w e x a m i n e the c a s e of a s i g n a l f r e - nents, we obtain: nals at f r e q u e n c i e s a b o v e t h e L o c a l O s c i l -
q u e n c y r„ g r e a t e r t h a n t h e L O f r e q u e n c y l a t o r f r e q u e n c y a r e d o w n c o n v e r t e d and
f„- a s (t ) c o s [ 2 7t(Ys - f ( ) ) t T f s (t)+<p0 Oj] add at the o u t p u t of t h e b a s e b a n d a l l - p a s s
T h e e x p r e s s i o n (f - f ) is n o w a n e g a - n e t w o r k , w h i l e s i g n a l s at f r e q u e n c i e s b e -
tive n u m b e r . T h e T b a s e b a n d s i g n a l at the - f i ' ( f ) a s (l)sin low t h e L o c a l O s c i l l a t o r f r e q u e n c y are
o u t p u t of the 1 m i x e r is (as b e f o r e ) : d o w n c o n v e r t e d and s u b t r a c t , l e a v i n g only
[2«(fs-l0)l-<p, (l)l<0o(f)] the a m p l i t u d e and p h a s e e r r o r t e r m s . It is a
b; ( t ) = a s ( t ) c o s straightforward exercise, using the identi-
-t:(i')as (t)cos
c a l s t e p s , to s h o w t h a t r e v e r s i n g the sign of
[2*(f0-fjt-^(i)+<p0] either term, interchanging the L O phase
[2E(ls-l„)|.^(t)+q>0(f)]
s h i f t s , i n t e r c h a n g i n g t h e i n p u t p o r t s o f the
...to m a k e the f r e q u e n c y t e r m (f (J - f s ) p o s i - Eq 9.27 a l l - p a s s n e t w o r k , o r s u b t r a c t i n g i n s t e a d of
tive, u s e : a d d i n g the I a n d Q s i g n a l s at t h e a l l - p a s s
A d d i n g the I and Q o u t p u t s f r o m the n e t w o r k o u t p u t will r e s u l t in a d d i n g the
( f 0 - f s ) = - ( f , - f„) to o b t a i n baseband all-pass network: l o w e r f r e q u e n c i e s and c a n c e l i n g t h e h i g h e r
frequencies.

S i n c e t h e r e l a t i v e m a g n i t u d e of t h e
a, ( t ) c o s [ - 2jt(i; - l 0 ) t <ps ( t ) + < p „ ]
a s ( t ) c o s [ 2 7 1 ( 1 ; - f „ ) t + (ps ( t ) + < f > 0 ( f ) ] a d d e d s i g n a l is 2 and t h e m a g n i t u d e of the
Eq 9.22 error t e r m s is:
+ as (i)cos[2e(is - f 0 ) t + (p< ( t ) - ( P o (0]
U s i n g the trig i d e n t i t y :
+ 5 ' ( f ) a s (t)sin toMwrf
cos a = cos (-a) Eq 9.23
[ 2 i r ( f s - f j t + t p , ( t ) + <p0 ( f ) ]
...the f a m i l i a r e x p r e s s i o n f o r o p p o s i t e
...we obtain t h e 1 m i x e r b a s e b a n d o u t p u t : s i d e b a n d s u p p r e s s i o n in d B for a g i v e n set
+ f.(f)as (l)cos
of a m p l i t u d e and p h a s e e r r o r s is e a s i l y
b " ( t ) = a , (l)cos obtained:
[ 2 t ( f « - f o ) ' + 1>5 ( t ) + « P 0 ( l ) ]
E q 9 - 2 4
[27t(f;-fo)t + tps(t)-tp0]
= 2 a , ( t ) c o s [2 7t(l s - f 0 ) t + <ps ( t ) + cp„ ( l ) ] Opposite sideband suppression in dB

+ 5'(f ) a s (t)sin
T h e Q m i x e r b a s e b a n d o u t p u t is (as = 201ogl/2{[8(f)]2+[C(f)]2f2
E q 9.30
before): M l s - f 0 ) t Kps ( t ) - < p „ ( f ) ]

+ s(l (t)cos F o r the e f f e c t of j u s t an a m p l i t u d e o r

p h a s e error, the s i m p l e r e x p r e s s i o n s
[2It(f5-f„)t + <ps(t)-<p0(r)]
[ 2 j r ( f „ - f s ) l - < p s (l)+ o 0 -tc/2 + 5] 2 0 log e / 2 ( j u s t a m p l i t u d e e r r o r )
Eq 9.31
E q 9.28
A g a i n u s i n g the ( f 0 - f j = - ( f s - f 0 ) s u b -
2 0 log 6 / 2 ( j u s t p h a s e e r r o r ) Eq 9.32
s t i t u t i o n a n d c o s a = c o s (-a) i d e n t i t y , the
usa
Q m i x e r b a s e b a n d o u t p u t is:
<p,
,
Ou;
. . . m a y b e used. T h e m o r e c o m p l e t e ex-
pression above describes the opposite
(l + t:)as ( l ) e o s
s»l 1 s i d e b a n d s u p p r e s s i o n a s a f u n c t i o n of
baseband frequency f for the case where
[27t(l s - r o ) l + (t)-q>„ +JT/2-S] Fig 9 . 7 G the l o w e r s i d e b a n d is s u p p r e s s e d . T h e s e
Into
Eq 9.25 e x p r e s s i o n s m a y be u s e d t o o b t a i n the
c o m m o n t e x t b o o k plot of s i d e b a n d s u p -
At t h e o u t p u t of the a l l - p a s s n e t w o r k , ...since 8 ' ( f ) and e ( f ) are b o t h m u c h less p r e s s i o n v e r s u s p h a s e a n d a m p l i t u d e er-
w h i c h a d d s n / 2 p h a s e d e l a y and a d d i t i o n a l t h a n 2, a r e a s o n a b l e a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r t h e r o r s . P l u g g i n g in a f e w n u m b e r s : if both
e r r o r s , the Q signal is: s u m of the 1 a n d Q a l l - p a s s n e t w o r k o u t - the a m p l i t u d e a n d p h a s e h a v e the m a x i -
p u t s f o r a n i n p u t s i g n a l with a f r e q u e n c y m u m e r r o r of 0 . 1 . the o p p o s i t e s i d e b a n d
O M ^ O O k O ) 1
™ h i g h e r t h a n the L O f r e q u e n c y is: s u p p r e s s i o n is:

[2„(ls f0)t + »„(t)-<p0(f)-6'(f)] USB out = 2 a 5 ( t ) c o s

Eq 9.26 [2*(f,-f0)t q>!(t) + 1>0(f)] 2 0 log[((). 1 ) 2 + ( 0 . l ) 2 J ' " / 2 1 = - 2 3 d B

+

N o t e that t h e c o m b i n e d p h a s e e r r o r t e r m Eq 9.29 E q 9.33

S ' ( f ) is d i f f e r e n t than the p r e v i o u s c a s e , O n c e a g a i n , the a c c u r a c y of t h i s e x p r e s -
b e c a u s e of the sign c h a n g c on 5. A l s o n o t e sion b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y g o o d as t h e a m - Most textbooks quote amplitude and

9.6 Chapter 9
phase e r r o r s in d B a n d d e g r e e s . T o c o n v e r t v e r t i n g 0.1 d B to e: T h i s is an easy rule of t h u m b — t o obtain
amplitude error £ to dB, use 4 0 d B of o p p o s i t e s i d e b a n d s u p p r e s s i o n ,
g = 10Kerrordn>/2°l - 1 Eq 9.35 the a m p l i t u d e e r r o r s m u s t be kept u n d e r 0.1
:0log[l+e] E q 9.34 d B and the p h a s e e r r o r s u n d e r 1 d e g r e e .
Tn t h e r e c e i v e c a s e a n a l y z e d h e r e ,
= 1()0.005 _ 1 = 0 . 0 1 1 6
for e = 0.1 in t h e e x a m p l e a b o v e , t h e a m - s u m m i n g the 1 and Q channel o u t p u t s
p l i t u d e e r r o r in d B is 2 0 log ( 1 . 1 ) = 0 . 8 3 s u p p r e s s e s the l o w e r s i d e b a n d . T h e u p p e r
dB. ...and c o n v e n i n g t h e 1 - d e g r e e p h a s e e r r o r s i d e b a n d m a y be s u p p r e s s e d by first in-
T o c o n v e r t p h a s e e r r o r in r a d i a n s 8 t o to r a d i a n s v e r t i n g the Q c h a n n e l a n d t h e n s u m m i n g ,
error in d e g r e e s , m u l t i p l y 5 b y 5 7 . 3 (de- w h i c h s u b t r a c t s the 1 a n d Q c h a n n e l o u t -
grees p e r r a d i a n ) . F o r t h e e x a m p l e a b o v e . 5 = 1/57.3 = 0 . 0 1 7 5 p u t s . N o t e t h a t t h i s is t h e r e v e r s e of
!he p h a s e e r r o r in d e g r e e s is 5 . 7 3 d e g r e e s . w h a t h a p p e n s in a p h a s i n g S S B t r a n s m i t -
As an e x a m p l e g o i n g the o p p o s i t e d i r e e - U s i n g the e x p r e s s i o n for s i d e b a n d s u p - ter, w h e r e s u m m i n g the I a n d Q c h a n n e l
lion, s u p p o s e a p h a s i n g r e c e i v e r s y s t e m pression: RF outputs suppresses the upper side-
has 1 - d e g r e e m a x i m u m p h a s e e r r o r and b a n d . T h i s i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t m u s t be c o n -
0.1 d B m a x i m u m a m p l i t u d e e r r o r . W h a t is 2 0 log 1(0.01 16)2 + (0.0175)2] » n sidered when designing phasing S S B
the o p p o s i t e s i d e b a n d s u p p r e s s i o n ? C o n - = - 3 9 . 6 dB E q 9.36 transceivers.

9.3 FROM MATHEMATICS TO PRACTICE

It is t e m p t i n g to b e l i e v e that a g o o d d e - to r e c e i v e r d e s i g n and d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e i m p e d a n c e s are d i f f e r e n t f r o m 5 0 fl. trans-
signer draws a perfectly analyzed block first a p p r o a c h is to d e s i g n e a c h f u n d a m e n - f o r m e r s may be used. This technique
d i a g r a m , p i c k s t h e circuit b l o c k s o u t of a tal c i r c u i t b l o c k as c a r e f u l l y as p o s s i b l e r e s u l t s in r e c e i v e r s with very p r e d i c t a b l e
circuit c a t a l o g , c o n n e c t s t h e m u p , a n d has using whatever analysis and measurement p e r f o r m a n c e , and m a n y p a r t s . A c o n s e r -
an o p e r a t i n g r e c e i v e r on t h e b e n c h . If the t o o l s are a v a i l a b l e , and t h e n c o n n e c t t h e vative f r e q u e n c y c o n v e r t e r using this
p e r f o r m a n c e is not p e r f e c t , t h e n at least b l o c k s t o g e t h e r in a m a n n e r as c l o s e as a p p r o a c h is s h o w n in F i g 9.8.
the f l a w s a r e p e r f e c t l y u n d e r s t o o d a n d p o s s i b l e to t h e w a y t h e y w e r e a n a l y z e d a n d T h e s c c o n d a p p r o a c h is to d e c i d e w h a t
p r e d i c t a b l e . T h e truth is t h a t t h e d e e p e r m e a s u r e d . B e c a u s e R F test and m e a s u r e - function needs to be accomplished, and
o n e d i g s i n t o r e c e i v e r a n a l y s i s , the m o r e m e n t e q u i p m e n t o p e r a t e s in a 50-£2 e n v i - d e s i g n a circuit with as f e w c o m p o n e n t s as
o b v i o u s t h e o m i s s i o n s and a p p r o x i m a t i o n s r o n m e n t , all c i r c u i t b l o c k s a r e d e s i g n e d p o s s i b l e that will p e r f o r m the task. A m i n i -
in t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l t r e a t m e n t b e c o m e . A a n d t e s t e d to i n t e r c o n n e c t u s i n g 5 0 - H m u m - p a r t s - c o u n t f r e q u e n c y c o n v e r t e r is
d i o d e r i n g m i x e r is not a p e r f e c t s i n e - w a v e t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s . T h e b a s i c r u l e is that s h o w n in F i g 9 . 9 . C l e a r l y , the s e c o n d c i r -
m u l t i p l i e r , and t h e m a t h e m a t i c s f o r the connections between circuit blocks should cuit is s i m p l e r t h a n the f i r s t . F r o m the p r o -
p r o p e r t r e a t m e n t of even s i m p l e a m p l i f i e r carry sinusoidal voltages 50 times larger fessional circuit design standpoint, the
d i s t o r t i o n is b e y o n d the s c o p c of a p r a c t i - a n d i n - p h a s e with s i n u s o i d a l c u r r e n t s . If second circuit might even be called "bct-
cal t e x t . v o l t a g e s are not s i n u s o i d a l , s i m p l e l o w - l e r " b e c a u s e is uses f e w e r p a r t s a n d less
T h e r e are t w o v e r y d i f f e r e n t . a p p r o a c h e s p a s s fillers will r e m o v e h a r m o n i c s , and if operating current to p e r f o r m the same

Fig 9.8—If voltages are not sinusoidal, simple low-pass filters will remove harmonics, and if impedances are different from
50 Q, transformers may be used. This technique results in receivers with very predictable performance, and many parts. A
conservative frequency converter using this approach is shown here.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.7

 10 t Trifllar

T 0.1 pF
on

X
TUF-3
15 pF
O-Hrf

220 pF

Fig 9.9—A minimum-parts-count

frequency converter.

Fig 9.10—A minimum-parts-count image-reject detector that might be used in a

simple C W receiver.

Fig 9,11—A simple fixed-frequency receiver using a single crystal filter. The two crystals are the same frequency, and the
input circuit tunes from 3.5 to 7.5 MHz.

9.8 Chapter 9
 function. The difficulty arises when per-
formance needs to be improved, or the cir-
cuit function is interconnected with other
circuit blocks in a new and different way.
It is important to recognize that both
approaches to RK circuit design are vi-
able—the first offers higher performance
f r o m the out.set. and a path to constant
performance improvement by measuring
and analyzing distortion and making in-
cremental changes to the circuit blocks.
The second approach involves more cre-
ativity and risk taking: attempts at new
minimum-parts-count circuits often fail;
and without 50 £2 ports, it is difficult to
make diagnostic measurements without
upsetting circuit behavior. Creative think-
ing, either in developing original circuits
or pondering why they d o n ' t work as ex-
pected. is the delightful process designers
use to solve problems.
There is a valid argument for both ap-
proaches to receiver projects—delightful
simplicity is always a virtue—but there is a
compelling argument for taking the
methodical, analytical. 50-Q approach to
developing phasing receivers. A phasing re-
ceiver is a balanced system that depends on
Fig 9.12—If the product detector is operated at a fixed frequency, crystal filter matching both amplitude and phase across
selectivity may be combined with a phasing product detector. This figure shows significant bandwidth.*. through at least one
the basic circuit with a single-crystal CW filter connected directly to the product frequency conversion, and with significant
detector. It doesn't work as expected. band limiting needed in both I and 0 chan-
nels. Any deviation from perfect balance
degrades opposite sideband suppression.
Since amplitude and phase are both strong
functions of termination impedances at
mixer and ampli fier ports, defining and con-
trolling these impedances is the first step in
building successful phasing receivers.
As an example of the problems that arise
when impedance matching is ncglected.
let's look at a minimum-parts-count ini-
age-rcjcct detector that might be used in a
simple C W receiver. Fig 9.10 illustrates
the circuit. The RF ports of the two bal-
anced diode mixers are simply tied to-
gether. and the L O and IF ports are quadra-
ture split and combined using hybrid
circuits. This circuit provides a useful re-
duction in opposite sideband interference
The selectivity curve is very similar to the
classic receivers with single crystal filters
and phasing controls.
The circuit in Fig 9.10 might be used as
the product detector in a simple superhet
receiver. For comparison. Fig 9.11 is a
simple fixed-frequency I F receiver using
a single crystal filter. The image-reject
product detector has a f e w more parts.
If the product detector is operated at a
fixed frequency, crystal filter selectivity
may be combined with a phasing product
detector. Fig 9.12 is the basic circuit with
Fig 9.13—This circuit, with a buffer amplifier between the crystal filter and image-
a single-crystal CW filter connected di-
reject mixer, works as expected, with more than 40 dB of opposite sideband
suppression at 1-kHz offset. rectly to the product detector. The crystal

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.9

filter selectivity should add to the image- band suppression f r o m the image-reject If adequate performance at m i n i m u m
reject product detector circuitry, for very mixer circuitry is lost. cost with few parts is the goal, it is un-
respectable performance. U does not work. The circuit of Fig 9.13, with a buffer likely that a phasing receiver or cxciter can
The opposite sideband suppression is con- a m p l i f i e r between the crystal filter and compete with a basic superhet. Making an
siderably less than expected. image-reject mixer, works as expected, intelligent choice about whether to use
The problem is that image-reject mixer with more than 40 dB of opposite side- phasing techniques in a receiver involves
behavior is strongly dependent on the im- band suppression at 1 kHz offset. A casual weighing a number of factors. A strict
pedances at the various mixer ports. By glance at this circuit would not hint that phasing receiver can never achicvc the
directly connecting the crystal filter, the the added broadband components would opposite sideband selectivity of a good
mixer RF ports see an impcdance that var- significantly improve opposite sideband superhet with multiple crystal filters, and
ies rapidly f r o m one sideband to the other. suppression. a superhet will always have more spurious
The impedance in the desired band is re- The most termination-sensitive compo- responses and internally generated spurs
sistive and reasonably well matched, but nents in a phasing receiver or exciter are than a direct conversion receiver. Nothing
the impedance on the undesired sideband usually the mixers. Since providing can compare with the sonic clarity of
is almost perfectly reflective. A reflective wideband, resistive terminations to the simple wide audio bandwidth direct con-
mixer termination on one sideband and an mixer RF, LO and IF ports improves dis- version receivers. The choice of receiver
absorptive termination on the other tortion performance in addition to opposite architecture may not be made for purely
severely impacts image-rejcct mixer per- sideband suppression, it is simply good practical reasons—ail Amateur Radio de-
formance. In simulations, the opposite practice in phasing rigs. Paying attention signer-builder has the luxury of working
sideband suppression of the filler is main- to termination impedances usually adds on a technique purely for the j o y of ex-
tained, but almost all of the opposite side- components and complexity to circuits. ploring new territory.

9.4 SIDEBAND SUPPRESSION DESIGN

The point of adding a phasing system to alignment. A 60 dB circuit can be de- DSB is attractive whenever simplicity is
a recei ver or exciter i s to suppress one side- signed. but component tolerances are more important than spectral efficiency or
band. The first generation of amateur phas- unrealistically tight, alignment is difficult, interference rejection. A DSB transmitter
ing circuits from the late 1940s into the and performance degrades as components may be paired with a direct conversion
1950s were literally added on to conven- age. A 40 dB circuit design works well DSB receiver to build an ultra-simple rig.
tional receivers and transmitters. Later with standard \ % components, and has A disadvantage of such a radio is that it can
commercial transmitters f r o m Central quick and easy alignment that will hold for not receive DSB very well, and it's trans-
Electronics, Hallicrafters. and others used the life of the radio. 20 dB sideband sup- mitted signal must be received on a recei ver
conventional heterodyne methods, with pression circuits work with junk box parts with some provision for either suppressing
phasing sideband sclcction and conven- and no adjustments at all. one sideband or locking to the missing car-
tional tuned circuits at a fixed IF. Many rier frequency. Somehow a radio that can-
Before continuing with a further explo-
recent improvements in performance have not communicate with an identically
ration of sideband suppression, a discus-
resulted from designing the entire radio equipped station seems incomplete.
sion of "how much is enough" is in order.
system, from headphones and microphonc
As in most engineering questions, the an-
to antenna, with phasing in mind. Before
diving into more detailed system discus-
swer begins with "that depends...." First of
Transmitters
all, we should note that systems with no
sions. it is useful to discuss the amount of A Single Sideband transmitter needs
sideband suppression at all are entirely
sideband suppression desired. enough carrier suppression that the carrier
functional for some applications. A signal
It is relatively easy to design and repro- from a DSB transmitter is converted to SSB is not evident when tuning in the signal,
duce phasing circuitry to achieve undes- in the receiver, and once tuned in the op- and enough opposite sideband suppres-
ired sideband suppression of more than 30 erator can't tell the diffcrcncc. Similarly. sion that the opposite sideband frequen-
dB. With just a little more design care, and DSB receivers have been used for CW and cies may be used for communications by
well-matched components, just over 40 dB SSB signals since the early days of radio. other stations. 40 dB of carrier suppres-
of undesired sideband suppression may be
routinely obtained. The receivers and cx-
citer in the QST references f r o m 1992 Fig 9.14—The spectrum
through 1995 all exhibit sideband suppres- of a typical SSB
sion in the 41 to 43 dB range, when the transmitter with two-
circuit boards are used as intended. The tone modulation, with
receiver and cxcitcr circuits shown at the the carrier suppressed
50 dB, 40 dB opposite
end of this chapter consistently achieve
sideband suppression,
sideband suppression in the mid-50 dB and amplifier Intermod
range, using 0.1% matched components products 30 dB (3rd)
and very careful alignment. It is worth and 35 dB (5th) below
emphasizing at this point that the level of either of the two
sideband suppression depends on circuit desired output
design; precision components: and careful frequencies.

9.10 Chapter 9
 In the past f e w years, digital m o d e s that
use a c o m p u t e r sound card connected to
the m i c r o p h o n e input of a S S B transmitter
have become popular. Transmitters for
these m o d e s b e n e f i t f r o m having much
lower distortion than S S B or keyed-car-
rier C W transmitters. C o m b i n i n g a phas-
ing exciter with a crystal filler and very
low distortion R F amplifier would m a k e it
Fig 9.15—This test setup was used for a set of experiments to investigate the possible to generate a PSK-31 signal that
minimum sideband suppression needed for good SSB reception. would be stunningly clean. P S K - 3 1 opera-
tors display the w h o l e s p e c t r u m of re-
ceived in-channel distortion products on
strong signals, so a clean signal is instantly
recognizable on the air. Because P S K - 3 1
stations operate in narrow bands, with tun-
ing p e r f o r m e d in baseband signal process-
ing, a dedicated P S K - 3 1 exciter and crys-
tal filter can be built at the final output
f r e q u e n c y , with no need for heterodyning.

Given that DSB transmitters arc f u n c -

tional, and 40 dB of opposite sideband sup-
pression is e n o u g h for SSB transmitter
applications, are there any benefits to hav-
ing less than 4 0 dB of opposite suppression
but more than 0 d B ? A set of experiments
was performed lo investigate the minimum
sideband suppression needed for good SSB
reception. F i g 9 . 1 5 illustrates the lest setup.
Fig 9.16 is the exciter block diagram, and
Fig 9.17 is the receiver block diagram. The
exciter and receiver each have a switch to
enable or disable the sideband suppression
circuitry. The approximate sideband sup-
pression available at the exciter, receiver,
and the combined sideband suppression are
shown in Fig 9.18.
H e r e are the c o m m e n t s copied f r o m the
lab notebook:

DSB-DSB Really hard to nine. Ven

poor sound.

DSB transmit, single-hybrid SSB Re-

ceive. Much belter With the hybrid zero

Dual Quadrature Network

Fig 9.17—Receiver block diagram. Single Quadrature Network
Sum

sion is g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d s u f f i c i e n t , (3rd) and 35 dB (5th) below either of the

although at this level the carrier will often t w o desired output f r e q u e n c i e s . This trans-
be noticeable to stations with good receiv- mitter would sound very good on the air.
ers and good ears. Opposite sideband sup- The intermodulation products are high-
pression should be good e n o u g h that in- lighted in gray. Clearly it is not accessary
t e r f e r e n c e in the o p p o s i t e s i d e b a n d to suppress the opposite sideband in a SSB
f r e q u e n c y band is dominated by a m p l i f i e r transmitter by much more than 40 dB, be-
i n t e r m o d p r o d u c t s , and not intelligible cause the intermod producls occupy the
audio. Fig 9.14 shows the spectrum of-a same frequencies and they are only about
typical S S B t r a n s m i t t e r w i t h t w o - t o n e 30 dB below the desired sideband level in a
Fig 9.18—The approximate sideband
modulation, with the carrier suppressed 50 well-designed transmitter. M o r e carrier suppression available at the exciter,
dB, 4 0 dB opposite sideband suppression, suppression is useful, however, because the receiver and the combined sideband
and a m p l i f i e r i n t e r m o d p r o d u c t s 30 dB carrier is present during breaks in speech. suppression.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.11

 near I kHz, the receiver has at least 10
dH sideband suppression over much of
the 300 Hz to 3kHz speech range. The
m
receive signal sounds like it has rapid
QSB—identical to the familiar Airplane
X 6
a
scatter QSB often experienced by VHF to • s
Q.
SSB operators. UJ °E 1S
a. CD £
X
I i <0
N.
Wideband passive hybrid SSB transmit. 0)
DSN receive. Better still—nut bad at all. M
Probably quite acceptable for speech. The X
o
hybrid provides IS to 20 dB of sideband
suppression across most of the audio
/ r r r J m ^ L
range. Rapid QSB can still be easily heard
on music, but at nearly 20 dB down, the
amount of QSB is only a few dB.

Wideband passive hybrid SSB trans-

mit, single-hybrid receive. Very good.
The combined sideband suppression of
more than 25 dB across the audio range
is good enough that it is hard to detect
any effects from the inadequately sup-
pressed sidebands.

Later experiments using a single-hybrid

on both the receiver and cxciter worked
well for voice. Fig 9.19 is a complete sche-
matic of a simple voice exciter. Adding a L-AVv-g
low-noise, high-gain audio amplifier and
switching results in a simple SSB trans-
ceiver. a.s shown in Fig 9.20.
The passive SSB modulator and de- g
X S *
modulator with modest performance are U
_ E ax
significantly simpler than '"serious" phas-
ing receivers and excitcrs. and may be
—1{—E-S3
appropriate for some applications. Fig
9.21 illustrates a modulator-demodulator
circuit using a dual quadrature hybrid that _nrrrL
provides 20 dB of opposite sideband sup-
pression over a reasonable portion of the l| Ltttt^
audio range. While over-simplified for
most applications, its advantages are sig- & CO
nificant:

1. It is passive and bi-directional

2. There are no adjustments
3. Component values are not critical

The simple phasing systems described -AW—£

above do not provide the sideband sup-
pression performance we have come to
cxpect from conventional superhetero-
dyne filler systems. We usually require
better performance from the radios we
-vw Ht—&
design and build.
Good performance is available from
pairs of 2nd-order networks, using com-
mon op-amp circuitry or RC networks Eke
the classic B&W 2Q4.2nd order networks
arc capable of providing sideband sup-
¥K
pression of more than 30 dB across a voicc
bandwidth. Pairs of 3rd order networks Fig 9.19—A complete schematic of a simple S S B exciter.

9.12 Chapter 9
using op-amps easily provide more than site sideband, and they are so simple that these receivers are appealing as design
40 dB. Since op-amps, resistors and ca- the question "is additional selectivity projects revisiting the classic homebrew
pacitors are all very inexpensive, the cost desirable enough to warrant significant projects of the past century. The drawback
saving f r o m relaxing the sideband sup- additional circuitry?" must always be to these discrete transistor receivers is that
pression specification f r o m 40 to 30 dB is asked. For many portable, emergency, and they don't take advantage of the remark-
seldom worthwhile. On the other hand, casual listening requirements, the answer able properties of operational amplifiers.
there is interest and value in revisiting is no. Furthermore, the simple receiver is O p - a m p s are little analog mathematical
classic circuitry, and a design using mod- such an important standard of comparison processors, and even if you skipped the
ern discrete components and a classic- that it is useful to periodically design and math, it is important to r e m e m b e r that
passive audio phase-shift network is build simple receivers for applications op-amps do math with fewer errors and
appealing. As an aside—not every design where relaxed selectivity requirements or approximations than discrete components.
should be built. There is tremendous value better sounding audio are the goal.
in notebook designs that work the prob-
lem without making it to the bench, and Receivers Designed for
experiments on the bench that are never Receivers Designed for more than 40 dB
connccted to the antenna. L e s s than 20 dB Opposite Sideband
Opposite Sideband Suppression
Opposite Sideband Suppression If op-amps are to be used in a receiver,
Suppression in Having built and experimented with the there is little point in restricting the audio
Receivers "no selectivity" variant, a simple drop-in phase-shift networks to 2nd order, and al-
image-reject mixer can make a useful im- most nothing to be gained by going to 4th
For receivers, arguments can be made provement in the performance of basic C W order. Standard 3rd order networks can
for almost any level of audio image sup- and SSB receivers. The circuit in Fig 9.22 reliably provide more than 40 dB of oppo-
pression, from 100 dB to none at all. It is
can replace the diode ring mixer in a 40- site sideband suppression, the point at
hard for a receiver with any degree of use-
meter direct conversion rig. Opposite side- which limitations other than audio phase
ful selectivity to compare with the sonic
band suppression will be moderately good shift network phase and amplitude accu-
appeal of a wide-open direct conversion
at a single frequency, near 800 Hz, and racy begin to dominate. The miniR2 block
receiver or properly adjusted Rcgen. On
will degrade rapidly as the receiver is diagram shown in Fig 9.23, is an example
the other hand, C W operators during a
tuned away in either direction. The re- of a good basic design for an image-reject
contest often try to copy weak signals at
ceiver response sounds very much like that direct conversion receiver. For a receiver
the noise floor in the presence of signals
of a 1940's classic receiver with a single without AGC, 40 dB of opposite sideband
90 dB stronger only a few kHz away. There
crystal filter and front panel phasing con- suppression sounds astonishingly good.
is no easy " 4 0 dB is enough" answer for
receivers. Instead, there is a complex rela- trol—with a single deep notch in the oppo- C W signals simply disappear when a good
tionship between receiver topology, spec- site sideband. The performance of this cir- phasing receiver is tuned through zero
tral purity, dynamic range, circuit com- cuit is disappointing on the test bench, but beat. This is a revelation to experimenters
plexity, expense, difficulty of adjustment, it can sound very good on bands with few familiar with conventional superhet de-
the need for AGC, operating habits, audio signals close to the noise level, it is prima- signs using SSB bandwidth filters, or
distortion, LO phase noise...the list is long rily useful for CW. when combined with a simple CW crystal filters. The 40 dB op-
enough that virtually every receiver ex- narrow audio C W filter. Besides the obvi- posite sideband range is the most practical
perimenter will come up with a different ous advantage of being a drop-in replace- realm for direct conversion phasing
requirement. There is, however, one piece ment for a diode ring mixer in a DSB re- receivers. Receivers at this opposite side-
of advice that has been distilled from sev- ceiver, this circuit is also attractive band suppression level sound very good,
eral generations of SSB and C W receiver because it is entirely passive. can be reliably reproduced, provide more
experimenters: time spent experimenting than enough selectivity for most HF and
with a good, straight D S B direct conver-
sion receiver connectcd to an antenna is
Receivers Designed for virtually all V H F applications, and will
perform without adjustment indefinitely.
part of your receiver education. You can't more than 30 dB
be a gourmet if you have never set foot in Opposite Sideband Receivers Designed for
a kitchen, and there is a significant knowl- Suppression more than SO dB
edge gap in your receiver background if
you h a v e n ' t performed the fundamental The next level of circuit complexity in- Opposite Sideband
volves the use of a matched pair of product
experiment of collecting radio signals on a
detectors and audio preamplifiers, driving Suppression
wire, converting them to audio with a
mixer and oscillator, amplifying them with a classic passive RC phase-shift network. A well-designed 3rd order op-amp all-
a few transistors, and listening to them on This is appealing for historical reasons, pass network built with selected compo-
headphones. This basic experience is the particularly if discrete FETs are used to nents can provide more than 50 dB of op-
common ground shared by receiver ex- replace the standard vacuum tube func- posite sideband suppression. 4th order
perimenters. tions. Simple direct conversion receiver networks can provide more than 70 dB of
circuits with good opposite sideband sup- opposite sideband suppression, on paper.
Since there is no easy sideband suppres- pression—30 dB across a SSB bandwidth Large polyphase networks are capable of
sion number, we will take a different ap- or 40 dB across a CW band—may be de- similar numbers. The difficulty is that very
proach to receiver opposite sideband sup- signed by optimizing for reduced parts small differences in the phase-versus-au-
pression: how difficult it is to meet a count. Numerous examples of such receiv- dio frequency andamplilude-versus-audio
particular spec. T h e simplest receivers ers have appeared in European journals frequency between the two channels puts
have no provisions for reducing the oppo- such as Sprat over the years. Once again. a limit on sideband suppression. For 40 dB

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.13

 Reverse Connections
for Other Sideband

L / r r r v n n r r v ^
I XL84 J XL84 T l

Txc 75 Txc 25 Txc 75

rh rb rn

Xc xc
100 100T

22 pF 82
-|( 1—VvV-

470 pF

9.14 Chapter 9
 +9R

Fig 9 . 2 0 — S S B transceiver schematic.

TUF-3

50 Ohm LSB Rx Audio Out

50 Ohm USB Tx Audio In

RF In/Out

LO In f -

XC1 35 Ohms
XC2, XC3 70 Ohms
XC4, XC5 100 Ohms
50 Ohm USB Rx Audio Out
XL1, XL2 70 Ohms
T1 Bifilar Each Winding 50 Ohms 50 Ohm LSB Tx Audio In
Audio Capacitors Poly Film
Audio Inductors Toko 10RB Series

Fig 9.21—A modulator-demodulator circuit using a dual quadrature hybrid that provides 20 dB of opposite sideband
s u p p r e s s i o n over a reasonable portion of the audio range.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.15

 L1
I
3 rfT
°l
TT
esol

L / T T T V .
L2 X

" J .
220
LO In Fig 9.24—The complete schematic of
the bandpass diplexer used in the R2.

L1, L2 21t #28 T37-6

T1, 17t #28 Bifilar T37-6
T2, 50t #32 Bifilar PC2177-77 Pol Core w i t h L O drive, which often changes across
the receiver tuning range when using a
quadrature hybrid in the L O signal path.
The PSPICE simulation result in Fig 9.25
shows the variation in phase across the
audio passband when the driving
Fig 9.22—A simple drop-in 40-m band image-reject mixer can make a useful impedance is 50. 75, and 100 fl. For oppo-
improvement in the performance of basic CW and SSB receivers. site sideband suppression of more than 40
dB across the 300 - 3000 Hz audio band
the I and Q channel IF port impedances
should differ by no more than 6 £2. For 60
of suppression, differences must be less If the R2 circuit is built using carefully dB opposite sideband suppression, the I
than one degree or 0.1 dB across the whole matched (within 0.1%) components and Q port mixer IF impedances must be
audio range. For 60 dB suppression, dif- throughout, the opposite sideband sup- matched to within 0,6 Q. This tight control
ferences between channels must be less pression will be limited by differences in of IF port impedance is more than we can
than 0.1 degree or 0,01 dB. The errors can bandpass diplexer driving point imped- expect from diode ring mixers.
occur a n y w h e r e in the system from the ance between the 1 and Q channels. Fig Fig 9.26 shows the simplified diplexer
point where the 1 and Q channels split to 9.24 shows the complete schematic of the networks used in the miniR2. Note that the
the point where they are summed. Much bandpass diplexer used in the R2. This is a 300 Hz High-Pass LC circuit has been
attention has been given to the design of doubly terminated network, intended for eliminated, and the Low-Pass corner fre-
audio phase shift networks with arbitrarily 50 Q input and output terminations. The quency has been moved up to 10 kHz. The
small phase and amplitude errors, but the input termination is provided by the IF port miniR2 diplexer circuit is a little more tol-
rest of the circuitry in the receiver 1 and Q impedance of the diode ring mixer. The erant of differences between mixer IF port
channels needs to be perfect as well. Sim- output termination is provided by the impedances. Fig 9.27 is a PSPICE simula-
ply replacing the op-amp third order audio input impedance of the grounded base tion result showing miniR2 diplexer phase
phase shift network in the January 1993 amplifiers, which is determined primarily differences when the driving point imped-
QST receiver (hereafter referred to as the by the biasing. For 50 dB opposite side- ance is 50, 75. and 100 Q. This network is
"R2") with a nearly perfect D S P version band suppression, even the bias resistors more tolerant of driving point impedance
does not significantly improve opposite must be matched to within 1%. The I F port
variations: plus or minus 9 Q for 40 dB and
sideband suppression. impedance of a diode ring mixer varies
0.8 0 for 60 dB opposite sideband suppres-

Q LO

Fig 9.23—An example of a good basic design for an image-reject direct conversion receiver.

9.16 Chapter 9
 I Amplitude
Difference

-10
. . . VdB<l3) - V d B (Q3)
4 Od
Fig 9.26—The simplified diplexer
networks used in the miniR2.

Phase
Difference

50 Ohm IF Port Driving Impedance

75 Ohm IF Port Driving Impedance

100 Ohm IF Port Driving Impedance

Passband
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0
o « » VdB (13) Frequency in kHz

Fig 9.28—To reduce sensitivity to mixer

f i g 9.25—A PSPICE simulation shows the variation in phase and amplitude across IF port impedance and remove loose
• m R2 audio passband when the driving impedance is 50,75, and 100 Q. tolerance electrolytic capacitors from
the I and Q signal paths, a new
bandpass diplexer network was
designed.

Amplitude
Difference

Diplexer Driving Point

V . i
Impedance
Measurements
An experimental receiver to study the
effect of mixer IF impedance was built
using the new diplexer circuit and all com-
ponents matched to within 0.1 %. L O drive
at 14 MHz was provided by a Kanga Uni-
versal IQ VFO with the outputs carefully
adjusted for equal amplitude and 90-dc-
gree phase shift. An independent phase
trimmer was used on one mixer RF port.
This receiver provided 43 dB of opposite
sideband suppression across the 300 to
3000 H / audio band. Then, the mixer IF
2.0 3.0 ports were isolated from the diplexer in-
> VdB (13) Frequency in kHz puts with 50-12 10-dB instrumentation at-
tenuators. After readjusting the amplitude
Fig 9.27—A PSPICE simulation result showing miniR2 diplexer amplitude and and phase trimmers, opposite sideband
phase differences when the driving point impedance is 50,75, and 100 Q. This suppression improved to more than 50 dB
network is more tolerant of driving point impedance variations. across the 300 to 3000 Hz audio band.
Switching f r o m 10-dB to 20-dB attenua-
tors and readjusting made a further small
i m p r o v e m e n t — h o w e v e r at more than
iron, if everything else in the receiver is cantly improve recei ver opposite sideband
53 d B opposite sideband suppression, all
perfect. suppression, because the other source of
adjustments are an order of magnitude
R2 receivers routinely exhibit 41 dB of error will then limit performance.
more critical than at the 4 0 dB level.
opposite sideband suppression across the To reduce sensitivity to mixer IF port
band, while niiniR2 receivers typically are impedance and remove loose tolerance PSPICE simulations show that adding
a few dB better. This indicates that sensi- electrolytic capacitors from the I and Q sig- 6-dB pads between the mixer IF p o n s and
tivity to mixer IF port impedance is well nal paths, a new bandpass diplexer network diplexer inputs permits the experimental
balanced with the errors obtained from was designed. The new network is shown receiver circuit with carefully matched
using 1% tolcrance components in the 1 in Fig 9.28. It is simpler than the R2 net- components to achieve 50 dB of opposite
and Q audio channels. Improving either work by I inductor, and the AC-coupled sideband suppression with a IF port im-
just ihe phase shift network performance output eliminates the need for a blocking pedance mismatch of up to 10 O . Follow-
or just the IK port match will not signifi- capacitor on the input to the audio preamp. ing standard engineering practice, we

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.17

would avoid adding attenuation at this Receivers Designed for ired 1-V signals at the op-amp summing
point, assuming that it would degrade re-
more than 60 dB point. While this is possible using serious
ceiver sensitivity, but standard practice is audio engineering techniques, it is clear
incorrect in thi s case. In fact the proper use Opposite Sideband that the quest for ever-higher opposite
of attenuation may permit us to redistrib- Suppression sideband suppression in phasing receivers
ute receiver gain to improve both sensitiv- Even if everything can be perfectly has a practical limit. As in phasing trans-
ity and dynamic range. matched, baked in. trimmed, and then op- mitters. very low distortion is needed in
erated in a stable temperature controlled the I and Q channels of a phasing receiver.
environment, it is still difficult to obtain The benefit for the user is that a carefully
Effect of Mixer IF Port more than 60 dB of opposite sideband sup- designed phasing receiver will sound ex-
Attenuation on pression in a pure phasing receiver, be- ceptionally good. If the ultimate rejection
to closc-in interfering signals in desired, a
cause of distortion in Ihe I and Q channel
Receiver Noise Figure audio gain. A miniR2 has 50 dB of audio different receiver architecture is needed.
First we need to examine receiver noise gain between the inputs to the 1 and Q A superhct with a fixed IF and a carefully
figure. The techniques for measuring, preamps and the summing point. The gain designed combination of crystal filters
calculating and even defining mixer noise control is after the summer, so this 50 dB and/or phasing and/or D S P can provide
figures are still evolving. A rigorous treat- gain is always in the system. With a 5 dB over lOOdB of opposite sideband suppres-
ment is beyond the scope of this text. Stan- audio amplifier noise figure and no excess sion across the entire 300 - 3000 Hz band.
dard practice calls for us to measure the mixer noise, the noise floor at the sum-
ming point is:
audio amplifier noise figure (typically 5 to
6 dB for the R2 and miniR2 circuits) and
Special considerations
add mixer conversion loss lo obtain -204 dBw/Hz + 5 dB Noise Figure + 34 dB
for CW
receiver noise figure. The resulting 12 dB Many phasing direct conversion receiv-
SSB Bandwidth + 5 0 d B gain = - l 15 dBw
noise figure is usually optimistic in prac- ers have been built by dedicated C W op-
tice, in part because mixers have excess Using a 50-Q reference voltage, this is erators who have no interest whatever in
noise when used with low frequency IFs. an RMS noise voltage of 13 LtV. For an HF SSB bandwidths. Would such receivers
The excess noise has a I/f character, but it application, it is c o m m o n for Ihe band benefit from redesigned audio phase shift
is a mistake to assume that we should be noise to be 20 dB above the noise floor of networks? No. Remember that selectivity
able to observe a smooth 1/f spectrum in the rceciver. At VHF. at least 20 dB of is improved by doing a better j o b of reject-
the noise output of a mixer. Low frequency L N A gain is likely to be used. In either ing signals in the stophund, not passing
diode noise mechanisms are not well un- case, the noise at the summing point would signals in the passband. Thus it can be ar-
derstood, and the noise output varies be about 100 l.tV RMS. Peaks could be gued that the optimum phase shift network
widely between devices—even of the much higher. A signal 60 dB above the for a high p e r f o r m a n c e C W receiver is
same part number and cut from the same band noise would be 0.1 V at the summing exactly the same as the optimum network
semiconductor wafer. Furthermore, the point. On the desired side of zero beat, this for SSB. In addition, a good CW receiver
noise output may have spectral peaks signal would be passed on to the volume has several bandwidths, f r o m narrow con-
and dips that vary considerably from a control. On the other side of zero beal the test filters lo wide open ones used for tun-
smooth 1 If curve. Measurements of a small 50 mV 1 channel signal w ould add to the - ing around sparsely occupied bands. One
sample of T U F - 1 mixers revealed excess 50 mV Q channel signal for a sum less than major benefit of phasing receivers is the
baseband noise in an SSB bandwidth of 100 |iV. This means that the I and 0 chan- ease of making changes to the selectivity.
between 1 dB and 7 dB. If a mixer has nels have to amplify signals 60 to 80 dB It is easy to add filter options if frequen-
excess noise, attenuation after the mixer above the noise floor without distortion or cies from 200 Hz to 4000 Hz on the oppo-
reduces the mixer noise along with the compression. Harmonics and intermod site side of zero beat are suppressed.
desired signal. T h u s the signal-to-noise products generated in the I and Q audio
ratio changes by less than the attenuator However, some receivers are optimized
channels have different relative phase. It
value. for simplicity, and there are other applica-
is also unreasonable to expect the two
tions of simplified phasing method image-
channels to have identical distortion char-
Adding an attenuator to the IF port of rejectcircuitry. If the audio band is limited
acteristics. Distortion asymmetry is also
a diode ring mixer has an additional benefit. to 300 - 1200 H/„ it is possible to obtain
an issue in phasing systems. Harmonic
Mixer distortion is measured with per- more than 50 dB of opposite sideband sup-
distortion is familiar to audio engineers.
fect broadband 50 fl terminations on all pression with a pair of second order net-
For harmonics more than 60 dB down, the
ports of the mixer. It is well known that works. An op-amp 2nd order network op-
total harmonic distortion (THD) specifi-
the IF port termination can have a large timized for a CW-only receiver is shown
cation is: T H D < 0 . 1 % . A receiver with
effect on mixer dynamic range. By adding later in this chapter. One application for
T H D 0.1 % 1 and Q channels could handle
an attenuator to the mixer IF ports, dynamic CW bandwidth image-reject mixers is as
an undesired signal 60 dB above the noise
range may be improved, and the expected the product detector following a simple
floor, but it would have no head room. As
mixer performance will be similar to the CW filter. The combination of a crystal
soon as a signal was strong enough to
numbers in the Mini-Circuits data book. If filter and image-reject product detector
measure on the opposite sideband, distor-
mixer dynamic range is improved, then circuitry can provide better performance
tion would begin to dominate. A better
additional R F preamp gain may be than either is capable of alone, as is dem-
receiver would provide 60 dB of attenua-
added before the mixers. Careful selection onstrated by the radios such as the
tion to a signal 80 dB above the noise floor,
of R F preamp gain, noise figure, and inter- Kenwood TS-570. By distributing the se-
and no audible distortion products in the
cept performance may permit improved lectivity between a crystal filter before IF
wrong sideband. Such signals arc encoun-
third-order performance and lower noise gain and a phasing product detector, the
tered on 20 meters during contests. This
figure than the receiver without attenuators need for a "tail e n d " filter is generally
would require T H D of 0.01% for undes-
can provide. avoided.

9.18 Chapter 9
9.5 BINAURAL RECEIVERS
In a Binaural IQ receiver the I and Q
channels are preserved all the way to the 1 pF
headphones. Fig 9.29 (see next two pages)
is a binaural receiver circuit from March
1999 OST. Sorting out the signals and
interference is done using the ear-brain
processor. As illustrated in the experiment
described earlier, an outboard network
built around an audio phase-shift network
may be used to further process (he I and Q
channels. The network shown in Fig 9.30
provides some sideband suppression and
CW selectivity. The network in Fig 9.31
provides [SB headphone output. Phasing
circuitry and recombining are normally
performed at low signal levels in receiv-
ers, to keep the amount of circuitry that
must be precisely matchcd between the 1
and Q channels to a minimum. Binaural
receivers built with standard tolerance
components do not provide the I Q phase
and amplitude precision needed to achieve
high levels of opposite sideband suppres-
sion with outboard networks. Binaural re- Fig 9.30—This outboard binaural network provides some sideband suppression
ceivers are a delightful way to listen, and and CW selectivity.
also have many uses on the experimenter's
bench. For example, a binaural receiver
tuned across a C W signal from a crystal
oscillator is a precise, low-distortion au- 1.8 fjF
dio signal generator with matched I Q out-
puts—just the ticket for making circles on
an X-Y oscilloscope.

Adjusting Phasing Rigs

One of the difficulties that renewed in-
terest in phasing exciters and receivers has
raised is that the lore of phasing rig adjust-
ment has literally died out with the '40s
and '50s generation of radio experiment- Fig 9.31—This outboard binaural network provides ISB headphone output.
ers. Although modern components and
modern component tolerances permit us
to build phasing rigs that perform well
beyond the capability of the classics, align- sights have two adjustments: windage (or balance adjustment and a single phase trim
ing them requires an unfamiliar set of azimuth); and elevation. Both have to be adjustment lo reduce the effect of the re-
skills. Some techniques, particularly those properly adjusted to hit the center. spective errors to zero.
familiar to George Grammer at the ARRL, With two orthogonal error terms, a Unlike most other tweaks in Amateur
were well documented, but others are only phasing rig needs two a d j u s t m e n t s for Radio, phasing adjustments cannot be
preserved as vague recollections of ob- opposite sideband suppression. This is a tuned for m a x i m u m smoke. The easiest
serving the masters at work in their radio critically important point: no matter how way to adjust a phasing receiver is to tune
labs. Those of us who now experiment many small amplitude errors we have in across a steady CW tone f r o m an external
with phasing rigs have had to start from the system, we can tunc them out with just signal generator, adjusting the phase and
scratch and design new adjustment tech- a single amplitude balance adjustment. amplitude trimmers for minimum re-
niques. while remaining painfully aware Similarly, all of the small phase errors in sponse on the undesired sideband. The sig-
that we are recreating a lost art. the system may be tuned out with just a nal generator must have adjustable output
In the math section, we found thai we single phase adjustment. W e need pre- level so that the test signal can be kept
could combine all of the amplitude errors cisely two adjustments in a phasing rig to between the receiver noise floor and dis-
into a single term, and all of the phase er- null the opposite sideband. tortion level on both the desired and un-
rors into a single term. These two error desired sidebands. The receiver and signal
The strategy for designing and building
terms are orthogonal—no amount of tweak- generator both need to be well shielded, to
a successful phasing rig c o m e s directly
ing on the amplitude trimpot can correct a prevent signals f r o m the generator leaking
from the mathematics: design the system
phase error, and vice versa. The situation is into the I or Q channel.
so that all the amplitude and phase errors
very much like shooting at a target. The are small; and include a single amplitude The easiest way to adjust a phasing cx-

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.19

 47
t50pF 150pF PF 4 7 P F
NPO NPO NPO NPO
"Jl )[
C54 CS5
7 " CS3 01
30 pF 1N«148
rt> rh

221 #22 on
T37-6Cors
Tap at 5 Turns

9.20 Chapter 9
 Switched +12 V to VFO

Fig 9.29—A binaural receiver circuit from March 1999 QST.

citcr is to tune its low level output on a observed on an oscilloscope, and phase level 1000-Hz sine wave tone injected into
receiver with low distortion, very good and amplitude trimmers adjusted to reduce the microphone input, the SSB exciter will
selectivity, and selectable sidebands. In- the audio amplitude variations in the out- have a little output at the suppressed car-
ject a pure sine wave audio tone into the put waveform. It is difficult to reduce spu- rier frequency f„; a desired sideband out-
microphone input and switch back and rious outputs by more than 40 dB while put 1000 Hz away; a suppressed opposite
forth between the desired and undesired observing the exciter output on an oscillo- sideband 1000 H i on the other side of the
sidebands while adjusting the exciter scope, because the carrier, opposite side- carrier frequency; and distortion products.
phase and amplitude trimmers. Then band. distortion products, harmonics on The distortion products can be made arbi-
sweep the audio tone frequency from the audio input tone, and power supply trarily small by reducing the audio tone
300 to 3000 Hz to verify that sideband sup- hum and noise all contribute to amplitude level at the microphone input. The desired
pression holds across the desired audio modulation of the desired sine wave RF sideband, carrier, and opposite sideband
passband. output. all beat together in the diode detector, and
An SSB exciter with a pure sine wave There is a elever old technique for ad- the audible beats may be heard on the
audio tone into the microphone input gen- justing opposite sideband suppression that headphones. Imperfect carrier suppres-
erates a sine wave RF output. Residual does not require a good receiver or oscil- sion results in a 1000-Hz audio tone, and
carrier and opposite sideband energy am- loscope. The exciter output is connected poor opposite sideband suppression re-
plitude modulates the desired sine wave through a suitable attenuator into a diode sults in a 2000-Hz audio lone. The SSB
RF output. The SSB exciter output may be detector with headphones. With a low- exciter phase and amplitude trimmers may.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.21

be adjusted for minimum 2000-Hz lone. I f venient amplitude trimmer for receivers is quencies. or that introduces phase errors
the exciter has carrier balance adjust- a ten-turn trim pot connecting the I and Q across the audio frequency range, will
ments. they may be trimmed for minimum audio channels to the inverting input of make it impossible to obtain good oppo-
1000-Hz tone. the summing amplifier. 11" sideband site sideband suppression across the whole
switching is implemented by interchang- audio range. In exciters it is best to include
Amplitude Balance ing the I Q connections at the input to a a separate op-ainp variable gain stage, to
prccisc audio phase shift network pair, avoid upsetting either the mixer diplexer
Adjustment balancing the amplitudes before the switch impedances or the o p - a m p all-pass net-
The amplitude balance adjustment may results in a system that has nearly equal work drive impedances. Fig 9.32 shows
be a variable gain element in either the [ or sideband suppression on either sideband. possible locations for the amplitude bal-
Q channel anywhere from [he point where A significant point to watch for is that ance adjustment in receivers, and Fig 9.33
the two paths separate to the point where the variable gain element docs not unbal- shows locations for exciters. Remember
they are summed together. It is usually ance the drive or load impedance of band- that only one amplitude adjustment is
easier to use a variable resistor at pass or all-pass networks. An amplitude needed. The amplitude adjustments shown
baseband, particularly if op-amp gain adjustment that behaves differently at low have no appreciable affect on phase. When
blocks are included in the system. A con- audio frequencies than at high audio fre- D S P is used, it may be useful to do the

1 Mixer Low-Pass

Fig 9.32—Possible locations for the amplitude balance adjustment in receivers.

Balanced
Modulator

Fig 9.33—Possible locations lor the amplitude balance adjustment in exciters.

9.22 Chapter 9
 Amplitude
Varying L2 from 710 nH Trim
through 870 nM gives ± 2 0 s 7.5 k
C2 160 pF £R3
phase shift wfth± 0.4 dB L1 {Ls1} ?S0
amplitude offset PTHfHPt
790 nH
F« -
L2{Ls2) 1003
ct ; L r r m .
330 pF 790 nH
1V
V C3 : : ' 6 0 pF
{Cp}
S11 R1
1M Varying C3 from 128 pF through 192 pF (20%)
gives ± 4.0° phase shift with less than 0.025 dB
amplitude offset.

Variable Phase Splitter/Combiner

Fig 9.34—A variable phase splitter/combiner network for a 20-meter receiver or

exciter. The PSPICE signal generators allow extraction of S11.

amplitude balance trimming in software. mathematically independent, but it is not

trivial lo adjust phase without affecting Q Out
amplitude as well. When mixers with satu-
Phase Trim Adjustment rating LO drive (for example, diode rings
There are many possibilities for the lo- and Gilbert cells) arc used, small changes
cation of the phase trimmer. Phase may be in LO amplitude do not have a large effect
trimmed in the I and Q signal path any- on mixer performance. For this reason, Fig 9.3S—The op-amp circuit permits
where after the audio phase-shift network including the phase trim adjustment in the a small amount of Q-channel signal to
in exciters and anywhere before the audio mixer LO drive rather than in the RF or be either added or subtracted to the
I-channel signal.
phase-shift network in receivers. LO baseband path is good practice. On the
Phase may also be trimmed at either the I other hand, low-pass filtering is needed at
or Q mixer LO port. As long as the phase the output of phasing exciters and at the receiver or exciter. The variable capacitor
errors in the system are small, only a single input to direct conversion receivers. A trims the phase over a plus or minus
phase trim adjustment is needed, and it low-pass Wilkenson splitter is a useful RF 4-degree range with 0.025 dB variation in
may be anywhere in the system. Some lo- splitter or combiner for a phasing rig. and amplitude.
cations for the phase trim adjustment are using a variable capacitor for one element It is possible to do the phase trimming at
better than others. The amplitude balance allows smooth adjustment of phase. Fig baseband, either in DSP or using op-amps.
and phase balance in a phasing rig are 9.34 illustrates a network for a 20-meter For complete suppression of the undesired

w invert

_ _ Aii-pass r*}
Network

Low^Pass

All-pass
Network

Fig 9.36—A single change in sign anywhere in the mathematical

description will result in the suppression of the lower sideband
instead. The sign change may be accomplished in practice by
using a 180° combiner to sum the mixer outputs, inverting the
audio drive to one side of the audio phase shift network,
interchanging the LO I and Q-mixer connections, adding a half-
wavelength of transmission line to one of the LO ports or between
the RF splitter and one of the mixer RF ports, or interchanging the
mixer IF ports. The block diagram illustrates all of these options,
but remember that only one is needed.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.23

 USB Fig 9.37—For systems that need to
perform equally well on either sideband,
the phase and amplitude adjustments may
either be front panel mounted and
adjusted every time the other sideband is
selected, or an independent set of phase
and amplitude adjustments may be used
for each sideband.

To
AFPSN 1
tracted to the I channel signal. T h e s a m e
principle may be applied to receivers. It is
necessary to d o the phase t r i m m i n g at a
point in the audio circuitry where the sig-
nals in the two channels are 90 degrees
apart, that is. between the mixers and the
audio phase shift networks in both receiv-
ers and exciters.

4 1 - , TO
q ^ t AFPSN 2
Sideband Selection
In the mathematical description of a
phasing receiver, the lower sideband is sup-
pressed when the 90° shifted audio is mul-
tiplied with the 90° shifted LO, and the
outputs of the two mixers are added. A
single change in sign anywhere in the math-
ematical description will result in the sup-
pression of the upper sideband instead. The
sign change may be accomplished in prac-
tice by using a 180° combiner to sum the
mixer outputs, inverting the audio drive to
one of side of the audio phase shift net-
work, interchanging the LO I and Q mixer
connections, adding a half-wavelength of
transmission line to one of the LO ports or
between the RF splitter and one of the
mixer RF ports, or interchanging the mixer
I F ports. The block d i a g r a m in Fig 9.36
illustrates all of these options, but remem-
ber that only one is needed. Switching side-
bands will generally introduce a different
set of amplitude and phase errors. For sys-
tems that need lo perform equally well on
sideband, the I and Q channels a f t e r the Q channel to the I channel. If the phase either sideband, the phase and amplitude
a u d i o p h a s e - s h i f t network in an exciter error is in the opposite direction, then a a d j u s t m e n t s may either be front panel
need to have the s a m e signal, but 9 0 small a m o u n t of the Q channel signal can mounted and adjusted every time the other
degrees out of phase. If there is a phase be s u b t r a c t e d to a c h i e v e cxactly 9 0 sideband is selected, or an independent set
error, the angle b e t w e e n the I and Q c h a n - degrees p h a s e shift. T h e o p - a m p circuit in of phase and amplitude adjustments may
nels will not be 90 degrees. It is possible to Fig 9.35. s i m i l a r to one p u b l i s h e d by be used for each sideband. Fig 9.37 shows
obtain exactly 9 0 degrees of phase shift by Blanchard. permits a small a m o u n t of Q one way this may be accomplished.
adding a small a m o u n t of the signal in the channel signal to be either added or sub-

9.6 LO AND RF PHASE-SHIFT AND IN-PHASE SPLITTER-COMBINER

NETWORKS
N u m e r o u s articles over the years have highly r e c o m m e n d e d , as the o n e s pre- and phase between the I and Q R F chan-
addressed the topic of LO phase shift net- sented here are not necessarily o p t i m u m , nels. T h e LO path has a pair of sine w a v e s
works for p h a s i n g rigs. The recent work they are just familiar. with precisely defined phase, but w c are
by B l a n c h a r d is particularly r e c o m - T h e first topic to address is the question usually not loo c o n c e r n e d with L O ampli-
m e n d e d . In this section wc will discuss the of where to p u t the 9 0 d e g r e e phase shift: tude. and w c never need it to be matched to
requirements and implications of d i f f e r - in the R F path or the L O path. There is an h u n d r e d t h s of a d B . S i m p l e phase shift
ent network selections, and present the easy answer to this question that is usually networks provide precisc 9 0 ° phase shift
networks that we have used extensively. correct. T h e R F path contains signals that over a wide bandwidth, but the amplitude
E x p e r i m e n t a t i o n with other n e t w o r k s is must be precisely matched in amplitude is only b a l a n c e d at a single f r e q u e n c y .

9.24 Chapter 9
hqual amplitude I and Q LO may be ob- use from 300 to 3000 Hz, but we wouldn't menters who build their first phasing rigs
' dined by following such a network with a want to use a wideband unity-gain op-amp are often amazed at how much different an
miter. Phase shift networks using split- circuit as the RF input stage of a receiver. LO phase shift pair works when connected
-•:>. and lengths of transmission line, ei- On the other hand, there are many simple to mixers than when it is observed with
ther actual coax or lumped element in-phase splitters that provide good phase 50-£2 loads on an oscilloscope. It is com-
iquivalenis, have well matched amplitude and amplitude accuracy over a wide band- mon for the phase adjustment range to be
over a wide frequency range, but 90" phase width. For this reason, we almost always too small, and additional capacitors often
thift at only one frequency. It is difficult put the 90° phase shift network in the LO need to be tacked on the bottom of the cir-
to build a passive network that provides path and an in-phase splitter in the RF path. cuit board at one mixer LO port or the
both precise amplitude balance and a 90° One reason that we might choose to use other. In many applications, the phasing
output pair over a wide RF bandwidth. in-phase LO and quadrature RF is that the receiver or cxcitcr only needs to operate at
With wideband op-amps, we can use the RF ports of diode-ring mixers are often a single frequency or over a very narrow
same circuitry from 3 to 30 MHz that wc better behaved than the LO ports. Experi- band—for example, when following a

Fig 9.38— A good combination of LO quadrature network and RF splitter for HF and low VHF single-band receivers and
exciters.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.25

 Fig 9.39—The LO quadrature network
has wideband phase balance and
acceptable amplitude balance over any
amateur band, and the combined low-
pass filter-splitter for RF provides a
natural and well-behaved phase
adjustment point. Here we move the
phase adjustment to the LO path.

crystal filter or when used with a V X O as

a tunable IF for microwaves. In this case
the benefits of connecting the quadrature
network to the RF ports instead of the LO
mixer pons and using in-phase LO split-
ting may outweigh the bandwidth penalty.
A good combination of LO quadrature
network and R F splitter for HF and low
VHF single-band receivers and exciters is
shown in Fig 9.38. The LO quadrature
network has wideband phase balance and
acceptable amplitude balance over any
amateur band, and the combined low-pass
filter-splitter for RF provides a natural and
well- behaved phase adjustment point. Fig
9.39 moves the phase adjustment to the
LO path. This arrangement has been used
extensively in amateur phasing exciters
and receivers, and is attractive for band
switched applications.
The bifilar toroid quadrature hybrid
described in the reference by Fisher may
be converted to a broadband structure by
connecting a second network through a
pair of transmission lines. The transmis-
sion lines are usually lumped element
equivalents at frequencies below 5 0 MHz.
The network shown in Fig 9.40 is used in
a receiver that covers 6.8 to 11 MHz with-
out band switching. Front panel phase and
amplitude trimmers are appropriate in
such a receiver.
At VHF, a pair of transmission lines may
be used, either with an in-phase splitter or
just soldered together. It will be necessary
to trim the length for maximum opposite
sideband suppression. This is a tedious
process, more so if connectors have to be
unsoldered and resoldered every lime the
line length is trimmed. If anything in the
K| K1 system changes—any other transmission
KJJnear line length or the VSWR at any port—the
Couplings 1
L1
line length will have to be readjusted. This
L2 brings up an interesting point: it is gener-
L1 ally not appropriate to use modular con-
struction and connectors between the

Fig 9.40—The bifilar toroid quadrature

hybrid described by Fisher may be
converted to a broadband structure by
connecting a second network through a
pair of transmission lines. The
transmission lines are usually lumped
(Ca) 1/(2 • it • F1 100) (La) 50/(2 TT-F1) element equivalents at frequencies
(Cb) 0.409/(2 • w • F1 • 100)
below 50 MHz. This network is used In a
(Lb) 20.5/(2 'IT F1)
receiver that covers E.8 to 11 MHz
without band switching.

9.26 Chapter 9
 5V p-p encouraged. C M O S logic with a 5 V sup- is often not in the "high-performance re-
Square Wave ply can drive +7 dBm into diode mixers ceiver" category, and the miniR2 circuit pro-
X
/ L using the circuit in Fig 9.41. The pi net- vides more than enough signal processing
work converts the high-impedance IC performance. The extra design and construc-
square wave output into a sine wave and tion time and expense to use the R2 and
transforms the impedance down to drive R2pro circuitry is wasted if receiver system
the 5 0 - a load. The pi network output ca- performance is limited by the LO.
pacitor is a convenient point to trim the Digital L O generation, and L O buffer
phase. A simple logic L O phase-shift net- amplifier distortion generate L O signals
work is shown in Fig 9.42. Instead of a that may be very rich in harmonics. Har-
Hg 9.41—CMOS logic with a 5 V supply frequency divider to obtain the 90° output monics are important in phasing systems,
ean drive +7 dBm into diode mixers pair, an RC network is used. The inverters because a phase shift in a harmonic will
w i n g this circuit The pi network following the R C network act as hard lim- shift the phase of the composite waveform.
converts the high-impedance IC square iters, and the networks on the output pro- Even if the I Q 1.0 provides a perfect pair
save output into a sine wave and vide +7 dBm into 50 £J and a convenient of sine waves, harmonics are generated in
transforms the impedance down to
phase trim. the mixer. A conservative approach to
* i v a a SO-n load.
Some DDS ICs provide I and Q outputs. control of harmonic phase is to drive the
These may be used with a broadband RF mixer LO ports with wideband b u f f e r
splitter and switched RF low-pass filters to amplifiers and resistive attenuators. For
build simple general coverage phasing rigs, most applications, a more practical ap-
and experiments along these lines are en- proach is to have a wide range available on
couraged. For wideband rigs, it is convenient the phase trim adjustment to compensate
to do both the amplitude and phase trimming for harmonic phase effects.
at baseband, using the op-amp circuitry- If the phase trim adjustment docs not
shown earlier. The phase noise performance have enough range, a c o m m o n technique
of wide range DDS based Local Oscillators is to tack a small value (start with a few pFi
capacitor f r o m one mixer LO port to
ground. If the opposite sideband suppres-
sion improves, leave the chip capacitor in
place and readjust. If opposite sideband
network. suppression degrades, move the capacitor
to the other mixer. Add enough capaci-
tance that the phase trim adjustment range
Mages of a phasing rig. It is much better to permits the opposite sideband suppression
adjust it once, solder everything in placc, to be nulled. It may be necessary to add a
«nd then leave it alone. If the rig has cables surprisingly large value capacitor before
with connectors, they will eventually be the phase is equalized. 100 p F will shift a
needed for other projects and borrowed. 40-meler signal in a 50-12 system about
Then new cables will have to be made up 10 degrees.
to get the phasing rig running again, and at
2 meters a few tenths of an inch makes a
difference. Three of the most reliable rigs Fig 9,43—This simple quadrature hybrid
Audio Phase Shift
at KK7B use phase shift networks that circuit has good performance at only Networks
were adjusted by squeezing turns on a tor- one audio frequency, but it is truly A collection of audio phase-shift net-
oid. and then the turns were locked in place elegant in its simplicity and provides
trivial sideband switching, draws no works is shown in the next set of figures.
with nail polish. All three still provide
current, and offers the possibility of The simple quadrature hybrid circuit in
more than 40 dB of opposite sideband sup-
binaural independent sideband listening. Fig 9.43 has good performance at only one
pression after years of portable operation
and world travel.
Digital ICs configured as frequency di-
viders can provide accurate 90° phase
shift, and have o f t e n appeared in print.
They have been used less often, partly
because logic levels are not the appropri-
ate drive f o r any of the more c o m m o n mix-
ers used in receivers and exciters, and
partly because m a n y m o r e people have
written about phasing rigs than have actu-
ally designed and built them. There may
be parts of the brain that, once used to
grasp fundamental digital concepts, are no
longer capable of understanding basic RF.
If so then the reverse is also probably true.
Experiments with logic phase shift net- Fig 9.44—A broadband version of the circuit in Fig 9.43 provides marginal
works and commutating mixers are highly performance over a wider bandwidth, but good performance nowhere.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.27

 2nd Order RC Ail-Pass with Small Signal Audio JFETs 2nd Order RC All-Pass with BJTs
*T2 V

01
I—It-

H H

Fig 9.4S—FET drive and load circuits for using classic Fig 9.46—BJT drive and load circuits tor using classic
second-order RC networks in exciters and receivers. second-order RC networks in exciters and receivers.

audio frequency, but it is truly elegant in capable of good performance in both ex- the gain f r o m Vi through the non-invert-
its simplicity and provides trivial sideband citer and receiver applications, but will not ing input is 0, and the gain f r o m Vi through
switching, draws no current, and offers the provide the same level of performance as the inverting input is still - 1 . The sum is
possibility of binaural independent side- the c o m m o n third-order op-amp networks - 1 . The frequency f Q occurs when XC1 =
band listening. It offers a real performance or polyphase R C networks. Since net- R I . The voltage at the non-inverting input
improvement over the simplest DSB di- works with better performance are n o at f„ is 0.5( 1 -j). The gain f r o m Vi through
rect conversion and regenerative receiv- more difficult to build, there is no obvious the non-inverting input at f 0 is 1 -j. The sum
ers. The broadband version in Fig 9.44 technical reason to use the classic circuitry of the outputs from Vi through the invert-
provides marginal p e r f o r m a n c e over a in a rig with modern parts. There is. how- ing and non-inverting inputs is - 1 + (1-j)
wider bandwidth, but good performance ever, an appeal to simple circuitry, and = -j. Thus, the all-pass op-amp circuit has
nowhere. One difficulty with passive LC even the solid-state circuits of the "60s are unity gain all the way from dc to high fre-
audio quadrature hybrid networks using now old enough to be included in the clas- quencies, and a phase shift o f - 9 0 " at f 0 . A
pot-corc inductors is maintaining induc- sic category. A complete phasing trans- phasing rig with j u s t one op-amp
tor tolerances. The inductance can vary mitter using point-to-point wiring and all-pass network could have perfect oppo-
over a wide range depending on the tight- only two and three terminal devices (no site sideband suppression at one frequency
ness of screw holding the pot core halves ICs) could be part of a '60s vintage home- f 0 . By adding a second all-pass network in
together, and a mechanical jolt can result brew station, and more importantly, could the other channel with a d i f f e r e n t fre-
in a big inductance shift. sound exceptionally good on the air. It is quency f 0 , a phase difference of approxi-
critical to remember that the drive and load mately 90° can be maintained over a small
Second-order R C audio phase-shift net-
impedances, and the relative drive levels, bandwidth. This might be u s e f u l f o r a
works were used in the classic homebrew
are part of the network. Figs 9.45 and 9.46 simple C W receiver or a SSB transmitter
and commercial rigs of the '50s. They are
show several different drive and load cir- with very relaxed (20 dB) opposite side-
cuits f o r using classic second-order R C band suppression requirements. Fig 9.48
networks in exciters and receivers. C o m - is a pair of ail-pass networks with the 90°
ponents are standard 1® resistors and frequencies chosen for good suppression
R
matched capacitors. over an audio band f r o m 4 7 0 to 9 0 0 Hz,
W\,
and Fig 9.49 is a pair that provides at least
Fig 9.47 is a single stage op-amp all-
21 dB suppression from 360 Hz to 2050
pass network. This is such a c o m m o n
Hz. Figs 9.50 and 9.51 show the phase
circuit in phasing rigs that it is useful to
errors f r o m 0 to 4 kHz. The errors may be
examine its behavior. At DC. C1 is an open
reduced by adding more sections and re-
circuit. The gain from Vi through the non-

r
Fig 9.47—A single-stage op-amp all-
inverting input is +2. The gain f r o m Vi
through the inverting input is - 1 . These
two add together for a net gain of +1 at
DC. At high frequency, CI effectively
calculating the all-pass network frequen-
cies. Adding a second pair of op-amps al-
lows us to achieve better opposite
sideband suppression p e r f o r m a n c e over
wider bandwidths. Fig 9.52 illustrates a
pass network. shorts the inverting input to ground. Then

9.28 Chapter 9
 achieve almost 60 dB of sideband suppres-
sion f r o m 2 7 0 Hz through 3600 Hz. if the
rest of the receiver were pcrfect. With this
10.0 k
n e t w o r k , other receiver c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
WV-
will set the practical limit for sideband sup-
10.0 k / " s T T pression. F o r most applications, the third-

^ f—I
r 6.81 k
' order all-pass network pair shown in Fig
9.56 is r e c o m m e n d e d . Fig 9.57 s h o w s the
p h a s e errors. O p - a m p s , resistors and ca-
pacitors arc inexpensive, and this network
0.010 has been widely duplicated. Note that one
mf
'i resistor value, 1.52 kf2. is not a standard
1% c o m p o n e n t . A 1 . 5 0 - k f i and a 2 0 - f J
10.0 k
r e s i s t o r i n series will stand side-by-side on
the PC board.

Phase Shift Network

Component Tolerances
0.010 With 1 % tolerance resistors and capaci-
0.010
MF tors right out of the bag, the network in Fig
MF
9.56 will reliably provide m o r e than 40 dB
470 Hz - 900 Hz
360 Hz - 2050 Hz opposite sideband suppression. Fig 9.58
Maximum phase error 1.5° = 0.026 radians,
Maximum phase error 9.8° = 0.17 radians, is a simulation of the p h a s e error w h e n
Minimum opposite sideband suppression 37 dB
Minimum opposite sideband suppression 21 dB
c o m p o n e n t s values vary by 1% or less.
400 H z - 1050 Hz
Maximum phase error 5" = 0.087 radians, 280 Hz - 2600 Hz Selecting the resistors and capacitors by
Minimum opposite sideband suppression 27 dB Maximum phase error 20° = 0.35 radians, h a n d u s i n g an accurate o h m and farad
Minimum opposite sideband suppression 15 dB meter will improve p e r f o r m a n c e . Fig 9.59
is a s i m u l a t i o n with 0 . 5 % errors, and
Fig 9.60 is a simulation with 0.2% errors.
Fig 9.48—A pair of all-pass networks M o r e precise matching beyond 0.1 % does
with the 90° frequencies chosen for not provide any practical benefit with 3rd
good suppression over an audio band Fig 9.50—A pair of all-pass networks order networks, bccause the design errors
from 470 to 900 Hz. that provide at least 21 dB suppression
from 360 to 2050 Hz. in the network are then larger than the
c o m p o n e n t tolerance errors, as s h o w n in
Fig 9.61. N o t e that the capacitors and 10.0
k resistors all have the s a m e value, and
second-order all-pass network pair f o r C W Hz for S S B operation. F i g u r e s 9 . 5 3 and
may be m a t c h e d to each other, rather than
receivers that provides m o r e than 5 0 dB of 9.55 show the phase errors for these two
an absolute standard. 1% resistors are
opposite sideband suppression from networks.
c h e a p — i t may be easiest to just m e a s u r e a
300 H z to 1120 Hz, and Fig 9.54 is one Adding a third pair of o p - a m p s allows
bunch of the 6 values needed and select
that provides m o r e than 36 dB of opposite us to build a n e t w o r k with small e n o u g h
those that are closest to the design value.
sideband suppression f r o m 2 5 0 Hz to 3650 amplitude and phase errors that we could

Fig 9.51—Phase errors from 0 to 4 kHz. The errors may be

reduced by adding more sections and recalculating the all-
Fig 9.49-Phase errors of the Fig 9.48 network pair. pass network frequencies.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.29

 0 010 *T*
pF
0-010 -T-

X,
10.0 k /V »OK /V

0.010 0.010 -T- 0.010-T-

mf
X X
300 Hz -1120 Hz Maximum phase error 0.21" = 0.0037 radians, 250 Hz - 3650 Hz Maximum phase error 1.84s = 0.032 radians.
Minimum opposite sideband suppression 54 dB Minimum opposite sideband suppression 36 dB

265 Hz-1360 Hz Maximum phase error 1* • 0.0175 radians. 226 Hz - 4250 Hz Maximum phase error 5 6 = 0.087 radians,
Minimum opposite sideband suppression 41 dB Minimum opposite sideband suppression 27 dB

Fig 9.52—A second-order all-pass network pair for CW Fig 9.54—This second-order all-pass network provides more
receivers that provides more than 50 dB of opposite sideband than 36 dB of opposite sideband suppression from 250 Hz to
suppression from 300 Hz to 1120 Hz. 3650 Hz for SSB operation.

2nd Order Op-Amp CW All-Pass Phase Error 2nd Order Op-Amp SSB All-Pass Phase Error
40(1 ,

Od

-20d

0.0 OS t.O 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 0.0 0.5 1-0 1.5 2.0 2.5 30 3.5 4.0 4.5
Frequency ficHz) Frequency (kHz)

Fig 9.53—Phase errors in the second-order all-pass network

shown in Fig 9.52. Fig 9.55—Phase errors in the second-order all-pass network
shown in Fig 9.54.

9.30 Chapter 9
Fig 9.56—Adding a third pair of op-amps allows us to build a Fig 9.57—Phase errors in the network shown in Fig 9.56. Note
network with small enough amplitude and phase errors that the change in scale.
we could achieve almost 60 dB of sideband suppression from
270 Hz through 3600 Hz, if the rest of the receiver were
perfect.

Fig 9.58—A simulation of the phase error when component Fig 9.59—A simulation with 0.5% errors,
values vary by 1% or less. Selecting the resistors and
capacitors by hand using an accurate ohm and farad meter
will improve performance.

Fig 9.61—More precise matching beyond 0.1% does not

provide any practical benefit with 3rd order networks,
because the design errors in the network are then larger than
Fig 9.60—A simulation with 0.2% errors. the component tolerance errors.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.31

9.7 OTHER OP-AMP TOPOLOGIES, POLYPHASE NETWORKS AND DSP
PHASE SHIFTERS
Many other passive and active audio Polyphase networks are 4 phase networks, resistors in the audio phase-shift networks
phase shift networks are possible, and and in I Q systems two of the phases are of phasing rigs. This is discouraged for
have been described in the literature. The neglected. There are advantages to several reasons. First of all. it is unneces-
ones described above are ones that we 4-phase receivers and exciters, however. sary. A network that can support 50 dB of
have used and recommend. There are sev- Four-phase exciters have inherent carrier opposite sideband suppression can be built
eral other op-amp all-pass networks that balance, as long as the four mixers are just by measuring the parts before con-
have been used in phasing exciters and re- identical. This may be useful at VHF and struction. At this level, other errors in the
ceivers. Many others are possible. microwaves, where it is difficult to obtain system will begin to dominate. Secondly,
Polyphase networks, described in the adequate carrier suppression with an I Q all of the RC combinations in an op-amp
ARRI. Handbook, may also be used in re- mixer pair. Polyphase network perfor- all-pass network interact. The only reason-
ceiver and cxeiter applications. They are mance degrades rapidly outside the design able method of tweaking the individual RC
capable of excellent phase and amplitude passband, so it is useful to design the nel- time constants involves a special phase-
balancc across the passband. There arc a work for a significantly wider bandwidth shift test procedure, and the adjustments
few subtleties to consider in deciding be- than will actually be used. The biggest might not be correct once the network is
tween an op-amp all-pass network and a advantage of polyphase networks is that removed from the test fixture and inserted
polyphase nelwork. Polyphase networks they are symmetrical, and therefore have into a real receiver or exciter. Finally, it is
are lossy, so more gain needs to be used self-correcting properties. Phase errors in possible to have loo many adjustments.
ahead of them in receiver applications. the input section of the network arc cor- Imagine a car with a V-8 engine, and sepa-
The sideband cancellation actually occurs rected by later sections. This allows rate timing for the spark to each cylinder
in the network, so no summing amplifier reduced tolerance components to be used brought back to the dashboard and under
is needed afterward. This eliminates the in part of the network. Good examples of control of the driver. Some things are bet-
possibility of trimming the summing am- rigs using polyphase networks arc in the ter done correctly the first time, and then
plifier for amplitude balance, requires that literature. left alone. A notable exception to this is
sideband selection be performed by systems employing DSP. When the phase
DSP may also be used to generate an
reversing the LO drive to the mixers or shift network is under software control, it
I Q pair. This option is discussed in much
inverting the output of one of the audio is possible to optimize a large number of
more detail in the DSP chapters.
preamps. and requires duplicating the variables during a self-test routine.
Some workers have included phase trim
phase shift network for ISB applications.

9.8 INTELLIGENT SELECTIVITY

A final philosophical comment regard- sideband suppression is needed to sup- tional sense is significantly different than
ing the optimization of opposite sideband press interfering signals in the unused one with a wide response and a few deep
suppression is in order. The first 20 dB of sideband, which may be much stronger nulls. Also, interference can take many
opposite sideband suppression provides a than the desired signal. In a receiver with forms, and it has long been recognized that
real improvement in signal-to-noise level "intelligent selectivity," the available re- optimizing the receiver to suppress nearby
for SSB and CW signals, by removing the sources can be optimized to suppress the strong CW interference makes the receiver
image noise contribution from the unused interference, rather than to improve the less robust to impulse type interference.
sideband. Once image noise is 20 dB opposite sideband suppression spec Spending a few hours with a binaural JQ
down, it is hard to measure any further im- across the audio passband. This is signifi- receiver is useful in understanding the
provement in signal-to-noise ratio by sup- cant. because the impulse response of a implications of selectivity and interference
pressing it further. Additional opposite receiver with good selectivity in the tradi- rejection.

9.32 Chapter 9
 9.9 A N E X T - G E N E R A T I O N R2 SINGLE-SIGNAL DIRECT C O N V E R S I O N
RECEIVER
The R2pro is an image-reject direct eon- nates sensitivity to dc power supply volt- Multiple Circuit Boards
version receiver subsystem consisting of age variations.
There is a significant problem with direct
several circuit boards. Ii is intended for Many experimenters have used the ba-
conversion receivers built on a single circuit
applications where a performance im- sic R2 and miniR2 circuitry as the foun-
board. RF grounding and shielding tech-
provement over the basic miniR2 circuit is dation for experiments using DDS fre-
niques are very different than the grounding
desired, or for experimental applications quency synthesizers and DSP audio signal
and shielding techniques needed for high-
where access to signals throughout the processing, as suggested in the original
gain audio amplifier circuitry. If the low-
system is needed. For most applications, QST articles. We have built a dozen dif-
level RF signals, high-level LO signal, all
the miniR2 circuit provides excellent per- ferent R2 and miniR2 receivers and trans-
the mixer conversion products, and high-
formance using off-the-shelf parts. The ceivers for a wide variety of fixed and
gain audio amplifier are all on the same cir-
R2pro requires hand-matched components portable applications—often with out-
cuit board, there must be compromises in
and careful measurements during con- standing results, and sometimes immedi-
grounding and shielding. These compro-
struction. It is intended to be used with RF ately indicating directions for further
mises were handled on the R l , R2 and
gain, and its design flexibility requires that work.
miniR2 boards by designing the ground
some engineering decisions be made by After all this learning experience, it was traces such that the audio stages saw an ap-
the builder. natural to update the original high-per- proximate single-point-ground and the area
formance phasing receiver circuit. A around the mixers was an unbroken ground
number of revised versions have been plane. Any of these single-board receivers
Review of Previous built—but the requirement that the new- can be made to oscillate by connecting the
version work better than the original is
Work tough. The original circuitry, and the cir-
power-supply or speaker ground wire to the
wrong point on the circuit board ground,
The phasing receiver described in Janu- cuit board layout, were optimized over a even though all of the grounds arc connected
ary 1993 QST was developed in parallel period of more than a year of continuous together. For a review of audio grounding
with the "High Performance Direct Con- activity. techniques, see Horowitz and Hill, The Arr
version Receiver," described in the Au- of Electronics.
gust 1992 issue. All of the basic circuitry
from the straight DSB receiver was dupli- Updating the R2 The conflicting requirement for an RF
cated onto the phasing receiver circuit tight enclosure and a single-point audio
The first task in updating the R2 circuit
boards, with appropriate additions for ground makes it difficult to package single
was to determine what needed to change. board direct conversion receivers. Early
eliminating the undesired sideband. The
The following list was formulated: versions of the Rl and R2 direct conver-
audio quality of the August 1992 DSB di-
rect conversion receiver remains a bench- •Replace the SBL-1 mixers with the sion receivers pictured in QST were en-
mark for amateur receivers. The phasing TUF-3 package. closed in soldered-up copper-clad PC
version sounds good, but summing two •Replace the LM 387 audio IC with a mod- board enclosures. Other packages, par-
channels with different time delays (as re- ern low-noise dual op-amp ticularly those made of aluminum pieces
quired by the imagc-reject circuitry) •Revise the audio diplexers for belter tol- held together with screws—are prone to
erance to component variation intermittent audio oscillations and micro-
modifies the impulse response of the
•improve opposite sideband suppression phonics. Breaking up the receiver into
channel, and the receiver loses some of its
•Improve receiver system noise figure separate functional blocks—each with its
presence. This is exactly the same effect
•Improve audio stability own circuit board—provides more
one encounters with a SSB bandwidth
•Make it easier to build advanced experi- grounding flexibility. Then the PC board
crystal filter in a conventional supcrhet.
mental receivers with the mixers can be completely
After several hundred R2 receivers had
•Design a receiver circuit that rewards shielded, and the PC board with the audio
been built, the second-generation miniR2
component selection with performance output amplifier can have a single point
circuit was developed. The miniR2 cir- •Eliminate distortion from the muting ground. By optimizing the gain partition-
cuit board is half the size of the original circuit ing and packaging of the receiver, hum
R2, and has only headphone output. and microphonics can be eliminated and
MiniR2 circuitry is simplified and has •Improve LO reverse isolation
the placement of ground connections be-
improved tolerance of component varia- The new receiver was named the R2pro. comes much less critical. As a fringe ben-
tions, so that good performance may be The philosophy is that the R2pro trades efit. breaking up the PC board makes it
obtained without hand-matching the au- more expensi ve construction, more expen- easier to build experimental versions us-
dio diplexer components. The audio filter sive components, component matching, ing DSP. different mixers, audio proces-
component count was reduced to fit all of design flexibility, and a higher level sors and power amplifiers etc.
the parts on the small circuit board, but of builder knowledge and experience
audio quality was not compromised. The for slightly improved performance over
miniR2 is suitable for use with head- the miniR2. The miniR2 circuit is a
Block by Block R2pro
phones or an external audio power ampli- better choice for most applications,
fier. The complete schematic for the particularly when small size or battery Circuit Description
miniR2 circuit board is in Fig 9.62. There operation is desired. The R2pro is for The R2pro block diagram is shown in
is only one modification from the original designer-builders who want to go to the Fig 9.63. Note that ihe R2pro system de-
QST article circuit—the O.l.uF capacitor extra effort and expense required to push sign includes an RF prcamp, and that the
in series with the inverting input to the a receiver to the limits of the direct con- audio output stage is a completely sepa-
summing amplifier. This capacitor elimi- version architecture. rate block.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.33

 10 mF 10.0 k 10.0 k 10.0 k
i—Wv— i — V W -
220 3.9 m H 3 3 Mp

S'F . r r r r i

J7
T < 5 1 2.7 k
rb p ^ T
. 1 uF
^ P o l y

10.0 k 10.0 k
r W r -
220 3.9 m H

j - . r r m

rfT
T 1 5 1 1_5jjF_L

- V A — 1

0.1 |JF

H ( —

0.1MF
Poly

1
' 10 p F
220 pF
220 pF
 harmonics of the LO. The bias switch is
part of the receiver mute circuit, and
switches the amplifier gain between +13
dB and - 4 0 dB. The grounded gale topol-
ogy is a strong 40-dB attenuator when it is
reverse biased, a n d e a n be switched in as a
front-end attenuator when very strong sig-
nals are present, without introducing
front-end distortion. It is common for
direct conversion receivers to experience
Fig 9.63—The R2pro block diagram. audible pops during full break-in C W op-
eration. One source of these pops is the dc
shift at the mixer IF port when the strong
T X signal appears at the mixer RF
RF PREAMP receivers are sensitive to signals near the port. One solution is to switch in a large
odd harmonics of the desired signal, it is attenuator between the antenna switch and
The first block in the R 2 p r o receiver
necessary to provide significant attenua- mixer R F port. The "sleeping bag radio"
subsystem is the R F preamp. The use of a
tion to signals above the band of interest. described in Chapter 12 uses a similar
preamp permits additional mixer loss in
This is particularly important in metro- preamp circuit in front of a miniR2 board,
the design for improved dynamic range,
politan areas with many FM broadcast sig- and has absolutely clean transmit/reccive
improved phase and amplitude balance
nals. A separate RF-iight enclosure is switching at all volume levels. Fig 9.65
over the baseband frequency range, con-
appropriate. shows the swept frequency response for
stant impedance at the downconverter R F
several different bands. The typical input
port, and lower L O radiation from the re- The grounded gate circuit in Fig 9.64
intercept of +13 dBm is a good match for
ceiver RF port. The basic design shown in was designed specifically to use in front of
receivers with standard level diode ring
Fig 9.64 is highly recommended, but any direct conversion receivers at M F through
mixers.
low-noise, moderate-gain 50-£2 bandpass VHF. Low-pass filtering in the input and
amplifier with high reverse isolation (S12) output match to the transistor provides the The amplifier noise figure of approxi-
may be used. Because direct conversion necessary attenuation of signals near odd mately 4 dB and the relatively low gain of

8 8 8 88 • 12 v |l Wv-

J -XJ ^ si/ I

otAku? rrt rh

Band C1 L1 C2 L2 C3 C4 L3 C5 L4 C6 C7
3-4 820p 1.3.U 1800p 4.0)11 820p 100p 20|± 6 8 Op 3.8U 4 7 Op 2200p
6-8 470p 680n 820p 2.0M 470p 56p 10|I 390p 1.9u 220p 1000p
9-11 330p 450n 680p 1.5p 330p 39p 6.8M 270p 1.4u 180p 1000p
13-15 220p 330n 470p 1.0fi 220p 27p 4.7M 180p 1.0u 120p 1000p
18-22 180p 240n 270p 760n 120p 18p 3.5M 120p 760n 100p 1000p
24-30 150p 160n 220p 560n 100p 12p 2.7M 82p 540n 56p 680p

Fig 9.64—The use of a preamp permits additional mixer loss in the design for improved dynamic range, improved phase and
amplitude balance over the baseband frequency range, constant impedance at the downconverter RF port, and lower LO
radiation from the receiver RF port. The basic design shown here is highly recommended, but any low-noise, moderate-gain
50-n bandpass amplifier with high reverse isolation (S12) may be used.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.35

the p r e a m p stage have the e f f e c t of r e d u c -
ing the r e c e i v e r noise f i g u r e w i t h o u t
severely i m p a c t i n g t w o - t o n e third-order
d y n a m i c range. T h i r d - o r d e r d y n a m i c
range near 100 dB is possible with stan-
dard level diode-ring m i x e r s and a narrow
C W bandwidth. High-level mixers permit
better d y n a m i c range numbers, if the L Q
system is quiet e n o u g h .
The direct conversion receivers
described by the author in QST in 1992-
1995 were all developed using a full-sized
elevated 4 0 - m dipole in a quiet lakeside 6.4-S.S
a. 3-1H
location in the Upper Peninsula of Michi- 10,T-Tl.2
gan. Al this location, signals f r o m all over
the US and C a n a d a w e r e quite strong, and
the antenna noise power was always high
e n o u g h that a 15-dB noise figure was
always adequate. T h e r e are other locations
thai can b e n e f i t f r o m q u i e t e r r e c e i v e r s , =KKz 1DHH2 20MK2 25KH= j 1'VJ] i
even on 80 meters. In the mountains of the Wll! : l:m : '.Mr, , • vdi, : O'J" i i '.'a£. I ' • '.",!? I".
Frequency
Pacific N o r t h w e s t , band noise levels on 4 0
m e t e r s are c o m m o n l y well below the Fig 9.65—LNA swept frequency plot.

9.36 Chapter 9
accepted numbers in the amateur and pro- board should be 1% metal f i l m . T h e input audio preamp c a n ' t i m p r o v e r e c e i v e r noise
fessional literature. F o r mountain portable splitter is s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t than earlier f i g u r e , but it can reduce the e f f e c t o f m i x e r
operation, r e c e i v e r noise f i g u r e s should b e versions. Rather than attempting to match 1/f noise. A d v a n c e d r e c e i v e r artists are
b e l o w 10 d B f o r all H F bands, and much to 50 fl, the splitter shown matches the encouraged to study this. T h e R 2 p r o cir-
better noise f i g u r e s m a y be useful a b o v e m i x e r inputs to a l o w e r impedance—but cuit balances preamp gain and p o s t - m i x e r
20 meters, particularly w h e n using direc- a c h i e v e s nearly p e r f e c t amplitude balance attenuation to set the r e c e i v e r noise f i g u r e
tive antennas. and very l o w loss o v e r a v e r y w i d e f r e - and d y n a m i c range, so that r e c e i v e r per-
F o r w i d e - b a n d systems, a b r o a d b a n d q u e n c y range. T h e upper f r e q u e n c y limit formance is r e l a t i v e l y independent of
i m p e d a n c e t r a n s f o r m e r can r e p l a c e the is reached w h e n the w i n d i n g on T 1 ap- m i x e r 1/f noise.
tuned l o w - p a s s output on the R F preamp. p r o a c h e s a quarter w a v e l e n g t h . A t the T h e third v e r y important function o f the
This will permit coverage of multiple l o w e r f r e q u e n c y limit, amplitude balance p o s t - m i x e r attenuators is to set the d r i v i n g
bands, but the l o w - p a s s f u n c t i o n is still is still p e r f e c t , but i s o l a t i o n is p o o r . I f point i m p e d a n c e to the matched d i p l e x e r
important and must be i n c l u d e d some- operation d o w n to 5 0 k H z is desired, m o r e networks. In the o r i g i n a l R 2 . the d i p l e x e r s
w h e r e in the r e c e i v e r R F path. W h e n a turns on a type 71 core c o u l d be used. A t are c o n n e c t e d directly to the m i x e r I F port
l o w e r noise f i g u r e is desired, a t w o stage 144 M H z and a b o v e , a f e w b i f i l a r turns i m p e d a n c e , w h i c h varies w i t h L O d r i v e
grounded-gate RF preamp is a good through a small f e r r i t e bead w o r k w e l l . T h e l e v e l . I f o n e m i x e r has m o r e L O d r i v e than
choice. T w o o f the F i g 9.64 circuits pack- mixers are type T U F - 3 , w h i c h o f f e r better the other (a c o m m o n c o n d i t i o n ) the phase
aged separately with c o a x connectors is a p o r t - t o - p o r l isolation and l o w e r c o n v e r - and amplitude response o f o n e d i p l e x e r
h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e construction option. sion loss than T U F - 1 m i x e r s f r o m 150 k H z n e t w o r k w i l l be slightly d i f f e r e n t than the
through 225 M H z . the usual operating other. These differences are typically
In summary, here are a f e w g o o d rea-
range o f R 2 t y p e systems. T U F packaged e n o u g h that the ultimate o p p o s i t e sideband
sons to include R F gain in any direct con-
m i x e r s are a v a i l a b l e f o r direct c o n v e r s i o n suppression o f R 2 systems across an S S B
version r e c e i v e r :
applications at frequencies up to bandwidth iS about 41 d B — e v e n with
2 5 0 0 M H z . T h e small s a m p l e o f m i c r o - p e r f e c t a u d i o phase-shift n e t w o r k s . By-
1. I m p r o v e d N o i s e Figure.
w a v e d i o d e m i x e r s w e have measured have contrast, the m i n i R 2 w i t h off-the-shelf
2. E l e c t r o n i c front-end gain s w i t c h i n g
higher 1/f noise than w e h a v e seen with c o m p o n e n t s o f t e n exhibits nearly 50 d B o f
3. R e v e r s e i s o l a t i o n to e l i m i n a t e LO
T U F - 1 , T U F - 3 and S B L - 1 mixers. M i c r o - o p p o s i t e sideband suppression.
radiation
w a v e D o p p l e r R a d a r systems use special
4. I m p r o v e d r e c e i v e r gain distribution T h e d i p l e x e r n e t w o r k s are slightly sim-
l o w - 1 / f noise d i o d e s .
p l i f i e d f r o m the o r i g i n a l R 2 networks. T h e
F o r phasing direct c o n v e r s i o n r e c e i v e r s A f t e r the m i x e r s are a pair o f matched R 2 n e t w o r k s p r o v i d e d rapid roll o f f both
there are additional advantages: attenuators. T h e 6 d B attenuators shown a b o v e and b e l o w the 300 to 4 0 0 0 H z audio
in the schematic should be used f o r most band. T h e roll o f f b e l o w the audio range
1. P r o v i d i n g m i x e r R F port i m p e d a n c e applications. I f m o r e gain is a v a i l a b l e be- does not contribute much to useable re-
that d o e s n ' t c h a n g e with antenna tuning f o r e the m i x e r s , m o r e attenuation may be c e i v e r d y n a m i c range, but it does intro-

2. O p t i o n to use attenuators on all m i x e r used. T h e s e attenuators serve three very duce rapid phase shifts in the critical 300
useful purposes: they ensure t e x t b o o k ter- to 6 0 0 H z f r e q u e n c y range. W h e n R 2 re-
ports
mination o f the m i x e r I F ports; they at- c e i v e r s arc o p t i m i z e d f o r S S B operation,
DOWNCONVERTER tenuate m i x e r 1/f noise; and they p r o v i d e the suppression o f the opposite sideband
a w e l l d e f i n e d source i m p e d a n c e to d r i v e in the 300 to 600 H z range is o f t e n right at
A f t e r the p r e a m p l i f i e r is the d o w n - c o n -
the matched d i p l e x e r networks. M i x e r I F t h e 4 0 d B spec. If the r e c e i v e r is o p t i m i z e d
verter b l o c k , s h o w n in F i g 9.66. ( A layout
termination has been w i d e l y discussed in f o r C W operation, sideband suppression
and p h o t o are s h o w n in F i g s 9.67 and
the literature. M i x e r 1 /f noise degrades re- usually f a l l s o f f at h i g h e r audio f r e q u e n -
9.68.) T h e d o w n c o n v e r t e r includes an R F
c e i v e r noise f i g u r e . D i f f e r e n t mixers, e v e n cies. T h e m i n i R 2 and R 2 p r o eliminate the
in-phase splitter, two mixers, IF port
matched T U F - 3 s with the same date c o d e , rapid roll o f f at the l o w end o f the audio
attenuators, a m a t c h e d pair o f d i p l e x e r net-
have w i d e l y v a r y i n g amounts o f 1/f noise. range, w h i c h permits g o o d performance
w o r k s , and a matched pair o f audio L N A s .
A t t e n u a t i o n b e t w e e n the m i x e r and the through the C W range w h e n the r e c e i v e r is
A l l o f the resistors in the d o w n c o n v e r t e r
o p t i m i z e d for S S B . A n o t h e r c h a n g e f r o m
the R 2 and m i n i R 2 circuits is the e l i m i n a -
tion o f the e l e c t r o l y t i c capacitors f r o m the
critical audio signal paths. T h e R2pro
has o n l y matched p o l y p r o p y l e n e capaci-
tors in the audio path prior to the summing
network.

»nO:
T h e roll o f f a b o v e the audio range is
retained f r o m the R 2 , w i t h slight changes
C=> e- -e
0.68 I - 6 \ ' to m a k e the r e c e i v e r less sensitive to c o m -
ponent tolerance. F o r g o o d p e r f o r m a n c e ,
o ,
0.68 I - O / ' N. it is necessary to match the d i p l e x e r c o m -
ponents in R 2 p r o to within 1%, just as in
the o r i g i n a l R 2 . I f this is not done, o p p o -
site sideband suppression is l i k e l y to b e
p o o r across the audio band. B y contrast,
the d i p l e x e r s in the m i n i R 2 w e r e d e s i g n e d
Fig 9.68—A view of the downconverter to be used with standard tolerance c o m p o -
Fig 9.67—The downconverter board board.
nents. T h e b e n e f i t o f using the R2pro
layout.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.37

d i p l e x e r s w i t h m a t c h e d c o m p o n e n t s is that
the c l o s e - i n d y n a m i c r a n g e is g o o d . R 2 p r o
t w o - t o n e m e a s u r e m e n t s m a y b e m a d e at
t o n e s p a c i n g s o f 1 0 k H z and 5 k H z .
T h e usual g r o u n d e d - b a s e a u d i o p r e a m p
stages are used f o l l o w i n g the d i p l e x e r net-
w o r k s . T h e r e a r e o t h e r a u d i o p r e a m p s that
will work, but the grounded b a s e stages
h a v e [ h e a d v a n t a g e o f h a v i n g an input
impedance that is set by the current
through the transistors, w h i c h m a y be set
up precisely using I% resistors. The
grounded base stages drive the non-invert-
ing inputs o f a l o w - n o i s e dual op-amp.
which provides low impcdancc drive to the
f o l l o w i n g s t a g e s . N o t e that the outputs are
not d e b l o c k e d . T h i s is s o t h a t t h e l o w
i m p e d a n c e drive from the dual o p - a m p can
directly drive the a u d i o phase-shift net-
work. B e c a u s e these outputs carry dc.
there is the potential to short them and
d a m a g e the dual o p - a m p . I C s o c k e t s are
appropriate.

It i s c r i t i c a l that e v e r y t h i n g in t h e I a n d
Q c h a n n e l s o f the d o w n c o n v c r l c r b l o c k b e
w e l l m a t c h e d . I n m o s t e a s e s , it is the 1 Q
d o w n c o n v e r t e r b l o c k , and not the audio
p h a s e - s h i f t n e t w o r k , that s e t s t h e u l t i m a t e
limitation on receiver opposite sideband
s u p p r e s s i o n . T h e b a s e b a n d L.N A p a i r i s
n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l t o the v e r s i o n u s e d in t h e
m i n i R 2 . w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n that 1 1 r e s i s -
t o r s a r e u s e d in all l o c a t i o n s and t r a n s i s t o r
pairs Q1 — Q 3 and Q2—Q4 should be
matched. T h i s may be done by comparing
t h e d c v o l t a g e s o n the 1 and Q o u t p u t s o f
the d o w n c o n v e r t e r b l o c k u s i n g a d i g i t a l
v o l t m e t e r . First insert a t e m p o r a r y j u m p e r
b e t w e e n the e m i t t e r and c o l l e c t o r h o l e s f o r
t r a n s i s t o r s Q 2 and Q 4 . T h e n s e l e c t a p a i r
o f d e v i c e s f o r Q 1 a n d Q 3 that r e s u l t s in
equal output v o l t a g e s . T h e v o l t a g e s should
b e m a t c h e d to w i t h i n 2%. T h e n s o l d e r in
QI and Q3. remove the j u m p e r s , and
s e l e c t a s e c o n d pair o f d e v i c e s for Q 2 and
Q 4 that r e s u l t s in e q u a l d e v o l t a g e s at t h e
I and Q o u t p u t s . S i n c e t h e g a i n and input
impedance for these c o m m o n base bipolar
a m p l i f i e r s are set by the q u i e s c e n t cur-
r e n t s . a n d t h e c u r r e n t s r e s u l t in v o l t a g e
d r o p s a c r o s s t h e 19c r e s i s t o r s , s e t t i n g t h e
d c v o l t a g e s e q u a l r e s u l t s in w e l l - m a t c h e d
g a i n a n d input i m p c d a n c c f o r t h e b a s e b a n d
L N A pair.

T h e noise figure o f the r e c e i v e r is deter-

mined by the p e r f o r m a n c e o f the early
s t a g e s . It is n e c e s s a r y to h a v e e n o u g h g a i n
in t h e e a r l y r e c e i v e r s t a g e s t o o v e r - r i d e t h e
noise o f the later stages o f the receiver.
T h e analog signal processor b l o c k has a
relatively high noise figure, resulting from
the c a s c a d e o f unity-gain o p - a m p phase

Fig 9.69—ASP schematic.

9.38 Chapter 9
shift networks and the lossy bandpass fil- output signals include dc bias for the Op- selecting these components, the builder
tering. The downconverter PC board gain Amps in the analog signal processor. For can be assured that the audio phase shift
ts set by the ratio of the op-amp series and connection to the high impedance inputs network is not limiting receiver perfor-
feedback resistors to a value that over- of a DSP processor or oscilloscope, dc mance. The image-reject mixer provides
rides the noise of the analog signal proces- blocking capacitors may be used. The dc an attenuation band that covers the entire
sor but that does not severely compromise power supply lead should be connected opposite sideband from 200 Hz to over
m-band dynamic range. With the compo- using a feedthrough capacitor and exter- 4000 Hz. This attenuation band is ideal for
nent values shown, the mixer loss is nal series resistor. CW or SSB receivers, and provides very-
approximately 6 dB, there are 6-dB pads good selectivity when combined with
following each mixer, the bandpass audio channel filters.
ctiplexers have just under 2-dB loss, ANALOG SIGNAL PROCESSOR Following the audio phase-shift net-
the grounded-base LNA stages have The third block in the R2pro system work is a summing amplifier. The ampli-
a noise figure of about 5 dB and approxi- is the analog signal processor (ASP) tude balance adjustment is conveniently-
mately 40-dB gain, and the op-amp LNAs shown in Fig 9.69. (A board layout and located at the input to the summing ampli-
have 11 -dB gain. Thus the total gain for photo is shown in Figs 9.70 and 9.71 fier. The summing amplifier drives a 250
the downconverter stage is about 37 dB respectively.) This board contains the Hz to 4000 Hz bandpass filter. This filter
and the noise figure at the downconverter audio phase-shift network, the summer, serves as a roofing filter, and provides
RF input is approximately 19 dB. With all and a wideband passive audio filler. The optimum performance from optional ex-
components matched to within 1%, the audio gain is low, but the signal levels are ternal digital and analog filters that may be
amplitude and phase errors in the 1 and Q also low, so this board should not be lo- added lo the output of the analog signal
outputs should be less than 0.1 degree and cated where it can pick up power supply or processor block. Roofing filter perfor-
0.02 dB across the baseband output range computer noise. There arc no RF signals mance is good enough that it can serve as
from 200 Hz to 4000 Hz. present, so audio grounding rules apply. the only bandpass filtering in the receiver
Since the downconverter block contains The single audio ground rail runs up the for high-fidelity listening. The output of
both RF and low-noise audio signals, it middle of the PC board between the ICs. the roofing filter drives a second gain
must be constructed using good RF and The power supply line is decoupled by the block that provides an ideal filter termina-
audio practice. Audio signal levels are low 100 (iF capacitor and 100 il series resis- tion for textbook bandpass response. The
and the gain is moderate so conventional tor. Do not bypass the hot end of the 100 gain of the output gain block is set by the
RF grounding and shielding practices may £2 resistor to ground. The dc bias to the feedback resistor. With the values shown,
be used for the downconverter block. With non-inverting inputs to the analog signal the gain of the analog signal processor
LO signals floating around on the same processor comes from the previous stage. block is approximately 13 dB. It is pos-
frequency as the desired input signal, There is only one change in the audio sible to increase the gain of the output gain
shielding is very important The circuit phase-shift network from the version used block to directly drive medium impedancc
board is designed to fit inside a Hammond in the miniR2. 1.52 klJ is not a standard headphones. The analog signal processor
1590B die-cast aluminum box. An enclo- value in the 1% series. It is obtained by block also contains a mute circuit.
sure soldered up from tin sheet or PC board connecting a 1.50-kli and 20-0 resistor in Grounding the mute terminal drops the
scraps is even better. The RF and LO in- series. With the audio phase-shift network gain of the summing amplifier to zero. The
puts should enter through coax connectors. components (resistors and capacitors) se- mute circuit uses a reed relay with com-
Type BNC. SMA and RCA phono are all lected to within 0.1% of their marked pletely independent power, ground and
acceptable. The audio outputs should leave value, more than 60 dB of opposite side- control circuit. This permits the relay to be
through either coax connectors or matched band suppression could be obtained—if controlled by front panel switches and TR
InF feedthrough capacitors. The audio the rest of the receiver were perfect. By- switching logic without corrupting the

P Q. 1 i

[ ^ [ f e i t e c r o c P
G- Q-

-J []cb§= Qcbg= Ocbg= G- G- G-

P i
6
CU •
Fig 9.71—The analog signal processor.
Fig 9.70—ASP layout.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.39

 Analog Signal Processor signal ground are c o m m o n . This PC board should be response. The baseband LNA and gain
and power supply lines. Use of a relay also mounted on nylon standoffs with a single block have wide bandwidth, to preserve
eliminates the low level distortion intro- wire to ground at the power supply. amplitude and phase balance between the
duced by a F E T switch. The sealed reed I and Q channels. A f t e r the summing
relay switching time of a few milliseconds OPTIONAL FILTERS amplifier, the 3rd order Butterworlh High-
is quick enough for full break-in operation The low output impedance of the analog Pass filter and 5th order Butterworth Low-
on fast C W or digital modes. processor with a series 4 7 0 - Q resistor, and Pass filter provide a flat passband with
The analog signal processor board has the 500-S2 volume control provide proper good impulse response at the medium
two isolated, independent outputs. The terminations for a wide variety of passive frequencies. This roofing filter provides
first output is normally connected through filters. Fig 9.72 is a pair of useful audio all the band-limiting needed for a high-
optional filters and the volume control to 500-Q filters using standard value induc- fidelity SSB or C W r e c e i v e r — a n d it is
the audio output circuit board. The second tors and capacitors that have been used in recommended that the rccciver be put into
output may be used to drive a signal level a number of our radios. Also see the photo operation with no additional filtering be-
meter or audio derived gain control sys- in Fig 9.73. fore adding narrow bandwidths. Some of
tem. This is the ideal take-off point for D S P Signal levels are high enough at this the most skilled and avid CW operators are
filters, F F T analyzers, home audio system point that open P C board construction is now' using very wide bandwidth receivers
stereo amplifiers, outboard audio filters or acceptable. If Wide SSB, Narrow SSB and when band conditions permit, because
the computer sound card. Output levels CW options arc all installed, it is useful to such receivers preserve the quality of
may be independently selected by chang- add attenuation to the SSB filters so that
ing the output stage feedback resistors. cither gain or receiver output noise remain
The 1 - k Q input resistors should not be constant as fillers arc switched. 5 0 0 - A
changed, as they provide the termination attenuators are easy to construct. Use the
impedance for the roofing filter. resistor values from the ARRL Handbook
For construction hints on mounting and tables, and multiply all resistor values by
connecting to the A S P board, take the 10. For example, a 500-£2 6-dB pi-network
cover off a stereo rccciver or amplifier and pad has a 3 9 0 - Q scries resistor and
look at the circuitry around the magnetic 1.5-kQ shunt resistors.
phono cartridge inputs. D o n ' t expect to Signal channel selectivity is distributed
f i n d R F shielding, but a well defined single through the baseband gain path. The
ground connection, shielded wire or bandpass diplexers pass a 300 Hz to 4000
twisted pair with the ground connected Hz channel with smooth rolloff outside the
only at one end, and power connections passband to enhance phase-shift network
directly to the big power supply capacitor performance and provide graceful impulse Fig 9.73—SSB and CW filters.

Fig 9.72—A pair of useful audio 500-Q SSB and CW filters using standard value inductors and capacitors that have been used
in a number of our radios.

9.40 Chapter 9
t r a n s m i t t e d s i g n a l s and a l l o w a m u c h bet- p o s s i b i l i t y of i n t e l l i g e n t a u d i o A G C s y s - p o i n t s in t h e c i r c u i t . D o not use t h e c h a s s i s
ter p e r c e p t i o n of t h e t e x t u r e of the b a n d . t e m s that g o well b e y o n d the b e s t c o m m e r - as t h e n e g a t i v e s p e a k e r lead c o n n e c t i o n o r
Interestingly, low-audio-frequency im- cially a v a i l a b l e a m a t e u r r e c e i v e r s y s t e m s . as the n e g a t i v e p o w e r s u p p l y lead to t h e
p u l s e r e s p o n s e is d o m i n a t e d by t h e T h e R 2 p r o is set up so that s o p h i s t i c a t e d a u d i o o u t p u t a m p l i f i e r . T h e circuit b o a r d
e f f e c t i v e l y v e r y s t e e p s k i r t s of the r e c e i v e r l a b o r a t o r y i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n m a y b e u s e d to l a y o u t w o r k s well w h e n c o n n e c t e d d i r e c t l y
r e s p o n s e d u e to the h i g h - p a s s f i l t e r i n g a n d o b s e r v e the d i s t o r t i o n at all p o i n t s in the to the s p e a k e r , a n d to the p o w e r s u p p l y
the o p e r a t i o n of t h e p h a s e - s h i f t i m a g e - signal p a t h . T h e e a r can o f t e n d e t e c t dis-
reject circuitry. tortion that is d i f f i c u l t to m e a s u r e , and t h e
S w i t c h e d - c a p a c i t o r and D S P f i l t e r s m a y e a r - b r a i n q u i c k l y l e a r n s to r e c o g n i z e d i f -
a l s o be u s e d at this p o i n t in t h e c i r c u i t . It is ferent d i s t o r t i o n a n d n o i s e m e c h a n i s m s .
n e c e s s a r y to o b s e r v e a p p r o p r i a t e input sig- T h e acid test is to set up the r e c e i v e r with
n a l l e v e l s , a n d b e a r in m i n d t h a t t h e a s w i t c h that c o m p l e t e l y b y p a s s e s t h e D S P .
d y n a m i c r a n g e and n o i s e f i g u r e of the D S P and e q u a l g a i n in the D S P a n d n o n - D S P
may l i m i t r e c e i v e r p e r f o r m a n c e . At the m o d e s . W h e n t h e D S P is set f o r w i d e b a n d -
ouLput of t h e a n a l o g p r o c e s s o r , t h e re- w i d t h , a n d s w i t c h i n g b e t w e e n m o d e s is
c e i v e r has an i n - c h a n n e l t w o - t o n e d y n a m i c c o m p l e t e l y t r a n s p a r e n t , the o p e r a t o r c a n
r a n g e of well o v e r 6 0 d B and total har- be c o n f i d e n t that t h e D S P s y s t e m is not
m o n i c d i s t o r t i o n l o w e r than 0.1 %. B y t h i s corrupting receiver performance.
p o i n t in t h e r e c e i v e r , t h e n o i s e f l o o r ,
dynamic range and in-channel distortion AUDIO POWER AMPLIFIER
h a v e b e e n s e t . D S P at this point c a n not A n a u d i o p o w e r a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t is
improve these n u m b e r s — i t can only pro- s h o w n in F i g 9 . 7 4 ( a l s o see the b o a r d lay- Fig 9.75—Board layout for the audio
v i d e w o n d e r f u l l y f l e x i b l e f i l t e r i n g and out in Fig 9.75 and the photo in Fig 9.76.) power amplifier.
a d d i t i o n a l w h i s t l e s and b e l l s . W h e n t h e
A n y a u d i o a m p l i f i e r w i t h e n o u g h gain m a y
d i g i t a l s i g n a l p r o c e s s i n g is c a r e f u l l y
b e used at this p o i n t , but it is a s h a m e to
d e s i g n e d , it c a n a d d to the utility of t h e
c o n n e c t a l o w d i s t o r t i o n r e c e i v e r to an
receiver without corrupting basic perfor-
i n e x p e n s i v e IC a m p l i f i e r w i t h q u e s t i o n -
m a n c e . If t h e D S P s y s t e m h a s l o o few bits,
a b l e f i d e l i t y . T h e v e r s i o n in F i g 9 . 7 4 h a s a
if the A - t o - D c o n v e r t e r s h a v e a high n o i s e
g a i n of 4 6 d B , with the v o l u m e c o n t r o l
f i g u r e , or if t h e s i g n a l l e v e l s a r e set up
arrangement shown. Since the audio
i m p r o p e r l y so t h a t the a v a i l a b l e D S P
p o w e r a m p l i f i e r h a s high g a i n a n d is
d y n a m i c r a n g e i s n o t u s e d — a p o o r re-
c a p a b l e of m e d i u m p o w e r o p e r a t i o n , sig-
c e i v e r with w o n d e r f u l l y f l e x i b l e f i l t e r i n g
n a l c u r r e n t s f l o w in t h e p o w e r s u p p l y
will result. T h e a u d i o r e c o r d i n g i n d u s t r y
w i r e s . It is critical t h a t t h e p o w e r a m p l i f i e r
has p u s h e d the s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t in D S P w e l l
b e y o n d the n e e d s of this r e c e i v e r . In p a r - use appropriate audio amplifier construc-
ticular. n o i s e - f r e e digital d e l a y o f f e r s t h e tion p r a c t i c e . In p a r t i c u l a r , b o t h s p e a k e r
w i r e s m u s t c o n n e c t to t h e a p p r o p r i a t e Fig 9.76—The audio power amplifier.

+12 V

Fig 9.74—An audio power amplifier circuit.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.41

capacitor with # 18 wires. Feedback prob- adjustment. Similarly, all of the cumu- Binaural operation is simple to add to
lems (howling) in direct conversion lative phase errors may be trimmed out an ISB receiver with two identical audio
receivers can often be cured by using a with a single phase trim. When the side- channels. Binaural ISB, with one sideband
separate battery power supply for the band switch is thrown, the receiver con- in each ear, just requires additional switch-
audio power amplifier. While this is not figuration changes, and the distribution of ing. For Binaural IQ, as described in
always attractive for normal operation, amplitude and phase errors is likely to March 1999 QST, the I and Q outputs of
temporarily operating the audio power change. Our R2 and miniR2 receiver the downconverter board are amplified by
amplifier circuit board from a separate bat- trimmed for more than 40 dB opposite a stereo amplifier. A number of experi-
tery supply can serve as a very useful sideband suppression on one sideband menters have noted that Binaural IQ re-
troubleshooting tool when trying to figure typically exhibit less than 30 dB opposite ceivers sound best with very little audio
out which ground wire needs to be cut to sideband suppression when connections to fi Itering. A versatile receiver might have a
eliminate the offending ground loop. the analog signal processor are reversed. switch that provides wide open Binaural
This audio power amplifier provides Readers fluent in image-reject concepts IQ for tuning around the band and then a
reasonable output with headphones or a can investigate options for sideband number of narrow band options for com-
small speaker in a quiet room. For more switching that preserve the distribution of municating with individual stations.
volume, an external power amplifier amplitude and phase errors when switch- Some of the receiver circuitry in the
should be used. Some external sound card ing sidebands. A good strategy is to trim previous paragraphs adds many parts to
amplification systems for computers are the errors before the audio phase shift net- achieve a very tenuous performance ad-
quite good. Others are quite inexpensive. work, so that at the input to the nearly ideal vantage. Philosophically, minimum parts
Each has its merits. analog signal processor the 1 and Q chan- considerations should not apply to high-
nels have precisely equal amplitude and performance phasing direct-conversion
LOCAL OSCILLATOR 90° phase shifts. Reversing connections at receivers. Also philosophically, front-
this point will then switch sidebands with- panel amplitude and phase trim adjust-
A local oscillator is not included in the
out redistributing the errors. ments are an elegant solution, and are re-
R2pro receiver system, but the choice of
LO in large part determines the success of One viable method to provide good ally cool to play with. The philosophy
the finished project. Two local oscillators sideband suppression in a switched-side- behind each receiver is different, how-
that have been used to build excellent band receiver is to make the amplitude and ever—which may be the whole point of
direct-conversion receivers are a well- phase trim adjustments front-panel con- this entire book.
shielded JFET Hartley and a moderately trols. This is particularly attractive for
well-shielded JFET Hartley driving a bal- receivers that cover a wide frequency
anced frequency doubler. When the diode range, as phase shifts will likely need to be Trimming
doubler is used in a circuit with toroid tweaked when changing bands. Judging Finally, here are a few words on the actual
inductors, open PC board construction is from the front panels of many high-end process of trimming a phasing receiver for
acceptable. The Kanga UVFO circuit in radios, there is no penally for providing best opposite sideband suppression. A "tar-
Chapter 12 works well and provides addi- additional operator control over receiver get" analogy is a useful way to think about
tional useful features such as CW offset functions. A well-shielded external crys- trimming a phasing receiver. The undesired
and a keyed auxiliary output. Because of tal calibrator with variable output is a use-
differences in the way even and odd har- ful accessory for a receiver with front-
monics add. direct conversion receivers panel phase and amplitude trims. It is
that use odd harmonic frequency multipli- important that the test signal enter the re-
ers must be very well shielded. ceiver on the antenna connector, and that
While analog local oscillators represent all leakage paths into the I and Q RF cir-
mature technology and simple elcgance, cuitry arc 60 or 70 dB down.
the state of the synthesizer art continues to For single-band switched-sideband re-
progress rapidly. The best hybrid DDS— ceivers. there arc other options. From the
PLL synthesizers are very, very good, and basic theory, four trimming adjustments
continue to improve. The R2pro circuit (one amplitude and one phase trim for each
blocks provide a convenient platform sideband) are needed for to optimize sup-
for experiments with different types of pression of either sideband. A very con-
synthesizers. servative option is to use two independent
down-converter and analog signal proces-
sor PC boards, with switched (or split) LO
Sideband Switching, and RF inputs. An independent LO (or RF)
Binaural, and ISB phase trim can then be implemented for
modes each downconverter. and one analog sig-
nal processor can be set up for upper side-
It is not trivial to set up a switched-sidc- band and the other for lower sideband. The
band phasing imagc-rejectreceiversy A m desired sideband may then be selected by
with equal sideband suppression on either switching between analog processor out-
sideband. This is particularly the case for puts. Of course, an additional audio power
the R2pro, with available sideband sup- amplifier could also be added for full In-
pression of over 50 dB. The reason for the dependent Sideband operation. The trim-
difficulty is subtle. In a phasing system, ming adjustments for suppression of op- Fig 9.77—A circuit for connecting an I Q
all the cumulative amplitude errors posite sidebands are completely inde- balanced mixer output pair into the I
throughout the system may be compen- pendent in this implementation. and Q inputs of the R2pro analog signal
sated with a single amplitude trimming processor board.

9.42 Chapter 9
Fig 9.78—Connecting the I Q balanced mixer output pair into the I and Q inputs of the R2pro analog signal processor using a
pair of differential op-amp circuits.

opposite sideband level is the distance from

the center of the target. The two adjustments,
amplitude and phase, are like the windage
and elevation adjustments on a gun sight. If
one adjustment is way off. adjusting the
other one will have little effect on distance
from the center of the larger. Once one ad-
justment is perfect, the other adjustment will Fig 9.79—The
have a very large effect. interface circuit
In a phasing receiver, the output wc hear board connected
between the R2pro
when tuned to the wrong sideband is the
ASP and a
level of the uridesired signal, which repre- commercial IQ
sents distance from the target center. There mixer operating at
is no indication whether amplitude, phase, 2.3 GHz.
or both need to be adjusted. If neither ad-
justment has much effect, then both are
way off. Adjust first one. then the other,
while listening to the undesired signal
level. A s the adjustments approach the
optimum values, they become more criti-

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.43

cal. It should be possible to reduce any 33 |JF
sine wave frequency in the audio passband
down below the noise level. If the signal is
strong, it will be possible to reduce the
fundamental below the noise while hear-
ing the distortion products. Il is important
to listen while adjusting, because a meter
can't tell the difference between the signal
being suppressed, the desired channel
noise floor, and distortion products. Once
a single-frequency tone is suppressed
below the noise floor, tune the receiver
slowly to change the tone frequency and
observe its suppression. In a properly
adjusted R2pro, the suppression will be
more than 50 dB over the entire audio fre-
quency range. If it is not. re-optimize the
receiver using a different tone frequency.
Frequencies near the middle of the re-
ceiver audio passband arc most useful.
A phasing receiver will always have
some opposite sideband suppression. Tf it
does noi, then one of the two channels is
not working. If the signal has equal
strength on either side of zero beat, d o n ' t
touch the amplitude and phase trimmers,
fix the broken I or Q channel first.
Once a phasing receiver using modern
components is optimized, the phase and
Fig 9.80—A circuit that provides dc-isolated balanced I and balanced Q drive to the
amplitude adjustments hold very well. The inputs of an I Q upconverter.
prototype miniR2 on 20 meters still ex-
hibits 43 dB opposite sideband suppres-
sion f r o m 300 to 3000 Hz after six years,
a circumnavigation, numerous c a m p i n g
trips, and a number of disassemblies to
display ihe circuitry.

Interface Circuitry For

Other Mixer Types
Much of our work in the amateur bands
uses diode ring mixers. Diode rings work
well, are available in small quantities in
many different varieties, and o f f e r good
performance In familiar, mature circuits.
Much of our work in our professional lives
has been in the development of passive Fig 9.81—A prototype microwave SSB exciter connected to a commercial passive
F E T mixers of various topologies. F E T IQ FET mixer at 2.3 GHz.
mixers o f f e r a number of p e r f o r m a n c e
trade-offs with diode rings, and often the Fig 9.77 is a circuit for connecting an I ing at 2.3 GHz.
passive KET mixers are superior. There is Q balanced mixer output pair i n t o n e 1 Passive F E T mixers are also used as
also a wide variety of other mixer types and Q inputs of the R2pro analog signal upconverters, and Fig 9.80 is a circuit that
including active mixers using Bipolar and processor board. The center-tapped float- provides dc isolated balanced I and balanced
C M O S transistors that may be the best ing transformer primaries may be used to Q drive to the inputs of an I Q upconverter.
choice for some applications. Classic provide operating bias to the mixer if Fig 9.81 is a photograph of a prototype mi-
vacuum lube beam dcflcction mixers, and needed, and 6 V bias to the ASP 1 and Q crowave SSB exciter connected to a com-
future optical mixers offer interesting ex- inputs is provided by the transformer sec- mercial passive FET mixer at 2.3 GHz.
periment possibilities. This paragraph ondaries. Fig 9.78 accomplishes a similar Alternative mixer types are a rich field
presents a few interface circuits that have task using a pair of differential op-amp for amateur experimentation, and there is
been developed to interconnect passive circuits. The phase and amplitude trimpots much progress to be made in this area.
FET balanced and I Q mixers to the on the interface board allow both adjust- Between the 5 0 - H interface circuitry
baseband circuitry developed for the ments to be conveniently done at base- described for diode rings and the balanced
R2pro. Much of this work is in the micro- band. Fig 9.79 is a photograph of this cir- circuitry presented here, an experimenter
wave bands, and outside the scope of this cuit board connected between the R2pro should have the tools needed for experi-
text. A S P and a commercial IQ mixer operat- ments with many different mixer types.

9.44 Chapter 9
9.10 A HIGH PERFORMANCE PHASING SSB EXCITER
After completing the R2pro design, it
was natural to take a similar approach to
the basic phasing exciter. The design of
the resulting circuit is described hero. In
block diagram form, and even in simple
circuit implementations, a phasing SSB
exciter and SSB receiver have much in
common, but as circuitry is optimized for
each application, significant differences
become apparent. A f e w differences are:

1. The audio drive signals at the exciter

diode ring IF port are only a b o g 10 dB
below the LO drive. The diode ring thus
contributes significant distortion, and its
IF port impedance will vary dynamically
with drive.
2. The overall gain f r o m microphone
input to exciter output is much lower than
the gain in a receiver. Curing unwanted
audio feedback and oscillations in an ex-
citer are not significant design tasks.
3. Carrier suppression is an issue, and
can not be helped by R F amplifier reverse
isolation.
4. R F feedback from the antenna back
in to the modulator or L O luned circuit
causes FM
5. There are significant differences in
the handling of SSB and CW
6. There are significantly different
grounding considerations.

Since there are so many different re-

quirements between optimized receiver
and exciter circuitry, each exciter circuit
block was redesigned, borrowing sub-
circuits from the receiver and previous de-
signs where performance met the exciter
requirements.

Microphone Amplifier
The microphone amplifier input is the
connection point for a dynamic or electret
mike element. It needs to interface to a
wide variety of signal sources without
changing its gain or passband characteris-
tics. The microphone amplifier defines the
noise floor inside the channel during
pauses between words, or when using an
external digital signal source connected to
the exciter audio input. Typical inexpen-
sive electret elements with integral FET
amplifiers have an output voltage of about
20 mV and a signal to noise ratio of more
than 60 dB. The mike amplifier needs to

Fig 9.82—This schematic is a speech

amplifier and analog signal processor.
The I and Q audio outputs may be
directly connected to either the
modulator circuit shown in Fig 9.83 or
the balanced output circuit In Fig 9.80.
have input noise much less than 20 jlV crophone is connected, the noise output frequency filter edge, and a single series
across the speech passband to ensure increases by 30 dB. up to about 10 |iW. capacitor provides one high-pass pole at
that the exciter noise is below the micro- This is strong enough to easily hear in 100 Hz. The filter output is terminated in
phone noise. Typical low-noise Op-Amps nearby receivers on the quiet VHF bands. the 470-£2 input resistor to the inverting
have input noise voltage of less than The microphone amplifier circuit in Fig input of the output op-amp.
10nV/Hz" 2 . Thus the equivalent input 9.82 has an input impedance of 10 kO. 10 The gain distribution through the exciter
noise from the op-amp in a 4-kMz band- dB gain, a high-pass characteristic defined audio is designed to minimize off-channel
width is about 630 nV—90 dB below the by R1 and C1 and a low-pass provided by noise and the impact of component toler-
microphone output. This is good enough R2, C2. For maximum fidelity and flex- ances on opposite sideband suppression.
for any microphone likely to be used in ibility in tailoring the microphone re- Most of the audio gain is before the LC
amateur service. sponse. the mike amplifier passband is flat speech filter, so that the filter will have
It is useful to calculate the output noise from 150 Hz to 4 kHz, with very graceful maximum effect on off-channel amplifier
floor of the exciter when the microphone roll-off above and below. The output im- noise. The 1-dB ripple Chebyshev speech
is disconnected. If the rms input noise of pedance of the Op-Amp is raised to about filter has rapid phase and amplitude varia-
the mike amplifier is 630 nV across the 500 Q with the series resistor, to drive the tions near the upper passband edge, so this
speech bandwidth and the transmitter lin- LC speech filter. filter is placed before the audio channel is
early amplifies a 20-mV signal up to. for split into I and Q paths. A matched pair of
example. 10 W (22.4 V rms) into a 50-Q
load, then the transmitter has a total of
High Fidelity Speech such filters could be used at the output of
the I and Q phase shift circuitry to sup-
61 dB linear gain from the microphone Filter press the op-amp phase-shift network
input to the antenna. The output noise volt- The speech filter is designed for high noise, but then the component tolerances
age is 61 dB stronger than 630 nV. or 700 quality speech and rapid roll-off above would have to be unreasonably tight. In-
jiV rms. The noise power at the output is the desired passband. A 1 -dB ripple stead, a pair of simplified 50-Q LC low-
10 nW—low power even by QRP stan- Chebyshev low-pass prototype was scaled pass filters is used after the I and Q audio
dards. When the inexpensive electret mi- to 500 Q and 4 kHz to provide the high power amplifier stages to remove the

- f +12 V

1000
:1000 mF |jF 3.3 mH
50.1 30
AW- ^^^nrrrv -VA-
TUF-3

~©f 1 ° M F " 1000 (JF 0.1mF 51 < <160 < T J-220 ~rb
Poly < < 150< T PF
0.68UF I'
Poly
1

1 0 0 0 MF pF 3.3 mH
10 mF -t-A/W
1000 m F 0.1MF;L 515 .220
Poly ' PF
0.68pF;
Poty

Fig 9.83—The modulator circuitry shown here is connected directly to the output of the audio phase-shift network.

9.46 Chapter 9
broadband noise f r o m the active phase- phase and amplitude errors between the Measurements
shift network and I and Q power amplifi- two channels. Not only do such errors limit
A TUF-1 mixer was measured with two
ers. These 50 12 L C low-pass filters were the amount of sideband suppression that
- 1 0 dBm IF tones and a 22 MHz, +7dBm
designed for amplitude and phase errors may be obtained, they will change when
»mall enough for more than 50 dB of op- LO. The desired outputs dropped to - 1 5 . 3
tuning across the band, and require read-
posite sideband suppression when built dBm, and the 3rd order intermod products
justing the exciter when switching side-
with \% matched components. dropped to 47.5 dB below each desired
bands. A significant reduction in phase
tone. - 1 5 . 3 dBm outputs from - 1 0 d B m
and amplitude errors caused by diode ring
inputs indicates a conversion loss of only
IF port impedance variations may be made
Buffer Amplifiers by adding a 6-dB 5 0 - f l attenuator between
5.3 dB. The 22 M Hz carrier feedthrough is
at - 6 3 . 3 dBm, o r 4 8 . 0 d B below either tone
The LC speech filter termination drives the LC filter and the diode ring IF port.
of the two-tone output. At 7 M H z the car-
i pair of b u f f e r amplifiers through the This attenuator may also improve diode
rier suppression improves to 49.9 dB be-
amplitude balance pol. These b u f f e r am- ring intermod distortion performance.
low either of the two tones.
plifiers provide low impedance drive to the The input termination to the I Q LC fil-
From these experiments with - 1 0 dBm
j u d i o phase-shift network. This is a ter pair is provided by a the low imped-
two-tone drive into a single mixer, the car-
change f r o m the April 1 9 9 ^ Q S T circuit ance output of the audio power amplifier
rier and intermod products are both more
that drove the phase shift network directly circuitry with a 5 0 - Q series resistor and
than 47 dB below either tone. This puis them
from the amplitude balance pot. The origi- 1000 ,uF dc blocking capacitor. The dc
- 5 3 dB below the PEP output. Combining a
nal circuit could be adjusted for more than blocking cap could have been used to
pair of these mixers as a SSB modulator
40 dB of opposite sideband suppression, shape the channel, but then it would have
makes a further improvement. The carriers
but both the amplitude and phase needed had to be a precision component. Since 10
from the two mixers are 90 degrees out of
significant re-adjustment when switching u F capacitors with the necessary tolcrance
phase, so the resultant voltage is 1.414 time
sidebands. The new circuit may be ad- are both expensive and very large, the ca-
the voltage of each carrier. The desired side-
justed for almost 50 dB of opposite side- pacitor value was increased to the point
band adds in phase, so the resultant voltage
band suppression with very little trimming where a standard tolerance electrolytic
is 2.0 times the voltage for either mixer out-
needed when switching sidebands. could be used. A 1000 tiF capacitor with a
put. A passive combiner involves an imped-
50-£2 load has a high-pass pole at 3.2 Hz.
ance transformation, so the resultant volt-
A +50% capacilance error from 1000 ^ F
Audio Phase Shift to 1500 u F in just the I channcl introduces
ages are reduced by 0.707 into a 5 0 - f i load.
Network less than 0.1 degree of differential phase
The final output tones are then 3 dB stronger
than the tones from a single mixer, but the
The audio phase shift networks are cop- error in the low end of the audio passband.
combined carrier outputs are the same as for
ied directly f r o m the R2pro circuit. There The appropriate drive level for the di-
a single mixer.
is no need to change component values. ode rings is determined by the desired
The situation is more complicated for
There is some degradation of sideband sup- amount of third order distortion. There is
intermod products. Some of them add in
pression at audio frequencies below 200 a trade-off between third-order distortion,
phase, some cancel, and some add with 90
Hz. but less than one would experience carrier level, and exciter noise. Exciter
degree phase shift. The worst case is when
with a filter exciter. Using the values de- third order distortion may be reduced to an
the intermod products add in phase, ex-
rived for the receiver provides maximum arbitrary low level by driving the IF port at
actly the same as the desired sideband.
suppression of adjacent-channel interfer- low level, but then the RF output is low
A SSB modulator built with two TUF-1
ence. Dual op-amps arc used instead of the relative to the diode-ring L O output, and
mixers operating at a carrier frequency of
quad op-amps specified in the earlier QST more noisy gain must be used to reach the
22 MHz, with two - 1 0 dBm tones into each
circuit to ease board layout and reduce the desired RF output level. With +7 dBm 1.0
mixer IF port, will have desired sideband
number of parts that need to be kept in drive and two 0 dBm tones on the IF ports
output tones o f - 1 2 . 3 dBm ( - 1 5 . 3 d B m + 3
stock. With parts selected to 0.1% toler- of a T U F - 1 mixer, the R F third-order prod-
dB), a carrier 51 dB below either tone, and
ance, this phase shift network pair will pro- ucts are only 15 dB down from the - 9 . 0
intermod products at least 47 dB below
vide more than 50 dB of opposite sideband d B m desired outputs. This might be ac-
each tone. This performance is a good fit
suppression from 300 to 3500 Hz. ceptable for some simple V H F or micro-
with a precise phase shift SSB system that
wave applications where the mixer is con-
provides 50 dB of opposite sideband sup-
nected direclly to the antenna—but il is
Mixer IF Port Driver hardly in keeping with a high-performance
pression.
The IF amplifier driver amplifiers are
Amplifiers phasing exciter.
also potential sources of distortion. With a
The modulator circuitry shown in Fig Of particular importance is the fact that 6-dB pad between each LC low-pass filter
9.83 is connected directly lo the output of mixer intermod products do not have the mixer IF port, filter loss, and the 6-dB loss
the audio phase-shift network. As in the same phase relationships between the 1 and through the 50-Q series termination resistor,
R2pro circuitry, this connection is dc Q channels as the desired signals that pro- the total loss between the driver amplifier and
coupled and carries the 6 V bias for the duced them. The largest signals in the op- mixer IF port is about 14 dB. Two - 1 0 dBm
modulator op-amps. The I and Q output posite sideband of a phasing exciter are tones is - 4 dBm PEP. so the driver amplifier
audio amplifiers are changed significantly usually intermod products, not the sup- must supply a two-tone +10 dBm with distor-
from the earlier design. One issue is that pressed sideband. Thus it is meaningless tion products well below the level produced
diode ring IF port impedance is a function to build a phasing cxcitcr with phase and by the mixer. Fortunately, a suitable ampli-
of both L O drive level, and for modulator amplitude accuracy to provide 50 dB of fier was designed as the audio output stage
service, IF drive level. Since the diode ring opposite sideband suppression, and then for the R2pro. At the +10 dBm PEP output
IF port is the termination for the LC noise over-drive the I and Q mixers so that the level, distortion products are al I more than 60
filter, any change in impedance will create intermod products are only 30 dB down. dB below each of the desired tones.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.47

oo

Fig 9.85—An AM exciter that generates a DSB signal and then adds the correct amount of carrier to obtain 100% modulated AM at very low distortion.
Mixer Environment sion when LO connections are changed (or likely to need very little trimming when
cables are flexed). LO port pads should be switching sidebands. The sideband selection
To obtain 50 dB opposite sideband sup- used if sufficient LO drive level is avail- method chosen depends to a large extent on
pression. amplitude errors between the I able. Above 20 MHz, the Mini-Circuits whether the exciter is to be used at a single
and Q channels across the entire speech MAV-11 provides a simple way of obtain- frequency, or will be required to cover a
passband must be held to less than about ing +17 dBm of LO drive. After a twisted- multi-octave range, and whether the I and Q
0.03 dB. and phase errors must be held to wire hybrid splitter, the I and Q LO levels audio drive is obtained from a DSP chip or
less than 0.007 radians (0.4 degrees). will both be +14 dBm. 6 dB pads (and a an analog 1C chain.
Since mixer port terminations affect both little circuit loss) will drop this to the ap-
conversion loss and the phase behavior of
any LC networks connected to the ports, it
propriate drive level for standard level di-
ode ring mixers. A 6 dB pad on the RF port
A DSB Modulator
is important for the mixers to operate in as helps maintain constant mixer behavior The same basic circuits that are used to
ideal an environment as possible. Good across a wide RF band. An alternative to a build up a phasing exciter may be used to
50-0 terminations on all three mixer ports, resistive pad on the RF port is an amplifier build up a DSB or filter-type SSB exciter.
constant LO drive level, and good isola- with a good, broadband, resistive input Fig 9.84 is a complete low-distortion DSB
tion between the RF ports of the 1 and Q match and high reverse isolation. The re- modulator with 50-Q output. The micro-
mixers are all necessary to maintain side- verse isolation prevents changes in the am- phone gain should be set up so that the
band suppression. Isolation between the I plifier output load from appearing at the output level at cach sideband is - 1 5 dBm.
and Q mixer RF ports is needed because mixer summer.
the LO leakage from one mixer is 90 de-
grees out of phase with the LO drive to the DSB with Carrier
other mixer. This is precisely the phase
that results in maximum sensitivity to re- Sideband Selection
There are applications for a very low dis-
tortion AM exciter. Fig 9.85 is an AM ex-
covery of phase noise or other fluctuations There are a number of options for side- citer that generates a DSB signal and then
on either mixer. band selection. Reversing the LO connec- adds the correct amount of carrier to obtain
On each mixer port. 6-dB resistive pads tions to the mixers, reversing the I and Q 100% modulated AM at very low distor-
will generally improve opposite sideband audio drive connections to the modulator tion. Two inputs are provided, so that the
suppression across the audio and RF pass- drivers, or introducing a 180 degree phase exciter may be connected directly to the ste-
band. In transmit applications, the noise shift in either the I or Q audio drive will all reo output of a CD player. With a +10 dBm
figure penalty is less of a concern, so the work. One advantage of taking great care LO in the I MHz range, this exciter may be
use of a 6-dB pad on each IF port, and a 6 to operate the mixers in a 50-£2 environ- used to play collections of vintage radio
dB increase in audio drive level, is good ment and making the audio phase shift programs over lovingly restored AM broad-
practice. Pads on the LO ports of the mixer network as accurate as possible is that the cast radios. Use low-pass Pi networks to
help maintain opposite sideband suppres- amplitude and plrase trim adjustments are connect to the 25-Q RF and LO ports.

9.11 A FEW NOTES ON BUILDING PHASING RIGS

Some of our phasing rigs have been works in the exciter and receiver modules. they hold their alignment when intercon-
learning experiences, and some arc fine This eliminates interaction between the re- nected, and greatly reduce spurious re-
radios that have displaced all the commer- ceiver and exciter adjustments. sponses and outputs. Modular construc-
cial equipment in the author's home and 3. Buffered RF ports on both the re- tion with 50 £1 interconnecting signal
portable stations. The most successful ra- ceiver and exciter. A receiver LNA with cables and bypassed dc connections
dios have a few features in common. good reverse isolation and a relatively should be used whenever performance is
broadband, near 50-fl RF output should more important than construction time.
1. Separate receiver and exciter cir- be hard-wired to the RF input of the im- The philosophy behind our phasing rigs
cuitry. The individual components in age-reject mixer. The exciter image-reject is also worth noting. Early amateur work,
phasing rigs are inexpensive, and it is false mixer should be hard-wired to a broad- and much of the professional use of phas-
economy to include complex switching band. 50 Q low-level amplifier input. The ing techniques, has been motivated by the
networks so that a circuit block used in the LNA and exciter low-level output ampli- desire to cut costs. In contrast, our work
receiver may also be used in the exciter. fier should be built into the receiver and has been primarily directed toward im-
Complicated switching schemes to re-use exciter modules. proved performance compared with the
receiver components in the SSB exciter is 4. Good RF filtering and a very clean LO. usual inexpensive narrow-IF-fiiter super-
an obsolete concept that became popular Phasing circuitry does a fine job of eliminat- heterodyne approaches. It is an interesting
in the I960's to save money on expensive ing the opposite sideband, but it does noth- exercise to build and communicate with a
crystal filters, and to reduce the number of ing to reduce strong off-channel and out-of- radio having only a few parts, but that is a
vacuum tubes and filament current drain. band signals that can cause interference different experience from using a system
2. A common VFO for full transceive through various distortion mechanisms. designed for smooth operation and high
operation, but independent LO phase shift 5. Modular construction using performance. For minimum parts count
networks. A conservative approach is to dis- feedthrough capacitors and mechanically projects, simple DSB direct conversion re-
tribute low level LO signals on 50 Q lines solid RF-tight enclosures. Not only are in- ceivers and simple superhets are often the
to buffer amplifiers and LO phase-shift net- dividual modules easier to test and align. best choice.

Phasing Receivers and Transmitters 9.49

9.12 CONCLUSION
In the 25 years since publication of Solid products do not. High fidelity is necessary cessing technology.
Slate Design for the Radio Amateur, much for a phasing rig. Now (hat there are many 6. The final advantage to phasing systems
has changed. Some of the most simple, published receiver and exciter phasi ng cir- is philosophical. A basic superhet receiver
light-weight mountain rigs include micro- cuits to duplicate, the designer-builder can with a crystal filter is fairly easy to explain
processor frequency control and superhet confidently construct a very fine sounding and understand. It is also straightforward to
receivers with crystal filters carefully de- radio system. build, and alignment is simple. When badly
signed for optimum C W intelligibility. 3. The emphasis on low distortion all constructed and poorly adjusted, it still pro-
Rack-mount direct conversion receivers the way through the RF to audio chain vides adequate performance. A phasing re-
are used in high-end weak-signal tropo- means thai there is no penalty for using ceiver is no more complicated than a
spheric scatter U H F S S B and CW stations. audio filtering for selectivity. High-per- superhet, but its underlying principles are
E M E contacts have been made using a few f o r m a n c e audio filters may be realized more subtle. Care in construction pays off,
watts of transmit power and truly awesome using conventional L C networks or digi- and listening while playing with the phasing
receiver signal processing power. tal signal processing systems. adjustments is really very cool. An amateur
At the end of this chapter it is useful to 4. Phasing rigs inevitably have lower in- who has built up a phasing receiver, looked
explore some of the advantages of phasing channel distortion than conventional super- at the 1 and Q channel signals on a dual-trace
receivers and exciters. hets using narrow filters. Low in-channel oscilloscope, and tweaked the phase and am-
distortion provides a significant perfor- plitude adjustments while listing to an oppo-
1. Phasing techniques work at any fre- mance improvement on any mode that in- site-sideband signal drop into the noise ac-
quency. This can be used to eliminate fre- jects a baseband signal into the SSB micro- quires a depth of understanding far beyond
quency conversions in heterodyne re- phone input and recovers the signal from that of most wireless graduate students and
ceiver and transmitter system, which the receiver audio output. This includes many of their professors. The best part is that
makes it easier to avoid internal and exter- conventional SSB and all o f t h e present and understanding of phasing systems comes
nal spurious responses and achieve spec- future modes using Computer Sound Cards from experimenting with simple circuits and
tral purity. The same baseband processor interconnected with the radio. thinking—the tinkering comcs first—then
may be used with simple R F circuitry on 5. The basic phasing rig block diagram the understanding. In this area the amateur
any amateur band from 170 kHz through has many components that may be re- with his simple workbench; primitive test
millimeter waves. placed by D S P and D D S systems. D D S and equipment; and lime to contemplate, has a
2. Phasing receivers and exciters require DSP are two areas in which the state o f t h e profound advantage over both the engineer-
low distortion mixers and audio amplifi- art is rapidly advancing. Phasing receivers ing student with a computerized bench and
ers. While it is possible for a conventional and exciters provide the radio experi- exam next week, and the professional engi-
superhet receiver or cxcitcr to sound good, menter with t t £ interface between anten- neer with a million-dollar lab and a techni-
most published designs and commercial nas and the latest advances in signal pro- cian to run it.

REFERENCES
1 . R . Campbell, " L O Phase Noise Estes Park, C O , October 1998, ARRL QST, November 1981, pp 11-21.
Measurement in A m a t e u r Receiver Publication number 241. Newington, CT. 9. S. Bedrosian, "Normalized Design
Systems", Proceedings / Microwave 1998. ISBN: 0-87259-703-2, pp 34-49. of 90° Phase Difference Networks", IRE
Update '99. Piano. TX. October 1999. 5. A. Ward. "Noise Figure Measure- Transactions on Circuit Theory, June
ARRL Publication number 253. ments". Proceedings/Microwave Update 1960. pp 128-136.
Newington. CT, 1999, ISBN: 0 - 8 7 2 5 9 - '97, Sandusky, OH, October 1997, A R R L
772-5. pp 1-12. 10. R. Fisher. "Broad-Band Twisted-Wire
Publication number 231. Newington. CT, Quadrature Hybrids", Transactions on
2. R. Campbell, "A Binaural IQ 1997, ISBN: 0-87259-638-9. pp 265-272.
Microwave Theory and Techniques, May
Receiver". QST. March 1999. pp 44-48. 6. R. Campbell, "Direct Conversion 1973, pp 355-357.
3. R. Campbell. "Medium Power Diode Receiver Noise Figure". QST. February I l . R . Harrison, "A Review of SSB
Frequency Doublers", Proceedings / 1996, pp 82-85. Phasing Techniques", Ham Radio, Vol.
Microwave Update '99, Piano. TX, 7. R. Campbell. "Binaural Presen-tation of 11. No. 1. January 1978, pp 52-63.
October 1999, ARRL Publication SSB and CW Signals Received on a Pair of 12. J. Rcisert. " V H F / U H F Frequency
number 253. Newington, CT. 1999. ISBN: Antennas". Proceedings / 18'1' Annual Calibration", Ham Radio, Vol. 17, No. 10.
0-87259-772-5, pp 397-406. Conference of the Central States VHF October 1984, pp 55-60.
4. R. Campbell, " M i c r o w a v e Down- Society, Cedar Rapids, IA. July 1984.
13. B. Blanchard. " R F Phase Shifters for
converter and Upeonverter Update", 8. W. Hayward and J. Lawson, " A Phasing-Type SSB Rigs". QEX. January/
Proceedings / Microwave Update '98, Progressive Communications Receiver". February 1998, p 34.

9.50 Chapter 9
 CHAPTER

DSP
Components

The basic c o n c e p t s o f performing signal c o n s o l e s no p o w e r . H o w e v e r , in order to duplicated by any number o f builders.

p r o c e s s i n g f u n c t i o n s in a c o m p u t e r g o a c h i e v e high Q in the inductors it may O n c e the signal has been converted to digi-
k i c k m a n y years. Much o f this processing o c c u p y a fair v o l u m e and. particularly at tal form it is often easy to add other func-
» » $ performed on relatively s l o w comput- l o w e r frequencies, may b e c o m e heavy. tions. such as A G C . or lo increase the per-
ers. where signals were treated as a series In contrast, the D S P version has much formance of the filter considerably beyond
at numbers. But, Digital Signal Process- greater hardware c o m p l e x i t y . Most o f this that w h i c h i s practical for the analog filter.
ing. or D S P . as applied to c o m m u n i c a t i o n s is hidden away inside integrated circuits, For this reason, it w o u l d be unusual to see
•systems is more: It refers to the c o n v e r s i o n but e v e n the interconnect wires ( P C board a D S P based circuit that w a s as simple as
at conventional analog signals into digital traces) will count in the tens or hundreds just a band-pass filler. The D S P i m p l e m e n -
s o r d s , then p r o c e s s i n g these words for for m o s t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s . T h e D S P tation is limited in the upper frequency that
mrae useful purpose and the conversion implementation might c o n s u m e a f e w can be used and is most often seen for fre-
tack to analog signals. Tn addition, all of watts o f power, as well. H o w e v e r , once quencies in the Id's of kHz. The increas-
this must occur fast enough to k e e p up with the filter program is written, it is precisely ing p r o c e s s i n g rates o f D S P d e v i c c s can be
the i n c o m i n g signal. That is to say. the
computation is "in real time."
The increased speed o f digital comput-
".j hardware along with improvements in
< -cost converters for input and output _ n m n _
has brought D S P to many e v e i y -
products. This has made p o s s i b l e s o m e
functions that were difficult to perform in Input Output
i n a l o g hardware. In addition, there are
reduced production costs associated with
using D S P , all o f w h i c h is attractive to Fig 10.1—Alternate Analog Implementation
equipment manufacturers and h o m e - analog and DSP
tjuilders alike. Not surprisingly, there are Implementations of
j l s o limitations in using D S P to replace a band-pass filter.
AtoD l D to A
Input ^ — ! DSP 1 Output
analog functions. T h e s e lie primarily in the Converter i Converter
areas o f speed and d y n a m i c range.
F i g u r e 10.1 illustrates the implementa-
tion of a bandpass filter first as a c o n v e n -
tional L C design and then as a D S P ele-
X Biter
Program
ment. The L C design is o b v i o u s l y simple
m only requiring 6 c o m p o n e n t s . It can be DSP implementation
built o v e r a w i d e range o f frequencies and

DSP Components 10.1

expected to push these frequencies up in This chapter will attempt to provide rithm. such as a digital filter, the flow dia-
the future. enough detail to allow construction or gram does not add clarity over communi-
In this chaptcr. we will explore the types modification o f working " D S P compo- cating directly with a well-commented
o f D S P building blocks that can replace or nents." In the case o f hardware construc- computer program, written in a reasonably
supplement analog circuitry. Where pos- tion, this usually requires that the builder clear language. This approach will be ap-
sible. comparisons with similar analog is able to write down a schematic diagram plied here.
functions will be made. This will help to complete with component values. For our This chapter places emphasis on work-
give a rational basis for mixing D S P func- software case, there is no direct equivalent ing D S P components. The background
tions into communications gear in the o f the schematic diagram. Many have tried mathematics is not emphasized. However,
places where it " m a k e s sense." Examples to use various forms o f "flow diagram" to there are other texts, such as that by Doug
o f mixed ^ a l o g and digital circuitry will communicate the contents o f programs. S m i t h 1 . K F 6 D X . which should be con-
show how these building blocks can be For logic decisions, this can be a useful sulted to add this perspective.
used for both audio and I F applications. tool. However, for a computational algo-

1 0 . 1 THE EZ-KIT LITE

One o f the interesting parts o f circuit 2 - Good support manuals are available million instructions per second.
design is the selection o f components. For 3 - The E Z - K i t Lite makes getting Communications with a PC through a
instance, we might need a basic NPN tran- started simple. serial port requires a software U A R T (Uni-
sistor to operate at low signal levels and versal Asynchronous Receivcr/Transmit-
since the " j u n k - b o x " has a supply o f This, however, is not to say that the Ana- ter) to be run in the E Z - K i t , but the hard-
2 N 2 2 2 2 we will use ihetn. T h e s e devices log Devices A D S P - 2 1 x x series is the best ware to change to R S 2 3 2 levels is part o f
are readily available from a number o f solution for a particular problem. How- the board.
sources, inexpensive and chosen for those ever, this is a good all-around processor Analog input and output takes place
reasons, as much as technical ones. How- and provides a consistent language to il- through a dual (stereo) set o f converters in
ever, as the complexity o f the circuit func- lustrate the examples that follow. a A D 1847 C O D E C . * The sampling rate of
tion increases, the devices become more F i g 10.2 is a block diagram of the the C O D E C is programmable up to 48 kHz
specialized and the number o f sources E Z - K i t Lite board. The processor is an and supports an analog bandwidth o f about
diminishes. For instance, most integrated A D S P - 2 1 8 1 that has both 16K on-chip 2 0 kHz.
R F amplifiers, even at low power levels, words of 16 bit data memory and 16K Other digital lines are available for con-
are available from only one or two sources. on-chip words of 24-bit program memory.
When we get to D S P devices it is a case o f This is more than adequate for any likely
each manufacturer having a separate pro- amateur projcct. When the board is pow-
cessor that not only doesn't substitute for ered down, programs can be stored in a *The term CODEC stands for Coder/Decoder
any other, but that have different internal 2 7 C 0 8 0 , orin a smaller E P R O M . The firm- and refers to the combination of Analog-to-
structures requiring different program- ware procedure for loading from this 8-bit Digital and Digital-to-Analog conversions,
along with dynamic-range compression
ming languages. E P R O M storage to the 24-bit program
algorithms. For the applications in this book,
For these reasons, it is necessary to pick memory is part o f the D S P hardware. The no compression algorithms are used, but
a specific language and a specific proces- E P R O M is not used after program loading we will still refer to the conversion package
sor family when describing the operation is completed. The EZ-Kit Lite executes 33 by its common nickname CODEC.
o f a D S P function. I f this is not done, the
description becomes quite mathematical
and remote from an actual working pro-
gram. T h e Analog Devices A D S P - 2 1 0 0
family and specifically the A D S P - 2 1 8 1
arc used in this chapter to describe the D S P 27C080
functions. This choice was made for sev- EPROM
eral reasons:

1 - The assembly language is easy to

Fig 10.2—Block
follow diagram of the
EZ-Kit Lite from
Analog Devices.
The CODEC has
dual A/D and D/A
converters.
Memory in the
ADSP-2181 can be
loaded from the
EPROM.

The EZ-Kit Lite.

10.2 Chapter 10
 trol p u r p o s e s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s a r e s u p p l i e d extra time available for conventional con- the n o i s e , f r o m the A / D e n c o d i n g p r o c e s s ,
for a d d i n g a l m o s t a n y k i n d of m e m o r y o r trol f u n c t i o n s , s u c h as d i s p l a y s o r being spread over a wider frequency band-
I/O d e v i c e . switches. w i d t h a n d a s m a l l e r p e r c e n t a g e of t h i s
F r o m a m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s p o i n t of v i e w , n o i s e h i t t i n g w i t h i n the c o m m u n i c a t i o n s
w h e r e a c o m m e r c i a l p r o d u c t is i n v o l v e d , channel.
Mixed-Modes m u c h of this can r e s u l t in l o w e r p r o d u c - The EZ-Kit Lite uses the A D 1 8 4 7
All r e a l - l i f e s i g n a l s are a n a l o g in t h e i r tion c o s t s at high v o l u m e s . F o r the e x p e r i - C O D E C f o r both the A / D a n d D/A c o n v e r -
n a t u r e . T h i s m e a n s t h a t a s i g n a l level is n o t menter, producing a project for himself, s i o n s . T h i s is of the sigma-delta* type2
c o n s t r a i n e d to a f i x e d set of l e v e l s , but this can s i m p l i f y the p r o j e c t as well, a s s u m - that is c o m m o n l y used in D S P a p p l i c a t i o n s .
rather m a y t a k e o n a n y l e v e l as t i m e p a s s e s . ing that m u c h of the p r o j e c t can be based on T h e internally g e n e r a t e d noise f o r t h i s c o n -
Even t h e o u t p u t s of digital l o g i c c i r c u i t s e x i s t i n g p r o g r a m s . H o w e v e r , if one must version process can be considerably
are n o t j u s t " 0 " o r " 1 " b u t i n s t e a d c o n s i s t d e v e l o p the entire p r o g r a m , it may well turn g r e a t e r than that a s s o c i a t e d with a least-
of w a v e f o r m s that h a v e r i s e - t i m e s , r i n g i n g out that the t i m e required is c o n s i d e r a b l y s i g n i f i c a n t bit. F i g u r e 1 0 . 3 is an oscillo-
and o t h e r v a r i a t i o n s . A l l of t h e R F , IF, a n d a b o v e that of similar h a r d w a r e . scope p i c t u r e of the noise a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
a u d i o s i g n a l s u s e d in r a d i o s y s t e m s arc, A r g u m e n t s in f a v o r of u s i n g a n a l o g the A / D c o n v e r t e r r u n n i n g with a 4 8 - k H z
more obviously, analog. components generally center about the fol- s a m p l e rate and no input s i g n a l . T h e levels
D S P p r o v i d e s an a l t e r n a t e w a y to deal lowing considerations: w e r e m e a s u r e d by using the D S P to multi-
with t h e s e a n a l o g s i g n a l s . T h i s i n v o l v e s T h e A / D and D/A conversion processes ply the A / D n o i s e by 100, m a k i n g it of
approximating the analog signal with a se- tend t o r e s t r i c t t h e d y n a m i c r a n g e of t h e s u f f i c i e n t l e v e l to c o v e r t h e D / A n o i s e .
ries of digital n u m b e r s , p r o c e s s i n g t h e s e process. T h e R M S A / D n o i s e c a n be seen to be
n u m b e r s w i t h s o m e sort of c o m p u t e r a n d • T h e b a n d w i d t h of t h e p r o c e s s is t o o 153 p V , o r a b o u t 8 t i m e s the level attribut-
then c r e a t i n g a p r o c e s s e d a n a l o g s i g n a l great for a DSP. able to the least-significant bit. T h i s e f f e c -
that a g a i n only a p p r o x i m a t e s t h e d e s i r e d tively limits the u s e f u l bits to 1 6 - 3 or 13.
• T h e b a s i c c o m p l e x i t y of t h e D S P is n o t
result. It is i m p o r t a n t to k e e p in m i n d that justified, T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g D / A n o i s e , s h o w n in
the signal of real i n t e r e s t is t h e a n a l o g o n e . F i g 1 0 . 4 , h a s an r m s l e v e l of a b o u t 2 0 0
• T h e p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n is h i g h e r t h a n
T h e d i g i t a l c a l c u l a t i o n s are o n l y a m e a n s | i V , w h i c h is s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h e A / D
the analog counterparts.
to o b t a i n t h e p r o c e s s e d s i g n a l . I n o r d e r to n o i s e . It is m o r e d i f f i c u l t to q u a n t i f y this
• P r o g r a m s a n d d e b u g g i n g of p r o g r a m s
m a i n t a i n a n a d e q u a t e a p p r o x i m a t i o n of t h e s i n c e t h e b a n d w i d t h of the n o i s e on the
r e q u i r e s n e w skills.
a n a l o g signal, o n e m u s t e x a m i n e t h e c o m - o u t p u t of the D / A c o n v e r t e r is m u c h w i d e r
A s with any other technology, one must
p u t e r r o u t i n e s a n d in s o m e c a s e s t a k e s p e - than half t h e s a m p l e rate. T h e level g i v e n
w e i g h t h e v a r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and
cial p r e c a u t i o n s . T h e h u m a n c a r is o f t e n
d e c i d e if D S P is t h e best a p p r o a c h to a par-
the f i n a l j u d g e of D S P d i s t o r t i o n . M o s t
ticular application. *Sigma-delta A/D converters use low-reso-
people cannot hear digitized distortion
lution conversions (usually 1 bit), operat-
w h e n 7 o r 8 bits a r e u s e d in t h e r e p r e s e n -
ing at very high conversion rates. The very
tation. E v e n w i t h a 16-bit p r o c e s s o r , c a r e Dynamic Range high digitizing noise is reduced by digital
m u s t b e t a k e n to e n s u r e that this n u m b e r of filtering, which accepts only a small part of
In a n y c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s y s t e m t h e l o w -
bits is r e t a i n e d a c c u r a t e l y . the noise frequency spectrum. Further
est level of a s i g n a l t h a t can b e h a n d l e d is
noise reduction comes from feedback
l i m i t e d by n o i s e , a n d s o m e f o r m of o v e r -
loops that are able to shape the noise
l o a d s e t s the h i g h e s t l e v e l . T h e r a t i o of spectrum to move much of the noise
Why DSP? t h e s e t w o l e v e l s , u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d in d B energy to high frequencies allowing it to be
Traditionally signal generation and pro- is the d y n a m i c r a n g e of t h e s y s t e m . S y s - removed by the digital filters. Similar pro-
cessing has used analog c o m p o n e n t s . Most t e m s u s i n g D S P h a v e d y n a m i c r a n g e limi- cesses are used to reduce the noise in the
sigma-delta D/A converters.
of this b o o k i n v o l v e s t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s . A t a t i o n s , as d o a n a l o g s y s t e m s , b u t t h e f o r m
t r a n s i s t o r o s c i l l a t o r can c r e a t e a s i g n a l of of n o i s e a n d o v e r l o a d e f f e c t s c a n be q u i t e
good spectral purity. Inductors and capaci- d i f f e r e n t . In w e l l - d e s i g n e d s y s t e m s , t h e
tors m a k e fine signal filters. C o m b i n e d limitations on d y n a m i c range n o r m a l l y
with a f e w t r a n s f o r m e r s and d i o d e s , o n e c o m e f r o m the c o n v e r s i o n s to o r f r o m a n a -
h a s a m i x e r c a p a b l e of h a n d l i n g a very log signals. Internally, the D S P can handle
w i d e r a n g e of signal levels. T h e s i m p l i c i t y a w i d e r a n g e of s i g n a l s , b e c a u s e of t h e
of this a p p r o a c h h a s g r e a t a p p e a l a n d f o r r e s o l u t i o n of d a t a w o r d s a n d by the use of
m a n y p r o j e c t s , it is c l e a r l y t h e p r o p e r level shifting algorithms, such as A G C .
approach. The arguments for putting some F o r both A / D a n d D / A c o n v e r t e r s , n o i s e
p o r t i o n of t h e e q u i p m e n t into a D S P p r o - is i n t r o d u c e d by t h e m i n i m u m r e s o l u t i o n
c e s s g e n e r a l l y are: of the c o n v e r t e r s . In a d d i t i o n , as w i l l b e
• I n c r e a s e d p e r f o r m a n c e in n e t w o r k s seen below, some converters may have
such as filters, 9 0 - d e g r e e p h a s e - s h i f t net- h i g h e r l e v e l s of n o i s e a s s o c i a t e d with the
w o r k s a n d b a n k s of f i l t e r s . c o n v e r s i o n p r o c e s s itself. A s c o n v e r t e r s
• B e t t e r p r e c i s i o n in o p e r a t i o n s s u c h as g e t f a s t e r , t h e y t e n d to Have f e w e r bits p e r Fig 10.3—Oscilloscope trace of the A/D
SSB generation. w o r d with a l a r g e r l e a s t - s i g n i f i c a n t bit and converter noise in the EZ-Kit Lite. There
• S i m p l e r r e p r o d u c t i o n of s o f t w a r e , rela- t h i s r e p r e s e n t s m o r e n o i s e . T h i s is n o t al- was no input signal to the converter
tive to h a r d w a r e . ways a problem, since a faster converter and the DSP was used to amplify the
noise by 100. This was then applied to
• T h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of f u n c t i o n s that a r e s p r e a d s the n o i s e o v e r a w i d e r f r e q u e n c y
the D/A converter to produce the trace
d i f f i c u l t to i m p l e m e n t in h a r d w a r e , s u c h r a n g e . T h e n o i s e in a s i n g l e c o m m u n i c a - shown. Each vertical division is 50
as a d a p t i v e f i l t e r s . t i o n s c h a n n e l m a y a c t u a l l y be l e s s w i t h the millivolts and each horizontal division
• T h e D S P p r o c e s s o r l i k e l y will h a v e w i d e r b a n d w i d t h c o n v e r t e r . T h i s is d u e to is 1 millisecond.

DSP Components 10.3

 input signal by quantizing it into a series
of small steps. On a detailed scale, these
input/oulpul characteristics do not appear
at all linear. H o w e v e r , as long as the input
signals are within the range of the digital
words, the p r o c e s s , on a large scale, is
often very linear. This results in the small
step n o n - l i n e a r i t i e s d o m i n a t i n g and the
resulting intermodulation distortion being
spread over a very large n u m b e r of prod-
ucts. in a noise-like f a s h i o n . T h e t e r m
i n t e r m o d u l a t i o n c e a s e s to be a good
descriptor. As an e x a m p l e . Fig 10.5 shows
Fig 10.4—Oscilloscope trace of the D/A Fig 10.5—D/A output spectrum for two the spectrum of two sine waves p r o d u c e d
converter noise in the EZ-Kit Lite. No sine waves at 8.9 and 9.9 kHz. Each bv D S P c o m p u t a t i o n and c o n v e r t e d to
signal was driving the converter and the signal was 2.0 V p-p so that the peak
oscilloscope bandwidth had been analog signals by the A D 1847 C O D E C .
level for both sine waves was 4.0 V p-p,
limited to 30 kHz. Each vertical division N o conventional i n t e r m o d u l a t i o n p r o d -
which is full scale for the D/A converter.
is 500 nV and each horizontal division The noise floor, which is about 65 dB ucts arc o b s e r v a b l e , a l t h o u g h the sine
is 1 mS. below each of the sine waves, is mainly waves are using the full available range
from the spectrum analyzer. of the D / A c o n v e r t e r . Although mostly
obscured by the s p e c t r u m - a n a l y z e r noise
floor, if it c o u l d be seen, the distortion
p r o d u c t f r o m the t w o signals w o u l d
a b o v e was estimated by p l a c i n g an R C T h e n u m b e r of bits of the A / D converter appear to be similar noise.
low-pass filler, d o w n 3 dB at 30 k H z . on limits the t o p end of d y n a m i c range. In contrast to analog circuit distortions,
the output of the converter. T h i s limited D e p e n d i n g on the type of converter, this the overload point of the digital signal is
the noise to roughly the band of interest may result in abrupt c o m p r e s s i o n or it may abrupt and creates severe distortions.
(24 kHz for a 48-kH/. sample rate). generate erroneous values. Although this Depending on the nature of the computa-
It is often desirable that the noise asso- latter form of distortion can obliterate the tion. either the signal output will reach a
ciated with the analog processes prior to ability to receive a signal, either e f f e c t is a maximum value and not go any further, or
the digital hardware be amplified until it is severe f o r m of distortion even worse, it may wrap around between
s o m e w h a t s t r o n g e r than this " d i g i t a l " I n t e r m o d u l a t i o n distortion in analog the greatest positive and the most negative
noise. H o w e v e r , d o i n g this r e d u c e s the e q u i p m e n t is usually d o m i n a t e d by the values. In D S P processors, such as the
total d y n a m i c range. T h e s e are the s a m e third and fifth order products (see C h a p t e r A D S P 2 1 8 1 , this choice of overload
t r a d e o f f s b e t w e e n o v e r l o a d prevention 2). This is d u e to the gradual nature of the responses is programmable. Never-the-less
and signal sensitivity that h a v e a l w a y s non-linearities of analog c o m p o n e n t s . In consideration must be taken to avoid prob-
existed in analog signal design. contrast, the digital p r o c e s s distorts an lems from operating in these signal regions.

10.2 A PROGRAM SHELL

We now need to digress f r o m the signal F o r this reason, the EZ-Kit m a n u f a c t u r e r complicated mathematical computation,
p r o c e s s i n g s u b j e c t to gain a general provides a program shell. This is a com- such as a Fast Fourier T r a n s f o r m . As much
understanding of the process of program- puter program that does almost no useful processing as possible should be put here.
ming a D S P microprocessor. T h e details work other than to pass data through un- The only requirement for being part of the
shown here are specific to the E Z - K i t . but changed. It provides a place where a D S P background is that the processing d o e s not
all D S P m i c r o p r o c e s s o r e n v i r o n m e n t s function can be placed to create a useful require periodic c o m p u t a t i o n s at precise
have a c o r r e s p o n d i n g process. program. time intervals. E x a m p l e s of b a c k g r o u n d
T h e E Z - K i t Lite r e q u i r e s sizeable Fig 10.6 shows the overall flow of the processes would be the r e a d i n g of a switch
a m o u n t s of p r o g r a m m i n g b e f o r e it can be shell, which is the same for any of the pro- or the outputting of data to a controlling
used for even the most trivial D S P f u n c - grams in this book. When first started, the PC. T h e s e operations need to be d o n e quite
tion. Much of this is associated with pro- program initializes the parameters of the often, but the exact times are not critical.
g r a m m i n g the C O D E C that provides the hardware and software. This is only done C o m p u t a t i o n s that must be d o n e peri-
A / D and D / A conversions. An e x a m p l e of once, although the program may continue odically are handled by interrupts. T h e in-
this is setting the sample rate to 48 k H z as to operate for days, months or longer. Fol- terrupt is a signal sent to the D S P to re-
is used in the e x a m p l e p r o g r a m s . It is lowing initialization, the program goes into quest special processing. In our case, the
important that these h a r d w a r e initializa- a continual loop. In the figure, this loop is reason f o r the interrupt is that a n o t h e r
tion c h o r e s be p e r f o r m e d correctly, but referred to as a background process. 1/48.000 second (about 2 0 . 8 (is) has
most often the D S P p r o g r a m m e r need not The operations in the b a c k g r o u n d pro- elapsed. T h e specific hardware that gener-
be c o n c e r n e d about the details involved. cess loop can range from no process to a ates the interrupt is the C O D E C . Typical of

10.4 Chapter 10
 with very detrimental results. The program Certain items, such as hardware interrupts,
must be designed to keep all processing require extra effort for simulation but can
sufficiently short to prevent this. In addi- be omitted for much program testing.
tion, the background will generally be us- When this is the case, the call to initl can
ing a variety of computational registers. If be "commented" out of the program.
the interrupt routine changes these regis- For our shell program the background
ters, there will be errors in the resultant process is particularly simple:
data in the background process. The inter-
rupt routines must make sure that any reg-
ister that it uses is restored before the back- again: { W e h a v e no background
ground process resumes. In the case of the process. If we did, it would go here.}
Analog Devices ADSP-2100 series of pro- jump again; { G o round a n d round
cessors, this is very easily done for one forever}
Fig 10.6—Main flow of the DSP programs, interrupt. All of the computational regis-
To give some feel for the numbers ters are duplicated and they can be changed
involved, the interrupt rate is shown as by the single instruction e n a s e c _ r e g or This starts with a label "again:" that is
48,000 per second. Depending on the dis s e c _ r e g . As one might surmise from not an instruction, but merely a name for
application, this rate might range from the instructions, the two register banks are the location in memory where the actual
6,000 to 100,000 interrupts per second. instruction jump again is located. The net
referred to as primary and secondary.
result of this is that the instruction is
executed repeatedly. This does nothing
Programming within the useful, but does allow the program to wait
the types of process that must be done pe-
riodically are the reading of the A/D data, Shell for an interrupt to occur. When this hap-
pens, the operation of the program is trans-
the computational update of a digital filler, No attempt will be made here to go ferred to the interrupt routine. The return
or the outputting of data to the D/A con- through all the details of the shell program. from the interrupt routine will once again
verter. If any of these events do not occur A copy is included on the CD-ROM as go back to the "jump again" loop.
on their precise, periodic schedule, there SHLPRG.DSP. Comments have been added
The interrupt routine, often called an
will be considerable distortion in the signal to the original Analog Devices program
"1SR" for interrupt service routine, is
waveforms coming from the processor. which explain most of the operation.
again simple:
When the processor receives an inter- Although it is not necessary to know all the
rupt, the background program instruction details of this code, it is instructive to see a
in progress is completed and the program few lines of the program to understand the input_samples:
then "jumps" to the location assigned for overall structure of a DSP program. ena sec_reg; { use secondary
processing the interrupt. After the inter- For those that have not yet written a DSP register b a n k }
rupt processing is completed, the program program, this programming information
jumps back to the next place in the back- may seem mysterious and difficult to fol- mr0=dm(rx_buf+1); { Get left audio
ground proccss and continues with the low. It may be useful for the reader to skim from A/D}
background computations. This leaves a through this section and the following one mr1=dm(rx_buf+2); { Right}
maximum amount of time for background on "autobuffering", with the idea of return-
processing, while still guaranteeing that ing when it is time to actually put a pro- { This shell d o e s no processing
the periodic needs will always be met. gram together. The concepts here are to the signals, other than to p a s s
Recall thai the basic processor can execute important for making the DSP program, them through. P r o c e s s i n g would go
33 million instructions per second, much but not necessary for seeing how DSP fits here.}
faster than the 48-kHz rate of jumping lo into the "bag of tricks" for improving our
an interrupt routine.'" communications circuitry.
dm(tx_buf+1) = mrO; { S e n d left audio
Several things can go wrong when the When the DSP program first runs, a to D/A}
program is jumping to different places in number of hardware and software param- dm(tx_buf+2) = mr1; { Right audio}
the program at seemingly random limes, eters are initialized. In the program this dis s e c _ r e g ; { Back to primary
however. The interrupt process could take looks like: registerbank}
longer than 20.8 microscconds. in which rti; { This u n d o e s t h e interrupt}
case the next interrupt would arrive before
the first processing was complete. Called start: imask=0; {Turn off all interrupts}
an interrupt overrun, this results in only call initO; {Instructions that simu- The first instruction switches all com-
partial completion of the interrupt proccss late easily} putational registers to the secondary set.
call initl; {And those that do not} All computation will be performed using
the values in the secondary register set,
"The ratio of the Instruction rate and the while the primary register set is fully pre-
interrupt rate determines the maximum The first instruction is to prevent an served for future use. The next instruction.
number of instructions allowed in the in- interrupt from occurring in the program mr0=dm(rx__buf+1). uses the computa-
terrupt routine. For our case, this is operation, before the initialization is com- tional register, mrO as temporary storage
33,000,000/48.000 or 687 instructions. Of plete. The two subroutine calls, "call initO" for the number that was in memory at the
course, if the interrupt routine always used
this maximum number, there would be no and "call initl" do the initialization. Two address rx_buf+1. This is the data from
lime left for the background process. The calls are used as a convenience when test- the A/D for the left channel signal. Then,
balance between the two processes is part ing the programs using the emulator mri is loaded with the data from the A/D
of the design process. program provided with the EZ-Kit Lite. for the right channel signal.

DSP C o m p o n e n t s 10.5
 To make a more useful program, we the symbolic names rx_buf for incoming j u m p i n p u L s a m p l e s {14: S P O R T O r x }
could now perform some signal processing data and tx_buf for outgoing data. Left rti; { Three filler instructions }
action on one or both of these signals. How- channel data is located 1 address rti; { so that there are a total of 4 }
ever. since this is only an "empty" shell we location past the start of the data areas, rti;
will just send the data to the D/A converters referred to as rx_buf + 1 and the right
for both the left and right signals. Putting channel data is 2 address locations past the The j u m p instruction is all that is needed
the numbers back in memory at the start of the data area. The transfer of the for our shell program and so the remaining
addresses tx_buf+1 and tx_buf+2 does data lakes place without any processor three instructions arc filled out with
this. The primary registers are then brought instructions being required. do-nothing instructions, in this case they
back as the active computational registers Every 1/48,000 second the CODEC, which are rti, or return-from-interrupt instruc-
and the processing is restored to the back- includes the A/D, initiates a serial data trans- tions. The particular instruction is not
ground process by the rti instruction. fer that is handled through the autobuffering. important. The use of rti is often intended
The completion of this transfer causes an to prevent problems in case of accidental
interrupt in the DSP. This, in turn, causes the interrupts, but the utility of this is ques-
Autobuffering background activity to be stopped and our tionable and the real reason is to comply
A potentially puzzling question is " w h o interrupt processing to begin. with a convention!
put the data into memory at d m ( r x _ b u f + 1 ) The interrupt routine is in program There are always I I more interrupt
and who is taking it back out from memory at the symbolic address mini-programs, most of which are not
d m ( t x _ b u f + 1 ) ? " There is specialized input_samples. This address is jumped to used. As can be seen f r o m the full program
hardware, called autobuffering, built into at the time of the interrupt as the result of listing, each serves a particular interrupt,
the processor that is able to exchange data a table of instructions that is placed in the if the interrupt mask enables it. Each of
between a serial port and data memory. first 48 instructions of program memory. theses has a specific address in memory.
The address in memory where this occurs These mini-programs are each 4 instruc- Our serial-port program is at address 14
is set up as part of the initialization pro- tions long and the one used for the serial hex (20 decimal.)
cess. These memory address were given port used with the CODEC looks like:

10.3 DSP COMPONENTS

When a p i e c e of electronic equipment is into one of the multiplier input registers,
assembled in a traditional way. a number called myO. The output is called mr and
of components are soldered together. for the ADSP-2100 series of processors Signal In j X J ^ Signal Out
T h e s e c o m p o n e n t s can be f u n d a m e n t a l this is a 40-bit register divided into three
ones, such as a resistor or a diode. In some parts, called mr2, m r l and mrO. For our
cases, though they will be complex build- case of the multiplication of two 1.15 for-
mat signed numbers,* the 16-bit signed Constant
ing blocks, such as a phase-locked loop
Oto 1
built in an integrated circuit. In the same result is in the m r l register.**
manner, one can look at D S P functions as The attenuation value in myO is the 1.15 Fig 10.7—DSP attenuator using a
components that can replace, or add to the format fraction corresponding to the volt- multiplier. This multiplication operation
analog components. In the following age ratio for - 4 dB. In equation form this occurs for every input signal sample.
pages we will explore some of these DSP is:
components, and see h o w they fit into
radio designs.
myO = ( i n t )
( 32768 • 10.0 ~
A
200
^

indicates that we will use the closest inte-

Amplifiers and ger to the calculated value. Fig 10.7 shows
Attenuators Eq 10.1
this attenuator in block diagram form.
As D S P components, amplifiers and at- This simple arrangement docs not work
tenuators consist of multiplying the signal where A is the attenuation value in dB. for amplifiers. In 1.15 format, the largest
by a constant. If the constant is greater than which in our case is 4.0. The (int) operator number is 32767/32768, which is slightly
1.0 we have an amplifier and if it is less less than 1.0. This can be overcome by the
than 1.0 we have an attenuator. For in- use of shifting. For instance, a "voltage"
stance. a 4-dB attenuator could consist of *See the sidebar "Decimal numbers in a gain of 4.0 (as a ratio), or 12.04 dB, is
a signed multiplication: fixed-point DSP" for a description of the achieved by shifting the binary number for
number formats. the signal level to the left by two bits, as
my0=20675; { - 4 d B a s a f r a c t i o n of illustrated in Fig 10.8. In general, we need
" T h e mrO register contains the least-sig-
32768 } nificant 16 bits that are used if we want to better control of gain than can be obtained
m r = r n r 1 * m y 0 ( s s ) ; { T h e s i g n a l is in work with more than 16 bits. The high 8 with powers of 2 and this is achieved by
mrl already } bits in the mr2 register are available for cascading the shifting operation with the
functions that use "multiply and accumu- attenuation operation. As a more general
late." This allows one to multiply two num- example, a gain of 3.5. or 10.88 dB. is
It is assumed that the input signal has al- bers together and add the product to a
ready been placed in the m r l . The illustrated in Fig 10.9. In program form
previous result. This is common operation
instruction m y 0 = 2 0 6 7 5 places a constant in DSP. this would look like:

10.6 Chapter 10
 Signal in
i
Signal in r i
1 Most
Significant
Most Least i J
Significant Significant
x4
/ w \ ) Siqnal Out
T \ * J ( x 3.5
Signal Out x 4

0.875
28672 in 1.15 Format

Fig 10.8—DSP gain of 4 using a shift register. The shift Fig 10.9—DSP gain of 3.5 using a shift register and a
operation allows any amount of shifting, either up or down, multiplier. A gain of 4 is first applied by the shift register,
in a single operation. as was done in Fig 1 0 , 8 . Following the shifter, an
attenuation of 0.875 is applied, using the multiplier of
Fig 1 0 . 7 . This brings the net gain to 3.5.

sr=ashift mr1 by 2 (hi);{ The signal is in The examples shown here arc for con- that the n u m b e r of bits of shift is not
mr1; shift 2 bits } stant values of attenuation. In many more than necessary. If a large amount of
my0=28672; { 0.875 in 1.15 f o r m a t } instances, it is ncccssary to have the gain shift is followed by a large amount of at-
mr=sr1 *myO (ss); { Multiply the shifted the result of s o m e calculation. The si tenuation. there will be a loss of accuracy
signal by myO } register is useful for this case, allowing (dynamic range). The attenuation con-
the number of bits of shift to depend on stant in myO should be between 0.5 and
with the result again in the mr1 register. a register value. One should take care 1.0.

10.4 SIGNAL GENERATION

Generation of signals using DSP is eas- Other methods reduce the table size fur- memory, but each daLa poinl requires, for
ily done. The primary advantages are the ther by approximating the output wave- our example, about 27 D S P machine
accuracy of the waveform and its stability- form. This can be done as a series of steps cycles. This is quite acceptable' for many
over time. D S P signal generators tend to where the output does not change, applications. In terms of computing time,
be limited to frequencies in the low M H z although the input phase does: this has each data poinl lakes 27 x .03 = 0.81
range, or less, due primarily to the compu- very little computational overhead. More microseconds on the ADSP-2181.
tational load. T w o examples of signal gen- exact results are obtained by approximat- The method again starts by dividing the
eration, the sine wave and random noise, ing the sine wave with a series of straight sine wave into four regions of 90 degrees
are shown here. lines connccting the lookup-table values, each as shown in Fig 10.10. For any point
but with higher computational overhead. between 0 and 9 0 d e g r e e s , the sine wave is
At the other extreme is direct calcula- approximated by the following polyno-
Sine Wave Generator
tion of the function. 4 This uses very little mial equation.-
One basic component that is needed for
many DSP programs is a sine-wave
generator. Digital generators can be imple-
mented cither as lookup tables or as calcu-
180 270
lated functions.
0 \ 1 1
Lookup tables consist of a large block of
data in memory that has every sine-wave
value stored according to the phase angle. Tn
its pure form this could require 65K words
of storage for 16 bit phase angles. This is the
fastest implementation, but obviously is
impractical for many applications, because
of the memory needs.
Various schemes allow the reduction of 180 270 0 90
memory usage. 3 The most obvious is to Sin(X) 180 < X < 270 Invert (Flip Vertically) Shift Left 180 Degrees
ose the symmetry of the sine wave and
only compute values for a 90-degree seg-
Fig 10.10—The values of sin(x) between 180 and 270 degrees are seen to be the
ment from 0 to 90 degrees. This reduces same as those from 0 to 90 degrees, after the curve has flipped vertically and
the table to a fourth of the original size in shifted 180 degrees. This symmetry allows the values from 0 to 90 degrees to be
exchange for a few computer instructions. the only ones that need be calculated.

DSP Components 10.7

 sin ( x ) = 3.140625s + 0.02026367x 2 The five coefficients for the calculation m4); multiplies the first coefficient in mx1
of the polynomial are kept in a program- by the input value in my1. leaving the
- 5.325196*' -s-0.5446778x4 memory table called sin_coeff. Access to product in mr. and also loads the second
this table is discussed below, and is initial- coefficient into mxl register, overwriting
+ 1.800293x S ized in the first two lines of the sin routine. the first coefficient.
The next four lines are to divide the input The remainder of the polynomial calcu-
Eq 10.2 data into four 90-degree segments. Note lation continues in a similar fashion. For
where x is the angle in degrees divided that the program constants are given as efficiency in program size, the middle
by 180. In the fixed point processing of three multiplications are put into a loop.
hexadecimal numbers. This requires a bit
the DSP {see the sidebar), the equation re- The register cntr controls the loop and it is
of translation to the more familiar decimal
quires integer coefficients and takes the automatically decreased with every loop.
numbers. Many hand-held calculators
form Loop initialization is performed by the
have this translation, making the task sim-
pler. In the program instruction my1 =ar, instruction do approx until ce;.
s i n ( x ) = 12864X + 83X 2 - 2 1 8 1 2 X 3 both of these computational registers will After the polynomial is calculated,
have a value that is somewhere between 0 the value is adjusted according to the
+ 2231X 4 + 7374X 5 Eq 10.3 and 16383 decimal, or 0000 to 3FFF hexa- 90-degree segment of the input. Finally
decimal. This is the input value to the poly- rts; is a subroutine return.
nomial calculation.
Two items are being dealt with in creat- The instruction mf=ar*my1 (RND).
ing this equation. First, the coefficients mx1=pm(i4,m4); indicates that the mf
Using The Sine Wave
have been scaled up to be 16-digit inte- register will be hold the results of the Routine
gers. But, in addition, they have been rounded multiplication of the ar and my1 Incorporation of this routine into the pro-
sealed back by a factor of 8 to insure that registers, and that the mx1 register will be gram shell takes only a few instructions.
overload does not occur when the DSP cal- loaded with the first polynomial coeffi- First, we need to initialize the frequency of
culation is only partially completed. cient that was in program memory (pm.) the sine wave to some value, which for this
The calculation of the sine-wave value The comma shows that both halves of this example will be 1000 Hz. A number called
by these equations is valid only for 0 to 90 computation occur simultaneously, i.e., "dphase" is set up in memory:
degrees. In fixed-point values this corre- this is a single instruction. Not all instruc-
sponds to 0 to 65536/4. or 0 to 16384. To tions can be combined this way, but when .var/dm dphase; {For generation of
deal with all possible angles from 0 to 360 it is possible, there is quite a bit of savings sine w a v e }
degrees, the values are corrected accord- in processor time. The register mf now
ing to the symmetry rules, such as those contains the input value squared. and this is initialized to the nearest inte-
given above. Next mr=mx1 *my1 (SS),mx1=pm(i4, ger value to the phase shift that occurs
during 1/48,000 second, given by
1000*65536/48000 = 1365.33. This is put
A sin Routine into data memory by:
The routine for the EZ-KIT Lite looks like the following:
sin: m4=1; 14=0; ax0=1365; { 1000.24 H z }
{ Use i4,m4 index registers to }
i4= A sin_coeff; { point to polynomial coeffs ) dm(dphase)=ax0;
ay0=H#4000; { This is 90 degrees }
ar=ax0, af=ax0 and ayO; { Check 2nd or 4th quad.} The sine wave calculation consists of add-
if ne ar=-ax0; {If yes, negate input} ing this phase change to the last phase
ay0=H#7FFF; { This is a mask to replicate data,} value and using this in our sine wave rou-
ar=ar and ayO; { while removing the sign b i t ) tine. The program segment that goes into
my1=ar; the middle of the ISR looks like:
mf=ar*my1 (RND), mx1=pm(i4,m4);; { mf = input"2 }
mr=mx1*my1 (SS), mx1=pm(i4,m4); { Start polynomial calculation ) ax1 = dm(dphase); {Phase increment
cntr=3; { Loop for 3 of 5 coefficients } for oscillator}
do approx until ce; ay1 = dm(phase); { Last phase }
mr=mr+mx1 *mf (ss); { More polynomial calculation } ar = ax1 + ay1; { New phase }
approx: mf=ar*mf (md), mx1=pm(i4,m4); { Power increase; get next coef} axO = ar; { The phase input
mr=mr+mx1 *mf (ss); { Do last polynomial calculation } to sin is reg axO}
sr=ashift mr1 by 3 (hi); { Mult "8 (shift left 3 ) } dm(phase) = ar; {Save for next data
sr=sr or Ishift mrO by 3 (lo); { Convert to 1.15 format} point}
ar=pass sr1; { See if result >=1.0 }
call sin; { Phase in axO, Sin
if It ar=pass ayO; {If so, saturate, i.e. set to 0x7FFF}
returned in a r }
af=pass axO; { See if input was negative }
if It ar=-ar; { I f so, negate output}
Finally the sine wave is sent to both the left
rts;
and right D/A:

dm(tx_buf+1) = ar; { Send sine wave

to Left D/A
(Codec)}
dm(tx_buf+2) = ar; { Right D / A }

10.8 Chapter 10
 Index R e g i s t e r s
The sin program uses index registers, in particular i4, ters, named iO to i7. The mO to m7 modify registers are
along with the modifying registers m4 and 14. These used to change the address of the index registers after
allow access to sequential addresses in memory they are used. With some restrictions, the number of the
without having to spend DSP computational time. index register need not be the same as that of the
In the sine wave calculation, m4=1 indicates that after modify register. For instance, 10 can be modified by mO
the index register i4 is used, we want to move sequen- ml, m2 or m3 The length registers always correspond
tially to the next higher address. 14=0 indicates that to a particular index register and can be a value such as
there is never a wrap-around in the addresses that are 10 = 10 which means that the buffer that starts with the
generated by adding on the m4 value. And address in 10 has a length 10. When the 10th value is
i4= A sin_coeff sets index register 4 to the address of either read or written, the address in 10 will not be
sin_coeff, a table in program memory that was loaded incremented again by mO. Instead the address will be
with five polynomial coefficients by the assembler taken back to the initial value given to iO. This is the
directives: meaning of a circular buffer. If 10 had been given a
value of 0 the DSP would interpret this as a special
case with 10 indexing into a conventional non-circular
.var/pm sin_coeff[5]; buffer.
.inlt sin_coeff: H#324000, H#005300, H#AACC00,
Program memory is 24 bits per instruction. Tables are
H#08B700, H#1CCE00;
often stored in program memory, but most often only 16
bits worth of data is used, since this corresponds to the
This usage of the index registers is illustrated by the size of most computations and of the data memory
instruction mx1=pm(i4,m4); indicating that the compu- words. To make the data line up properly, 8 zero bits
tational register mx1 will be loaded with the contents of must be appended to each table entry stored in program
program memory at address 14, and then i4 will have memory. As an example, the first sin_coeff entry is the
the value m4 (one) added to it, for use next time. Other hex number 324000. The last two zeros are the extra 8
values of m4 can be used, including negative ones, to bits. Removing these we have the hex number 3240,
allow stepping through tables in any equal arrangement. which converts to a decimal value of 12864, which is
The ADSP-2100 series of DSP have 8 index regis- the first coefficient of the sine calculation.

We should remember that we have only need for this conversion becomes more ob- continuous sine wave by the application of a
calculated a series of numbers that represent vious as the frequency of the sine wave in- low-pass filter at half the sample rate, on the
the sine wave at specific points, as shown in creases and fewer points are calculated output of the D/A converter. If one studies
Fig 10.11. Before this is a "clean" sine wave per cycle.* Fig 10.12 illustrates this for an the apparently random collection of dala
it is necessary that this be converted to a con- 8500-Hz sine wave with a 48-kHz sample points, it will become apparent that they are
tinuous curve. In the case of the bZ-K.it. the rate. To a good approximation, this collec- indeed sample points along a sine wave with
low-pass filter to accomplish this is included tion of sample points will be converted to a about 48/8.5=5.6 data points per cycle.
in the D/A converter of the CODEC. The
* See chapter 4, section 4.7, for further discus-
sion of hardware DOS computations. The
process is identical, except that in the DSP
case, one may need to use the sine-wave for
internal functions such as driving a software
mixer instead of always driving a D/A con-
verter to produce an analog output signal.

40000
40000
30000 ! .i.:
30000
20000
20000
10000
10000
0
-10000 — 7— • — —
!
-10000
-20000 ~ / j
-20000
.30000 ••
'-.....*"' • —i 5

-30000
-40000 1 — - -I 1
0 10 20 30 40 Si 60 70 80 -40000
Data Pom! 30 40 50 70 80
Data Point

Fig 10.11—Calculated points for a 1000-Hz sine wave Fig 10.12—Calculated points for a 8500 Hz sine wave. The
sampled at 48 kHz. The ability of these points to be smoothed sample rate is identical with that of Fig 10.11. Careful study
to a continuous sine-wave curve Is readily apparent. will show that these are indeed sample points on a sine
wave. The ability of the low-pass filter to connect these
points Into a smooth curve is not so obvious, yet the
resulting sine wave is exact.

DSP Components 10.9

10.5 RANDOM NOISE GENERATION
For the testing of transmitters and total predictability of c o m p u t a t i o n a l period, the output seems "noise-like" by
receivers il is often useful to have a noise- results. This seems inconsistent with gen- most measures, although each successive
like signal. In the area of modulation and erating noise, and in a philosophical output is totally determined by the previ-
coding, interesting experiments can be sense, it is! However, in a practical sense, ous output.
p e r f o r m e d by using a controlled noise the noise generator can be made to have a One algorithm, called the linear congru-
source. A simple example is to add Morse repetition period long e n o u g h that it is ence method, 6 - 7 produces most of the com-
code to the noise and test various filters f u n c t i o n a l l y r a n d o m . For instance, the puter-generated r a n d o m numbers of the
and signal processors for the accuracy of noise generator that will be described here world. Three constants must be selected
copy by an operator. repeats its pattern in about 25 hours run- for this method, and large amounts of
One feature of a digital computer is the ning in the EZ-Kit Lite. Within that study have gone into the rules for selecting

D e c i m a l N u m b e r s in a F i x e d Point DSP
The fixed point DSP use an arithmetic system called result exceeds 1 instead of when it exceeds 9. For the
2's Complement." In this system, positive numbers start binary system this occurs when we add 1+1. That is:
at zero, represented by all binary bits being zeros, and
progress to larger values by adding 1 to the next lower 0 + 0 = 0 No Carry
number. This progresses until all of the bits are 1, 0 + 1 = 1 No Carry
except for the farthest left bit that is always a zero for 1 + 1 = 0 Carry Generated
positive numbers. In the simple case of a three-bit
system, the positive values would be When there are multiple places in addition, the carry
is added as a 1 in to the next position to the left.
011 binary 3 decimal
010 binary 2 decimal
So, for our 3-bit example, decimal values 1 plus 2 is
001 binary 1 decimal
001
000 binary 0 decimal
+010
011
The 2's complement negative numbers are created
or decimal 3. This applies equally well to negative
by interchanging all binary values, bit-by-bit, and then
numbers and extends to subtraction, which starts to
adding 1 while saving the right-hand three bits. For
explain the wide use of 2's complement arithmetic
instance, the decimal value +2 is 010 and if we inter-
systems in binary computers!
change the binary values, we have 101. Adding 1 to this
yields 110, which represents the decimal value -2. The Our 3-bit example shows the operation of the
same two operations will also bring us back to +2 number system, but it does not convey a feel for
indicating consistency. Applying this rule to the four working with numbers in a 16-bit DSP system. The
values above produces the following table for the following table shows a few of the decimal values, and
negative values: their binary representations for the larger number
system:
000 binary -0 decimal
111 binary -1 decimal
Largest positive number
110 binary -2 decimal
0111 1111 1111 1111 binary +32767 decimal
101 binary -3 decimal
0000 0000 0000 0111 binary +7 decimal
The values for - 0 and +0 are the same, which fits our
idea of "nothing!" And the three true negative values all
0000 0000 0000 0010 binary +2 decimal
have a leading one, which is consistent with the positive
0000 0000 0000 0001 binary +1 decimal
values having a leading zero. However, the binary value
0000 0000 0000 0000 binary +0 decimal
of 100 does not appear in either table. Since it has a
1111 1111 1111 1111 binary -1 decimal
leading one, indicating a negative number, and it fits in
1111 1111 1111 1110 binary -2 decimal
the binary sequence either below - 3 or above +3, it will
be assigned the decimal value of - 4 . It does not follow
1111 1111 1111 1001 binary - 7 decimal
the 2's complement rules for negation, since it produces
the same 100 value. The last table entry is thus:
1000 0000 0000 0000 binary - 3 2 7 6 8 decimal

100 binary -4 decimal

In fixed-point arithmetic, the standard way to use
Now, the operations of addition can be performed by this arithmetic system to represent decimal numbers is
following the same rules that we have in the decimal to divide the number value by some power of 2. For
system, except that a carry will be generated when the instance, if all the values are divided by 32768 (2 to
the 15th power) the table looks like: (see top of next
page)
Processors, such as the ADSP-2181 allow tor either "Unsigned"
arithmetic, or for "Signed 2's complement arithmetic." Because of
it's greater generality, only the latter type is considered here. See In this case, the last column is the fractional repre-
Reference 4 for details of unsigned arithmetic. sentation of these same 2's complement numbers. The

10.10 Chapter 10
these constants, as can be read about in the a, c. m are constants m = 2M=4,294.967,296
references. From the point-of-view of the mod m means dividing by m and taking
noise-generator user, it is usually suffi- only the remainder. The length of time before the random
cient to borrow upon others study of these noise repeats is determined by m. The value
constants and apply them. This generator The constants are carefully chosen not used here is the largest that can be used with
comes from the formula only to produce good random numbers, a 32-bit word size. This requires double pre-
but also to simplify the computation using cision calculations, but if we restricted out
v ( n + l ) = (axv(n) + c) mod m our fixed-point processor. One good set is calculation to 16 bits, the result would re-
where peat 2 1 6 =65536 times faster, or about every
v ( n + l ) = current generator output a = 1664525 1.36 seconds. For some purposes, this could
v(n) = last generator output c = 32767 cause strange results.

Largest positive number 0111 1111 1111 1111 binary Fractional 32767 / 32768=0.99997
0000 0000 0000 0111 binary 7 / 32768=0.00021
0000 0000 0000 0000 binary 0 / 32768=0.0
1111 1111 1111 1111 binary (65535-65536) / 32768= -0.00003
1111 1111 1111 1001 binary (65529-65536) / 32768= -0.00021
Most negative value 1000 0000 0000 0000 binary (32768-65536) / 32768= -1.00000

total range is from - 1 . 0 to almost 1.0. With 16 bits cases, a formal check of the numerical values is
available, the step size (the fractional value of the required with appropriate adjustment of the data.
least-significant bit) is 1/32768 or about 0.00003. Multiplication of numbers occurs frequently in DSP
Sometimes the range of numbers being represented programs. The sign bit adds an extra complexity to
do not lie between - 1 and +1. This is handled by this operation. For instance, 3 times 2 would seem to
dividing the binary representations by some other produce the following, in binary signed 1.3 format
power of 2 than 32768. If the numbers were between - numbers:
8.0 and 8.0 the divisor would be 4096 (2 to the 12th
power.) The price paid for this is the resolution step 0010 Signed 2
size is now 1 / 4096 or about 0.00024. x0011 Signed 3
Note that the divisors such as 32768 or 4096 are 0010
only implied, and not carried in any way with the 2's 0010
complement numbers. When writing a DSP program it 0000
is necessary to keep track of the number form. If a 0000
subroutine is expecting numbers in one format and they 0000110 Signed 6
arrive in a different one, erroneous results will occur.
Comments in the DSP program should carry the format But this is not what is found if one operates a DSP
information. microprocessor. Instead, the result will be shifted one
The notation describing the divisor value is not bit to the left and the result, in binary, is 00001100 that
consistent in all literature. Often times a divisor of would seem to be 12 in decimal. The DSP signed
32768 is called Q15 notation, since there are 15 bits to multiplier has been built to acknowledge that each
the right of the implied decimal point. The divisor of number being multiplied has a sign bit, but the result
4096 would be Q12. In their literature, Analog Devices doesn't need two sign bits. Thus all results of signed
uses the terminology 1.15 for Q15, 4.12 for Q12 and so multiplies are shifted left.
forth. In this book we will continue this notation. This all sounds somewhat arbitrary until it is seen
Addition is the operation for which 2's complement that if there is an implied decimal point in the numbers,
arithmetic fits perfectly. So long as the implied decimal it will move one position to the right with each multiply,
points are the same for two numbers, they can be unless the shifting of one bit occurs. Dividing the
added without regard for their sign. As long as there are numbers in the previous example by 8 turns them into
enough bits for the result, it will be correct. However, if Q1.3 format numbers. Doing the example again with
there is not sufficient room for the result, bad things Q1.3 format and the decimal point shown results in:
happen. For instance if we add the decimal representa-
tions of 15,000 and 20,000 together, one would expect
to get 35,000. However, this is larger than can be 0.010 or Signed 2/8
represented with 15 bits, which is 32767. This will result xQ.011 or Signed 3/8
in generating a carry bit that hits, of all places, in the 0010
sign bit. If we proceed blindly ahead we will have the 0010
erroneous negative value 35000-65536=-30536. This is 0000
called wrap around. 0000
DSP program writers must take steps to prevent 0.000110 or Signed 6/64
wrap around from occurring. In many cases, the DSP
microprocessor can cause the results of computations Notice that only 6 places are needed to the right of
to go to maximum positive or negative values in the the decimal point. Along with a single sign bit, 7 bits
case of overflow, preventing wrap around. In other are required.

DSP C o m p o n e n t s 10.11
The generator, in DSP code is:
my 1=25; { Upper half of a ( 1 6 6 4 5 2 5 / 6 5 5 3 6 ) }
Probabilit y Density
my0=26125; { Lower half of a, the r e m a i n d e r }
mr=sr0*my1(uu); { 32 bit multiply: a(hi)*v(lo)} 0.5
{ and a(hi)*v(lo)+a(lo)*v(hi)} 0.4
mr=mr+sr1 *myO(uu);
si=mr1; { Temp storage to free m r l } /0.3
mr1=mr0; { LS W o r d of a*v(mid) } / 0.2
mr2=si; { 8 bits of j / 0.1 Value
mrO=h#fffe; { c=32767, left-shifted by 1 }
- 3 - 2 - 1 1 2 3
mr=mr+srO*myO(uu); { ( a b o v e ) + a(lo)*v(lo)+c )
sr=ashift mr2 by 15 (hi);
sr=sr or (shift mr1 by -1 (hi); { Right-shift by 1 }
sr=sr or Ishift mrO by -1 (lo); { Now have uniform rn in sr1 Fig 10.13—Gaussian noise probability
curve, showing relative probability of
being in the vicinity of any value. The
curve extends forever on either side of
This program from ihe Analog Devices approximations. There is always some the graph, but the probability of
library 8 is an example of a routine thai is overload point in real hardware, and achieving these values rapidly becomes
carefully tuned for a particular applica- Gaussian noise does not allow this! Fortu- insignificant.
tion. In order to make the repeat period nately, the probability of achieving these
very long, the random number is gener- levels is very small, and as a practical
ated as a 32-bit unsigned number. The con- matter can generally be ignored.
stant multiplier, a, is 21 bits long and so One simple way to generate Gaussian
the product can be up to 32+21=53 bits. noise is to simply add several of the outputs
The final operation of the algorithm, as of our uniform random number generator
shown above, is to divide by 232 and then together. This is well founded on a math-
take the 32-bit remainder. At this point the ematical principle known as the Central
top 32 bits will be discarded. The program Limit Theorem. 9 The more numbers we add
does this, in part, by never generating that together, the better the approximation
part of Ihe product at all. If one examines becomes. This is done in DSP by a loop (see
the construction of a 64-bit product f r o m box at bottom of page).
two 32-bit numbers (using a 16 bit proces-
Most of the instructions in the loop are to
sor) it is seen that there are four terms to be
free up the shift register for the division by 8.
added together. The product of the high-
The division is needed to prevent overflow
order 16 bits of v. with the high-order 16
when 8 numbers are added together. One
bits, need never be produced.
subtle operation is the use of an arithmetic
The choice of m as a power of 2 is a shift (rather than a logical shift) to
common trick lo avoid explicit division. A divide by 8. Doing this implies that the ran-
right shift of the data equal to the value of dom number that ranged between 0 and
the exponent is all thai is needed. 65536 is now being treated as a signed num- Fig 10.14—Oscilloscope picture of
random noise as generated by the
Selecting the desired words does a shift ber ranging between -32768 and 32767. In
listings in the text. The upper trace is
of 32 bits. This makes the three shifts at fractional. 1.15 format this corresponds to uniform random noise and the lower
the end of the listing a surprise, at first. numbers between -1.0 and 0.99997. trace is Gaussian.
These three shifts are really only a shift of
1 bit corresponding to a division by 2. It is
needed to correct for the shift in the mul-
tiplier result for unsigned multiplies, as
Program For Generating Random Gaussian Noise From 8
discussed in the Decimal Number sidebar. Uniform Noise Samples
The resulting random numbers, left in getrnd:
the sr1 register, are equally likely to be my1 =25; { Upper half of a (1664525/65536) )
anywhere between 0 and 65535. the full my0=26125; { Lower half of a, the r e m a i n d e r }
range of a 16-bit number. This is referred af=pass 0; { Clear the arithmetic a c c u m u l a t o r )
to as a Uniform Random Number. cntr=8; { The number of uniform rn added }
{ Now loop 8 times to generate a noise sample: }
Gaussian Random do randloop until ce; { Decrease cntr until 0 }
Numbers sr1=dm(seed_msw);
sr0=dm(seed_lsw);
{ Get the 32 bit seed from l a s t }
{ call to this fen or last loop }
What we have from the Uniform ran- { The Random Number Generator, shown above, goes here,
dom number generator is not quite the leaving the result in the srO and sr1 registers }
noise that occurs in receivers, called dm(seed_msw)=sr1; { Save new seed, high 16 bits }
Gaussian noise. Gaussian noise can take dm(seed_lsw)=sr0; { and low 1 6 }
any value, bul with decreasing probability { Uniform random number still in sr1. Add to accumulator: }
as the magnitude of the value gets greater, sr=ashift sr1 by -3 (hi); { Divide by 8, ie, shift right 3 )
as illustrated in Fig 10.13. There are a sev-
randloop: af=sr1+af; { Accumulate 8 uniform rn )
eral ways to convert our random numbers
rts; { Random 16-bit value in a f }
into Gaussian noise, all of which must be

10.12 Chapter 10
 One of ihe advantages of the DSP ap- +1.0 uniform random numbers. The generation of each Gaussian noise
proach of noise generation is the ability to • This is diminished in power by (Vs) 2 = value by this method requires 134 instruc-
know the noise power precisely.* This is 1/64 for the shift by 3 bits. tion cycles, or about 4 microseconds of
found by considering the proccss used to • This is increased by 8 for adding the 8 EZ-Kit Lite processor time.
generate the noise samples: numbers together. Fig 10.14 is an oscilloscope plot showing
• 1/3 is the average power for - 1 . 0 to • The final result is a total noise power both the uniform random numbers before
of 1/(8x3) = 0.04167 W. scaling (top) and the Gaussian noise, both to
'The normalized values of numbers range The process of combining the 8 uniform the same scale. It can be seen that the
from - 1 . 0 to 0.99997, which can be thought random numbers has reduced the power Gaussian noise clusters about the center
of a s voltages. In order to think about f r o m 0.333 to 0.04167. but the maximum value, much more than the uniform genera-
power in the DSP computation we must possible values have been kept at - 1 and tor. It is not so obvious that the attainable
square the voltage and divide by the "re-
+ 1. We are increasing the peak-to-average peak values are the same for both plots. The
sistance." For simplicity, the resistance
value is chosen to be 1 Q and the power is ratio, a necessary operation if a Gaussian Gaussian generator produces these peak val-
just the normalized value squared. approximation is to result. ues very infrequently!

10.6 FILTERING COMPONENTS

After A/D encoding of an analog wave- output of a properly designed filter will implementation consists of adding a small
form, such as an audio or an IF signal, we get smaller with time and eventually fraction of the new input to a fraction of
can then apply frequency selective filter- become smaller than the smallest number the last filter output. If we call the filler
ing to the waveform. Such filters, callcd our processor can recognize. The simplest input sample Xj and the filter output sample
digital filters can be implemented in D S P IIR filter is the analog of the R C low-pass >'i then our filter consists of the single cal-
with all the conventional passband shapes filter shown in Fig 10.15. The digital culation:
such as Low-Pass, High-Pass and Band-
Pass. The input to the filter consists of a
sequence of numbers representing succes-
sive samples of a voltage. Each sample
period the filter performs some calcula-
tions on the new sample. This involves
values that were previous samples and in
some cases the results of the previous cal-
culations. By carefully designing this cal-
culation it is possible to make its output
level very sensitive to the frequency of the
input, which is what we mean by frequency
domain filtering.
There are two basic ways to implement
a digital filler, called IJR and FIR filters.
The distinction in the arrangement of the
calculation is not great. The IIR filters
involve the results of previous calcula-
tions and FIR filters do not. Never the less,
this small difference has major influences
on both the design and the operation of the
1.6
filter.

IIR Filters Fig 10.16—The charging response for the RC filter and the IIR filter approximation.

TIR stands for Infinite Impulse

Response and refers to the fact that, in
principle, the output of the filter continues
forever after an input has been removed.
In actuality it does not, o f c o u r s e , since the Output Filtered
Signal Samples Fig 10.17—Block
diagram of the simple
input
IIR filter that has the
Signal response of an analog
Samples RC low-pass filter. The
output signal is delayed
by a sample period and

0 a fraction of this Is fed

back to be summed.

Fig 10.15—Simple RC low pass filter in

1 This use of feedback is
characteristic of IIR
filters.
analog form.

DSP Components 10.13

>'i = K Xj + (1-K) >'!_! Eq 10.4 smallest value for K being 1/32768 or response o f the IIR filters such as unnec-
0.00003. This means the longest possible essary ringing. Never the less, the IIR fil-
where K is between 0 and I. typically time constant is 32767.5 limes the period ter has many applications where its c o m -
0.001 or less. Figure 10.17 is a block dia- between samples. T o circumvent this putational efficiency makes it the filter
gram of this filler. Operation of this simple problem we would need to use more than type o f choice. However, because of the
filter can be calculated for the first few 16 bits in our arithmetic. This is available drawbacks listed, we will concentrate on
terms while the inpul rises from 0 to 1. W e as standard arithmetic in some processors. the alternate category, the FTR filter.
assume that the output is 0 when we start For 16 bit processors it is implemented
and thai K=0.1 (this big value for K makes through multiple precision arithmetic. The
things happen faster for our example): price is slower processing. The routine
FIR Filters
given here computes a new filter output in For fillers o f higher complexity it is
New K Xj ( l - K ) Vj_| New- 0.18 microseconds on the ADSP-2181 often desirable to use the FIR filter, stand-
Input. Xj Output, whereas a double precision version would ing for Finite Tmpulse Response. These
0.0 be roughly twice as long. filters never use the previous outputs of
0.0 0.0 0.0
The simple IIR filter has limited perfor- the filter computation, but do use the cur-
1.0 0.1 0.0 0.1
rent input along with many o f the previous
1.0 0.1 0.09 0.19 mance and a frequency response that drops
inputs. Analog circuit designers have used
1.0 0.1 0.171 0.271 off at only 6-dB per octave. Although slow
the corresponding circuit called a trans-
1.0 0.1 0.2439 0.3439 in rolling o f f the frequency response, this
versal filter as was described in Chapter 3.
is adequate for many applications.
It can be seen that the output is growing Improved performance comes from using DSP construction o f the FIR filler is
towards 1.0, but with smaller steps with not only the current input sample but also very simple, as shown in the block dia-
each new inpul. This is the same exponen- one or more of the previous input samples. gram o f F i g u r e 10.18. The signal is
tial growth that we associate with the RC Additionally, one or more of the previous already avai lable in sampled form from the
A / D converter. A delay line consists o f
filter. Fig 10.16 shows both the charging output values can be used along with the
places in memory f o r some quantity o f
characteristics o f the R C filter and our current output. Each o f these inputs and
previous samples. Each time a new sample
digital equivalent. If we allow the process outputs has a different K value by which it
arrives we put it into the beginning o f the
to continue for a very long time, the output is multiplied. This provides high filtering
delay-line memory. Multiplying all the
will achieve a value of essentially 1.0. At performance for the small computational
samples by constant numbers and then
that point the response is as follows: complexity involved. A s with most things,
adding them together form new outputs.
there are some drawbacks. Determination
The constant multiplier numbers are
New K Xj (l-K)yM New o f the K values f o r a particular filter
referred to as the FIR coefficients, or tap
Input, Xj Output, y, response involves some complexity. Nar-
weights. The filter design consists o f
1.0 0.1 0.9 1.0 row-batid IIR filters often involve small K
choosing the coefficients to suit the par-
1.0 0.1 0.9 1.0 values that end up requiring multiple pre-
ticular application. A s with analog filters,
cision arithmetic. This can end up negat- there are tradeoffs between the complex-
Notice that if the input and output are ing the simplicity arguments. There can be ity (number o f coefficients), pass-band
the same there is no change in the output, numerical stability* problems associated ripple and the out-of-band rejection.
as would be expected for the RC filter. with computational accuracy as well as
R C filters are characterized by their time detrimental effects from the phase The FIR structure can be used to form
constant, T, in seconds that is equal to the filters lhai are highly selective to the fre-
product o f the resistance and the capaci- quency o f a sine wave input signal. All of
tancc. This is the time for the capacitor to the response characteristics of L - C filters,
* Numerical stability here refers to the inher-
charge to 63% o f its final value. Design o f ent errors in the calculations causing the such as Butterworth and Chebyshev are
the equivalent digital filter in vol ves choos- algorithm to produce errors of major pro- possible with the FIR filter.
ing the value K according to: portion. This most often happens when The actual implementation of the FIR fil-
subtracting two numbers that are almost ter will be shown in DSP assembly language.
the same value. For these occasions, spe-
This is nol hard to follow and allows us to see
K = 1 / [ 0.5 + ( T / T s ) 1 Eq 10.5 cial care may be required, such as the use
of multiple precision arithmetic, using 32 the type of optimization that has been done
or more bits in a data word, in place of the lo the DSP hardware to make these calcula-
where T s is the time between successive
normal 16 bits. tions particularly efficient. For a 10-cocffi-
input samples.
The RC IIR filter, implemented in DSP
assembly language, is shown in the box to
the right.
Noticc that in conventional 16-bit rep- P r o g r a m f o r IIR F i l t e r
resentation o f signed decimal numbers the
{ The new sample is in register mxO, the previous
value 32768 (or 2 A 1 5 ) would be 1.0 if it
output of the filter is in RAM at the location save_y
was not the wrap-around point and there-
and K is a constant defined at the top of the program
fore 32768 represents - 1 . 0 . This is why it
by #define K=5;}
is used for the calculation of 1.0-K. For
myO = K; { Load register myO with charging constant}
example, if the value for K in the DSP { Multiply the sample by K, both signed integers }
mr = mxO * myO (ss);
program is 5 representing a decimal value mxO = dm(save_y); { Get the last output}
of 5/32768 or 0.0001526, then 32768 - 5 myO = (32768 - K); { Let the assembler figure out 1.0 - K }
would be 32763 representing 32763/ mr = mr + mx0*my0 (ss); { Diminish last output and add new contribution }
32768 or 0.99985. dm(save_y) = mr1; { Get ready for next time, output left in mr1 )
One limitation of our routine is the

10.14 Chapter 10
 accumulator, mr which is a 40-bit register
consisting of mrO for the least significant
16 bits, mr1 for the middle 16 bits, and an
8-bit overflow register mr2. In addition
two multiply input registers mxO and myO
are loaded with data from the delay line.
dm(i0, mO) and a coefficient pm(i4, m4).
Here is where the efficiency of storing the
coefficients in program memory occurs.
Separate hardware exists inside the DSP
microprocessor for accessing data and
program memory1. This allows the loading
of mxO and myO to occur simultaneously.
The do-loop counter, cntr, is loaded
with 9, the number of coefficients, less I.
Fig 10.18—Block diagram of the software operations for the FIR filter. The input
signal samples are delayed by multiples of the sample period. After multiplication Do ftrloop until c e : is an instruction that
by the filter coefficients, shown here as b„ the results are summed to produce the does housekeeping chores necessary to do
filtered output sample. The output values are not brought back into the calculation repealing calculations and prepares us for
as was done with IIR filters. The filter can be extended to the right to increase the the FIR filter.
performance. Filters with more than 100 coefficients are common. With everything in place we are ready to
do the actual FIR filter calculation:
Firloop: mr = mr + mxO * myO (ss),
dent filter we start with the initialization and, importantly, to increment iO to the mxO = dm(i0, mO), myO = pm(i4, m4);
shown in Box I. next location in the buffer. Since the buffer is another multifunction operation that
These three instruclions are part of ini- is circular the new data point will replace executes in a single instruction cycle. It
tialization of the program and are executed the oldest data in the buffer and leave the multiplies the contents of registers mxO
oniy once, when the program is first run. address in iO pointing to the next oldest and myO. adds these onto the contents of
The first instruction again uses index reg- data point. mr and then reloads mxO and myO with
isters that were described on page 10.8. Next are three instructions to setting up new values from data and program
All three instructions set up the registers the index register. i4, which is the address memory. The designation ( s s ) indicates
for the indexed access to the input data of a series of constants that are our FIR that both mxO and myO are to be treated as
delay line. The 'hat' symbol seen in filter coefficients. These registers could 2 ' s complement signed numbers. The
iO = A c i r c _ d a t a _ b u f f e r should be read as have been set up at initialization time by label 'Firloop:' indicates that this is the end
"the address o f and creates a constant that making 14 = 10. but are shown this way to of our do-loop. In this case, the loop is
can be automatically determined when the emphasize that the FIR filter calculation only one instruction long, and so this mul-
program is assembled and linked. always start with the same coefficient. The tiply and accumulate operation is repeated
The remainder of the instructions for the coefficients arc. interestingly, stored in 9 times.
FIR filter are executed periodically when program memory. pm(i4, m4). This is a After the multiply and accumulate
new data points arc available. The new sig- convcnicncc for speeding up the calcula- operations, we fall through to one last mul-
nal value arrives in the axO register as tion as will be seen below. tiply and accumulate. This one uses the
shown in Box 2. Proceeding in the program, we encoun- (rnd) designator that still treats the inputs
The filtered output is in the multiplier ter mr = 0, mxO = dm(iO, mO), myO = as signed numbers, but also rounds the mr1
accumulator register. mr1. The instruction pm(i4, m4); which is a multifunction register (the output) according to whether
dm(iO, mO) = axO: uses the index registers operation executed entirely within one mrO is more or less than a half. Rounding
to place the new data point into our buffer instruction cycle. This clears the multiply is done on only the last accumulate.
Note that at this point we have used all 10
coefficients.

Box 1 - DSP program for FIR filter initialization

iO = A circ_data_buffer; { Points to a circular buffer, i.e., a d e l a y line } Table 10.1
10 = 10; (iO points to a circular buffer of length 10 }
List of operations for 10 coefficient
m0=1; { I n c r e m e n t iO by m0=1 a f t e r u s e } FIR filter showing memory
locations

Box 2 - DSP program for FIR filter computation dm(3)=New data value
dm(i0, mO) = axO; { Enter t h e n e w d a t a point into delay line } mr=0
mr=mr+dm(4)'pm(1)
i4 = A fir_coeffs; { Points to start of a t a b l e of 10 c o n s t a n t s } mr=mr+dm(5)"pm(2)
14 = 0; { This buffer n e e d not b e c i r c u l a r } mr=mr+dm(6)"pm(3)
m 4 = 1; { I n c r e m e n t i4 by 1 a f t e r u s e } mr=mr+dm(7)'pm(4)
mr=mr+dm|8)*pm(5)
mr = 0, mxO = dm(i0, mO), myO = pm(i4,m4); {Initial d a t a load } tnr=mr«-dm(9)"pm(6)
cntr = 9; { This s e t s t h e n u m b e r of 'do' l o o p s } mr=mr+dm(10)"pm(7)
d o firloop until ce; { Loop 9 times, ie, until c o u n t e r e m p t y ( c e ) ) mr=mr+dm(1 )*pm{8)
Firloop: mr = mr+mx0*my0 (ss), mx0=dm(i0,m0), my0=pm(i4,m4); mr=mr+dm{2)"pm(9)
{ End of loop )
mr = mr + mxO * myO (rnd); { This is t h e tenth calculation } mr=mr+dm(3)"pm(10)

D S P Components 10.15
 T a b l e 10.1 shows what is happening. FIR Filter Design by the f L and f H are the lower and upper band-
Here we have used the shorthand terminol- Window Method pass cutoff frequencies, and f s is the
ogy of dm(i) being the ith memory loca- sample rate, all in Hz. Only half of the
tion in our circular buffer. Likewise pm(j) The relationship between the frequency coefficients are calculated since they
is the jth coefficient in the program response of a FIR filter and the coefficient divide into halves that arc symmetric, as
memory table. We assume that we came values is a mathematical formula called the shown in Fig 10.19. This same formula
upon this calculation at a time when d m ( 2 ) discrete Fourier transform.' 0 The details of applies equally well to low-pass and high-
had just been read and we nexl need to use the transform wi II not be dealt with here since pass filter design by setting f L = 0 or f H =
d m ( 3 ) . This is where we put the new data for most purposes it is not necessary to actu- (f</2) respectively.
point. The multiply and accumulates can ally evaluate it. Instead, one can start with a
Unfortunately, filters designed by this
be seen to occur 10 times. At the eighth of general transform of an ideal rectangular fre- formula have several flaws. The response
these we have reached d m ( 1 1 ) . which is quency response. Forinstance, if we wish to curve of Fig 10.20 is the result of analyz-
outside our buffer, so we "wrap around" to pass 400 to 800 Hz the ideal frequency re- ing our filter. The pass-band is not flat, the
the start of the circular b u f f e r at d m ( 1 ) . sponse would be 1.0 within that frequency sides of (he filler are not vertical and prob-
band and 0 elsewhere. The Fourier Trans- ably worst of all. the out-of-band response
Observe that we have incremented the iO
form of this simple response shape has been is only 20 to 30 dB below that of the pass-
value 11 times for our 10 coefficients. This
done for us, and all wc need to do is to plug band. What went wrong? Well, we have
causes the operation to start one location
in the values corresponding to 400 and 800 tried to describe the filter response with
further around in the circular buffer next
Hz. Since this is a sampled data operation the too few elements. Our sampled data can-
time a data point is processed. This is
sample frequency, say 8000 Hz, is involved not describe the extremely fast transitions
equivalent to pushing the data through a
as well. In equation form the coefficients are: such as occur at the edges of the pass-band.
delay line, but requires no actual movement
This design approach c o m p r o m i s e s the
of data, only the pointer to the data. iO.
fH ft. out-of-band attenuation in favor of small
The FIR filter calculation can be seen to sin 2;tk- sin 2;tk transition bands.
be straightforward. In the ADSP-2181 it re-
quires about 10+N f instruction cycles for a Fortunately, it is possible to easily cure
;tk 7ik
filter with N f coefficients. A complex, high the poor out-of-band attenuation. By sys-
performance filter of 200 coefficients Eq 10.6 tematically adjusting the c t coefficient
would need 210 instruction cycles, if this values, it is possible to push down the out-
was repeated at an 8-kHz rate we would be of-band response. The process for doing
using 8000x210=1.680,000 cycles out of a for k=0 to N t / 2 - l , and N, is the number (an this is called windowing. The price that we
possible 33.3 million, or only about 5% of even number*) of coefficients to be found. pay for improved out-of-band rejection is
Ihe available processing time. A special case is k=0: a more gradual transition between the
So far we have a way to compute the pass-band and the stop-band. This is usu-
filter output if we could find out what ally an acceptable tradeoff.
fH-fi
coefficients to use. The next section shows Eq 10.7 Most FIR filter design descriptions
a way to find them. include a variety of windowing methods.
Here we will only show one method, the
Kaiser window. This is a particularly use-
ful technique:
' The formulas are shown here for an even
• It provides an adjustable method for
number of coefficients. The form for an odd
number is slightly different and although trading off m a x i m u m out-of-band re-
not covered here, is included in the design sponse, in dB, for cutoff rate at the pass-
program. band edge.

Fig 10.19—Table of FIR filter

coefficients for N,=10. Only half of the
coefficients are calculated and are
placed in the second half of the table.
The first half of the table is arranged
symmetrically as shown. The design
program performs these operations
automatically. If the number of
coefficients is odd, the symmetry
remains about the middle coefficient, Fig 10.20—Response Curve for a 50-coefflcient FIR filter designed to pass 400 to
which must then be doubled in value, 800 Hz with an 8-kHz sample rate. No windowing function was used with a resulting
since it only occurs once. high out-of-band response.

10.16 Chapter 10
 • The out-of-band response drops rap- Coefficient 5 = .5243738 as '00" on the end. each corresponding to
idly as one moves away from the pass- Coefficient 6 = .5243738 four binary bits each equal to zero. A Basic
band edge. Typically, close-in responses Coefficient 7 = .0379926 program to convert the original decimal
arc not as troublesome as those far out. Coefficient 8 = -.0976571 b(j) coefficients would be:
• The design process, though not trivial, Coefficient 9 = .0304284
involves a computation not a great deal Coefficient 10 = .0158115 DIM H$(301)
more complicated than other standard F O R j = 1 T O nf
windowing methods. The coefficients are decimal numbers H$(j) = H E X $ ( b ( j ) )
Implementation of a Kaiser window and not the integers required by many IF b(j) > = 0 T H E N G O S U B P O S H ELSE
involves choosing a dB level for the maxi- DSP. Conversion to integers is accom- G O S U B MINH
mum out-of-band attenuation response, plished by the following pan of a Basic P R I N T H$(j)
Kdb. This would typically be a number in program that could be attached onto our N E X T 1%
the 30 to 80 dB range. A B A S I C program >1 FIR design program: STOP
can be used for determining the Kaiser
window as well as the coefficient values F O R j = 1 T O nf POSH:
for the FIR fi Iter. The results of using this b y ) = INT(32768 • b(j)) GS = H$(l%)
program to apply a 30-dB Kaiser window IF b(j) < 1 T H E N b(j) = b ( j ) + 1 IF L E N ( G S ) = 1 T H E N G $ = "000" + G $
to our band-pass filler can be seen in Fig P R I N T " C o e f f i c i e n t " ; j ; " = "; b(j) + "00"
10.21. NEXT j IF L E N ( G $ ) = 2 T H E N G S = "00" + GS
To better understand the design of a FIR + "00"
filter using the Basic program, we will This works for 16-bit integer arithmetic. IF L E N ( G S ) = 3 T H E N G S = "0" + G $ +
show the details for a simple 10 coefficient For 24 bit integer arithmetic we replace "00"
low-pass filler. Keep in mind that our per- the 32768 which is 2" 15 by 8388608 IF L E N ( G S ) = 4 T H E N G $ = G $ + "00"
formance will not be particularly good and which is 2 A 23. Here is what we get from HS(I%) = GS
most FIR filters use more coefficients, per- running this program on our 10-coefficient RETURN
haps 30 to 300. Assuming our sampling rate filter (because of the symmetry we will
is 8 kHz and we want the low-pass to cutoff only show the first 5 coefficients): MINH:
at 2.5kHz, wc run the program as follows: H S ( I % ) = R I G H T $ ( H S ( I % ) , 4 ) + "00"
Coefficient 1 = 518 RETURN
FIR Filter Design, Low-pass, Band-pass Coefficient 2 = 997
or High-pass Coefficient 3 = -3200 Again the resulting hex output for the
Number of FIR coefficients? 10 Coefficient 4 = 1245 first 5 coefficients is:
Sample rate, Hz? 8000 Coefficient 5 = 17183
Lower Cutoff Frequency, Hz, between 0 020600H
and half of sample rate ? 0 FIR filter coefficients will normally be 03E500H
Upper Cutoff Frequency, Hz. between 0 placed into program memory ( P M ) for the F38000H
and half of sample rate? 2500 Analog Devices ADSP-21 o o ' s e r i c s of DSP. 04DD00H
Slop-band Attenuation. dB (e.g. 55.0)? 30 The assembler for the Analog Devices HZ- 431FOOH
Coefficient 1 = .0158115 Kit requires that this data be presented in
Coefficient 2 = .0304284 24-bit format, left justified and right pad- These coefficients would normally be
Coefficient 3 = -.0976571 ded with zeros. This is most easily handled placed into a separate data file, rather than
Coefficient 4 = .0379926 in hexadecimal since the right zeros appear cluttering up the assembly listing.

0
/ .- ••..">)
ry
-5

-10
m • 1 I -
•o • 1 1 •
« -15 1 1
CB
C
1 t ;
1-20 1 1
o
a. 1 1 •

| -25 1 1 \20
1
-30 1
1 ( 200 [so •
1
-35

-40
1
1
1000 2000
1

3000
':

4000 50Cn
Frequency in Hz
Frequency in KHz
Fig 10.22—Response of three FIR filters designed to cover
500 to 2000 Hz at 6 dB points. The number of coefficients has
Fig 10.21—Response Curve for the 50-coefflclent FIR filter of been set to 20, SO and 200. The sampling rate for the system
Fig 10.20 when using a 30-dB Kaiser windowing function to was 9600 Hz. The sharpness of the filter is seen to be
reduce the out-of-band response. strongly dependent on the number of coefficients.

DSP Components 10.17

FIR-Filter Performance 680 Hz. This change in p e r f o r m a n c e is An interesting characteristic is that the very
In Chapter 3, ii was shown that passive very much like that seen in Chapter 3 as narrow filters start showing insertion loss,
filters designed from LC components, or the number of resonators was changed. as can be seen with the 100-Hz bandwidth.
active filters using op-amp circuitry, all It might also be noted from the figure This happens when the top portions of the
become sharper in response as there com- that the responses at the high and low cut- response curve from the high and low fre-
plexity increased. Not surprisingly, this off frequencies are nearly mirror images of quency sides start to overlap.
follows f o r FIR filters as well where the one another. The rate of cutoff of the filter Figure 10.24 shows the details of the
complexity is measured in terms of the depends on the number of coefficients, the out-of-band response for the 500-Hz filter
number of coefficients. side lobe levels and the sampling rate of of Fig 10.23. The design value for the side
Fig 10.22 shows the response curves for the system, but not on the width of the fil- lobes was - 5 0 dB, As is characteristic of
three FIR filters using 20. 50 and 200 ter. This can be seen further in Fig 10.23. the Kaiser-window FIR filters, the first
coefficients. All filters were designed to where the bandwidth of the filter was out-of-band side lobe is at the - 5 0 dB
cover 500 to 2000 H? at - 6 dB relative changed, but the number of coefficients level, but as the frequency gets farther
response. With 200 coefficients, the was kept at 200. The frequency scale has f r o m the pass band, the side lobes con-
response drops to - 4 0 dB in about 80 Hz. been narrowed to show the response tinue to drop. For many receiver applica-
whereas with 20 coefficients the same details better. Note that the cutoff shape is tions. this is a reasonable response. Inter-
amount of attenuation occurs over about very similar for the different bandwidth*. fering transmitter spectrums tend to be

-10
f }
-20
m
Tt
if -30
in
O
-40
8

L
a.
5j -50

'm
Iii
u.
•€0

-70

-80
500 tooo 1500
Frequency In H z

Fig 10.24—The out-of-band response for the 500-Hz filter of

Fig 10.23—Response of three FIR filters designed tor a center Fig 10.23. The design value for the side lobes was - 5 0 dB.
frequency of 800 Hz, using 200 coefficients and a sampling
rate of 9600 Hz. The - 6 dB bandwidth was designed to be
100, 200 and S00 Hz.

0.1
O.OB
0.0B

I °" 04
g 0.02
ai
C 0
.s
1-002
E

~ -0.04

-0.06
-0.08

-0.1
Time in milliseconds

Fig 10.25—Impulse response of a Kaiser-window FIR filter Fig 10.26—Response of a Kaiser-window FIR filter designed
designed for a center frequency of 800 Hz, using 200 for a center frequency of 800 Hz, using 200 coefficients and *
coefficients and a sampling rate of 9600 Hz. The - 6 dB- sampling rate of 9600 Hz. The - 6 dB-bandwidth was designee
bandwidth was designed to be 500 Hz. to be 200 Hz. The two response curves correspond to design
side-lobe levels of 40 and 65 dB.

10.18 C h a p t e r 10
 Alternate DSP Devices
The examples in Chapters 10 and 11 are all built check the manufacturers Web sites for the current data.
around a single DSP processor, the Analog Devices In addition to specialized DSP processors, it is quite
ADSP-2181. This makes the programs easier to follow practical to use a PC directly. High-end Intel, AMD or
since the language is not changing from example-to- Motorola processors are able to provide performance
example. However, it obscures the fact that a number of levels comparable to the better dedicated DSP device.
excellent alternate devices are available form several A sound board provides the CODEC functions. This is
manufacturers. For specific applications, a particular not as compact a solution as the dedicated DSP board
device may excel over others. and thus can't easily be regarded as a "component."
At 33 MHz, the ADSP-2181 does not represent the The programming environment is complicated by the
fastest available processor, either. For audio applica- general-purpose operating systems in use.
tions, this is often not important. With a little care In An example of an alternate demo-board is the
programming, it is usually possible to pack the last IF "TMS320C3x Starter K i f from Texas Instruments. The
and audio functions of a communications receiver and hardware consists of a 3.5 by 5.0 Inch PC board with a
transmitter into a device such as this. Examples of this TMS320C31 32-bit floating-point processor and a
are in Chapter 11 of this book. TLC32040 A/D and D/A converter. It is bundled with an
Bread-boarding of fast processors such as used for assembler and an emulator type of debugger. An
DSP is not simple. Multi-layer PC boards are of major interface is provided to control the board from a PC.
benefit and the IC packages most often use a large
number of fine-pitch pins, making connections unsuit-
able for wires. For these reasons, the use of a "demo
board" makes experimentation much easier. Most
manufacturers offer demo boards for their DSP devices,
often bundled with some collection of support software.
Before selecting a particular DSP device for a project, it
is best to determine the current offerings of these
boards. The prices vary widely, often reflecting the
bundled software.
Representative families of low-cost DSP processors
are reflected in the table below. These are not the high-
end products from the various manufacturers, since
these often represent unneeded expense as well as
higher power consumption. The changing nature of The TMS320C3X Starter Kit from Texas
these processor families suggests that one should Instruments.

DSP Number Floating Processor

Manufacturer Processor of Bits Point Rate, MIPS
Texas Instruments TMS320VC5416 16 No 160
Texas Instruments TMS320C31-50 32 Yes 25
Motorola DSP56309 24 No 100
Analog Devices ADSP2181 16 No 33*
Analog Devices ADSP2191 16 No 160
Analog Devices ADSP21065 32 Yes 40
"This is the ADSP2181 as used in the EZKIT Lite, put here for comparison purposes. Versions are available that
operate at 50 MIPS.

An example of a non-ringing filter is given

strongest close to their center, and arc impulse is easy to find as it is just the by C. R. MacCluer, W8MQW, "A Matched
therefore not filterable when elose to the values of the filter coefficients. Fig 10.25 Filter for EME." Proceedings of the Central
receiver pass band. When there is greater shows the impulse response for the 500- States VHP Society. 1995. p24 and is
separation between the interfering trans- Hz bandwidth filter of Fig 10.24. The included on the CD that accompanies this
mitter and the receiver pass band, where vertical scale shows the coefficient val- book. These filters have a frequency
response, at frequency f, of sin[2'pi*
filtering is more effective, the attenuation ues for a filter with a gain of 1.0 and (f-y*TM2-pi-(f-y-T], where f0 is the cen-
of the Kaiser-window filter is greater. should be examined here for relative val- ter frequency and T is the length, in sec-
In Chapter 3. it was noted that LC fil- ues. The horizontal axis has been scaled onds, of the sine-wave burst (CW dot J. This
ters tend to have added group delay near in time to correspond to the 9600-Hz sam- "sin(x)/x" response creates a slow fall-off
the edges of the pass band. This is associ- pling rate, i.e. a sampling period of with frequency, but the peak signal-to-
1/9600=0.1042 milliseconds. The figure noise ratio of a CW dot is maximized. The
ated with undesirable "ringing" for the non-ringing characteristic produces an in-
filters. FIR filters are usually designed shows a considerable amount of ringing teresting and pleasant "sound" when used
with coefficients that are symmetrical still exists, although the group delay is in the audio path of a receiver. Because of
about their center values. This produces a fiat. This ringing is a fundamental consc- the spectral side lobes, it can be difficult to
group-delay response that is exactly flat quence of the fast cut off characteristic of tune in a signal by ear. However, when on-
with frequency. The amount of delay is the filter. Other filter designs can have frequency, the filter provides excellent CW
less ringing, but only by sacrificing the copy. Another example of this filter imple-
half the number of filter coefficients, mentation Is Included with the DSP-10
multiplied by the sampling period. The sharp frequency response.* transceiver software that is part of the
response of the filter to a very short A further parameter that is available to Experimental Methods in RF Design CD.

DSP Components 10.19

the Kaiser-window FIR filter designer is penalty for having the lower out-of-band the bandwidth that can be covcrcd depend
the side lobe level. Figure 10.26 shows side lobes is poorer passband shape. on the size of the FIR filter, i.e., the num-
the frequency response of filters designed ber of coefficients.
to 40 and 65 dB levels. These filters both The Hilbert transform has a fixed delay in
have the same nominal 200-Hz bandwidth
Hilbert Transforms addition to the 90-degree phase shift. In
at -6 dB points. The most obvious feature One of several specialized applications for order to produce two signals differing in
is the side lobe response far f r o m the pass FIR filters is the Hilbert 90-degree trans- phase by exactly 90-degrees. it is neces-
band, which is about 20 dB lower for the form. These are a close counterpart to the sary to place a fixed delay in the second
65 dB case. In addition, it can be seen that broadband 90-degree phase-shift net- path. A D S P implementation of the fixed
the design w ith the lower out-of-band re- works discussed in Chapter 9. They arc delay requires only a f e w instructions.
sponse is also less sharp around the pass characterized by a constant 90-degree The interested reader should study the 18-
band. The response at 40 dB below the phase shift and an amplitude response that MHz transceiver in Chapter 11, which uses
peak is 296 Hz wide for the 40-dB filter covers a wide frequency range. The flat- one of the Hilbert transforms in the SSB
and 344 Hz for the 65-dB filter. Thus the ness of the frequency response as well as generation and detection.

10.7 DSP IF
Computers, and specifically DSP micro-
processors. are limited in their processing
speed. The instruction set for the D S P
makes it faster for signal processing, but
D S P is still best suited for signals in the A/D
10's of kHz or less.* Audio processing is Converter
easily in this range and not surprisingly,
has been a major application for D S P in
radio systems. Interesting applications are
possible by use of a low frequency IF.
however.
Fig 10.27 is a block diagram of a radio
receiver, implemented with the last IF in a
D S P at 7.5 kHz. One would prefer an IF as
low as possible, which is often quite prac-
tical. For instance, if the analog IF has a
bandwidth of 5 kHz. the 60-dB points for
a reasonable crystal filter might be 15 kHz
apart. This will allow the use of an IF as Fig 10.27—Block diagram of a CW/
low as 2.5 to 7.5 kHz with the image rejec- SSB receiver with a DSP-based IF.
tion being always greater than 60 dB (see
Fig 10.28). With the proper A/D converter,
this would be supported bv a sampling rate
of about 20 kHz.

D/A Audio
Converter Out
Fine Tuning
A m a j o r advantage of the D S P IF is the
simplicity of fine frequency control. Wc
have already seen that we can easily gen-
erate a sine wave in software with good
frequency resolution. This is ideal for use
as the oscillator for frequency conversion.
This can be a shift in the IF, or more often. it is the final conversion often called the
BFO. As we will see, the input and output
frequencies of the conversion process can
overlap and so there is considerable free-
The ADSP-2181 in the EZ-Kit Lite that has dom in choosing the IF.
been used for the examples executes 33
instructions per microsecond. Each instruc-
tion can be a simple operation, such as add-
ing of two numbers, or it can be a multiple
part instruction that multiplies two numbers
together, adds these to an existing sum, Fig 10.28—The required response curve
fetches two different values from memory for the crystal filter used in the receiver
and updates a loop counter. This latter type of Fig 10.27. The frequencies shown are
of instruction is an example of the special- relative to the IF center. Image responses
ized instructions that allow high computation are limited by having 60 or more dB of
rates in a DSP microprocessor. rejection at 5 kHz from the band edge.

10.20 Chapter 1 0
10.8 DSP MIXING
The double-balanced mixer of Chapter is required. Tf mxO and myO registers This very high isolation allows the
5 has wide application as an analog com- represent sine waves, then mr will repre- input and output frequencies to be i n over-
ponent. The simplicity of a DSP imple- sent a signal containing only the sum and lapping bands. Additional processing is
mented mixer can be surprising at first in- difference frequencies. The rejection of needed since one usually only desires
troduction: signals passing from the inputs (mxO, Or only the sum or the difference frequen-
myO) to the output (mr). callcd port- cies. An example of this is a Hilbert Re-
mr=mx0*my0 (ss); to-port isolation in conventional mixer tuner described by Forrer. 12 This process
descriptions, is for practical purposes corresponds to the Phasing method of
That is. only a simple signed multiply perfect. SSB detection, described in Chapter 9.

10.9 O T H E R DSP COMPONENTS

There are many functions that lend well into its operating range, while still One of the big advantages of a feedback
themselves to DSP implementation in a preventing overload. The digital pan of AGC system is its ability to work with
radio. We only touch upon many of them the loop keeps the total signal level near a highly inaccurate gain control functions.
here. The following should be thought of constant level at the output. In the case of the DSP, however, this is not
as a starting point for further exploration! The response of the filter going to the needed. Gain can be controlled by either
analog IF amplifier, referred to in the fig- multiplication, or multiplication along
with a binary shift. Either of these func-
Automatic Gain Control ure as the slow loop must cutoff at a low
enough frequency to allow stability, tions arc accurate to a fraction of a dB and
(AGC) including the delay effects of the A/D can be used with open loop control. The
Figure 10.29 is a block diagram of a converler. The converter delay is often general scheme for this AGC system is Fig
DSP implementation of a classical AGC many hundreds of microseconds resulting 10.30. The analog feedback slow loop is
feedback loop. The control point for the in a maximum AGC bandwidth in the maintained for very strong signals, but the
loop, shown in the figure, is the IF signal tens of Hertz. This is loo slow to provide DSP gain control is placed after the detec-
after A/D conversion. The function of the adequate attack response on arising strong tor. This allows a delay to be placed in the
loop is to keep the control-point amplitude signal, and requires that the A/D convener signal path, so that the signal levels art-
close to constant. A detector is used to not be set to operate too close to it's over- well known when the control is applied.
measure the envelope of the IF signal. This load point. This is usually possible to That is, the gain is reduced in a "circuit"
is low pass filtered and adjusted in level by arrange in the design. before the signals arrive at that point. This
the AGC Filter. The filter output goes back Improvement comes from the interna] feed forward approach is capable of vers
through a D/A converter to control the gain DSP fast loop in Fig 10.29. This feedback good sounding AGC. since the accuracy
of an IF amplifier. In addition, the AGC loop does not include the A/D converter of the control and the response time have
controls a digital gain multiplier that is and is limited only by the sample rate of been made independent. Methods of this
within the loop. the data. The signal levels should be set so sort have been in use for several years in
The analog gain control is used to that this loop is the gain controlling func- DSP based transceivers offered by Rohdc
ensure that the A/D converter is operated tion for normal operation. and Schwarz.1-1

•Sr
H>
RF Amp Mixer l-F Fitter l-F Amp

Art) DSP D/A

Converter Process Convener

Gain AGC
Control A 3C Control
• Point
et

©
Conversion
Oscillator
Fast
Loop

AGC
Filter

Slow
Loop D/A
Converter

DSP
•

Fig 10.29—DSP-based feedback type of AGC showing a combination of analog and digital gain-control points.

DSP Components 10.21

 >
Digital Gain
RF Amp l-F Amp Multiplier

RF <)
A/D
Converter Delay
Oi DSP
Process
D/A
Converter

Feed Forward

©
Conversion
Slow
Control

Oscillator
Loop AGC
Filter

Fig 10.30—DSP-based AGO with analog feedback and digital feed forward control.

FM Reception
A s is the c a s e f o r a n a l o g F r e q u e n c y
Preemphasis Phase to FM
Modulating \ Modulated (FM) discriminators,14 a num-
FIR Sinewave — ( Modulated
Audio (
Filter — O - 0 -F (DDS) Wave Out b e r of m e t h o d s e x i s t f o r the D S P - b a s e d
d e t e c t i o n of an F M s i g n a l . F M is a s p e c i a l
c a s e of p h a s e m o d u l a t i o n a n d o n e of the
Delay best F M d e t e c t o r s s t a r t s w i t h a p h a s e
1
d e t e c t o r , as s h o w n in F i g 10.32. T h e F M
Sample
Frequency s i g n a l at IF. s h o w n h e r e a s 9 to 21 k H z is
m i x e d with a p a i r of c o n s t a n t f r e q u e n c y
s i g n a l s at m i d - b a n d (15 k H z ) . T h e s e t w o
Phase Increment
for m i d - b a n d s i g n a l s d i f f e r in p h a s e by 90
Center Frequency d e g r e e s a n d , with D S P , can b e g e n e r a t e d
as t w o s e p a r a t e s i g n a l s . L o w p a s s filters,
in this e a s e at 5 k H z . r e m o v e the s i g n a l s at
the s u m f r e q u e n c y , l e a v i n g j u s t the d i f f e r -
Fig 10.31—Direct generation of FM signal.
ence signals. Since these two signals were
d e r i v e d f r o m the 9 0 - d e g r e e m i x i n g p r o -
c e s s they a r e called q u a d r a t u r e s i g n a l s (see
5 kHz
C h a p t c r 9) and c a n be s h o w n to r e t a i n all
of the i n f o r m a t i o n that w a s o r i g i n a l l y in
Vq the I F signal.

T h e p h a s e a n g l e of the input s i g n a l , rela-

5 kHz
tive to t h e 1 5 - k H z c c n t c r s i n c w a v e , c a n b e
Detected d e t e r m i n e d f r o m the t w o q u a d r a t u r e sig-
Signal Out nals. Vj and v q b y :

-I V'q
<p =t tan — E q 10.8
v
i
A r c t a n g e n t f u n c t i o n s c a n be c o m p u t e d
b y p o l y n o m i a l a p p r o x i m a t i o n s , in a f a s h -
ion very s i m i l a r to that u s e d to c o m p u t e a
Fig 10.32—An FM detector built using an arctangent phase detector and a
differentiator. sine w a v e e a r l i e r in t h i s c h a p t e r . ^
F r e q u e n c y is d e f i n e d as the r a t e - o f -
c h a n g e of p h a s e . T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l t e r m
f o r this o p e r a t o r is the d e r i v a t i v e and the
FM Transmission ing t h e p h a s e i n c r e m e n t in a c c o r d a n c e f u n c t i o n a l b l o c k f o r f i n d i n g it is the
E a r l i e r in this c h a p t c r t h e D D S m e t h o d w i t h t h e m o d u l a t i o n w a v e f o r m . T h i s is in- d i f f e r e n t i a t o r . W h e n reduced to a D S P
of g e n e r a t i n g s i n e w a v e s w a s d e s c r i b e d h e r e n t l y of v e r y low d i s t o r t i o n . M o s t F M p r o g r a m , all that is r e q u i r e d is to s u b t r a c t
that w a s b a s e d on i n c r e m e n t i n g a p h a s e s y s t e m s e m p l o y s o m e p r e e m p h a s i s f o r the the c u r r e n t p h a s e value f r o m the p r e v i o u s
value by a constant amount called a phase h i g h e r m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s thai c a n b e v a l u e . In g e n e r a l it is n e c e s s a r y to w a t c h
i n c r e m e n t . T h e f r e q u e n c y of the s i n e w a v e a c c o m p l i s h e d by p l a c i n g a F I R or I I R f i l - the p h a s e v a l u e w h e r e p a s s e s t h r o u g h 3 6 0
is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the p h a s e i n c r e m e n t . F M ter a h e a d of t h e m o d u l a t o r . F i g 1 0 . 3 1 d e g r e e s , s i n c e that p o i n t and 0 d e g r e e s are
m o d u l a t i o n can b e a c c o m p l i s h e d b y v a r y - shows the overall arrangement. t h e s a m e . If t h e p h a s e v a l u e h a s b e e n

10.22 Chapter 10
scaled so that 360 degrees is the entire treated correctly for either direction of eral. it is necessary to place this through an
range of the 2 ' s complement arithmetic (0 rollover. appropriate de-emphasis filter to reduce
to 65535 for 16-bit arithmetic) then the Thus the output of the difference opera- the high frequency boost introduced at
rollover at 360/0 degrees is automatically tion is the FM demodulated signal. In gen- transmission time. This could be the
simple RC IIR filter described earlier.

10.10 D I S C R E T E F O U R I E R TRANSFORM
In Chapter 7 we explored using Spec- bined with an oscilloscope for displaying Spectrum Analyzer, using the Discrete
tram Analyzers to observe the content of the signal amplitude, analysis of the signal Fourier Transform (DFT). has some at-
•signals in the frequency domain. They spectrum was possible. tractive features. The swept local oscilla-
consisted of a detcctor for measuring sig- An alternate DSP implementation of the tor and associated mixer are not needed in
nal amplitude coming from a receiver
along with a local oscillator for tuning the
receiver. The local oscillator was made Mixers Low-Pass Fitters
voltage tunable so that it could be swept IrvPhas-e
across a range of frequencies. When corn- Square
Output
I COS 2rrf L t 500 Hz

Low-Pass
Filter Signal RMS
Input ( — 1 Square!) Vo|(age
Signal
Input
13 kHz HSH 500 Hz
Output 13 kHz Local Oscillator
10 to 20 kHz
Root
Magnitude

© Hg>\)
Local Quadrature
Oscillator Square
10 to 2D kHz Output
500 Hz
Fig 10.33—A first implementation of a
circuit to measure signals in the 10- to Fig 10.34—An improved Implementation of the circuit of Fig 10.33. The in-phase and
20-kHz frequency range. The output of quadrature outputs will never be zero simultaneously, regardless of the input phase
this circuit is sensitive to both the relative to the local oscillator. Blocks have been added to square the in-phase and
frequency of the input signal and its quadrature outputs, add these together and then take the square root. This
phase, relative to the local oscillator. produces the RMS voltage of the signal input at the frequency of the local oscillator.

Mathematics of the Discrete Fourier Transform

Mathematical formulations of the Fourier transform are Here we have separated the real and imaginary inputs,
given in many books. In general, the DFT has inputs and VRn and Vln as well as having separate equations for the
outputs consisting of complex numbers described as real and imaginary output parts, XRk and X!k. Notice that
vRk + j vtk where vRk and vlk are called the "real" and all mention of j disappears and the real and imaginary
"imaginary" parts of the complex number. This use of part s are kept separate by placing a subscript Ft or I on
complex numbers has considerable convenience in the variable.
writing and evaluating equations. However, the mystical We show the kth output pair, but there are a total of N
sound of i m a g i n a r y " numbers and associated use of of these output pairs corresponding to k values from 0 to
j=sqrt(-1) can be removed if an alternate description of N-1.
the complex number as "an ordered pair of real num- If the inputs have zero imaginary parts, such as is the
bers" is used. This illustrates that each input to the DFT case for a time waveform, the second sum in each
is a pair of real numbers that are treated by a specific set equation will become zero and the DFT outputs simplify
of rules (equations) to produce a set of ordered pairs of to:
real numbers at the output. Ordered pairs merely means
A -I
that the first number (real) is not to be interchanged with
the second number of the pair (imaginary). XRl-£vB,.cos(2*kii/N)
With this in mind, we can examine the kth outputs of lr*a
the DFT with a complex input:
and...
X K t - V VRl. • cos(2Jtk n / N ) - ' V| n sin (2itk n / n )
n-fl 11-O N 1

Xi k = X V R « ' s i n
( 2 l c k n / N
)
and... n=o
N-l , . N-l .
x
i k = I V Rn s i n ( 2 * k n / N J + T V ln cos(2*kn/N These are the versions that are described by circuit
n-i't
analogs in the text.

DSP Components 10.23

 hardware form. The output spectrum is
Low-Pass
being constantly generated instead of Fitters RMS Circuits
waiting for the tuning to sweep by, provid-
ing higher sensitivity and faster update
rates. However, the DFT is limited, by both
A/D encoding and computing rales, in the
p^H
) '
Square

frequency range that can be covered.

The operation of the DFT can be under-
stood by a thought implementation of an
analogous traditional hardware circuit. sin 2tt 10.0001
O Square
Root
Output

This starts by assuming we wish to exam-

ine the output of a receiver IF in the 10- to
20-kHz range. Initially, assume that the
only signal present sits at 13kHz.
We wish to find out what signals are in
hS> Square

this IF band and what their strength might

be. We begin with a balanced mixer
capable of operation at these low frequen- Square
cies, as shown in Fig 10.33. We drive the
mixer with a suitable local oscillator,
capable of covering 10 to 20 kHz and run
the output through a very narrow low-pass
filter. As we tune the LO. we see no output
until we get close to 13 kHz, due to the
low-pass filter. Then we start to see low -O sin 2u 11,0001
O- Square
Root H Output
V„

frequency outputs. When the LO is exactly

at 13 kHz. the output is a dc signal that we
can measure with a voltmeter.
We might be tempted to note the dc level
Signal Input.
11,13and (
Hg>) "
Square

coming from the mixer and use this to 16 kHz

infer the strength of the incoming 13-kHz
signal. However, this would generally pro-
duce an error, for w e know nothing of the 11 Repeats Total
phase of the LO with respect to the signal
we are trying to measure. Recall the phase
detector characteristic investigated in
Chapter 4. section 7 shows that the mixer
output depends on the phase angle Square
between the RF and LO signals. For
90-degrcc phase differences this output
will be zero, clearly the wrong answer!
This dilemma can be solved by replacing
Square Output
the single mixer with a pair of identical Root VjO
mixers, both driven from a common signal
Sin 2tr 20,0001
or RF port, but driven with a pair of LO
signals with 90-degrees phase difference.
This is illustrated by the block diagram of
Fig 10.34, where we have simplified the
circuit by using a single oscillator and a
Hg)) ' Square

90-degree phase shifter. Now, as the phase Fig 10.35—A filter bank type of Spectrum Analyzer, built from multiples of the
of the input is varied, we will see the out- in-phase/quadrature filters of Fig 10.34. As discussed in the text, this structure
put of one mixer go to zero while the other is equivalent to a Discrete Fourier Transform, followed by the RMS squaring and
peaks. The true (RMS) output voltage square-root circuits.
magnitude is obtained by squaring each of
the two mixer output voltages, adding, and
DSP mixers, one driven with a cos(2rcf L t) 20-kHz band. The original 13-kHz signal
taking the square root.*
signal while the other is driven in quadra- is supplemented with a weaker one at 11
Clearly, we can replace the hardware ture by sin(2*f| t). The outputs are low- kHz, and perhaps another at 16 kHz. One
mixers with a DSP version. The 10-to-20- pass filtered to eliminate any sum terms, way to estimate the overall spectra wouli
kHz signal is applied to an A-to-D con- leaving only the base-band outputs. These be to add two more mixer pairs with a pur
verter to produce a time-sampled version can be used to calculate the output volt- driven at each of the new input frequen-
of the signal. This is applied to a pair of age, just as we did with the hardware cies. However, let's get even more gen-
mixer. This is just a phasing method re- eral. Instead of adding just two more mixer
ceiver as discussed in Chapter 9. pairs, we will assemble a collection of 11
*lf one only wants the power of the signal as
an output, the square-root block can be Let's continue our thought implemen- of these circuits with a quadrature pair at
omitted. tation by adding more signals in the 10- to each I -kHz increment from 10 to 20 kHz:

10.24 Chapter 10
 Fig 10.36—A detailed block diagram of the DFT with only "real"
input data, such as from samples of a time waveform. The
Operation Performed for All
multiplying (mixing) signals are calculated sine and cosine
Values of K from 0 to N-1
values with frequencies spaced every f s /N Hz, where f s is the
sampling rate for the data. The resulting outputs are referred to
here as "In-phase" and "Quadrature" data. Mixer

F i g u r e 1 0 . 3 5 s h o w s a b l o c k d i a g r a m of o u r g r o w i n g c o l l e c t i o n
of t h o u g h t h a r d w a r e . M o s t o u t p u t s will b e c l o s e to z e r o , b u t w e
will see s u b s t a n t i a l o u t p u t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to 11, 13 a n d 16 k H z .
W e n o w h a v e a " b a n k of f i l t e r s " type s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r . W e
c o u l d h a v e a c h i e v e d t h e d e s i r e d result by a c t u a l l y b u i l d i n g 11
b a n d - p a s s f i l t e r s , e a c h f o l l o w e d by a s u i t a b l e d c t e c t o r . i n s t e a d ,
w c h a v e a c h i e v e d the s a m e result with m i x e r s d r i v e n b y q u a d r a -
ture-Iocal-oscillator signals.
T h e s e s y s t e m s are f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t than the usual
" s w e p t f r o n t - e n d " s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r . If w e w e r e to build o n e of
t h o s e f o r t h i s e x a m p l e , w e m i g h t u s e a s w e p t local o s c i l l a t o r that
t u n e d f r o m , f o r e x a m p l e , 6 0 to 7 0 k H z . A s i n g l e m i x e r w o u l d
h e t e r o d y n e the i n p u t up to a narrow b a n d - p a s s f i l t e r at 5 0 k H z .
f o l l o w e d by a s u i t a b l e d e t e c t o r . As the o s c i l l a t o r s w e e p s the
i n p u t f r e q u e n c y f r o m 10 lo 2 0 k H z . t h e s i g n a l - a m p l i t u d e o u t p u t
for the i n c r e m e n t a l k H z p a i n t s will be v i r t u a l l y t h e s a m e as w e
o b t a i n e d f r o m the b a n k s of m i x e r pairs. H o w e v e r , w h i l e the s w e p t
s y s t e m p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n f o r o n e f r e q u e n c y at a t i m e the
filter b a n k p r o v i d e s all o u t p u t s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .
B a n k s of oscillators, mixers and l o w - p a s s filters b e c o m e un-
wieldy if built f r o m hardware. But w e can build up their equivalent
D S P c o m p o n e n t s as is s h o w n in Fig 10.36. A s s h o w n in F i g 10.37,
oscillators are replaced by q u a d r a t u r e sine and cosine w a v e c o m p u -
tations. N u m e r i c a l multipliers replace the mixers. T h e low-pass fil-
ters are replaced by s u m m i n g several multiplier outputs. T h i s n e e d s
to be repeated f o r each of the f r e q u e n c i e s of interest, such as o u r
integral f r e q u e n c i e s f r o m 10 to 2 0 kHz. Put into this m a t h e m a t i c a l
f o r m , w e h a v e recreated the D F T algorithm.* T h o s e inclined to-
w a r d s m a t h e m a t i c a l descriptions can also see this f r o m the e q u a -
tions in the sidebar, " M a t h e m a t i c s of the Discrete F o u r i e r T r a n s -
f o r m . " Most i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s of the D F T w o u l d c o m p u t e t h e
spectral outputs f r o m 0 to 9 k H z as well as the 10- lo 2 0 - k H z outputs
shown, but this is not r e q u i r e d to b e a D F T ,

'As will be discussed, the full DFT is more general and allows the
input to be a complex number. Here, we are dealing with a simpli-
fied case where the "imaginary part" of the input is zero.

Analog Component DSP Component

Sin 2TT f k ^

Sine-Wave Direct Computation

Oscillator

Multiplier

Low Pass Filter Sum of Data Points

Fig 10.37—Equivalent analog and DSP components that are Mixer

used to create an "equivelent circuit" for the discrete Fourier
transform (DFT).

DSP Components 10-25

 Terminology for the OKI' differs from ing. To understand how these data are sampling frequency and the second half
thai used for hardware. Our block diagram used, we will examine finding the fre- are their mirror image. The practical result
of Fig 10.35 is in the latter term. Restruc- quency spectrum of a time waveform. is that one merely discards the redundant
tured in conventional DK1 terminology. The DFT algorithm operates on a block data to the right and uses the left data.
Fig 10.36 shows the same filter bank of N input-data points, each of which is a An example of this is in Fig 10.38 show-
implementation. The RMS voltage blocks sample of a time waveform, such as an IF ing a time waveform with N=16 and the re-
have been removed to show only the DFT or AF signal. The DFT is expecting N sulting spectral power from a DFT. The out-
complex input numbers that are divided put power values to the right of center are
into two groups, the "real" and the "imagi-
Implementing the DFT seen to be mirror images of those to the left.
nary" values. These arc historic names Fig 10.39 i 11 ustrates this operation of the
The "discrete" in DFT lells us that the used with complex numbers and should
system is only using data samples, as we be thought of as merely a way to keep the
would get an A/D convener. The Nyquist groups separate. For our case, the N real
Input Waveform
criteria requires the sample rate to be at values will be the waveform time samples
least twicc the highest frequency of inter- and the imaginary group will all be zero.*
est. This would require a sample rate After the DFT calculation is completed,
greater than 2 x 20 kHz for the thought there will be non-zero values in each of
implementation above. the real and imaginary groups. These rep-
The more points in the sample, the resent the zero-degree and 90-degree
I I
greater resolution we can achieve in esti- amplitude components of the frequency
mating the related spectrum. This can be spectrum, referenced to a sine wave at the
put into the formula: center frequency of each of the output
frequencies.
B = f5 / N Eq 10.9 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
The spacing between spectral data
points is B = f s / N. If we have N outputs (A)
where B is the frequency spacing be-
tween adjacent spectrum samples (filter- from the DFT these will seem to extend Estimated Spectral Power
bank ccnters), f s is the sample rate, and N from 0 frequency to Nxf s / N or f s which is
is the number of sample points being aver- the sampling frequency. This is inconsis-
aged. One divided by B gives the length of tent with the Nyquist sampling theorem,
time over which samples were collected. which says the highest frequency for
The frequency spacing B can easily be which we can extract unambiguous infor-
made quite small. For example, if the sam- mation is half of the sampling frequency.
pling rate is 10 kHz and there are 1024 This is resolved when we look at the DFT
samples in the DFT, the resolution B will output. It will be seen that each output
be 10,000/1024 or 9.7? Hz. By selecting point appears twice. The first N/2 data
suitable f 5 and N it is practical to have reso- points apply for frequencies up to half the
10 12 14 16
lutions of less than 1 Hz.
'Operating the DFT with half the inputs set (B)
The streamlined class of algorithms
most often used to compute the DFT is to zero suggests wastefulness! It is pos-
sible to place a second time waveform in Fig 10.38—This diagram shows (A) 16-
called the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). 16 place of the zeroed imaginary group. The member time waveform and the power
These algorithms eliminate the redundant output values then contain co-mingled for the DFT output. T o emphasize the
calculations that occur when N equals 2 spectral data that can be sorted out with discrete nature of the data involved, the
raised to an integer power. The efficiency simple additions and subtractions. This values are shown as dots with attached
can be a major computational saving for vertical lines. Note that the spectral
of the FFT allows large numbers of points some applications, but with some possibil- power is symmetrical about the 8th
to be included in a DFT computation. N ity of added noise for fixed-point DSP. output.
values of 64 to 4096 are common. The
details of the FFT require some study to
follow, but for most applications this need
not be done since prewritten subroutines
can be used. 17 Rather than focusing on the
details of the FFT. the important element
is to understand the general nature of the
DFT and the meaning of the resulting data.
FFT implementations usually compute
N quadrature pairs of outputs. If only a
few outputs are needed, it is often simpler
to implement a band-pass filter bank. An
efficient implementation of this is the
Goertzel algorithm. 18

T h e Ins and Outs of the Fig 10.39—Block diagram of the Discrete Fourier Transform with a time waveform
DFT input. The output information is referred to here as "In-phase" and Quadrature."
For this case of all "real" inputs, the number of output pairs is half the number of
When one uses the DFT. interpretation input samples. The upper figure applies to any number of sample data points.
of the input and output data can be confus- The lower figure is specific to 8 input sample data points.

10.26 Chapter 10
D F T on a real t i m e s c r i e s in block d i a g r a m q u a d r a t u r e o u t p u t s c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e sides seen on the d i s p l a y . T h e D S P - 1 0 also u s e s
f o r m . T h i s is s h o w n w i t h a " r e a l " i n p u t of a r i g h t t r i a n g l e a n d the p o w e r to t h e h y - t h e D F T o u t p u t s to p r o v i d e w e a k s i g n a l
s i n c e the i m a g i n a r y i n p u t w a s set to zero. potenuse squared: c o m m u n i c a t i o n s m o d e s . T h i s is i l l u s t r a t e d
T o m a k e their role more obvious, b y e x a m p l e s in C h a p t e r 12.
the outputs are n o w called " i n - p h a s e " pi = V, i2 + V Q i 2 Eq 10.11
a n d " q u a d r a t u r e . " N i n p u t s n u m b e r e d 0 to
N - l will p r o d u c e p a i r s of o u t p u t s n u m -
Other DFT Applications
An e x a m p l e of a s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r bui 11
b e r e d 0 to ( N / 2 ) - 1 . T h e l o w e r f i g u r e s h o w s using the p o w e r outputs f r o m the D F T
for Signal Processing
this f o r the s p e c i f i c c a s e o f N = 8 . T h e r e are is the D S P - 1 0 2 - M r a d i o , originally T h e s p e c t r a l p o w e r d a t a is u s e f u l f o r un-
8 i n p u t s , n u m b e r e d 0 to 7 a n d 4 p a i r s of d e s c r i b e d in QST.19 T h e n a r r o w b a n d w i d t h s d e r s t a n d i n g the n a t u r e of s i g n a l s b e i n g re-
o u t p u t s n u m b e r e d 0 to 3. that are achieved with the D F T are useful for c e i v e d . T h e r e arc c h a r a c l e r i s t i c s i g n a t u r e s
detection and observation of w e a k signals. or " l o o k s " f o r p a r t i c u l a r m o d u l a t i o n
F i g 111.41 is the S p e c t r u m A n a l y z e r display forms. C W , SSB, F M and data signals can
DFT Spectral f r o m that r a d i o w h i l e r e c e i v i n g w e a k c a r - be identified by their spectrum, without
Frequency Response riers. S i g n a l s b e l o w a b o u t - 1 5 0 d B m a r e k n o w i n g a n y d e t a i l s of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n
S i n c e the D F T of a t i m e w a v e f o r m is t o o w e a k to b e h e a r d by the ear, but n a r r o w c o n t e n t . In a d d i t i o n , the D F T can be u s e d
e q u i v a l e n t to a b a n k of b a n d - p a s s f i l t e r s , b a n d w i d t h s of t h e D F T m a k e t h e s e e a s i l y to p r o v i d e d a t a for o t h e r f u n c t i o n s , s u c h as
they must have a frequency response. W e F M s q u e l c h , n o i s e b l a n k e t s a n d a trans-
can use the m i x e r / l o w - p a s s filter (LPF) m i t t e r p r c d i s t o r t e r (hat is d i s c u s s e d b e l o w .
a n a l o g y lo f i n d t h i s r e s p o n s e . F i g 1 0 . 4 0 In t h e c a s e of the F M s q u e l c h , t h e p r e s e n c e
s h o w s t h e r e s p o n s e of a L P F c o n s t r u c t e d of a s i g n a l c a u s e s a r e d u c t i o n in t h e h i g h
by a d d i n g 16 p o i n t s t o g e t h e r , j u s t as is frequency noise f r o m the F M detector. By
d o n e for a 1 6 - p o i n t D F T . T h e d a t a s a m p l e e x a m i n i n g the p o w e r in v a r i o u s D F T out-
rale w a s set at 1000 H z p r o d u c i n g a f r e - p u t s it is p o s s i b l e to s e n s e t h e p r e s e n c e of
q u e n c y bin s p a c i n g of: c 0.5 a s i g n a l . In a s i m i l a r w a y . c o m p a r i n g the
5 0.4 v a r i o u s o u t p u t s of the D F T c a n s e n s e the
g> 0.3
B = f s / N = 1000/16 = 62.5 Hz Eq 10.10 b r o a d b a n d n a t u r e of i m p u l s i v e n o i s e .

T h e 3 - d B p o i n t o n t h e r e s p o n s e c u r v e is 0 64 128 192 256

Windowing of DFT Data
at 2 7 . 8 H z . T h e m i x e r input s i g n a l that p r o - Data Sample
d u c e s t h i s L P F i n p u t c a n be o n e i t h e r side A D F T o p e r a t e s o n a f i x e d n u m b e r of
Fig 10.42—The Hamming window d a t a p o i n t s , c o l l e c t e d at a u n i f o r m rate. T h e
of t h e L O . T h u s the o v e r a l l 3 - d B b a n d -
function, used to weight data sets to D F T b e h a v e s as t h o u g h t h e s i g n a l w ent on
w i d t h is t w i c e the L P F r e s p o n s e or 5 5 . 6 reduce spectral spreading. The data
H z , o r 8 9 % of the bin s p a c i n g . f o r e v e r , but with t h e a s s u m p t i o n that the
point values are multiplied by the
At t h e bin s p a c i n g the r e s p o n s e is d o w n corresponding window function to taper n e x t set of s a m p l e s will l o o k e x a c t l y like
3.92 dB. T h e f a l l - o f f rate of this l o w - p a s s the values to small levels at the t h e set w e m e a s u r e d . A n d t h e n e x t , a s
filter r e s p o n s e is not particularly fast, with beginning and end of the data set. well... T h i s is all f i n e e x c e p t that it is h i g h l y
the f i r s t s i d e - l o b e r e s p o n s e d o w n only
about 13 d B . T h i s m e a n s that the output of
the D F T will tend to r e s p o n d to signals f a r
f r o m the associated L O f r e q u e n c y . T h e u s e
of " w i n d o w i n g " f u n c t i o n s to i m p r o v e this
o f f - f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e is d i s c u s s e d b e l o w .

Power from the DFT

O f t e n it is d e s i r a b l e to e s t i m a t e t h e
p o w e r a s s o c i a t e d with e a c h of the o u t p u t
f r e q u e n c i e s of t h e D F T . T h e i n - p h a s e and

filter constructed by summing 16 data

samples together, as occurs in the DFT. Fig 10.41—A Spectrum Analyzer display while receiving weak signals with the
The data was samples at 1000 per DSP-10, Signals below about - 1 5 0 dBm are too weak to be heard by the ear, but
second. the narrow bandwidths of the DFT make these easily seen on the display.

DSP Components 10.27

 unlikely that the last point of the data set ing a windowing function. Each of these
will end on the same value as it started functions represents a distortion of the
with, or with the same slope, and the same input data and a tradeoff must be made
curvature as it started. As a result, there is between distorting the data and the spread-
almost always a major j u m p (discontinu- ing of the spectrum from leakage. The
ity! when passing between the end points. usual data distortion makes spectral widths
The spectral energy of this j u m p is spread appear wider than they are; this is often
over all frequencies and tends to be strong quite an acceptable compromise.
enough to overwhelm a low-level signal F i g u r e 10.43 shows the DFT of a cosine
near the frequency of a strong one. The wave, with and without a Hamming window.
j u m p causes a "sidclobe structure" thai The waveform without windowing (a) has
drops off very slowly in frequency. The been chosen lo not have the last data point
term "leakage" is often used, as the signal line up with the first one. This results in the
at one frequency appears to leak to other wide and poorly defined power spectrum in
frequencies. This makes for a measurement (b). Application of the Hamming window
of limited utility. results in the tapering of the data as seen in
The best solution 10 this j u m p problem (c). The improvement in the associated
is to taper the data towards zero in the power spectrum is seen in (d). Several
region near the edges of the sample imperfections remain. The spectral width is
period. If the data al the edges is zero, then not a single narrow line, but overlaps 2 bins
the j u m p will also be zero. There are end- at the lop and more down the sides of the
less ways to taper the data and they arc spectral estimate. In addition, once 40 dB
callcd windowing functions. A classic below the peak of the spectrum, the width
curve, shown in Fig 10.42, is the Ham- gets quite broad. To some extent, these
ming window. It has a first sidclobe down imperfections are part of having only a
43 dB. Many alternative windowing func- sample of the waveform and therefore mak-
tions have been devised with an excellent ing only an "estimate." However, by chang-
summary in the book by deFatta, et.al. 2 0 ing the windowing function, one can trade
Experimentation is involved in select- off the areas where a compromise is made.

10.11 AUTOMATIC NOISE BLANKERS

Noi se blankers attempt to determine when seconds. The fastest rise time for a 3-kHz
a broadband noise pulse is present and dur- SSB signal is over 200 microseconds. A
ing that period to "turn o f f ' the receiver pro- satisfactory blanker can result if one is
cessing. Both of these functions can be per- able to provide the wider bandwidth and
formed in DSP. Two general problems exist identify the strong signals with fast rise
in the operation of this type of noise blanker. times. Often D S P IF bandwidths may not
Signals can be interpreted as noise, causing be as wide as desired and this can be a
cross modulation onto the desired signal limitation of the noise blanker operation.
from the interfering signal, and the blanking The blanking operation is ideal for DSP
process may introduce unwanted signals that implementation. As was discussed in mixer
resemble the interference. The design must operation, the simple act of multiplying two
attempt to minimize these problems, but to signals together is "double balanced" and
some d e p e e noise blankers will have these neither input signal is fed through to the
characteristics. output. When the blanking operation is in an
Most noise blankers attempt to use the off state, the signal can be completely
bandwidth of the interfering noise as an removed. Alternatively, a substitute signal
Fig 10.43—Illustrating the use of
windowing to minimize spectral identifying criteria. Impulsive types of can be created that is the prediction of the
leakage, the figures show (a) a cosine noise tend to have short duration, and to desired signal, based on its past characteris-
waveform, chosen to not meet up at the be quite strong in a wider-band receiver. tics. Fora simple example, if the input signal
endpoints, (b) the resulting un- This type of signal produces a rapidly ris- was a CW tone, it would be logical to
windowed DFT power spectrum, (c) the ing pulse, limited by the bandwidth of the continue the last tone that was not blanked.
same cosine waveform with a Hamming Some delay is needed to give time for the
measurement. For instance, an IF band-
window applied, and finally, the much
width of 10 kHz can pass an impulse noise blanking decision to be made. This delay
narrowed DFT power spectrum from the
windowed waveform (d). signal with a rise time of about 70 micro- can be implemented in D S P in a few proccs-

10.28 Chapter 10
sor instructions. More general predictors are
also possible for cases such as noise input or 12 kHz
a SSB signal.
Fig 10.44 shows a block diagram of a
Full-Wave
DSP implementation of a noise blanker.
Envelope
The envelope detector determines the Detector
maximum amplitude of the IK signal. It
would look at both the positive and nega-
tive excursions of the signal in order to
respond, as quickly as possible, to any rap-
idly rising noise burst. A 2500-Hz low-pass
Adjustable i
filters extracts the signal envelope. In a Compare
Threshold >
similar fashion, the output of a
12-kHz filter responds to all signals
present in the pass band. If only the desired Moise-Slaftked
signal is present, the outputs of the two Delay Gate I-F Signal
fillers would be very similar. However, a Output
noise burst would produce a greater re-
sponse from the wider-band filter. This dif-
ference can be sensed by taking the ratio* Fig 10.44—Block diagram of a noise-blanker suitable for implementation as a DSP
of the two outputs. A comparator can sense function. An envelope detector follows the amplitude of the wide-band (12 kHz)
signal. Two low-pass filters are used to determine the presence of a noise burst,
if the noise response is over a threshold
which then gates the received signal. A signal delay allows time for the decision
and then produce a blanking signal. making.

10.12 CW SIGNAL GENERATION

We have discussed the generation of a sine
wave and gating this on and off can generate C W Key
500 Hz
crude CW signals. It is well known that spec-
tral broadening (key clicks) will result from CW
sudden on/off transitions. The keying can be Signal
made to have much better transitions by
treating the process as amplitude modula-
tion as shown in Fig 10.45. Here the logical Sinewave
signal from the keying device is placed Generator
through a low-pass filter to convert it to an
analog signal of limited bandwidth. The pro-
cess of amplitude modulation then produces
Fig 10.45—Block diagram of a CW generator using pulse shaping and an amplitude
a spectrum that is twice as wide as the lim-
modulator. This limits the spectrum of the keyed waveform. The AM modulator in
ited bandwidth. its DSP implementation is a multiplication of the two signals.

10.13 SSB SIGNAL GENERATION

All of the techniques for SSB genera- easily achieved. nents. An example of this approach is the
tion shown for analog equipment in Chap- As an alternative to the phasing method, 18-MHz transceiver of Chapter 11.
ter 6 can be implemented in DSP. Often it is practical to implement a filler type of
the most attractive approach is the phasing SSB generator. Typically this would uti-
method as was di scussed i n Chapter 9. The lize an fF in the 5- to 25-kHz range and Predistorter Distortion
challenges of tight component tolerances analog mixing to convert the results to the Reduction
and component drill are not problems in operating frequency. SSB signals are raised in power level by
the software implementation and high car- The FIR filters, mixers and sine wave gen- amplifiers that often have intermodulation
rier and opposite sideband rejections are erators shown above can be combined to distortion products only 25 to 35 dB be-
implement a DSP IF sideband generator. low the peak transmitted level. These dis-
'Division is not usually a fast operation in a Alternatively, it is practical to have a tortion products are spread in frequency
fixed point DSP microprocessor. It is often hybrid analog/digital approach where the and can cause interference in adjacent
desirable to find the logarithm of two val- two quadrature audio signals are gener- channels. One can limit these product lev-
ues and subtract them. For applications
such as the noise blanker, the logarithm
ated in the DSP and the mixers and con- els by reducing the output level of the
function does riot need high accuracy and version oscillator are conventional analog amplifier or operating the amplifier in
can be implemented as a series of straight components. This approach lends itself to Class A: doing this results in poor dc-to-
lines. This can be a relatively fast process. error compensation for the analog compo- RF power efficiency for the amplifier.

DSP Components 10.29

 One alternate solution that allows the effi- ranged as shown in F i g 10,47. If we were p l a c e d a h e a d of the a m p l i f i e r . It is a s i m p l e
ciency to remain high while reducing distor- f o r t u n a t e , the diodes w o u l d provide the p o l y n o m i a l d e v i c e t h a t h a s an output/:!;,
tion is callcd predistortion. For example, if proper amount of gain expansion to remove put relationship:
the only amplifier distortion was gain c o m - the inherent gain compression of the ampli-
pression, as shown in Fig 10.46, one c a n fier, at least over a restricted o p e r a t i n g r a n g e . V., = V ; x (1.0147- 0.0409V;2
imagine that the distortion could be removed, A m o r e e l a b o r a t e g a i n e x p a n d e r can be + 0.1930 V;4) E q 10.13
if a gain-expanding pre-distorter was placed b u i l t u s i n g the c o m p u t a t i o n a l ability of a
ahead of the a m p l i f i e r . T h e prcdistorter D S P d e v i c e . It is p r e s e n t e d here to i n d i - T h e c o e f f i c i e n t s for this predistorter
would have the opposite gain characteristic cate the p o t e n t i a l f o r D S P c o m p o n e n t s to w e r e f o u n d b y c u r v e f i t t i n g with a spread-
to the amplifier, as shown in the upper part of i m p r o v e the d i s t o r t i o n p e r f o r m a n c e as sheet p r o g r a m to be c l o s e to the i n v e r s e t>!
the figure. For an analog implementation, it w e l l as t o s u g g e s t s o m e p o s s i b l e d i r e c t i o n s a m p l i f i e r d i s t o r t i o n . T h e s q u a r e d and
might be possible to use some diodes ar- t h a t c o u l d b e e x p l o r e d . T h i s is n o t a n f o u r t h p o w e r t e r m s treat t h e p o s i t i v e and
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of a p r e d i s t o r t e r , but n e g a t i v e w a v e f o r m v a l u e s in an identical
rather a conccptual treatment. The ambi- m a n n e r , w h i c h is a c o m p u t a t i o n a l c o n v e -
t i o u s e x p e r i m e n t e r is e n c o u r a g e d to p u r - n i e n c e . T h i s is o n l y an e x a m p l e of i
s u e this area s i n c c the p o t e n t i a l b e n e f i t s p r e d i s t o r t e r p o l y n o m i a l . T h e selection of
Predistorter are s u b s t a n t i a l . the polynomial complexity, or choosing a
Gain" d i f f e r e n t f o r m of p r e d i s t o r t e r , is all part of
An e x a m p l e of s u c h an i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
is s h o w n in F i g 1 0 . 4 8 . A p o l y n o m i a l is the d e s i g n p r o c e s s .
shown as the gain expansion curve. Within F i g 1 0 . 5 0 s h o w s t h e i n p u t w a v e f o r m for
b r o a d r e s t r i c t i o n s , it is p o s s i b l e to a p p r o x i -
m a t e a g a i n e x p a n s i o n c u r v e to a n y p r e c i -
Amplifier Gain sion b y u s i n g e n o u g h t e r m s in the p o l y n o - Amplifier Relative Output Spectrum
m i a l . R e s u l t s f r o m a s i m u l a t i o n * of an o
a m p l i f i e r a n d p r e d i s t o r t e r a r e in t h e s h o w n -10
Input Voltage Magnitude in F i g s 1 0 . 4 9 t h r o u g h 10.52. In t h i s ex-
a m p l e . the a m p l i f i e r is m o d e l e d as a l i n e a r -20

Fig 10,46—Amplifier (lower graph) and a m p l i f i e r of g a i n 1.0 (0 d B ) a l o n g with a -30

predistorter gain characteristics. The c u b i c d i s t o r t i o n t e r m , w h i c h is o f t e n the
two devices are cascaded to result in a -40
dominant distortion for amplifiers. For
net gain that is always 0 dB. The gain of
the devices is shown as 0 dB for low- t h o s e i n c l i n e d to d e s c r i b e t h i s m a t h e m a t i - -50
levels, which is not usually the case cally, the o u t p u t v o l t a g e . v 0 . in t e r m s of
and these, should be thought of as -60
the i n p u t v o l t a g e v a is: 20 30
relative gains.
Frequency
-0.lv. Eq 10.12
Fig 10.49—Amplifier output spectrum
w h e r e t h e 0.1 m u l t i p l i e r is c h o s e n to be showing the two desired signals at
c o n v e n i e n t a s an e x a m p l e . If t w o sine frequencies of 17 and 23 and the third-
order intermodulation products at
w a v e s of equal 1.54-V p e a k - t o - p e a k input
frequencies of 12 and 29. These
a r e a p p l i e d to the a m p l i f i e r w i t h o u t frequencies were chosen to be easy to
p r e d i s t o r t i o n , the r e s u l t i n g i n t c r m o d - simulate, but the results apply generally
u l a t i o n s p e c t r u m will b e that s h o w n in the to any two-tone test frequencies. There
F i g 10.49. H e r e the i n t c r m o d u l a t i o n p r o d - are no Intermodulation products of
order higher than three, for the
ucts are a b o u t 31 d B b e l o w the p e a k o u t -
amplifier as it was modeled.
put; this is p r o b a b l y t y p i c a l of the l e v e l s
f o u n d in l i n e a r p o w e r a m p l i f i e r s .
Fig 10.47—Schematic diagram of a Next a mathematical predistorter was
simple gain expanding predistorter.
This analog circuit is constrained by
available diode types, but does provide The simulation was done with MATLAB.
a general gain characteristic that is The script is included in the Experimental
opposite to that of amplifier gain Methods in RF Design CD as the file
compression. "predisl.m."

A/D
Converter
Polynomial
K t - V . + K 2 - V . a + K 3 - V . j + ...
D/A
Converter
H> Amplifier
with Distortion
Fig 10.50—Waveforms before and after
Fig 10.48—Block diagram of a gain expander that could be implemented in a DSP the predistorter. Only the extreme
system. The A/D and D/A converters are shown to emphasize the points where voltages are increased by the
the signal has a digital form. In general, it would be combined with other digital predistorter. This increases the drive to
blocks. As the complexity of the polynomial gets greater, the potential for reducing the amplifier to overcome the amplitude
distortion improves. compression in the amplifier.

10.30 C h a p t e r 10
 the simulated amplifier, both with and
without the predistortion. For small sig-
Amplifier Relative Output Spectfum nals the predistorter has no effect on the
5 waveform. This seems reasonable, since
4 small signals tend to have very little

.
ic
3

0
i amplifier distortion. As the signal levels
exceed 0.5 V the effect of the predistorter
b e c o m e significant. The drive level is
increased considerably on the waveform
peaks. As the amplifier output tries to com-
-2 press. the predistorter drives it enough
-3 Compression T harder to bring it back to linearity. Fig
-4
' i 10.51 is a plot of the resulting amplifier
10 20 30 -5
0 0.2 0,4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 spectrum when the two desired outputs
Frequency
Input voltage Magnitude have the same level as for Fig 10.49. The
third order intermodulation products are
now about 48 dB below the peak output,
an improvement of 17 dB.
Fig 10.51—Output spectrum for the
same amplifier as used in Fig 10.49, Fig 10.52—Simulated amplifier and The gain characteristics for this example
except with the predistorter ahead of predistorter gain characteristics. The are shown in Kig 10.52.The amplifier gain is
the amplifier. The third-order products predistorter has been designed to down about 2.6 dB for an input level of 1.20
have been reduced by about 17 dB. minimize the error in the net gain for V. For this same level, the predistorter has a
Fifth and seventh order products can be voltages from 0 to 1.25. All voltages are
gain increase of 2.6 dB and the net gain is
seen on either side of the third-order referenced to the input to the
products. The predistorter and Its predisorter, and the input to the about 0 dB, representing no distortion.
interaction with the amplifier amplifier can be greater due to the Below this level, the correction is not perfect,
characteristics introduced these. predistorter gain expansion. but stavs within about 0.2 dB of 0 dB.

Fig 10.53—Block diagram of a SSB transmitter with predistortion in both amplitude and phase. The lower portion of the
diagram is conventional phasing type of SSB generator that serves to determine the desired envelope amplitude, which
determines the polynomial predistortion. All components shown are implemented in DSP.

DSP C o m p o n e n t s 10.31
 II this predistorter was applied to a real to improve this by changes in the coeffi- trial-and-crror. This, easy-to-follow proce-
amplifier, the results would be disappoint- cients. The first step in such a process is to dure changes one of the coefficients by a
ing. This is because we have built a paper make a measurement of the amplifieroutput small amount and then observes the ampli-
amplifier thai has no phase distortion at distortion. This could be a spectral analysis fier output. If the distortion is reduccd, the
large signal levels. Transistor amplifiers are of the output spectrum, since we desire to change is left. If not. a trial in the opposite
not this simplistic and require correction not have any power outside a particular fre- direction is made. A lack of improvement at
for phase as well as Tor amplitude. How- quency band. The spectral analysis can be this point means that the original coefficient
ever, the technique shown above works done by converting the frequency of the was satisfactory. Then the procedure repeats
equally well for phase corrections. A poly- amplifier output back to a low frequency the steps for the next coefficient. So long as
nomial of the input voltage can be used to and applying a DFT to the signal, using the starting coefficients are not totally un-
determine the needed phase predistortion. DSP. Alternatively, one could take the con- reasonable. this will normally progress to the
Fig 10.53 is a block diagram of a SSB trans- verted signal and compare it with the de- optimum set of coefficients.
mitter with both amplitude and phase cor- sired signal in Fig 10.52. attempting to make Fig 10.51 shows that 5th and 7th order
rections being applied. It is necessary to the amplifier output a multiplied replica of intermodulation products have been intro-
know the envelope of the desired signal and the drive signal. This again is straightfor- duced by the predistorter. These high-order
the lower SSB generator in the figure serv es ward in a DSP implementation, but one must products are potentially more harmful than
this purpose. Amplitude and phase modu- allow for delays and constant phase shifts the original, but larger, 3rd order product.
lation for the predistortion can be applied that occur in the amplifier. The high order products are controllable in
to a sccond SSB generator as shown. All
Next, a process for changing the predis- amplitude by a combination of the operat-
local oscillators (LO) are at the frequency
tortion polynomial coefficients must be de- ing level and the predistorter design. Care
of the (suppressed) transmit I-F earner.
signed. This can proceed at a slow rate rela- should be taken to evaluate these efects.
In general, it is not satisfactory to use a tive to the changes in the transmitted signal. Predistortion systems can be seen to have
fixed set of coefficients for the polynomi- It is only necessary to foEow temperature or some complexity in their operation. But
als. Time, temperature, load impedance and other long-term affects. A number of sophis- the rewards are quite great. Not only does
other factors will change these. This sug- ticated procedures exist for determining the the amplifier distortion reduction mitigate
gests a feedback process that can observe coefficients.21 But, it is possible to get good "spcctrum pollution," but the efficiency of
the success of the predistorter and attempt performance from operations as simple as the amplifier is effectively improved.

REFERENCES
1.D. Smith. Digital Signal Processing 7. P. Horowitz and W. Hill. The Art of the basis for an FM detector.
Technology, ARRL, 2001. Electronics. 16. E. O. Brigham, The Fast Fourier
2. P. Horowitz and W Hill, The Art of 8. See Reference 4. Transform, Prentice-Hall, 1974. For those
Electronics, Cambridge University Press, 9. W. Davenport and W. Root. AH comfortable with the concepts of calculus,
1989, Chapter 9. This is a discussion of Introduction to the Theory of Random Signals this is a wonderful reference book. The
A/D converters including sigma-delta. and Noise.McGraw-Hill, 1958, Ch. 5. The Discrete Fourier Transform properties and
3. D. Garcia, "Precision Digital Sine-Wave Central-Limit Theorm of statistics states that the "fast" implementations are both well
Generation with the TMS320IO," paper #8 under some very general conditions, the sum covered. Similar material is covered in R.
in Applications Manual, Digital Signal of a number of random variables approaches W. Ramirez, The FFT Fundamentals and
Processing with the TMS320 Family, the Gaussian distribution as the number gets Concept. Prentice-Hall. 1985. In addition,
Theory, Algorithms and Implementations, large. Most collcgc level statistics books there is a summary of the DFT in the ARRL
Volume J, Texas Instruments. 1986. This cover this theorm as well as signal analysis Handbook. Reference 10 above.
gives a good discussion of the books such as this one. 17. Chapter 6 of Reference 4 contains a
approximation tradeoffs associated with 10. The ARRL Handbook for Radio variety of FFT routines.
lookup tables. Program listings are specific Amateurs, ARRL, 2002. Chapter 18 18. Section 14.5 of Reference 4 contains
to the TMS320I0. but the discussion is contains an introduction to the Fourier an implementation of the Gocrtze!
quite general. transform. algorithm for DTMF decoding.
4. Digital Signal Processing Applications 11. The FIR filter design program is 19. R. Larkin, "The DSP-10: An All-Mode
Using the ADSP-2100 Famih. Volume 1, included on the CD-ROM for this book as 2-M Transceiver Using a DSP IF and PC-
Prentice-Hall, 1992. FIRDES1.BAS. The Basic program will Controlled Front Panel." QST, in three
5. D. J. DeFatta, .1. G. Lucas, W. S. Hodgkiss, run on most Basic interpreters such as have parts. Sep 1999, pp 33-41: Oct 1999. pp
Digital Signal Processing: A System Design been included with DOS and Windows™ 34-40; Nov 1999, pp 42-45.
Approach, John Wiley, 1988. This is a great operating systems up through 20. See Reference 5.
book, if you are comfortable with some Window s98™.
college level math, but it is not a math book 21. T. R. Cuthbert, Jr., Optimization Using
12. J. Forrer. "A DSP-Based Audio Signal Personal Computers With Applications to
like some DSP books! Processor," QEX, September, 1996. pp 8-13. Electrical Networks. John Wiley & Sons.
6. W. H. Press. S. A. Teukolsky, W. T. 13. U. Rohde. personal correspondence 1987. This book covers the mathematical
Vetterling. B. P. Hannery. Numerical Recipes with Wes Hayward. 1997. side of optimization and is good for those
in C. Cambridge University Press. 1992. This wanting to spend some time on the subject.
book discusses the background, 14. The ARRL Handbook, reference 10
above, includes examples of several types Knowledge of Calculus and Linear A Igebra
implementation and limitations of the is required to fully use the material, but
method, as well as a large number of computer of FM detectors.
BASIC programs and examples are
methods for numerical calculations. 15. Reference 4, Chapter 4 includes an provided for those who wish to approach
Arctangent routine that could be used as the subject experimentally.

10.32 Chapter 10
 CHAPTER

DSP Applications in
Communications

In Chapter 10 a number of DSP build- The control of the communications an existing receiver and used directly for
ing blocks, such as oscillators, filters and equipment can usually be improved by on-the-air experiments.
modulators were explored. In many cases some sort of computer, which is often a This chapter focuses on the processing
the blocks were alternatives to traditional dedicated microprocessor. This may be a of signals, but before getting to that we
analog functions, while in other cases, good approach, depending on the com- need to look at some basic control tech-
such as the discrete Fourier transform, we plexity of the devices. An alternative, niques. The first issue we will address is
are introducing functionality that was not however, is to use the same DSP device that of computer interrupts, which are fun-
previously practical. In this chapter, we that is processing signals to do the control damental to having the DSP programs
will explore methods for combining functions. This approach will be used sev- operate in synchronism with the attached
several blocks to produce a piece of com- eral times in this chapter, with the result of hardware.
munications equipment. We will be inte- needing less total hardware and only a AH the DSP programs needed to bring
grating three types of functions: single computer program. life to these projects are included on the
• Traditional analog components, such The journey of an experimenter who CD-ROM with the book and are not re-
as RF amplifiers and RF mixers. decides to investigate these DSP projects pealed in the text. Shown in this chapter
• DSP components, such as were cov- will begin with the EZ-K1T Lite from Ana- are a few fragments of the programs to il-
ered in Chapter 10. log Devices. The first things that might be lustrate a number of detailed operations. It
• Controls for both of these types of done with this DSP board are simple dem- is recommended thai the reader look at the
components. Most often this is associated onstrations such as audio filters, which arc complete program, on occasion. ThU
with operator interaction, involving both well describedin the manuals supplied with gives a "big picture" view of combining
displays and interface controls. the board. Several of these can be tied into fragments into a working DSP program.

11.1 P R O G R A M S T R U C T U R E
All computer programs have some form when needed. "Real-time" programming Interrupts
of overall structure, ranging from trivial to becomes problematic under these circum- As discussed in Chapter 10. data pro-
excessively complex. Often times the stances. cessing devices require some method to
structure is largely determined by a group For simple DSP programs, it is often change the program operation, based on
of programs, collectively referred to as an possible to operate with no real-time oper- some elcctrical input. Called interrupts,
operating system. For a P C . this constrains ating system. All resources arc allocated these methods involve some internal dedi-
all programs to certain conventions while when the program is designed. The over- cated hardware to make changes to the
allowing multiple programs to share re- head of the operating system is avoided processor state. Normally the minimum
sources, such as memory" or processor and the programs are guaranteed to com- operation is a change in the address of the
time. To the person writing a program this plete their tasks on time. All the programs program being executed. The programmer
can be both a convenience as well as a in this chapter will use this approach and must have placed appropriate instructions
source of anxiety. Having a set of subrou- have same structure. This consists of a at the interrupt-altered address.
tines available to handle standard opera- background program that processes all A complication for interrupt program-
tions can speed up program writing. How- data that has no time deadlines, and a ming is the potential for multiple inter-
ever, if there arc multiple users of single Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) that rupts. For example, in a DSP program,
resources, there may be no guarantee that includes all routines that must be com- these might be an operation to output data
a particular program will finish its task pleted on a periodic basis. to a D/A converter and a need to output

DSP Applications in Communications 11.1

serial data to a serial port. The first inter- scheme opens additional interrupt pro- rupt should be placed into the background
rupt might c o m e from the D/A converter cessing time in two ways: process. Examples of this are the updating
and the second from a hardware timer that • There is no possibility of two inter- of data for a display or the reading of a
is often built on the same IC as the DSP rupts occurring at the same time and there- knob or a switch. Again, these processes
dcvicc. The programmer must ensure that fore no worst-case timing constraints to can be arranged in a sequential order with
these two interrupts will be processed cor- allow all processes to be finished no need to monitor the time increment
rectly. regardless of when the interrupts • No communication is required be- needed. So long as the interrupt process
occur, including the case of one interrupt tween processes about tasks that need to leaves any time at all. the background will
occurring while a second interrupt is be- be performed. That is, the operating sys- be processed. Determining whether this is
ing processed. For our example, the data tem is built-in to the program at design happening at a fast enough rate can be done
to the D/A converter must be processed time. at design time. It will only happen more
before the next D/A request is received. If If there is only one interrupt, all inter- slowly if it is being monitored by some
this is not done, there will large amounts rupt processing should be completed in part of the process.
of signal distortion associated with a miss- one period, leaving the system free at the Fig 10.6 in the previous chapter illus-
ing data output. time of the next interrupt. This is the way trates the single timed interrupt structure
A simple plan that ensures a minimum that communication betw een tasks is mini- used for all of the projects in this chapter.
amount of lime will be available for inter- mized. This processing should include Even more elaborate processes, such as the
rupt processing is to use only one interrupt everything that needs to be completed be- DSP-10 transceiver (only outlined in this
that occurs on a periodic basis. Although fore the next interrupt. chapter but included on the book CD), will
this may require some planning to accom- Additionally, any process that does not continue (o use the same structure.
modate all processes, the simplicity of this need to be completed before the next inter-

11.2 USING A DSP DEVICE AS A CONTROLLER

The " S " in DSP is for signal, and one
usually thinks of such a microprocessor as
Output A Three-Wire Serial
being for signal handling functions. How-
ever. applications usually need some f o r m Interfaces
of control functions, in addition to pro- Serial hardware interfaces are
cessing signals. As will be seen it works common for communicating
Output B
quite well to use the same processor for between devices. This simple
control purposes, resulting in an overall interface is often implemented
reduction in hardware and software Clockwise Rotation using three wires, a data wire, a
clock wire to tell when the data is
complexity by eliminating the need for a
valid and a latch wire to tell when
separate controller and the associated
Fig 11.1—This diagram shows the logic the new serial data should be used.
interfacing. All of the control program can
levels that occur at the two rotary This is compatible with shift
be implemented as a background activity
encoder outputs, as it rotates. At no registers used as receiving de-
that essentially runs on a "time available" time do both of the outputs change vices. Since the data is never used
basis. This way the time critical functions levels simultaneously. until a latch signal is applied, it is
such as signal generation or filtering are possible to share data and clock
not affected. The following discussions of lines, as will be seen below. In
the rotary encoder and an LCD panel arc puts of the sensors take on the pattern addition, serial devices are often
examples of using the D S P device as a shown in Fig 11.1. The sequencing of the built to be cascaded allowing
general-purpose controller. tw o outputs, A and B. prevent their chang- multiple devices to be talked to with
ing at the same time. The logic that deter- a single set of wires.
mines the direction of turning proceeds as An example of expanding the
Rotary Encoder follows. If output A and output B arc both serial interface to multiple devices
Simple control functions can use push low. the next change will be to high on is Fig A which uses two cascaded
buttons to communicatc our desires to the output B if the motion is clockwise. If shift registers to double the number
DSP. But if a numerical value is to be instead, the next change is to high on out- of parallel outputs to 16. The QH'
transmitted push buttons can be awkward, put A. it would indicate counter-clockwise output is intended for cascading the
and we must look to either a keyboard or rotation. For all four combinations of high shift registers. The number of
and low, we can make a similar determina- outputs can be increased this way
a rotary knob as a control device.
tion by examining the figure. without limit other than the increase
A knob is often easier to use for appli- in time required to make a change
cations such as changing a frequency. Once the direction of rotation is deter- in the outputs.
Reading the position of a knob is com- mined, a counter can be increased or de-
Many standard functions, in
monly done with a rotary optical en- creased at each transition. Implementing integrated-circuit form, are avail-
coder. 1 This operates by shining an L E D this countcr with digital hardware is a pos- able with a serial interface. Ex-
light source through an encoding pattern sibility. but the example here uses a D S P amples are frequency synthesizers,
onto a pair of optical sensors. The encod- software implementation. The counter out- A/D converters and D/A converters.
ing pattern rotates with the knob. After put can control the frequency of an oscil- Often it is possible to cascade
conversion to logic level sisnals. the out- lator or other such functions.

11.2 Chapter 11
 ~rh

AT
Vcc
PFO
SRCLR SRCK ADSP 2161
Serial Latch In PF1
G RCK (Part}
SER PF2
Serial Clock In I
Oa

Serial Data in Qb
Shift Qc
Register Eight
Oil - Digital
74HC595
n« Outputs
ot

I F
Qh LMX1501A
CLK
1k Freq Synth

1
(Part)

r
Oh' - W r - DAT
Gnd

Fig B—Schematic diagram of two cascaded serially

programmed devices requiring only three wires from the
controller.

Data to Next Shift Register,

If Used

Fig C—Schematic diagram of two serially programmed

Fig A—Schematic diagram of two cascaded serial-in/ devices sharing data and clock wires, but having individual
parallel-out shift registers providing 16 logic level latch lines.
outputs.

serial devices using a common set of three serial due to the clock signal. Some devices may clock fast
programming lines. This requires more clocking events enough for the network to not be needed, but this must
per program, but the time for this activity is often avail- be examined on an individual basis.
able. Sometimes the time required to program a very long
For example, Fig B shows a serially programmed serial stream is excessive, or the serially programmed
National LMX1501A frequency synthesizer cascaded device may not have an output to support cascading.
with an 8-bit shift register. The shift-register arrangement For these cases, it is possible to share data and clock
is identical with that of Fig A, except that the cascading wires, but to have separate latch wires as is shown in
output QH' is used to send data on to the frequency Fig C. The data is clocked into both devices at the
synthesizer IC. The data passes through the shift same time, but only the device receiving a latch signal
register and on to the internal shift registers of the will act on the data.
synthesizer. Common clock and latch lines are used for The three-wire interface is quite flexible in its usage.
both devices. We need to be careful that all timing In many cases it is the only form for which a particular
constraints for the various devices are met. An example device may be available. However, in some sense it
of such a constraint is the RC network on the data line transfers the simplicity of the interface back to the
going into the synthesizer. This provides a delay of software that provides the drive. This generally is a
about a half microsecond, guaranteeing that the synthe- satisfactory result since wiring up parallel interfaces
sizer has clocked in the data from QH' before it changes with 8, 16 or possibly more wires is very repetitious and
not as challenging as software!

DSP Applications in Communications 11.3

 T h e particular encoder used here was a
Clarostat 6 0 0 E N - 1 2 8 with a resolution of
2 5 6 c h a n g e s per rotation. A variety of
encoders are available most of which can Fig 11.2—A simple hardware
0.01
be adapted to this application, as well as interface for use between a rotary
encoder and a DSP device having
the possibility of a h o m e - b u i l t e n c o d e r as
programmable flag inputs. Only
described in R e f e r e n c e 1. Vcc
one row of the programmable
M a n y possibilities exist for c o n n e c t i n g flags of the DSP are shown here. Rotary Out A PFO
the rotary e n c o d e r to ihe p r o c e s s o r . Encoder Out B PF1
F i g 11.2 illustrates one of the simplest

1
Gnd ADSP2181
ways to accomplish this. Here the two en- (Part)
coder outputs arc connected to Program-
mable Flag inputs, PFO and P F 1 . These
inputs are part of a set of 8 pins that are
d e d i c a t e d to input and output of digital
data (T/O). Within the p r o c e s s o r these pins
can be d e f i n e d as cither inputs or outputs
by writing to a m e m o r y - m a p p e d register.
Once this is done the pin logic levels can
Vcc
be read f r o m a second m e m o r y - m a p p e d SER Clock
SRCLR SRCK PFO
register. T h e only constraint on this imple- G RCK PF1
mentation is Ihe limited n u m b e r of pins r f T SER PF2
available.
Oh
Expansion of the n u m b e r of digital I/O
Qg
lines can be a c c o m p l i s h e d by connecting ADSP 2181
Shit Qf _ Five Unused
f l i p - f l o p s to what is referred to as I/O Digital Outputs (Part)
Register OR
Space. This allows 16 bits to be read (or 74HC595
Qd
written) at a time and requires m i n i m a l
support h a r d w a r e . An alternative is to
continue using the P r o g r a m m a b l e Flags, Qc Vcc
but adding serial-to-parallel c o n v e r s i o n Qb
h a r d w a r e (shift registers) as is illustrated Qa
74HC151
in F i g 11.3. A m a j o r a d v a n t a g e of this Gnd 8 Input
scheme is its compatibility with multitudes Six D7 Digital
1 Qg Multiplexer
of serially p r o g r a m m e d d e v i c e s (see Unused
Digital "
sidebar " T h r e e - W i r e Serial Interfaces"). D5
Inputs s
R e f e r r i n g to Fig 11.3. there are three lines.
D4
tiara, cluck and latch, to transmit the serial
D3
data f r o m the processor to the shift regis-
D2
ter. F i g 11.4 shows the timing diagram for Rotary
producing 8 bits of parallel data f r o m the 22 Encoder Out A D1
shift register. T h e data line sets the value
of the individual bits. A f t e r the data line
•5V (1—VW

r Vcc
Out B DO

I x
0.01

X
Gnd
has achieved a w e l l - d e f i n e d value, the
clock m a k e s a zero-to one transition thai
loads the current data value into the shift
register. This is repeated a total of 8 times, Fig 11.3—An alternative approach to expansion of the number of digital I/O lines
at which point the entire 8-bit byte has is the addition of serial-to-parallel conversion hardware as shown here.
been loaded into the s h i f t register. T h e
order of the shift register is such that the
most significant bit (Qh) is the first bit in, Qg Qa
and the least significant bit (Qa) is the last
bit into the shift register.
T o this point, we have converted serial Clock
data f r o m the processor into parallel data
lines. If we are to read the logic levels of a
multiplicity of external lines, it will easily
use up the f r e e p r o g r a m m a b l e flag lines.
O n e simple interface that is particularly
Latch Occurs
suited to occasional reading of lines is the
digital multiplexer. Figure 11.3 shows the Earliest

8-input multiplexer using a 7 4 H C 1 5 1 IC.

The particular line that is to be read by the Fig 11.4—Timing diagram for loading the eight-bit 74HC595 shift register with an
p r o c e s s o r is selected by the 3-bit address example binary value of 11011001. Both clocking and latching occur when the
c o m i n g f r o m Qa, Qb and Qe of the shift signals go from logic 0 to logic 1.

11.4 C h a p t e r 11
 EZKit EZKit
P3 Func.

Input
Data ^ 2 8 PF3

Clock o-

Serial rt27__Pf2_
Data

Optrex DMC-1611TA

Fig 11.5—Schematic diagram of the hardware interface between a DSP device and multiple control devices, including a
rotary knob, four push buttons, two LED indicators and an LCD display.

register. The output of the multiplexer goes followers. Q1 and Q2, f r o m two of the we look at the methods for using the D S P
to the processor pin PF3. This is pro- parallel outputs. as a control device.
grammed to be an input pin during the ini- The L C D panel has several options for
tialization of the processor. an interface. Rather simple is the seven-
As a final step in the evolution of control
Programming the
wire arrangement shown in Fig 11.5. Four
box schematics, Fig 11.5 shows a complete wires are for data that can be sent a half-
Rotary Encoder
interface including the rotary encoder for byte at a lime and the other three wires A complete example program for the
the knob, four push buttons, two L E D in- control the reading of the data by the LCD. rotary encoder is CUKNOB.DSP, in-
dicators and a 16-character L C D panel. All seven wires come f r o m the parallel cluded on the book CD. The software is
Four of the parallel inputs are used to read output interface produced by the shift reg- centered on a routine, knob. This routine
the state of the push buttons. The two L E D isters U l and U2. The control of the L C D compares the two bits that dcscribc the
indicators are driven by simple e m i u e r panel will be discussed further below when current knob state with those for the previ-

DSP Applications in C o m m u n i c a t i o n s 11.5

 B o x 1- D S P r o u t i n e t o d e t e r m i n e k n o b r o t a t i o n u s i n g a l o o k u p
t a b l e . T h e o u t p u t in a x O is - 1 , O, or 1 f o r c o u n t e r - c l o c k w i s e
m o v e m e n t , n o m o v e m e n t or c l o c k w i s e m o v e m e n t .
knob:
ayO = 4; call inbit; { LSB of knob state, in axO }
mr1 = 0; { In case bit 3 of axO = 0 }
ar = tstbit 3 of axO: { Find out }
if eq jump kn1: { Yes, it is = 0 }
mr1 = 1; { The other case, bit 3 oi ax0=1 }
k n 1 : a y 0 = 5; call inbit; { Similar stuff for next to LSB )
ar = tstbit 3 of axO;
if eq jump kn2;
ar = setbit 1 of mr1;
mr1 = ar:
kn2: ( Here with new state in mr1 }
ar = dm(knob st); ( Knob state at last measurement }
sr = Ishift ar by 2 (hi); { Move left 2 bits }
ayO = sr1;
ar = mr1 or ayO; ( 4 bit state )
dm(knob_st) = mr1: { Current state for next time }
ayO = A encoder; { The lookup table address }
ar = ar+ayO; { Get location in the table )
i4 = ar; m4 = 0; 14 = 0; ( The i4 index register gives the )
The knob box was built from thin ayO = pm(i4, m4); { easy way to get a table entry )
plywood. An Inner box made from none=pass ayO; { Set flags, based on table entry )
scrap circuit board material contains rts: { With -1, 0, or +1 in ayO )
the logic circuitry shown in Fig 11.7.
The four push buttons are placed on
the top of the box as a convenience in
using the box. It is light enough that it Box 2 - Lookup t a b l e for d e t e r m i n i n g k n o b r o t a t i o n
wants to move when the buttons are .var/pm encoder[16]; { Rel Adr=Last state"4+New state }
pushed! The LCD display is above the .init encoder:
knob. A plastic bezel trims off the 0. H#FFFF00, H#000100. 0,
display. H#000100, 0. 0, H#FFFF00,
HSFFFF00, 0, 0. H#000100,
0, H#000100. H#FFFF00. 0;
o u s s l a t e a n d m a k e s o n e of t h r e e c h o i c e s :
• No Change
• Knob moved counter-clockwise, one Box 3 - P r o g r a m t o m o d i f y a p r o g r a m v a r i a b l e , a m u l t , u s i n g t h e
count r o u t i n e knob.
• Knob moved clockwise, one count call knob; { See if knob has moved (in ayO) )
T h i s occurs in the f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r . T h e ar=dm(amult); { Alter by either 0, -1 or +1 )
inputs c o m e f r o m another routine inbii that ar=ar+ay0; { We add, but ayO may be + or - 1 }
dm(amult)=ar; { For next time & use by others}
returns, in register ayO, the logic levels of
tile h a r d w a r e input lines c o n n e c t e d to the
7 4 H C 1 5 1 digital m u l t i p l e x e r of F i g I I . 5 .
Bits 4 and 5 of ayO contain the m u l t i p l e x e r T h e l o o k u p table is entered into the pro-
inputs D 4 and D5, which are the A and B gram as part of p r o g r a m m e m o r y as s h o w n
outputs of the rotary cncoder. T h e previously in the snippet in B o x 2. T h e e n c o d e r table is
m e a s u r e d values for'these lines are stored in stored as 24-bit data in p m . but u s e d as 16-bit
a data m e m o r y location d m ( k n o b _ S t ) . B y data in the D S P . T h e 00s on the end of the
c o m p a r i n g the old a n d the n e w m e a s u r e - hex values are 8 bil.s. set to 0, that are never
m e n t s , it is p o s s i b l e to d e d u c e the k n o b used, but arc very necessary to m a k e the bits
m o v e m e n t , if a n y ( S e e sidebar " U s i n g a line u p w h e n read as 16 bit values.
T a b l e L o o k u p to D e t e r m i n e K n o b M o t i o n " ) .
It is n o w p o s s i b l e t o alter a v a l u e , s u c h
T h e i m p l i e d m o v e m e n t is stored in a
as the a m p l i t u d e m u l t i p l i e r f o r a s i g n a l by
1 6 - m e m b e r l o o k u p table. T h i s is certainly
c a l l i n g t h e knob r o u t i n e . As an i l l u s t r a t i o n ,
not the only w a y to d e d u c e the knob m o v e -
we can m o d i f y a m e m o r y " g a i n " value
ment. but it h a s the appeal of b e i n g easy to
called amult, as s h o w n in B o x 3.
understand. In general, solutions that use a
little m o r e m e m o r y , b u t arc easy to under- More elaborate programming would
stand. h a v e m u c h appeal! T h e entry point to a l l o w d i f f e r e n t c h a n g e s to be m a d e d e -
the l o o k u p table is constructed f r o m the old pending on the knob rotation. This could
and n e w k n o b states b y s h i f t i n g the old state b e u s e d f o r o p e r a t i o n s s u c h as c h a n g i n g a
left to bits 2 and 3 and putting t h e n e w state filter or a f r e q u e n c y band.
Inside the knob box is a second box for
in bits 0 and 1. T h i s creates a 4-bit binary the digital electronics. Pigtail wires run
n u m b e r that ranges in value f r o m 0 to 15. LCD Panel to the EZ-KIT Lite. For this box, a plug
All c o m b i n a t i o n s of old and n e w stale are was placed on the pigtail wires to allow
T h e liquid-crystal display ( L C D ) is c o n - the same EZ-KIT Lite to be used for
included. T h e l o o k u p table returns a value of
venient for displaying data from our D S P other projects. Any type of plug would
-1. 0 or +1, as shown in B o x 1.
device. T h e s e displays range f r o m the be suitable.

11.6 C h a p t e r 11
simple character display to a large matrix the particular panel for details. application using the box. the two sine
with colors. We will only deal with the Programming the LCD panel through wave plus noise generator. Both of these
least complex of these, but the principles the serial-hardware lines is straightfor- projects are shown later in this chapter.
required to extend the complexity will be ward. but will appear to be somewhat la- When a character is sent to the LCD, it
the same. The display shown here has 16 borious. The panel requires a sequence of is displayed at the left edge, and all exist-
characters, arranged in a single row. Any commands be sent to initialize the con- ing data on the display are pushed a char-
of the alphanumeric characters and a vari- troller. Once this is done, the individual acter to the right. If one wants to write any
ety of symbols can be displayed. The par- characters of the display can be set by two new character, it is necessary to write all
ticular display used here is the Optrex byte commands. The emphasis here will 16 positions in sequential order. For an
DMC-16117A. but a variety of products be on the general nature of using the DSP example, we will display a 16-bit number
are available from Optrex and other manu- as a controller, rather than on the specific in decimal form. This will include a lead-
facturers. The programming of many of procedures for this display. The details of ing negative sign if appropriate, or a lead-
these displays is similarto that shown here. this example are included with the pro- ing blank if the number is zero or positive.
Cheek the manufacturer's data sheets for grams for the "Knob Box." along with an These numbers, in decimal form, can range
from -32768 to 32767. Including the
minus sign, up to six characters are needed.
A complete ORP To simplify the display arrangement, we
rig for 2-meters,
the DSP-10, is will always leave room for six characters.
built around a We could write a long program routine to
minimal amount convert the number into numeric charac-
of hardware and ters and to load these into the LCD display.
the software Doing this can make a program difficult to
running In the
laptop PC. Along follow and prevents reuse of any of the
with the RF program pieces for other purposes. Writ-
hardware in the ing the program as a collection of subrou-
die-cast box is tines minimizes these problems.
an Analog
Devices EZ-KIT We will now look at some of the details
Lite that serves of these five subroutines. For selected por-
as the last IF and tions of the routines, the detailed program
audio portions of
the transceiver. instructions are shown. The fully com-
See page 11.27 mented source programs are included on
for more the Experimental Methods in RF Design CD
information. as part of the program CI 1 KNOB DSH

Using A Table Lookup To Determine Knob Motion

The table that is stored at the program memory table numbers are B'A'BA where the primed values refer to the
"encoder" is reconstructed here with the table address last measurements and B and A are the two logic
offset in binary and the table entries as decimal numbers: outputs from the encoder.
Some of the address offsets, such as 0101 or 1111,
4-Bit Address Offset Entry have the same old and new values and correspond to no
0000 0 motion ot the knob. All four of this type can be found in
0001 -1 the table to have an entry value of 0 indicating "no
0010 1 change."
0011 0 Next are address offsets such as 0001. Here the B
0100 1 output has remained logic-level 0, but the A output has
0101 0 changed from 0 to 1. Referring back to the encoder logic
0110 0 of Fig 11.1 it can be seen that only if the knob has
0111 -1 counter-clockwise motion is this possible. This results in
1000 -1 an entry of -1. In a similar fashion, an offset of 0010 can
1001 0 only occur for clockwise rotation and an entry value of 1
1010 0 results. If the knob is controlling a value, such as
1011 1 frequency, the new value can result from adding the
1100 0 table entry to the old frequency.
1101 1 Note that there are four address offsets, such as 0011
1110 -1 or 1001 that should never occur. These correspond to
1111 0 both A and B outputs of the encoder changing at the
same time. Fig 11.1 would suggest that this cannot
The address offset is shown as a binary number, occur. However, if the knob is rotated so fast that a state
corresponding to decimal equivalent numbers of 0 to 15. is skipped over, the 0011 combination may be encoun-
The binary values are the encoder-output logic levels for tered. This combination tells us that the encoder has
the last measurement followed by those for the current changed by two positions, but there is no clue as to the
measurement. All 16 possible combinations are in the direction. For this reason, the table entry must be zero,
table. Relating these to the knob encoder, the binary meaning that no change will be made.

DSP Applications In Communications 11.7

Converting a Binary characters was seen to be the function of This is simpler than counting the number
Number to Individual the subroutine n2hcd. This is done by con- of subtractions and then adding 30 hex to
ASCII Digits sidering each character position in order. it. Since all of the characters f r o m "0* to
If the number is negative, the first posi- ' 9 ' are in sequence in ASCII, the results
Fig 11.6 illustrates the programming of tion is loaded with an ASCII minus sign. arc the same.
the L C D to display a 16-bit signed integer. Otherwise it is loaded with a space or The subroutine repeats the same series
The subroutine nlbcd converts the 16 bit " b l a n k " character. The number is then of subtractions for the 1000s digit, except
number into six ASCII characters* that are negated if it was negative. that here the number of subtractions pos-
left in a six position array in data memory.
The numeric value to be placed in each sible may be as high as nine. This contin-
Each character is broken into four-bit
character position is determined by re- ues through the unit digit, after which all
halves, called nibbles, ready to be sent to
peated subtractions. For instance, for the of the six character positions will hold the
the display by the subroutine ourch. The
digit following the sign, wc subtract proper ASCII character. When we humans
routine led4 supports ourch by moving
10,000 (decimal) from it. If this produces write a two-digit n u m b e r in a six-digit
four bits into the shift register using mul-
a negative result the number must be less space, we leave blanks in the f o u r leading
tiple calls of the subroutine loadlt5. This
than 10.000 and we will put a '0' character zero spots. These could be converted, but
subroutine handles the pulsing of hard-
in the second table position and move to we will keep things simple by leaving
ware lines to move data into the shift reg-
the 1000s digit. Otherwise we put a one in these in place since it is not wrong.
ister. Completing the needed subroutines
the second table position and repeat the This routine demonstrates the complex-
is delay, slowing the DSP process to en-
10,000 subtraction. This continues ity occurring when converting a number
sure that the waveforms going to the shift
through ' 3 ' , which is the largest value pos- built on powers of two to one built on pow-
registers have sufficient time to be cor-
sible for the 10,000s digit, at which point ers of 10. For each p o w e r of 10, like
rectly formed.
the subtraction must have a negative re- 10000. 1000, 100,..., subtraction must be
Changing the 16-bit number to 6 ASCII
sult. F i g 11.7 is a flow chart that illustrates used to successively remove the powers
this process for the 10,000 digit, and the of 10. The routine could be shortened by
*Most computer users are familiar with the program fragment in Box 4 shows these building it out of loops, but generally with
ASCII character code as the language of same steps in assembly language. the ADSP-2181 program memory is not in
text files or serial ports, where 128 differ-
T h e second instruction loads the a y 1 short supply. In-line routines, such as used
ent symbols are encoded into 7-bit binary
numbers. The ARRL Handbook includes register with the ASCII value for the char- here are often easier to debug and can ex-
the details. acter zero, which is 30 hex or 4 8 decimal. ecute faster than their looped equivalents.

Operation Example Data

The number to be displayed

12345 [00110000001110011
in decimal notation
Equivalent binary
Called Once Subroutine n2bcd representation

The number is now six

ASCII characters. The
first character is a blank. Binary representation
of ASCII blank,' '

Called 6 Times
Divide each ASCII
character into two four bit Subroutine outch
nibbles, add a binary 1000
into the bit positions 4 to 7. Left (Most Significant)
Four Bits
Send 8 bits to transfer
most significant nibble.
Subroutine !cd4
Right (Least Significant!
Four Bits

Send 8 more bits to transfer 11000 oooo]

least significant nibble Subroutine Icd4

Finished after sending ail

six ASCII characters
Fig 11.7—Flow diagram of a portion of
Fig 11.6—Data structures used in converting a 16-bit signed number Into a form the n2bcd subroutine, showing the
for sending to the LCD display. Three subroutines are used to break the number extraction of the 10,000's digit. The
Into characters, prepare a character for transmission and to send a four-bit nibble digit is converted to ASCII by adding
as required by the LCD display. the value 30 hex.

11.8 Chapter 11
 W e n o w h a v e six c h a r a c t e r s in a m e m o r y
Box 4 - DSP program to determine the ASCII value a r r a y r e a d y to he sent to the d i s p l a y . T h i s
corresponding to the 10,000's digit. is t r a n s m i t t e d to t h e L C D as nibbles, each
containing four-bits of the character. T o in-
{ The n u m b e r to b e converted to BCD is in data memory d m ( t e m p l ) }
dicate that this i n f o r m a t i o n is display data, a
ayO = 10000; ( Find the 10,000s digit}
ay1 = h#30; { '0' to count the subtractions } binary one is placed in the left-hand position
n2a: ar = d m ( t e m p l ) ; { Test the current reduced n u m b e r } of the eight. All of this is handled by a sub-
af = ar - ayO; routine, called out_ch.
if It jump n2b; { Done for this digit}
ar = ar - ayO; { Not done, r e d u c e working n u m b e r } G o i n g b a c k to t h e s c h e m a t i c of the d i s -
d m ( t e m p l ) = ar; p l a y in F i g 11.5. of the 16 bits of s h i f t -
ar = ay1 + 1 ; { Increase current d i g i t ) r e g i s t e r o u t p u t lines, o n l y s e v e n g o to t h e
ay1 = ar; { This is w h e r e it is k e p t } L C D . S o . w e n e e d to be c a r e f u l that s e n d -
jump n2a; { Continue subtractions }
n2b: dm(digit + 1) = ay1; ing data to the L C D d o e s not c h a n g e the
{ store the ASCII value in memory }
o t h e r o u t p u t s . T h i s is a c c o m p l i s h e d by
u s i n g a logical O R i n s t r u c t i o n with a c o p y
of all the o u t p u t s k e p t in d a t a m e m o r y as
d m ( d a t a ! 6 ) . O t h e r data manipulation
s t e p s arc n e e d e d to b e c o n s i s t e n t with the
r e q u i r e m e n t s of the L C D h a r d w a r e . T h e
s u b r o u t i n e lcd4 p e r f o r m s t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s
f o r both n i b b l e s . Fig U . 8 s h o w s the f l o w
of this s u b r o u t i n e .

( Start
LOAD 16 J
T h e o n l y m i s s i n g o p e r a t i o n n o w is a
m e t h o d to load the 74HC595 shift r e g i s -
( Start "N
LCD4 J t e r s w i t h serial d a t a (see t h e s i d e b a r o n
p a g e 11.2. " T h r e e - W i r e S e r i a l I n t e r -
f a c e s " ) . T h i s is a c c o m p l i s h e d by use of a
Move 4-bits of Data s u b r o u t i n e toad 16. o u t l i n e d in Fig 11.9.
to Bits 8 to 11 O n e a d v a n t a g e of this m o d u l a r s u b r o u t i n e
Read s t r u c t u r e is the ability to u s e t h i s s a m e rou-
Most Significant Bit tine f o r a n y o p e r a t i o n that r e q u i r e s alter-
(MSB)
ing the o u t p u t s of the s h i f t r e g i s t e r s . T h e
'SR' Bit: 0x0080 for Data
0x0000 for Command f i g u r e and the c o m m e n t e d listing on the
Experimented Methods in Radio Fre-
Shift Bits Left quency Design C D - R O M c a n b e e x a m i n e d
to see the d e t a i l e d o p e r a t i o n . H o w e v e r ,
Maks Bits 8 to 11 of Data o n e r e c u r r i n g e l e m e n t is to s e n d a p u l s e on
a h a r d w a r e l i n e . In a s s e m b l y l a n g u a g e
Set Data Line sending a positive going pulse typically
to Value of MSB looks like Box 5.
OR in 'SR' Bit
The routine " d e l a y j " does nothing for 3
(Data or Cmd)
microseconds. This allows plenty of lime for
the feed-through filters coming from the P F
Raise and Lower
leads to achieve their full rise. The delay rou-
Clock Line
OR into Existing 'Data16' tine could have been written as a loop, such as

delay3:
Decrement Counter
Send Using 'LOAD16' Routine cntr=97;
with Enable Line High
d o d l y 3 a until c e ;

dly3a: nop;

Repeat Send with Enable rts;

Line Low
Yes
but this has a d r a w b a c k . T h e r e arc only f o u r
Raise and Lower places on the c o u n t e r stack. E v e r y time a
^ Return ^ Latch Line new value is loaded into the " c n t r " register,
the current value is placed o n the c o u n t e r
stack. T h e r e is only room f o r f o u r values on
^ Return J this stack and a fifth attempt will result in
Fig 11.8—Flow diagram lor the c o u n t e r data b e i n g lost. T o leave r o o m f o r
subroutine Icd4 that transmits 4 bits of o t h e r routines, the delay routine uses extra
data or command to the LCD panel, Fig 11.9—Flow diagram of the
space in p r o g r a m m e m o r y to save space on
while not changing the other outputs of subroutine load16. This transfers 16
the hardware shift register. bits of data the hardware shift the c o u n t e r stack. It looks like:
registers.
DSP Applications in Communications 11.9
 of Programmable Flag called PFO to PF7
Box S - DSP assembly language to c r e a t e a 3 m i c r o s e c o n d in hardware terms. These pins can be pro-
pulse on the hardware line, PF1. grammed to be either inputs or outputs. If
( Latch the data with a pulse on bit 1 } they are outputs, as we need for the shift
axO = dm(PFDATA); { Get the current PF data } register data, clock and strobe, writing to
ar = setbit 1 of axO; j Make bit 1 a 1, it was 0 } the location dm(PFDATA) will change
dm(PFDATA) = an j Send to hardware, via dm } the pins to the new value. Reading from
call delay3; { Pulse is 1, Wait 3 microseconds }
axO = dmiPFDATA); { Get She PF data again} dm(PFDATA) tells the program the cur-
ar = clrbit 1 of axO; ( Bring hardware line to 0 rent setting of sdl pins while writing will
dm(PFDATA) = ar; j Again send to hardware, via dm } set the levels.
The }oadl6 routine proceeds through all
16 bits by finding from dm(data16) the
delay3: Either routine performs no function dur- desired bit value, putting this onto bit 2,
ing its execution. If an interrupt occurs and then moving the clock line, bit 0, from
nop; nop; nop; nop; nop; d(J • (he 0 to 1 and back. Delays are inserted at each
delay routine, it will only in-
nop; nop; nop; nop; nop; crease thc d d a y [ j m e wh|ch w i n not bc point to make sure that the data arrives
{ . . . And 8 more lines of harmful. before thc clock pulse and that all pulses
N O P s h e r e ... } Returning to thc load!6 routine, the are long enough to reach their full extreme
memory location dm(PFDATA) is one of values. Finally the strobe line, bit 1, is
nop; nop; nop; nop; nop; a n u m b e r of dedicated memory locations moved from 0 to 1 and back, latching the
nop; nop; nop; nop; nop; (hat are trealed M registers 2 T h c l o w e r g 74HC595 shift-register data by moving it
rts; bits of PFDATA correspond to the 8 pins to the output pins.

11.10 Chapter 11
 11.3 AN AUDIO GENERATOR TEST BOX

A d e v i c e using the capabilities o f the

K n o b B o x is the A u d i o Generator. T h i s
p r o v i d e s an output signal f r o m the E Z - K i t Amplitude Set
consisting o f t w o sine w a v e s and a random
noise. This is useful f o r transmitter testing Software
using cither o n e o r t w o tones. T h e n o i s e
Sine Wave #1
signal can be useful f o r transmitter testing 0 to 20 kHz
o r f o r simulating the r e c e p t i o n o f signals

© 13>
in n o i s e . Each sine w a v e can h a v e its
Signals
f r e q u e n c y set to an} 1 v a l u e f r o m 1 H z to Out
2 0 k H z . and the R M S amplitude can be
varied in 0 . 1 - m V ( 1 0 0 - m i c r o v o l i ! steps. Sine Wave #1
0 to 20 kHz
T h e n o i s e is a l w a y s Gaussian and flat with
f r e q u e n c y . T h e n o i s e R M S amplitude can
also be varied in 0 . 1 - m V steps.
Gaussian . i
This a u d i o generator also illustrates the Random v
building b l o c k a s s e m b l a g e that w e are us- Noise
Generator
&i
ing. T h e sine w a v e and n o i s e generators
c o m e f r o m Chapter 10 routines, and the
L
k n o b and L C D hardware and s o f t w a r e are
those that have j u s t b e e n d i s c u s s e d . In the

see
f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n , w e w i l l tie these t o -
LCD
gether into a handy test b o x . Parte!
A l l s i g n a l s f r o m the g e n e r a t o r have —
Frequency
great r e l a t i v e - a m p l i t u d e accuracy. The & Amplitude
absolute a c c u r a c y o f the D / A converter
output is o n l y about 1 0 % . This is a scaling
error o n l y and can be r e m o v e d by calibra-
tion o f the particular converter. Even with- Serial/Parallel
Interface
out an absolute calibration, the s i g n a l - t o -
n o i s e ratio o r the ratio o f t w o signal - O ^ O - DSP
v o l t a g e s can be set very accurately, typi- Control
K ^ O -
c a l l y better than 0.1 d B . Switch Program

T h e distortion in the generator output is m ^ O -

very l o w at about 0 . 0 2 5 per cent. D i s t o r -
tion is a m u c h m o r e important parameter
f o r this type o f application.
T h e four button switches on the knob b o x Red
control the various functions. Button 1
scrolls through display controlling which o f Green
the three w a v e f o r m s is being controlled:
Sine w a v e 1
Sine w a v e 2 Fig 1 1 . 1 0 — O v e r a l l block d i a g r a m of t h e t o n e a n d n o i s e g e n e r a t o r . T h e k n o b
Noise c o n t r o l s both t h e f r e q u e n c y of t h e s i n e - w a v e g e n e r a t o r s a n d t h e a m p l i t u d e s of
Burton 2 selects the k n o b f u n c t i o n : t h e t h r e e s i g n a l s . T h e f u n c t i o n of t h e k n o b is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e p u s h b u t t o n s .
Amplitude T h e 16-character display is also driven by t h e Interface circuitry controlled by t h e
DSP software.
Frequency
Button 3 is left unused to a l l o w f o r f u -
ture a d d i t i o n s , and Button 4 t o g g l e s all
outputs between on and o f f . T h e red L E D
indicates the o n / o f f state.
Box 6 • DSP routine t o set phase increment for sine-wave
T h e display has 16 characters, adequate
to i n d i c a t e the generator state. F o r in-
generator.
stance. i f Button 1 selects the first sine- { Frequency in Hz in the ar register. T o convert to a p h a s e Increment
w a v e generator, the display w o u l d b e w e n e e d to multiply by 6 5 5 3 6 / 4 8 0 0 0 . But in the 1.15 arithmetic, the
biggest value is 1.0. So. w e multiply by F R 2 P H = 0 5*S5536/48000=0.6827 and
"1 f f f f f H z v w . v m V * then shift left 1 bit, the s a m e as multiplying by 2. f
.const F R 2 P H = 0 X 5 7 6 2 ; ( Hex for 0.6827 in 1.15 format I
w h e r e the first 1 means that the data a p - { A n d the code in the main body of the p r o g r a m : }
myO=FR2PH;
plies to generator 1. f f f f f is the f r e q u e n c y
m r = a r , m y 0 (ss); { The fractional multiply, and }
in H z and v v v . v is the R M S output level in sr=ashift m r t by 1 (hi); { the multiply by 2, which is}
millivolts. sr=sr or Ishlft mrO by 1 (lo); { in two parts to get L.S b i t }
F i g 11.10 is a b l o c k diagram o f the s o f t -

DSP Applications in Communications 11.11

 can be seen in the full listing that is avail-
able in the program el ilbox.dsp on the
C D - R O M that accompanies this book. The
more interesting areas are the details that
must be handled to make the signal gen-
erator operate properly.
For instance, the display for frequency
is in integer Hz. from l to 20,000. The sine-
wave generator has a resolution of about
0.73 Hz. The knob could be used to change
frequency in either in steps of l Hz or 0.73
Hz. Either way, a conversion must be made
lo the other resolution step. The method
Fig 11.11—Oscilloscope trace of the used was to always change the desired fre- Fig 11.12—Oscilloscope trace of the
Audio Generator output. One sine wave quency by l Hz. and then (o convert this to Audio Generator output. The sine-
is set to 150-mV RMS and the other to waves are of equal amplitude and the
a phase increment corresponding to the
zero. The noise level is SO-mV RMS frequencies are 700 and 1900 Hz. The
making the S/N 9.5 dB (20'log(3)). The 0.73 Hz step. This results in the knob al- noise is set to zero.
sine-wave frequency is 1000 Hz. ways producing a visible frequency change
on the display, but about I /3 of the possible
generator frequencies are not used. The
conversion from a frequency in the AR reg- If the D/A converter is operated below
ware and hardware functions Involved. ister to a phase increment in the S R 1 reg- its overload point the distortion, including
The individual functions, such as sine- ister is as follows in Box 6. intcrmodulation. can be expected to be-
wave generation, knob control and L C D Figs 11.11 and 11.12 are example wave- very small. The principle drawback to this
display have all be covered earlier and will form outputs from the Audio Generator. approach is the limited frequency range.
nol be repeated here. The details of the Output levels and frequencies are shown For the hardware used here it is not prac-
integration of these program components in the captions. tical to operate much above 20 kHz.

11.4 AN 18-MHZ TRANSCEIVER

This CW/SSB transceiver operates in order to use the same filters and mixers on
the 17-meter amateur band from 18.068 to both receive and transmit, there is a PIN
18.168 MHz. Direct conversion, as dis- diode switch following the RF amplifier.
cussed in Chapters 8 and 9, is used for both For reception, this switch also provides a
the receiver and transmitter. All R F func- simple method for manually controlling
tions are built with conventional hardware, the R F gain, as the PIN diode can also be
but the audio functions are DSP based. In used as an adjustable resistor.
addition, control functions were delegated T w o mixers are connected to the RF cir-
to the DSP, to the extent possible. cuits through a power divider. A 90-
The general arrangement of the trans- degree power divider supplies the conver-
ceiver is shown in the block diagram. Fig sion oscillator for the two mixers. In re-
11.13. The receiver begins with a single ception. this creates the "ln-phase* and
tuned circuit and an R F amplifier. The Quadrature" or I and Q signals at audio.
considerations for signal-to-noise ratio, After low-pass filtering, an A/D converter
dynamic range and L O radiation were dis- that is part of the D S P board, digitizes the
cussed in Chapter 8 and apply here. In The 18-MHz Transceiver. two signals.

11.12 C h a p t e r 11
 MSA03/

©H>®MK> H>
MAR3
VFO Mike
M Amp
1B.0SIO1B.175MHI
9.025-9,087
MHz 10 d6m

Buffer
Trarmmit
Tr» Receive Mixers A/D
Rncotve RF A m p
Converter

r | ^
K>
MSA06 I MAR6 < « f ^am (kXjV
-CMOS
o -Q—
f SOdB AD164?

~r
2-Pole, 2kHz Pari of
2 Way 2 Way EZ-Kit Lite

DH
a,
1-Poto, 18MMz r20dB
D Deg MS) Dm)
Q

IT
2-Pole, 18MHz A® Audio
X"T\TUF Converter
T/R
o - f
CMOS Q -
Recoivo RF

MSA06/ MSA0.V „,.,,„„„

\
MAR6 MARS 2NJBBB
BNC to
Antenna

20dB 12 dB 20dB
Hardware

DSP Software •j,

Key-Click
Film
raw
^
800
" " H
" i" Transmit Audio
cw
Keyf
y © Sldetone
Receive Filters Wv—
Hilbert
n Transform D/A
Converter

1
3 KHz LPF Hilbert Transmit Only CMOS
Transform
CMOS
Hilbert
AD1847
3T USB Select
Delay
Part of
T/R
Filter Stilecl Filer Select 5»» Relative EZ-Kit Lite SWetorw Headohones )
500 H z BPF 90 degree ( A Phase Shift Wv J
Phase Shift I y

Gain D/A
Q n _ Control Converter
Audio 3 M z LPF Hilbert Receive Only CMOS*-
Delay Right
CMOS <2- ' CMOS
Delay Gain

Filler Select
J~
Filter Select
10 mn Control

500 Hz BPF
 H-10R

RF Gain

Rcvr In

" Q6 and Q7
R8 I 10k R10 Fastened to
Heatsink
r f y * J k
Q7 Current

Fig 11.14—Schematic diagram of the hardware used with the 18-MHz transceiver (continued on next two pages).

11.14 Chapter 11
 • 10 V +10R +10T Audio Preamplifier

R_ADC_I

+10R_E

+10T_E

R ADC Q

•AC I

DAC Q

Rcvr In

180J 90 Deg

Antenna T/R Switch

Note: The circuitry on these two pages (11.14 and 11.15) should be contained in a shielded enclosure. The 1500 pf
feedthrough capacitors filter the leads coming into the enclosure.

DSP Applications in C o m m u n i c a t i o n s 11.IS

 Power +12 v
Conditioning +10V E +10 R_E +10 T E
U9
L13 LM2937ET-10

+12to o I Q 5 ^ ^ , r r m , REG ,
III Out
18 Volts -rj 47(jH Gnd

r h 1NS401 i L T
220|JF
Q8
' I ""% ZVP2106A

P3 Expansion Prat on EZ-Kit

Gnd P3-24 Gnd
I — —
I t o It
UD P3-2S PFO O
r-V\A<—
ZVP2106A
| 10 k
Down P3-26PF1 O -
r-WV—

Fen 1

Fen 2
P3-27 PF2 O -

P3-28 PF3 O -
I 10 k

i—Wv—
| 10 k
|Qp
1
i—Wv— r W r
I 10k 10 k

I 10k
Key P3-30 PF5 O -
Key
C2
Audio On P3-31 PF6 O-
P3-32 PF?
Transmit P3-33 FLO
O-
o-
£
P3-34 FL1 O-
P3-35FL2 O- +5 ¥ from Vcc
P3-49 Vcc O-
+10V 1

10 k ?

J?
a
820 Not Used
47pF U7B C
M
0/1 I/O
10k-

" M r
3.3 k*
Audio Output
DACJ DAC_Q 0.47|iF 200+Ohm
114

1 0/1
Vcc
U7A

Vss
0

I/O
'Note: The 3.3 k resistors
Ht
0-47pF
4. Phones

across U7A and U7B set

rhci
3.3 k* X the Sfdeione leve^
V\Ar 47k CzT)
- w — i f-
U7
74HC4066
47«F
+ r
j. +1
CMOS X J47„F
Mike
Switches
Gain 10 k

R_ADC_Q 0 " 220 J 0 * *

U7C C -/•10TJ: q j ) - m v - H H
on i/o U8A 0.22MF 1 + 1

•AM*—

0/1
U7D
I/O
C +10 R_E
• 10k

r
Mike AT
C1 D Mike

EZ-Kit Lite Interface Preamp

Fig 11.14 continued.

11.16 Chapter 11
 T h e I and Q a u d i o signals are put m o d u l a t i o n levels. T h e s e d e v i c e s are ports; this is the transmit carrier rejection.
through i n d i v i d u a l a u d i o filters in the available in a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t gain and T h e L O drive differs in phase by about 90
DSP. T w o filter bandwidths are provided, p o w e r levels. T h e y require external block- degrees for the t w o mixers p r o v i d i n g one
a 3 - k H z low pass filter and a 5 0 0 - H z filter, ing capacitors, dc p o w e r feed R F C s and of the necessary elements for the "phasing
suitable only for C W . Due to the D S P c u r r e n t limiting resistors. Probably the m e t h o d " of S S B detection and generation.
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , the I and Q f i l t e r s arc biggest drawback to the use of these de- T h e R F p h a s e - s h i f t network (see the
identical in their response. In order to have vices is their p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n . Their e f - discussion in Chapter 9) consisting of a
single-sideband reception, a broadband ficiency is about half of that achievable tightly c o u p l e d i n d u c t o r , T 2 , the t w o
9 0 - d e g r e e p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e m u s t be ap- with a well designed transistor amplifier, 8 2 - p F capacitors and the 51-12 terminat-
plied lo the two audio signals. This is done due mainly lo the p o w e r lost in the current ing resistor. This network has rather so-
with a D S P filtering technique called the limiting resistor. phisticated operation, c o n s i d e r i n g its sim-
Hilbert t r a n s f o r m . T h e received u p p e r - P r e c e d i n g the R F amplifier is a single plicity. The L O signal is divided into two
sideband signal can then be f o r m e d with a tuned circuit built around the inductor 1,1. equal mixer drive signals with the 90-dc-
simple subtraction of the audio signals. Di- This restricts the signals that are seen by gree phase d i f f e r e n c e . In addition, there is
viding the audio signal into left and right U l . It is particularly important to reduce isolation between the t w o outputs that go
c h a n n e l s and applying a delay to one of the level of inputs at half f r e q u e n c y , or to the mixers. Ideally, no p o w e r is trans-
these provide binaural reception. A D/A about 9 M H z . Otherwise, these signals are ferred to the 51 -£2 resistor. It serves to
converter then converts the a u d i o back to prone to being doubled in the amplifier, provide isolation when one a signal is ap-
analog f o r m , ready to go to h e a d p h o n e s . making the 17-meter band c o m e to life at plied at just one of the mixers.
T r a n s m i s s i o n reverses most of the sig- times it is not! T w o m o r e tuned circuits, T h e drawback of this phase-shift net-
nal paths from those of reception. F o r S S B . built around L2 and L 3 provide most of the- work is that it only works over a narrow
a m i c r o p h o n e p r e a m p provides some volt- R F selectivity. This filter uses a c o n f i g u r a - band of f r e q u e n c i e s . The p o w e r division is
age gain ahead of the A / D converter. L o w - tion of S. B. C o h n 3 - 4 u s i n g capacitive cou- equal only at the center f r e q u e n c y , and the
pling on the ends to m a t c h i m p e d a n c e lev- isolation deteriorates o u t - o f - b a n d as well.
pass D S P audio filtering restricts the trans-
els. T h e 15 p F on the input m a t c h e s to 50 T h i s causes the harmonic energy gener-
mitted b a n d w i d t h , r e m e m b e r i n g that we
£2 w h i l e the 22 p F on the o u t p u t side ated in (he mixer diodes, due to the L O
have no I - F filtering to do this. Hilbert
matches to 25 £1, suitable for c o n n e c t i n g to drive, to redistribute itself in strange ways,
t r a n s f o r m s p r o d u c c the 9 0 - d e g r e e phase
the t w o 50-£2 mixers. as c a n be o b s e r v e d on an o s c i l l o s c o p e .
d i f f e r e n c e needed for the suppression of
the lower sideband. T h e transmitter signal B e t w e e n the R F a m p l i f i e r and the filter H o w e v e r , the important equal p o w e r and
is a P I N diode switch controlled by the 90-degree relationship is preserved at the
is converted to analog f o r m in the same D/
transmit receive (T/R) voltages. F o r trans- f u n d a m e n t a l f r e q u e n c y . B e c a u s e of this,
A c o n v e r t e r that was used in the a u d i o
mit, this connects the filter to the transmit the circuit generates outputs of the correct
output of the receiver. A f t e r going back
R F amplifier. In the receive case, it serves amplitudes and phase.
through the 1-Q mixers, the R F signal is
quite low in a m p l i t u d e . F o u r stages of this s a m e switching function but, also the
amplification raise this to about 5 - W S S B current through the diode can be varied by
the R F gain control. This allows about 4 0 AF Circuitry
P E P or C W amplitude.
F o r C W t r a n s m i s s i o n , the o n - o f f key d B of control range, and is of considerable T h e receive path signals are generally
signal goes through a 500-Hz L P F to re- value when w o r k i n g strong local stations. too weak for the A/D converter without
strict key-clicks. The filtered signal am- A two-way isolated p o w e r splitter. T l , amplification. Full scale for the A / D con-
plitude modulates a pair of 800-Hz tones. applies the received signal to the t w o mix- verter is about +2 V or a 4 V swing. About
T h e s e tones are generated in the D S P to ers. Usually these splitters include a trans- 14 bits are a b o v e the A / D noise level
d i f f e r in p h a s e by 9 0 degrees, again ready f o r m e r to c h a n g e the impedance level f r o m within an audio b a n d w i d t h . This sets the
to be c o n v e n e d to analog signals for the 50 to 25 £2. As was discussed above, this m i n i m u m i n p u l - s i g n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s at
I-Q mixers. W e again used a method that i m p e d a n c e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is part of the R F about 4 / 2 u = 4 / 1 6 3 8 4 = 2 4 4 microvolts.
w o r k s well b e c a u s e of the a c c u r a c y of filter. Bringing a 0.1-microvolt signal up to this
D S P , but is c o n s i d e r e d p o o r practice in T h e mixers are double-balanced T U F - 1 level requires about 67 dB of audio gain.
h a r d w a r e form. types f r o m Mini-Circuits. T h e s e provide This is provided by g r o u n d e d - b a s e tran-
The V F O is quite conventional. A fre- excellent isolation between the L O and R F sistor Q1 (or Q2) and a low-noise op-amp,
q u e n c y d o u b l e r i n c r e a s e s the isolation U 6 A (or U 6 B ) . Further details of this cir-
between the 9 - M H z V F O and the 1 8 - M H z cuit can be f o u n d in C h a p t e r 8.
R F signals. T h e receive audio path to the A / D con-
verter has switches, U 7 C and U 7 D , allow-
ing the m i c r o p h o n e audio to be connected
RF Hardware Details to the A / D c o n v e r t e r d u r i n g transmit.
T o simplify the hardware, a n u m b e r of T h e s e arc 7 4 H C 4 0 6 6 C M O S types, which
silicon M M I C s are used as a m p l i f i e r s . As how an " O n " resistance of 35 £2, typi-
shown in t h e R F schematic, Fig 11.14, the cally. F o r reception this can have an e f f e c t
receiver R F a m p l i f i e r . U l , is a b r o a d b a n d on the noise figure. O n e simple method of
d e v i c e with a gain of about 20 dB. This is linimizing this a f f e c t is to parallel t w o or
an A g i l e n t ( H P ) M S A 0 6 8 5 , or e q u i v a - m o r e switches by mechanically stacking
lently. the M i n i - C i r c u i t s M A R - 6 . T h e s e t h e m and s o l d e r i n g the pins together.
devices have input and output i m p e d a n c e s A l t e r n a t i v e l y , four M O S F E T d e v i c e s ,
that are close to 50 £2, broadband gain and General inside view of the 18-MHz such as the 2 N 7 0 0 0 . could be substituted
r e a s o n a b l e o u t p u t p o w e r s and inter- transceiver. for the C M O S switches.

DSP Applications in Communications 11.17

VFO
Characteristic Impedance Z 0
F E T Q11 is a conventional Hartley V F O
shown in Fig 11.14, operating at half of the
output frequency. The tuni tig capacitor was
capacitively tapped down on the tuned cir-
1/4 Wavelength at Frequency f
£
cuit to make the tuning range just over 100
kHz. Q 1 2 buffers the output of the V F O .
Diodes D7 and D8 are a balanced doubler
that is reasonably e f f i c i e n t at producing
even harmonics and suppresses the funda-
mental frequency and odd harmonics. This
reduces the filtering needs on the output of 18-MHz transceiver shielded box circuit u
the doubler; the double-tuned circuit built detail showing extensive use of the 2irfZ 0 2tt f
around L15 and L16 produces a clean spec- "ugly" construction method.
trum. as was illustrated in Chapter 5.
In the interest of good m e c h a n i c a l sta-
bility. the V F O was built in a surplus alu- t r a n s f o r m e r s . T w o steps w e r e taken to Either
m i n u m box with relatively thick walls. T h e keep this f r o m being a p r o b l e m . First, the Rl Network
coils were all fastened in place with dabs a m o u n t of neutralization was limited to the
of silicotic sealant. Multiple a l u m i n u m 2 2 - p F value instead of using the full 3 0 - p F
s p a c e r s hold the V F O to the steel front value, S e c o n d , a l o w - f r e q u e n c y input-
Fig 11.15—Schematics and design
p a n e l . A l m o s t no m i c r o p h o n i c s can be loading network was added to each device,
equations for impedance inverters built
sensed when the ease is tapped with a hard consisting of L6 and L7. along with the from transmission lines and lumped
object. This is often a problem with V F O s associated 51-12 resistors. The resulting capacitors and inductors. At the single
built for h i g h e r frequencies, amplifier is m e a s u r e d to be uncondition- frequency, f, the two circuits have
Considerable experimentation was d o n e ally stable f o r all input and output imped- identical behavior.
to make the V F O temperature stable. The ances, t h r o u g h o u t the H F spectrum.
procedure was straight f r o m H a y w a r d . 5 A low-pass filter/matchi ng network w a s
A f t e r about 7 or 8 tries, a simple c o m p e n - placed on the amplifier output. L8 and L 9 Fig 11.15 shows the design for this net-
sation consisting of a 10-pF N 7 5 0 parallel and the associated capacitors limit the har- work. Both the capacitors and the inductor
monics and also step the 7 - Q output im- are chosen to have the same rcactance at
capacitor was found to make the tempera-
pedance up to 50 f i . This network limits the centcr f r e q u e n c y . This reactance has
ture drift of the 18-MHz frequency only
the f r e q u e n c i e s for which this a m p l i f i e r the same role as the characteristic imped-
25-Hz per degree C. There is probably good
can be used. Other portions of the ampli- ance of the q u a r t e r - w a v e transformer.
fortune involved in getting the compensa-
tion that good, as an apparently identical fier are useful f r o m 1.8 to 30 M H z . In the antenna T/R switch of Fig 11.14.
10 p F produced a drift of about 50-Hz per the inverting network consisting of L12.
C 3 and C 4 acts as low-pass filters during
degree. Either way, it is worth the effort to
do the e x p e r i m e n t s and c o m p e n s a t e the
Antenna Switching receive, with the signal p a s s i n g without
L o w cost rectifier diodes (see Chapter attenuation. In transmit, diode D2 is con-
V F O . since the uncompensated stability
6) switch the antenna between the trans- ducting and its low i m p e d a n c e shorts out
was measured at -470-Hz, per degree C.
mitter p o w e r a m p l i f i e r o u t p u t and the the receiver input. The inverting network
r e c e i v e r input. A simpler, series-tuned uses this low i m p e d a n c e to cause a very
Power Amplifier approach, as was also used in Chapters 6 high i m p c d a n c e to a p p e a r across C3.
A single low cost 1RF511 M O S F E T w a s and 12, w o u l d probably have worked at T h e s a m e e f f e c t occurs at the transmit-
tried as an output amplifier. It produced this p o w e r level. H o w e v e r , this is an ex- ter output, due to diode D1 and the invert-
about 3 W of p o w e r at 13.6 V. H i g h e r sup- ample of a solid-state R F switch that can ing network consisting of L I 1. C.5 and Cft
ply voltages produced m u c h more output, be applied at quite high p o w e r levels. T h e D u r i n g transmit, when D1 is conducting,
but battery operation was one of the goals use of i m p e d a n c e inverters for fast antenna the i m p e d a n c e seen at the transmitter out-
for this rig. T o p r o d u c e a 5 - W output, t w o switching has roots at least as far back as put. across C5, is very high. Here w e also
of the M O S F E T s were placed in the p u s h - the early days of r a d a r where it was imple- exploit the reverse e f f e c t . During receive
pull configuration shown in the schematic. mented in w a v e g u i d e . 6 The f o l l o w i n g dis- D1 i.s not c o n d u c t i n g and therefore pre-
Ferritc cores were used in the input and cussion shows how these concepts were sents a high i m p e d a n c c . primarily the
output t r a n s f o r m e r s . applied to this transceiver. diode capacity of a few p F . This i.s trans-
As is usually the case for these devices Pi-networks, consisting of L 1 0 , L I 1 and f o r m e d through the inverting network to
(see Chapter 2). H F stability required s o m e L 1 2 along with their associated 180-pF p r o d u c e a low i m p e d a n c e at the transmit-
extra c o m p o n e n t s . T h e m a j o r culprit in shunt capacitors, act as 90 degree phase ter output. disconnecting any e f f e c t s of the
degrading the stability is the 30-pF feed- shifters at 18 M H z . Just like their counter- M O S F E T a m p l i f i e r . T h e next inverting
back capacity f r o m the drain to the gate. parts, the " q u a r t e r - w a v e t r a n s f o r m e r , " network. L 1 0 . CI and C 2 t r a n s f o r m this
G o o d stability and gain at 18 M H z could these networks serve as i m p e d a n c e invert- back to a very high i m p e d a n c e at the an-
be achieved by applying some cross neu- ers. This m e a n s that if one end has a low tenna connection point.
tralization f r o m the t w o 2 2 - p F capacitors. i m p e d a n c c placed across it, the i m p e d a n c e A single value of capacity, 180 pF, was
It was f o u n d , h o w e v e r , that there was a seen l o o k i n g into the o t h e r end will be used for all the networks, for convenience.
t e n d e n c y t o w a r d oscillation in the 2 to high. T h e opposite is true as well: if a high If they are available, the parallel 180-pF
4 - M H z region. This is associated with the i m p e d a n c e is placed across one end, the capacitors can be replaced with a singlr
cut-off p h a s e - s h i f t of the input and output other end will show a very low i m p c d a n c e . 3 6 0 pF.

11.18 Chapter 11
 sense, the d e m o board is a component that cal juncture between the R F circuits and
is generally easier to install than the parts the D S P is at the outputs of the mixers. The
that it replaces. first of the low-pass filtering is done in
One might argue that it takes more time hardware. This limits the level of out-of-
to write the D S P software than building band signals levels that are seen by the
, 50 l : I . J L. hardware. This is almost certainly true for A/D converter.
Center 18.to Span 10.0
MHz the first time with a circuit block. How- Almost all of the band-pass shaping is
ever, seldom do we need to write software done in the DSP. T w o identical filters are
Fig 11.16—Measured isolation of the the "first time." In many cases, we can used, one in the 1 channel and another one
antenna T/R switch between the borrow from previous work or find suit- in the Q channel. If the signal that we are
transmitter and the receiver. able beginnings in reference books. The receiving is of a single frequency, such as
material presented here falls in this cat- a C W signal, the I and Q channels will be
egory. However, this is not to discourage a single-frequency audio signal. The fre-
T h e inverting networks are relatively anyone f o r m taking the code apart and try- quency will be the difference between the
non-critical. Any tuning that might be ing there own ideas and algorithms. There 18.1-MHz L O and the incoming signal.
needed can c o m e from squeezing or can be great fascination with writing a pro- Ideally the amplitudes will be identical and
spreading the turns on the coils. gram and seeing it produce useful results, they will be 90 degrees out-of-phase. T h e
The Antenna T/R switch was tested as a such as a D X Q S O ! actual phase difference will track that of
component by breaking the leads going to The DSP program for the 18-MHz trans- the L O s applied to the mixers.
the transmitter output and the receiver in- ceiver not only processes the audio signals Applying a 90-degree phase-shift
put. The 18-MHz insertion loss from the for the transmitter and receiver, but controls across the audio spectrum and either add-
antenna c o n n e c t o r was 0.33 dB to the the simple functions such as transmit and ing or subtracting the resulting two signals
transmitter (in transmit) and 0.25 dB to the receive switching, reading the panel button accomplishes SSB reception. The 90-de-
receiver (in receive). Receiver isolation is switches and lighting the transmit LED. In- gree shift will bring the two audio signals
a measure of the amount of power going stead oflaboriotLsly describing all of the DSP so that they are either in-phasc. or 1 SO de-
f r o m the transmitter to the receiver input, programs, the following will describe the grees out-of-phase. Addition, or subtrac-
when the switch is in transmit. As can be most important elements of the program. tion, then makes the two signals either add
seen in Fig 11.16 this was measured to be Much of what will be left out is repetitious or to double amplitude, or to cancci to zero
about 33 dB at 18 MHz. For a 5 - W trans- is obvious, once one understands the basics The choice of sign determines whether
mitter this keeps the power at the receiver of the program writing. upper or lower sideband reception is being
input below 4 dBm. well below the maxi- The full D S P program listing for trans- used.
mum safe input level f o r the R F ampli fier. ceiver is available on the book C D - R O M Regardless of how it is implemented this
as TR1S.DSP. "phasing m e t h o d " has a two standard
problems. First, producing a constant am-
DSP Circuits
For this rig we have chosen to move
Reception plitude, constant 90-degree phase shift
over a wide band of frequencies is always
much of the circuitry into DSP. This is an The basic reception scheme, shown in an approximation. Second, the mixers.
alternative to conventional analog circuits. F i g 11.17, is the direct-conversion 1-Q LOs and analog filters all introduce small
In some cases we can improve upon the (phasing) method. The basic principles phase and amplitude errors. Both of
performance that could be expected f r o m have been around for a long lime and have these factors, explored in some detail in
the analog equivalent, bul in most cases it been implemented in analog circuits, as Chapter 9, serve to limit the ability to
comes down to what is easiest. The D S P is was shown in Chapter 9, and DSP as was eliminate the undesired sideband, referred
again done with a demo board. In some done by Rob Frohne, K L 7 N A . 7 The logi- to as opposite side-band rejection. A DSP

LP Filter

Hllbert
Transform USB
Vi^TUF-l
Select
18.1 MHz
2 Way 2 18.1 MHz ! 90' Relative USB Audio
Receive
RF Input
ODeg ( LO Phase Shift Out
I
i
TUF-1
Hllben
'Q Delay

LP Filter
I
Hardware DSP Software

Fig 11.17—Simplified block diagram showing the phasing method ot reception used in the 18-MHz transceiver. The circle at
the right with a minus sign subtracts input signal 2 from input signal 1.

DSP Applications in Communications 11.19

 Further, our 48-kHz sample frequency is
high, as is discussed below. The frequency
response of the FIR filters scalcs with
sample frequency. For the 18-MHz trans-
ceiver, we can allow the 48 kHz to remain,
if the number of taps is raised. A value of
247 was selected. The computational load
is only about half of what it seems, since
every other coefficient is zero and does
not need to be computed. Fig 11.19 shows
the resulting response, which is typically-
flat within about 0.01 dB and always
within 0.04 dB. Going back to the phasing
analysis of Chapter 9, this contributes a
typical opposite sideband response of
20 log e/2 which for the 0.01 dB error
(voltage error e=.00115), results in an
opposite sideband suppression of - 2 0
Iog(0.00115/2) or about 65 dB. Repeating
this calculation for the worst case 0.04-dB
error, the opposite sideband is - 5 3 dB.

The DSP program snippet in Box 7 is the

0 5 10 15 20 Hilbert transform and compensating delay.
F r e q u e n c y in kHz
The structure is so similar to the conven-
Fig 11.18—Coefficients and amplitude response for a very simple 11-tap Hilbert tional FIR filter described in Chapter 10.
transform. This is shown to illustrate the method, as one would never use a that only the Hilbert transform specific
transform with only 11 taps for SSB generation. portions will be discussed.
The zero coefficient values are not en-
tered at all in the table hilbert_coeff, cut-
plished by a "Hilbert t r a n s f o r m . " The ting the table size almost in half. To see
implementation of this transform has a how zero multiplies occur, it is useful to
structure identical to the FIR filter that was remember that the data are arranged in a
discussed earlier. The distinguishing char- circular buffer. The sccond time the in-
acteristic is the particular choice of FIR struction, d m ( i 0 , m 1 ) = m r 1 occurs, the
coefficients. The c o e f f i c i e n t s and fre- new data are placed at the location in the
quency response for a simple 11 -tap Hil- buffer pointed to by iO and the pointer is
bert transform arc shown in Fig 11.18. The increased by m l , which has a value of one.
response of this transform is exceedingly Within the FIR multiply-and-accumulate
far from flat. It cuts off below about 3 kHz loop. mxO is loaded with data f r o m
and has about a half dB ripple above this m x 0 = d m ( i 0 , mO) where mO has a value of
frequency However, it does allow us to two. This causes the pointer, iO, to be
examine several important characteristics incremented by the value two after the data
of this transform: are fetched from memory, skipping every
Fig 11.19—The amplitude response of a other data point. When the counter reaches
Hilbert transform using 247 taps and a • Every other coefficient is zero
zero, the loop is broken and after the last
sample rate of 48 kHz. • The second half of the coefficients is
computation, iO is left pointing to the old-
the negative of the first half
est point in the buffer. The next lime
• The amplitude response varies across
through the d o _ h i l b e r t routine, placing
the passband
data into the buffer causes an increment of
implementation of [he phasing method • The phase shift is not shown, as it is 90
one and the FIR computation moves up by
does not inherently provide a higher level degrees, plus a constant delay, at all fre-
one. This brings us to the first of the data
of unwanted-sideband rejection relative to quencies. If the number of taps is an odd
points that were passed over in the last FIR
analog methods. Rather, it should be number, the constant delay is an integral
compulation cycle. And the process con-
looked al as an alternative implementation number of sample periods, and easily com-
tinues, moving up one point in the buffer
that is potentially easier to implement. pensated for. The difference between the
each cycle.
This is particularly true if the D S P hard- Hilbert transform output and a constant
ware is being used for other purposes delay leaves a very accurate 90-degree dif- The block diagram of F i g 11.20 illus-
anyway and the only addition is in the soft- ferential phase shift. trates this same Hilbert transform opera-
ware area. The amplitude response of the Hilbert tion. The top T path is a simple delay to
In Chapter 9, the reasons for needing a transform is never completely flat with compensate for the flat delay of the trans-
wideband audio 90-degree (relative) phase frequency. As we saw, with only 11 laps, form. The bottom ' Q ' path is a FIR filter in
shift network were explored. An analog performance is so poor that one would not structure, but only the even numbered co-
method was used in that chapter to achieve consider it in a transceiver. As the number efficients arc used since the multiplica-
that response, typically using 6 op-amps of taps is increased, it is possible to not tions for the coefficients of zero value are
and precision R C networks. In DSP imple- only cover a wider frequency range, but to omitted.
mentations. the same function is accom- also diminish the ripple in the pass-band. As is normally the case with broadband

11.20 Chapter 11
 Box 7 - DSP program for computing a 90° differential phase shift using t h e Hilbert
transform.
{The following are constant and memory declarations placed at { This is the Hilbert transform subroutine. It is called during
the top of the overall program:) the 48-kHz rate interrupt to generate a 90-degree phase shift
between the I and Q channels. Hilbert has independent inputs
.const H3=247: { Num taps in Hilbert and outputs for delayed and phase shifted paths. Uses
FIR filt) HIL_3_48.DAT running at 48 KHz in order to get response down
.const H3P10N2=124; {This is (H3+1)/2 } to 300 Hz.}
.const H3M10N2=123; { ...and (H3-1 )/2 } Delayed path: ar in, ax1 out.
.const H3M30N2=122; { ...and (H3-3)/2 ) 90 deg path: mr1 in, mr1 out.}
{The Hilbert coefficients are stored in program memory(pm) so do_ hilbert: { 48 KHz Hilbert for receiving }
they can be fetched at the same time as data is brought in from data dm(m1_sav) = m l ;
memory (dm). The values are read from a file hil_3_48.dat where ml = 1;
the values are given as 24-bit hex numbers. The values are left
justified 16-bit numbers and padded on the right with two hex zeros. { First the delayed path to compensate for the Hilbert delay
A sample of coefficients would look like:} }
021EOO iO = dm(h3delay_i0_sav); m0=0; I0=%h3delay;
01F500 ax1 = dm(i0, mO); { get ax1, the delayed output}
01D000 dm(i0, m l ) = ar; { Put new data in, update p t r }
01AF00) dm(h3delay_i0_sav) = iO; { Save pointer}
.var/pm/circ hilbert3_coeff[H3P10N2J;
.init hilbert3_coeff: <hil_3_48.dat>: { Next the actual Hilbert transform: }
i0=dm(h3dataJ0_sav); m0=2; I0=%h3data; { iO
{ Each data memory location for the Hilbert transform is points to data }
declared as follows: } i4= A hilbert3_coeff; m4=1; I4=%hiibert3 coeff:
.var/dm/circ b3delay[H3M10N2]; { Delay line } dm(iO, m1)=mr1; { Enter new data and bump ptr 1
.var/dm/circ h3data[H3]; { Buffer for data } }
.var/dm m1_sav; { Allows reuse of m l } mr=0, mxO=dm(iO, mO), my0=pm(i4, m4);
.var/dm b3delayJ0„sav; { Allows reuse of iO } { FIR multiply and Accumulate loop: }
.var/dm h3da!a_i0_sav: { Allows reuse of iO } cntr=H3M30N2;
{ } do h i l j o o p until ce;
{Initialization of the Hilbert transform takes place once at the hiljoop: mr=mr+mxO*myO(SS), mxO=dm(iO, mO),
beginning of the program operation. Zeroing of arrays is useful for my0=pm(i4, m4);
simulation, but is not needed for transceiver operation, and is not { Process the last point: }
done here. ) mr=mr+mxO*myO(SS), mx0=dm(i0, ml), my0=pm(i4. m4):
iO=Ah3delay; { Address of delay line mr=mr+mxO*myO(RND); { rnr1 = phase shifted
memory } output}
dm(h3delay_i0_sav)=i0; if mv sat mr:
i0= A h3data; dm(h3data_i0_sav)=i0;
dm(h3dataJ0_sav)=i0; m l = dm(m1_sav);
rts;

p h a s e s h i f t n e t w o r k s , t h e r e is a f i x e d d e l a y
°Output
that is m u c h g r e a t e r than the d e l a y a s s o c i -
ated with t h e 9 0 - d e g r e e p h a s e s h i f t . F o r
Sampled 123/48,000
Data Inputs the 2 4 7 - l a p H i l b e r t t r a n s f o r m , and o u r
4 8 - k H z s a m p l e r a t e , this d e l a y is 0 . 5 *
Q ( 2 4 7 - l ) / 4 8 . 0 0 0 or 0 . 0 0 2 5 6 2 5 ' seconds
T T ( a b o u t 2 . 6 m s ) . O t h e r t h a n the n e e d to
2 / 48.000 2 / 48,000 c o m p e n s a t e f o r this d e l a y , t h e r e are no op-
e r a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s for a S S B o r C W r a d i o .
T h e s e c o n d p r o b l e m in o u r p h a s i n g
m e t h o d of S S B r e c e p t i o n w a s p h a s e and
a m p l i t u d e e r r o r s b e t w e e n the t w o c h a n -
nels. T h e s e e r r o r s are a s s o c i a t e d with the
90' m i x e r s and L O h a r d w a r e and will m o s t
O — - o - O -'Output l i k e l y s t a y r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t o v e r t i m e . If
we k n e w what the errors were we could

i
a d d in an " a n t i - e r r o r " a n d h a v e p e r f e c t

- Q -

Delayed by t seconds
9 -
Multiply
4
Add Two inputs
opposite side-band rejection. The degree
to w h i c h this c a n be a c c o m p l i s h e d in prac-
t i c e r e s u l t s in t y p i c a l l y 20 d B in i m p r o v e d
side-band rejection. T e m p e r a t u r e ex-
t r e m e s will n o t a l l o w t h i s to b e k e p t with
Two Inputs
a s i m p l e c o r r e c t i o n , but ihe r e s u l t s c a n be
Fig 11.20— Block diagram of the Hilbert transform with 247 taps. The blocks s u r p r i s i n g l y g o o d . T h e p r o b l e m of k n o w -
marked 'T' are delays of multiples of sample periods, as indicated on i n g w h a t t h e e r r o r is c a n b e s o l v e d b y
the diagram. Each sample period is 1/48,000 second. m e r e l y a d j u s t i n g the c o r r e c t i o n until the

DSP Applications in Communications 11.21

opposile sideband disappears. take advantage of the fact that the actual I Q_Gain would not be needed if we allowed
To understand this process one should and Q signals are roughly 90-degrees apart gains greater than 1. But it is a convenience
think of the error between the desired 1 (or in phase shift. By taking a fraction of the 1 to not do this and it is relatively easy to pro-
Q) signal as both an amplitude and a phase signal and adding it to a fraction of the Q vide the two gain values. Therefore, one of
shift. This is referred to as an "error vector" signal, it is possible to creatc the negative of those gains will be set lo 1.0. which, in frac-
and is illustrated in Fig 11.21. In the ex- the error signal—just what we need lo sup- tional integer arithmetic, is the fraction
ample. not only is the actual signal longer press the opposite sideband. Fig 11.22 32767/32768. entered as a hex value of
(bigger amplitude) than the desired signal, shows an implementation for our correction H#7FFF (see the discussion of fixed-point
but there is a phase shift between the two. To of the sideband suppression. The constants, arithmetic in Chapter 10).
correct the signal, we must subtract the error I_Gain. Q_Gain and Ql_Cross_Gain are all The other gain of the I_Gain/Q_Gain
vector from the actual signal. T o do this, we numbers b e t w e e n - 1 and 1. Both I_Gain and pair can then be set to a value close to 1.0.
as determined experimentally. The cross-
gain value should be small, but it can be
either plus or minus. A value such as +0.05
Listing TR18D might be typical and is represented as the
fraction 0.05*32768/32768 or 1638/32768
Phasing method receiver Including error correction. The inputs are I and O and entered into the program as 1638.
signals that have been low-pass filtered.
Listing TR18I) shows the USB recep-
tion routines, including the vector correc-
tion. The usual declarations of constants
{The following are constant declarations, placed and memory, by name, are at the top of the
at the top of the overall program:)
program.
const RGAIN_1=32400; Adjust value to suit ) The three constants that are needed to
.const RGAIN_Q=32767; | Adjust value to suit}
.const RGAIN IQ=2060; ! Adjust value to suit}

{The I data is at memory location "save J* and the Q data is in srO)

Amplitude Error
ar = dm(savej); { Move the I signal data to a r )
my1 = RGAINJ; { I Gain correction factor}
mr = ar * myl (SS); { I signal * correction }
dm(savej) = mrl; ( Temporary storage ) Actual Signal \
my1 = RGAINJQ; { Generate the IQ cross I \ ^ ^ ^ r
/
mr = ar * my1 (SS): { correction factor}
ayO = mr1; { Save cross-correction factor) \ A
my1 = RGAIN_Q; i / \
( Q chan gain correction ) p. J Frrnr Verjnr
mr = srO * my1 (SS); { Q signal * correction ) A
ar = mr1 + ayO; { Add in cross-correction ) \ 1
Phase

mr1=dm(save. i); { For hilbert}

Error \
call do_hllbert; | 90 deg; ar, mr1 in: ax1, mr1 out} Desired Signal
ay1 = mr1; { Get ready to subtract Q out )
ar = ax1 - ay1; { - = usb ) Fig 11.21—Phase and amplitude errors
{ USB audio output is now in register ar ] In the phasing method shown as
vectors.

Hilbert
Mixers Transform

USB
Select
'TUF-1
90' Relative USB Audio
2 Way
ODeg
2 Way
0 Deg
_ J 1 8 . 1 MHz
Phase Shift
( t H Out
I " LO

Qi
Cross Hilbert
Gam Delay
LP Fitter
J
Q Gam
Hardware DSP Software

Fig 11.22—Block diagram of a phasing method receiver with DSP software error correction. The cross gain is shown
going from the I channel to the Q channel. It will work equally well going in the reverse direction, but both directions are
never needed.

11.22 Chapter 11
suppress the opposite sideband are entered low-pass filter suitable f o r either all guish between a C W tone and the noise.
as constants. This is a very simple system, modes, and a 5 0 0 - R z w i d e band-pass f i l - O n C W , the tone takes on the e f f e c t o f
but requires re-assembly o f the program to ter f o r C W use. having a spatial position that depends on
null the sideband. Experience has shown T h e index register pointer, iO, o f the the tone frequency. T h e noise position is.
this a reasonable approach, since the set- D S P is used to find the data points f o r the in e f f e c t , always m o v i n g around "inside
tings d o not normally need to be changed FIR filter. Initialization o f this register is your head."
o f t e n . Multiplication by both RGAINJ critical. Omitting this can cause hours o f A s a signal is tuned, the phase relation-
and R G A I N _ Q occurs each time through grief in getting the D S P program to oper- ships between the tones heard by the cars
the routine, even though one o f these con- ate. T h e program may function at times changes for the delay system. For the 1-Q
stants will have the value o f 1.0. This sim- and fail at others, depending on the ran- binaural, it is a constant 90 degrees while
p l i f i e s the adjustment o f the constants d o m initialization. The program instruc- the phase shift f o r the delay binaural in-
since w c don't know which will have the tions for ihis initialization are: creases with frequency. For the 10 milli-
1.0 value. second delay the phase shift is 90 degrees
The Hilbert transform, discussed above, at 1/(4*0.01 )=25 H z and changes quite
i0= A idata;
is a subroutine invoked by 'call rapidly with tuning. Thus, the two systems
d o _ h i l b e r t . ' This applies the differential dm(fir1 i J0_sav)=i0; d o not have the same sound when tuned. In
phase shift so that the U S B can be f o r m e d either system the noise is uncorrected and
with simple subtraction " a r = a x 1 - a y 1 . " the sound is similar, not unlike an F M ste-
A l s o shown in the listing is the audio gain r e o radio without an antenna. Probably the
W h e n the F I R filter is called, the pointer
control. One o f the conveniences o f a D S P biggest d i f f e r e n c e is that the 1-Q binaural
iO is loaded by the instruction
implementation is having gain control steps system receives both sidebands, whereas
in constant dB amounts. For analog gain the delay binaural is compatible with S S B .
controls, this is approximated with what are i0=dm(fir1 i _ i 0 _ s a v ) ; T h e delay binaural is in the final audio path
called " l o g " potentiometers. Our D S P imple- and is compatible with any mode.
mentation starts with the binary shifter as a Implementation o f a binaural delay re-
basic component. If the signal word is shifted all o f which allows iO to be reused in quires some memory for storing the sig-
left by one bit, the result is an increase in many routines. nal, but very little computation is needed.
level of 6.0 dB. Shifts to the right decrease L i s t i n g T R 1 8 E is the portion o f the D S P
the audio level by the same amount. This has program required.
the desired equal dB amounts per step, as Binaural Delay Operation o f this delay line is closely
well as great simplicity. The drawback is that This feature is always in operation f o r related to the address generators used b\
the steps are too big. Experience suggests the transceiver. T h e addition o f a delay o f the A D S P - 2 1 8 1 DSP. "
that 1-dB steps seem too small, but 1.5 to about 10 milliseconds in the sound heard A segment o f memory , such as our "de-
2-dB steps allow one to choose a comfort- by one ear. relative to the other has inter- lay [ D E L A Y _ S I Z E 1 can be designated as
able audio level with a reasonable number o f esting e f f e c t s , very closely related to the circular by the key word "circ."
button pushes. I - Q binaural e f f e c t s used in Chapter 9. T h e D E L A Y S l Z h is the same as the constant
W e implement 1.5-dB steps by having a noise heard by the t w o ears loses correla- 512 and so this many words o f data
table o f four entries corresponding gains tion and allows the mind to better distin- m e m o r y are set aside. Each word is 16 bits.
o f 0, - 1 . 5 . - 3 . 0 . and - 4 . 5 dB. This table,
stored in program memory, is called
' a u d _ g a i r f and provides multipliers that Listing TR18E
can be used between the 6.0-dB steps. As
an example, a gain o f - 1 . 5 dB is a voltage DSP program snippets for delay binaural sound.
ratio o f 10 A (-1.5/20)=0.8414. In frac-
{The following are constant and memory declarations, placed
tional arithmetic this is a value of
at the top of the overall program:}
0.8414*32768=27571, w h i c h i n hexadeci-
mal form is H#6BB3. The program .const DELAY_SIZE=512;
.var/dm/circ delay[DELAY SIZE]: i The delay line, binaural }
memory words are 24-bits w i d e , but only
var/dm del rO.sav: { Storage when not In interrupt)
16 bits o f this are available when used as
data. T h e bits w i l l be properly aligned if {
the hex values are padded on the right with
{ This part of the program is executed at startup to initialize the
"00." Thus, the - 1,5-dB entry in hexadeci- pointer to the delay line. delayQ.}
mal is H # 6 B B 3 0 0 . axO = "delay: ( Get the address of delay line )
dm(del_i0_sav) = axO; ( The pointer is saved here }
T h e button control parts o f the program
have setup t w o values for the audio gain {
control, ' a f _ g a i n " which contains one o f
( This program snippet is executed at each 48 kHz interrupt to put the
the 1,5-dB step multipliers, and " a f _ s h i f t \ left channel data into the delay line, and to take the delayed data
which is the number o f 6-dB steps. These out for the rlpht channel. Left data Is In register srl:}
shifts can be either plus or minus. i0=dm(del_i0_sav); { Load iO pointer}
m0=0; j Do not adjust the pointer, now }
I0=DELAY_SIZE; { The length of the circular line }
mr1=dm{i0, mO); { R e m o v e the delayed signal }
Audio Filtering m0=1; | Now increment pointer on write }
T h e general nature o f F I R filters has dm(i0, m0)=sr1; { Put the new signal in the line]
dm(deUO_sav)=tO; j S a v e the pointer for next time ]
already been covered. Here w e apply these dm(tx_buf+2) = mr1: { Send audio data to right D/A }
principles with t w o receive filters, a 3 - k H z

DSP Applications in Communications 11.23

adequate to store one sample of the audio to the length of the circular b u f f e r , slants are needed, as there are differences
waveform. This is illustrated in Fig 11.23. D E L A Y S I Z E . The right audio channel in the audio paths, due primarily to the dif-
There are 8 address generators, and the signal sample is next removed f r o m the ferences introduced by T/R switching.
binaural delay uses only o n e of these, gen- line with m r 1 = d m ( i 0 , mO)' and left tem-
porarily in register mr1. The increment
erator zero. Three parameters control the
generator, iO, mO and 10. iO is a pointer, register. mO. is now changed to one. When
CW Transmission
meaning that it is an address in memory. we put the new audio data into the delay This mode requires that the frequency
mO is an increment amount that tells the line with dm(i0, m 0 ) = s r 1 . the pointer, iO, of the transmitted signal and the received
generator to add the value of mO to iO after will now have one added to it following "zero-beat" signal be offset by a tone f r e -
doing either a read or write operation. iO the memory write. What this does its to quency. such as 800 Hz. Some sort of TR
applies if the buffer is circular, and tells move iO to the location of the now oldest activated switching device can be used in
the address generator to not point to data point. After 512 applications of this the V F O to provide the offset as was seen
memory locations past the base location routine, the pointer will be again pointing in Chapter 6. Alternatively, an audio tone
plus iO, but instead to wrap around to the to the data point that was just entered. This can be generated and passed through the
beginning. Note that mO can be zero or delays the data by 512/48,000 of a second, SSB generator. The V F O never changes
negative. Negative values mean that the or about 10.7 milliseconds. frequency and the offset can be precise.
progress through the circular b u f f e r is in Unfortunately, there often are two undes-
the reverse direction. ired signals accompanying the C W signal.
SSB Transmission The VFO output must be suppressed by
Returning to the listing, the value of the
The phasing method for SSB reception the quality of the mixer balance. Mixers,
pointer is restored to iO with
that was described above is reversible for such as the Mini-Circuit TUF-1 can have
' i 0 = d m ( d e l _ i 0 _ s a v ) ' and mO is set to
transmission. The audio signal is placed 5 0 to 60 dB of inherent L-R balance. It
zero, meaning that no change will occur to
through a Hilbert transform to produce a is often possible to increase this by 10 dB
iO when the delay line is accessed. 10 is set
signal with 90-degrees phase shift, rela- or more by adding a very small gimmick
tive to a signal with a simple delay. Both capacitor between the L O signals and the
signals can be then be passed through D/A mixer output. Fig 11.25 illustrates a gen-
converters and applied to a pair of mixers. eral approach for increasing the mixer bal-
The mixers have 0 and 90-dcgree L O sig- ance in this way.
Location Delay [0J— nals, just as in transmission. The sum or The second undesired signal is the
Location Delay [1] difference of the two mixer outputs at RF opposite side-band. This, however, is the
Next Location
, after Delay [511] is now the desired SSB signal, ready for same problem that was solved for SSB with
. tf Circuiar amplification. the I-Q vector correction. This suggests a
Location Delay 1510] The opposite side-band suppression method for adjustment of the correction con-
Location Delay (511) that can be achieved depends on the care stants. If we transmit a C W tone and receive
taken in matching the mixers and in the unwanted side-band on a local commu-
achieving exactly 90-degree phase differ- nications receiver, the S-meter can be used
ences for the L O signals. But. as w as done to find a null. The correction constants are
in reception, it is possible to apply soft- those that make the signal disappear.
Date Memory
16-Bit Words
ware corrections to the audio signals to F i g 11.26 shows the screen of a spec-
improve the cancellation at the mixer out- trum analyzer attached to the output of the
Fig 11.23—Circular data buffer used to puts. This is illustrated in Fig 11.24. The 18-MHz transceiver with the key down.
Implement a 512 point delay line as Is D S P implementation is parallel to that The VFO is in the center of the screen at
used for delay binaural operation. used for reception. A separate set of coil- 18.100 MHz Each division is 500 Hz and
the tone frequency is 850 Hz. With USB
being used, the transmitted signal is above
the carrier frequency. Suppression of the
I Gain
carrier is 4 8 dB and the opposite side-band,
850 Hz below the center, is 63 d B below
the transmitted signal. An additional sig-
nal can be seen 1700 Hz above the V F O
frequency. This is d u e to the modulation
of the second harmonic of the 850-Hz tone.
This undesired output is suppressed 5 0 d B .
One would always want all spurious sig-
nals to be undetectable, but in the real-
world way of such things, these levels are
acceptable. This level of spurious signal
will, in general, be covered by the key-
clicks in almost any CW transmitter.
Key-click suppression is normally dealt
with by limiting the rise-time of the keying
waveform. It can be shown that this will
QGain cause the key-click spectrum to fall off
much faster as one tunes off the C W sig-
Fig 11.24—Simplified block diagram showing the I and Q corrections to improve
the unwanted sideband rejection for transmit. nal. It is possible to increase the rate even

11.24 Chapter 11
 I - Audio

F i g 1 1 . 2 6 — O u t p u t s p e c t r u m of 1 8 - M H z
t r a n s c e i v e r in C W m o d e . T h e c a r r i e r is
a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e s c r e e n . T h e
t r a n s m i t t e d s i g n a l is t h e l a r g e
r e s p o n s e 1.7 d i v i s i o n s t o t h e r i g h t .
The small response the s a m e distance
Fig 11.25—Schematic d i a g r a m a circuit for Increasing L-R isolation o( a balanced t o t h e r i g h t is t h e u n w a n t e d s i d e b a n d .
m i x e r . In o r d e r to m i n i m i z e t h e c a p a c i t a n c e v a l u e s , o n e s h o u l d n e v e r u s e b o t h C 1 Measurements were done with a
a n d C1 o r C 2 a n d C 2 ' , a s t h i s w o u l d o n l y I n c r e a s e t h e s i z e of b o t h c a p a c i t o r s . A l l Tektronix 494 analyzer.
c a p a c i t o r s a r e a f r a c t i o n of a p F , m a d e f r o m g i m m i c k w i r e s , w h i c h a r e m e r e l y t w o
e n a m e l c o v e r e d w i r e s t w i s t e d t o g e t h e r . T h e t r a n s f o r m e r , T 1 , is 5 t u r n s of # 2 6
bifilar w i r e o n a s m a l l f e r r i t e c o r e , s u c h a s A m i d o n F T - 2 3 - 4 3 .

m o r e i f . n o t o n l y t h e r i s e - t i m e is l i m i t e d ,
b u t t h e k e y i n g w a v e f o r m is m a d e t o h a v e Listing T R 1 8 F
r o u n d e d c o r n e r s at t u r n - o n a n d t u r n - o f f . A
DSP routines used to generate a C W transmit signal
d i r e c t w a y t o i n s u r e thai t h i s h a p p e n s is t o
pass the keying w a v e f o r m through a low- E If k e y is down, put a . 9 ( 2 9 4 9 1 ) into C W fir
pass filter and then use the resulting w a v e - filt.
f o r m to a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t e the R F signal. Modulate fir output o n t o carrier. T h i s s c h e m e
allows top s p a c e for o v e r s h o o t in t h e fir. }
In o u r c a s e , t h e m o d u l a t i o n t a n b e a p p l i e d
axO = dm(key); { G e t h a r d w a r e C W key d a t a )
t o t h e 8 0 0 - H z l o n e , b e f o r e it g o e s t o t h e n o n e = p a s s axO;
H i l b e r t t r a n s f o r m a n d t h e n to the m i x e r s . ar = 0 ; { C W off S
if n e j u m p xi c w 1 ; { C W key is up )
A s an a d d e d b e n e f i t , t h e SCO Hz is a v a i l -
ar = 2 9 4 9 1 ; { 0 . 9 to key click f i l t e r )
a b l e f o r u s e as a t r a n s m i t t e r s i d e l o n e , e n - xi_cw1: call fir_xmt_cw; { Input in ar. output In mr1 }
s u r i n g thai a s t a t i o n is t u n e d in c o r r e c t l y myO = mr1;
w h e n t h e r e c e i v e d t o n e is t h e s a m e as t h e axO = d m ( c w _ d p h a s e ) ; ( P h a s e increment for lo }
ayO = d m ( c w _ p h a s e ) ; { Last p h a s e j
side tone. ar = axO + ayO; { New p h a s e )
d m ( c w _ p h a s e ) = ar; j F o r next time ]
T h e f i l t e r u s e d h e r e is a 5 0 0 - H / , I.PF.
T h e 4 8 - k H z s a m p l i n g rate requires about axO = d m ( c w _ p h a s e ) ;
2 0 0 t a p s on t h e F I R f i l l e r , bul t h e D S P is call sin: { a x 0 = P h a s e , S i n returned in AR ]
not b u s y d u r i n g C W t r a n s m i s s i o n , s o t h i s mr=ar'my0(SS); ( CW Gate )
a r = -mr1; { Make U S B )
is n o t a p r o b l e m . A s s h o w n in Listing
T R 1 8 F , a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n in t h e D S P my1 = G A I N J ; { G a i n correction f a c t o r }
is a c c o m p l i s h e d by generating a sine-wave mr = a r * my1 ( S S S ; { K e y e d s i n e w a v e * correction }
ar = mr1; { Corrected I s i g n a l }
at t h e C W o f f s e t < 8 0 0 H z ) a n d m u l t i p l y i n g
this by the output o f the k e y - c l i c k LPF. my1 = GAIN J Q ;
T h i s is repeated for a 9 0 - d e g r e e phase mr = a r * my1 ( S S ) ;
dm{t1) = m r l ; ( C r o s s - c o r r e c t i o n for Q )
shifted Q signal by generating a cosine
dm(tx_buf + 1) = ar; { I n - p h a s e transmit i-f sig o u t }
w a v e and repeating the modulation. T h e
output o f the k e y - c l i c k l o w - p a s s filter has { T h a t t a k e s c a r e of I. now Q : }
o v e r s h o o t that is s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r than t h e axO = d m ( c w _ p h a s e ) ; { T h e p h a s e u s e d for I Chan J
ayO = 1 6 3 8 4 ; { 9 0 d e g r e e s for q u a d r a t u r e lo }
i n p u t . T h i s i s a necessary 1 part o f l i m i t i n g a r = axO + ayO; { Q chan phase j
the transmit s p e c t r u m . T o ensure that this axO = ar;
is not s a t u r a t e d b y t h e l o w - p a s s F I R f i l t e r , call sin; i C o s lo sig, sln() p r e s e r v e s myO ]
mr = ar * m y 0 ( S S ) ; j C W G a t e for Q signal }
the input t o t h e f i l t e r is r e d u c e d in a m p l i -
my1 = GAIN_Q; { Q c h a n gain correction }
tude by a f a c t o r o f 0.91, as s h o w n . mr = mr1 " my1 ( S S ) ;
ayO = dm(t1); { Now add In c r o s s - c o r r e c t i o n }
T h e I and Q c o r r e c t i o n s f o r i m p r o v i n g ar = mr1 + ayO;
the s i d e - b a n d s u p p r e s s i o n uses the e o n -
slam values GAINJ, GA1N_Q and dmftx buf + 2 ) = ar: ! Q u a d r a t u r e transmit sig out 1

DSP Applications in Communications 11.25

 G A I N _ I Q . A s w a s the c a s e f o r r e c e p t i o n , c a t i o n s of t h e s w i t c h h a v i n g b e e n p u s h e d
either G A I N J or G A I N _ Q should be kept will be i g n o r e d u n t i l t h e c o u n t e r h a s
at a v a l u e ot' + l ( 3 2 7 6 7 i n t e g e r . ) r e t u r n e d to 100. T h i s is s a y i n g t h a t e a c h
T h e r e s u l t i n g k e y - c l i c k s p e c t r u m (see p u s h of t h e b u t t o n m u s t be f o l l o w e d b y a
F i g 1 1 . 2 7 ) is c l e a n e r t h a n m a n y c o m m e r - r e l e a s e . T h e r e a r e no e x t r a r e p e a t e d
cial t r a n s m i t t e r s a n d s o u n d s very g o o d o n actions for holding the buttons d o w n .
the air. T h e s p e c t r u m is d o w n a b o u t 3 0 d B T h e d e t a i l s of t h i s d e - b o u n c i n g and but-
at an o f f s e t of 5 0 0 H z . F i g 1 1 . 2 8 is the ton i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e c o v c r e d w i t h c o m -
k e y i n g w a v e f o r m at t h e o u t p u t of the k e y - m e n t s in t h e p r o g r a m TR1SA.DSP o n the
c l i c k l o w - p a s s FIR filter. T h e s m a l l r i p p l e s b o o k C D f o r t h o s e w a n t i n g to s e e an
that both p r e c e d e s a n d f o l l o w s t h e m a i n example.
k e y i n g t r a n s i t i o n s are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a
frequency constrained waveform. These
fc"
Sampling Rates For The
ripples are not heard by the ear w h e n receiv-
Fig 11.27—Measured spectrum of the
ing the signal. If they w e r e not present, the
18-MHz Transceiver
transceiver in CW, when being keyed
on and off at 10 dots/sec. The ear w o u l d h e a r t h e well k n o w n key-click T h e A/D and D/A converters for the
horizontal scale is 500 Hz/div and the sound. F o r c o m p a r i s o n . F i g 11.29 is repre- t r a n s c e i v e r o p e r a t e at a 4 8 - k H z rate. T h i s
vertical scale is 10 dB/div. sentative of the k e y click spectrum for trans- p r o v i d e s an a u d i o r e s p o n s e to at least 20
mitters that s h a p e the k e y i n g by limiting the k H z . In the c a s e of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , it is
rise and fall times. This was m e a s u r e d o n a totally inappropriate to transmit signals
c o m m e r c i a l transmitter of 1990 vintage. T h e with s u c h b a n d w i d t h s , a n d l o w p a s s f i l t e r -
far-out spectrum tends to fall o f f m o r e slowly i n g is p r o v i d e d to p r e v e n t this. In the case
of the r e c e i v e r , it is i n t e r e s t i n g to b e able
than the D S P s h a p e d system produces.
to h a v e w i d e r b a n d w i d t h s t h a n t h e con-
v e n t i o n a l S S B f i l t e r s g i v e . T y p i c a l l y , in
Control Functions t h e i n t e r e s t of Q R M r e j e c t i o n , t h e s e f i l t e r s
F o u r p u s h - b u t t o n s w i t c h e s are u s e d to c u t - o f f in the 2.5 to 3 . 0 k H z r e g i o n . S o m e
c o m m u n i c a t e data i n t o the D S P f o r t h e 18 p e o p l e f i n d the n a r r o w e r f i l t e r s c r e a t e s a
M H z transceiver: m u f f l e d s o u n d to the a u d i o . A h i g h s a m -
B u t t o n 1 - T u r n the a u d i o g a i n u p 1.5 d B . pling frequency gives ample opportunity
B u t t o n 2 - T u r n t h e a u d i o g a i n d o w n 1.5 to e x p e r i m e n t with this.
dB. A n o t h e r e x a m p l e of an a l g o r i t h m that
Button 3 - Alternate between Upper Side- b e n e f i t s f r o m a h i g h s a m p l i n g r a t e is a
Fig 11.28—RF waveform that results b a n d and C W m o d e s . n o i s e - b l a n k e r . S i g n a l s a r e e a s i l y s t o r e d in
from the keying low-pass filter. The Button 4 - Alternate between a wide-band a d e l a y l i n e w h i l e d e c i s i o n s to b l a n k are
small ripples at the ends of the S S B f i l t e r and a n a r r o w - b a n d C W filter. m a d e . As d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 10, if suf-
waveform are a result of the key-click
O p e r a t i o n of all f o u r p u s h - b u t t o n s is the f i c i e n t b a n d w i d t h is a v a i l a b l e , t h e pres-
reduction. This waveform was
measured on the DSP-10 transceiver, same. e n c e of n o i s e c o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d b y the
outlined later in this chapter, that uses P u s h - b u l l o n s w i t c h e s are p r o n e to h a v - n a t u r e of the w i d e - b a n d signal r e l a t i v e to
the same keying system as the 18-MHz ing m u l t i p l e o n / o f f s t a t e s w h e n they are t h e d e s i r e d signal b e i n g r e c e i v e d .
transceiver. f i r s t p u s h e d , r e f e r r e d (o as " c o n t a c t It is c h a l l e n g i n g to m a i n t a i n h i g h o p p o -
b o u n c e . " T h e e f f e c t s of this can be e l i m i - site s i d e - b a n d r e j e c t i o n w i t h an a n a l o g
nated with hardware de-bounce circuits, I - Q p h a s e - s h i f t n e t w o r k . In t h e c a s e of the
o r in o u r c a s e this c a n b e d o n e in the D S P . H i l b e r t t r a n s f o r m a p p r o a c h in D S P . the
A s o f t w a r e c o u n t e r , b c o u n t i is u s e d to m e a - o n l y d i f f i c u l t part is k e e p i n g g o o d a m p l i -
s u r e how l o n g the ith s w i t c h h a s b e e n d e - t u d e r e s p o n s e at l o w f r e q u e n c i e s ( a r o u n d
p r e s s e d . T h e c o u n t e r is initially set f o r a 3 0 0 H z . ) T h e h i g h f r e q u e n c y side of the
value of 100, m e a n i n g that t h e s w i t c h h a s H i l b e r t r e s p o n s e c o n t i n u e s up to w i t h i n a
not been p u s h e d . T h e interrupts occur ev- f e w h u n d r e d H z of half the s a m p l i n g fre-
e r y 1 / 4 8 , 0 0 0 s e c o n d at w h i c h t i m e t h e q u e n c y . T h u s the o p p o s i t e s i d e b a n d rejec-
s w i t c h state is r e a d . If the s w i t c h h a s b e e n tion b a n d w i d t h c a n be v e r y w i d e .
p u s h e d , t h e c o u n t e r is d i m i n i s h e d by o n e ,
O n e of the i n t e r e s t i n g e f f e c t s f r o m using
b u t not a l l o w e d to g o less than z e r o . If t h e
a w i d e b a n d w i d t h f o r S S B r e c e p t i o n is a
s w i t c h h a s not been p u s h e d , t h e c o u n t e r is
n e w v i e w of t r a n s m i t t e r splatter. O n e hears
i n c r e a s e d b y o n e , b u t not a l l o w e d to g o
the t r a n s m i t t e r s p l a t t e r , n o t as o f f - f r e -
above 100."
q u c n c y h a s h , but r a t h e r as a distortion to
In the b a c k g r o u n d p o r t i o n s of t h e p r o - the voice. It is p o s s i b l e to m a k e j u d g m e n t s
Fig 11.29—Measured spectrum ol a
commercial transceiver in CW g r a m , t h e c o u n t e r s arc e x a m i n e d . If a n y of of t r a n s m i t t e r c l e a n l i n e s s b y t u n i n g the sig-
operation, when being keyed on and t h e m a r e at z e r o , they arc c o n s i d e r e d to nal in and l i s t e n i n g f o r the d i s t o r t i o n . T h e
off at 10 dots/sec. The horizontal scale h a v e been p u s h e d , that is, t h e b u t t o n h a s e x c e l l e n t linearity of t h e A / D c o n v e r t e r s
is 500 Hz/div and the vertical scale is been d o w n at least 1 0 0 / 4 8 . 0 0 0 = 2 . 0 8 3 m i l - m a k e s the r e c e i v e r an i n s i g n i f i c a n t con-
10 dB/div. This spectrum is typical of l i s e c o n d s a n d is n o w " d e - b o u n c e d . " So, tributor to t h e distortion b e i n g h e a r d .
signals on the air with their key-click
the a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n f o r t h e s w i t c h , s u c h As usual, there are s o m e negative fea-
spectrums limited by rise and fall
times. It is shown here for comparison a s t u r n i n g up the a u d i o gain is p e r f o r m e d . t u r e s of u s i n g a h i g h s a m p l i n g f r e q u e n c y .
with the DSP derived spectrum of Fig N e x t , a f l a g is set so that t h e f u r t h e r i n d i - T h e m o s t o b v i o u s is the i n c r e a s e d load on
11.27.

11.26 C h a p t e r 11
the processor. Wilh a sampling frequency
of 48 kHz. there is a maximum time of
l/48(XK!=20.833 microseconds to process
the interrupt. The ADSP-21S1 processor
completes 33 instructions per microsccond
and so there are a m a x i m u m of
20.833x33=687 inslruciions per interrupt.
During reception these are allocated
roughly as:

FIR Filter I 143

FIR Filter Q 143 Fig 11.30—Use of decimation to improve filter response and to reduce
Hilbert Transform 148 computational load. The process of decimation first low-pass filters the data and
I-Q vector correct 10 then discards a fraction of it that is no longer needed to satisfy the Nyquist
Audio gain control 4 sampling criteria.
Binaural delay 7
Other receiver j o b s 62
Buttons 56
Total 573 basic process is to limit the bandwidth to a DSP has changed Ihe implementation.
fraction of the total bandwidth using a low- The l-F filter/diplexer. built around L4
pass filter. In ihis example, the filter cuts and L5 is identical. Switches, U5A-U5D
This uses about 84% of the available off all significant signals above 6 kHz. arc added to allow T/R switching and so
time, but leaves adequate time for the back- Next 3 out of every 4 samples are dis- are needed with cither implementation.
ground processing. Background tasks are carded. The Nyquist sampling criteria is The R2 uses audio filtering that is in the
chosen because they have neither dead- met since the new sampling rate of 12 kHz D S P for this rig. Audio amplification is
lines, nor rates of occurrence that they must is at least twice the frequency of any signal needed for both implementations since the
achicvc. that we are processing. The selectivity of signal levels coming from the mixers can
A second drawback to a high sampling all filters, low-pass, band-pass or any be of sub-microvolt levels. For the D S P
rale is the response of FIR filters. These other, will be improved by a factor of four. implementation. R F filtering, consisting of
can have fast rates of cut-off outside of the Alternatively, the selectivity can be main- 1500-pF feed-through filters, is needed to
pass-band, but the filter shape still scales tained. but the numbers of laps in the FIR keep noise from the D S P processor from
with sampling frequency. We get satisfac- filters can be reduced.
getting back into the R F circuits. And. of
tory response for the 18-MHz transceiver The gains of decimation are great. Not course, the biggest difference is that the
using a 48-kHz sampling rate. But if we only can the number of FIR taps be re- D S P implementation requires A I) and
needed greater selectivity, there would be duced. but the processing load is also re- D/A converters plus the processor.
two approaches possible. We could run a duced because the sampling rate is down.
lower sampling rate. A rale of 10 to 15 kHz The overall complexity and power con-
would still support excellent audio re- sumption of the D S P implementation are
sponse for communications. Analog vs Digital both greater than that of their analog coun-
A second way that allows the FIR filters One may already have noticed some terparts. The compensating feature is the
to have a low sampling rate and also have strong resemblances between the R2. performance of functions such as filtering
a wide-band system available is to use receiver and the mixer/l-F circuits of this and sideband suppression, along with the
multiple rales. This approach, callcd deci- 18-MHz rig. It is interesting to compare ability to make changes and add features
mation is illustrated in Fig 11.30. The the two circuits to see where the use of without hardware changes.

11.5 DSP-10 2-METER TRANSCEIVER

As the complexity of an electronic The details for the DSP-IO. including the mixing proccss to convert between the
project grows, the amount of time and tech- the QSTarticle and all of the computer pro- 144-MHz R F frequency and the I0-to-20-
nical skill required f o r successfully grams. are included on the Experimental kHz DSP I-F. Coarse tuning with 5-kHz
completion easily exceeds the allowable Methods in RF Design CD. The following steps is done at the 126-MHz first conver-
bounds for "weekend experimenters." material is an overview of the project that sion synthesizer. Fine tuning to less than
Much of the material in this book empha- shows the overall scope and content. Most 1 -Hz steps is provided by in D S P software.
sizes ways to have success with a project of the D S P programs involve routines that PIN-diode and C M O S switches select
by using simple approaches and limiting have been discussed in Chapters 10 and the direction of signal f l o w in the R F
the features. Q R P amateur construction 11. A major distinction is that the control hardware.
and operation has thrived on this approach. program, written in the language "C'. runs All signal generation and detection is
This view can be modified somewhat when on a personal computer (PC) and commu- D S P based in the general style of the
the project has significant portions imple- nicates with the DSP through a 9600-baud 18-MHz transceiver described previously
mented in software. An example is the serial connection. in this chapter. At the 10-to-20-kHz l-F.
DSP-IO all-mode 2-meter transceiver us- Fig 11.31 is an overall block diagram of two software l-Q mixers are driven by soft-
ing a DSP-based last I-F and audio sec- both the hardware and D S P software for ware generated sine waves at 0 and
tions with a computerized front panel. the transceiver. Dual conversion is used in 90-degree relative phase shifts. This forms

DSP Applications in Communications 11.27

the b a s i s f o r p r e c i s e S S B c o n v e r s i o n to m u n i c a t i o n s u s i n g t h i s d a t a . * * M o r e is B e l o w the s p c c t r u m a n a l y z e r d i s p l a y is
a u d i o . F o r F M , a n arc tangent detector is said a b o u t t h i s in C h a p t e r 12. a large block containing a long-term pre-
u s e d as o u t l i n e d in s e c t i o n 10.9, F M R e - s e n t a t i o n of spectral s i g n a l s t r e n g t h , c a l l e d
ception. A u d i o p r o c e s s i n g starts with a waterfall display. B r i g h t e r c o l o r s r e p r e -
an A G C f o l l o w e d b y F I R f i l t e r s f o r DSP-10 Front Panel sent g r e a t e r s i g n a l s t r e n g t h as illustrated
e i t h e r b a n d - p a s s f i l t e r i n g or LMS denoise In o r d e r to provide an a d e q u a t e h u m a n in F i g 11.32. E a c h t i m e that the s p e c t r u m
filtering. i n t e r f a c e for a transceiver of (his c o m p l e x - is c a l c u l a t e d f o r the u p p e r d i s p l a y , a n e w
An F F T spcctrum analyzer operates ity, the control c o m e s f r o m a P C . Even at r o w of p i x e l s is a d d e d to t h e w a t e r f a l l dis-
continuously, providing a spectral display that it r e p r e s e n t s a r u d i m e n t a r y a p p r o a c h to play. E v e n t u a l l y t h e d i s p l a y area is f u l l y
o n t h e P C . T h e s p e c t r a l d a t a is sent to t h e a "front p a n e l " in that only k e y b o a r d c o m - u s e d a n d t h e d i s p l a y m u s t scroll u p to s h o w
P C v i a a serial p o r t o p e r a t i n g at 9 6 0 0 b a u d . m a n d s are used and the p r o g r a m r u n s under o n l y t h e n e w e s t d a t a . T h i s g e n e r a l t y p e of
T h e U A R T * f o r I he serial p o r t is in the D S P D O S . C o n t r o l s e t t i n g s , s u c h as F R E - s p e c t r a l d i s p l a y h a s b e e n w i d e l y u s e d to
s o f t w a r e , again simplifying the needed Q U E N C Y and A U D I O G A I N are dis- look for patterns representing "coherent"
h a r d w a r e . A c o n t i n u o u s d i s p l a y of t h e d a t a p l a y e d a l o n g the left side of the p a n e l . O n signals. The h u m a n capability f o r pattern
is very u s e f u l f o r d e t e r m i n i n g the u s a g e of recognition operates well here.
the right side, the t o p m o s t portion of the
t h e s p c c t r u m as w e l l as f o r d e t e c t i n g t h e screen is keyboard d r i v e n transmit data that F i n a l l y a l o n g the b o t t o m of t h e s c r e e n is
p r e s e n c e of s i g n a l s that arc t o o w e a k to b e will be sent in M o r s e c o d e . F o l l o w i n g d o w n a status l i n e that c a n b e u s e d f o r a v a r i e t y
heard by car. The D S P - 1 0 also has provi- the right side is a s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r display of p u r p o s e s r a n g i n g f r o m d i a g n o s t i c sta-
sion f o r very w e a k s i g n a l (but s l o w ) c o m - that represents the current r e c e i v e r audio. tus i n f o r m a t i o n to t h e c u r r e n t p o s i t i o n of
the M o o n o r Sun.

"Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Trans-

mitter (UART) interprets and transmits the 'Two specialized weak-signal modes,
Additional DSP-10
serial data at a serial port for communica- called LHL-7 and PUA43 are fully de- Features
tions with a computer. Devices perform- scribed on the book CD. At VHF and mi-
A l s o a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h t h e s o f t w a r e are:
ing these functions are available as inte- crowave frequencies, these techniques
grated circuits, but can be implemented in have been used to communicate at signal » E i g h t a u d i o f i l t e r s of v a r y i n g c h a r a c t e r -
software where adequate computing time levels more than 20-dB below the levels istics
is available. possible with conventional CW. • O n e a u d i o filter that can be c u s t o m i z e d

Fig 11.31—Overall block diagram for the DSP-10 2-meter transceiver. The portion Inside the dashed lines is implemented as a
DSP program. Not shown here are the control and display functions that are implemented in a PC.

11.28 C h a p t e r 11
 c e s s e d . E v e n t h o u g h the p r o c e s s i n g load
Spectrum
will g e n e r a l l y not b e e v e n l y d i v i d e d b e -
t w e e n the f i v e 9 6 0 0 r a t e r o u t i n e s , all of the
r e m a i n i n g t i m e is still a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e
b a c k g r o u n d r o u t i n e s . T h e key d e s i g n p a -
r a m e t e r is t h e l o n g e s t r u n n i n g of the f i v e
routines. T h i s must not e x c e e d the
1/48000 second (20.833 microseconds)
t h a t is a v a i l a b l e b e t w e e n i n t e r r u p t s .
P r o v i s i o n is m a d e f o r u s i n g a t r i g g e r e d
e R B jw'T jw " B R B
o s c i l l o s c o p e to m e a s u r e t h e a m o u n t of
7 T 7 T \ 7 1 One Line of Waterfall
R O R O R t i m e s p e n t in the i n t e r r u p t r o u t i n e s . At t h e
start of e a c h i n t e r r u p t r o u t i n e , a h a r d w a r e
Fig 11.32—Diagram showing how the upper spectral is "sliced" into colors to form l o g i c level o u t p u t is set h i g h . R e t u r n i n g
the one line of the waterfall display. While this simplified diagram has only four f r o m the i n t e r r u p t r o u t i n e sets t h e line l o w .
colors, the waterfalls usually have 16 colors or more. Added colors improve the T h i s a l l o w s an o s c i l l o s c o p e to see e a c h of
ability to see weak signals against a noise background.
the f i v e r o u t i n e s a n d t h e i r r u n n i n g t i m e s .
Most triggered oscilloscopes h a v e a vari-
a b l e " t i m e / d i v " w h i c h n e e d s to be set to
just cover the 5x20.833=104.2 microsec-
• A u t o - N o t c h i n g of t o n e s adequate bandwidth for future needs may
o n d s . U s u a l l y it u n d e s i r a b l e f o r the o s c i l -
• A u t o m a t i c c o r r e c t i o n of r e c e i v e r f r e - i n s t e a d add c o n s i d e r a b l y to the cost and
l o s c o p e to t r i g g e r f o r t h e n e x t 104.2
quencies for E M E * operation8 c o m p l e x i t y of the h a r d w a r e . W h i c h b r i n g s
m i c r o s e c o n d s . If t h e r e is a " H o l d - O f f "
• A v a r i e t y of l o n g - t e r m a v e r a g i n g m e t h - b a c k the p o i n t m a d e for a l l - h a r d w a r e ra-
a d j u s t m e n t o n t h e o s c i l l o s c o p e , this is e a s -
ods d i o s , that t h e p r i c e of t r y i n g to m a k e a s o f t -
ily h a n d l e d . O t h e r w i s e , s o m e c a r e in set-
• Frequency corrections for external w a r e r a d i o totally f l e x i b l e m a y well be an
ting the t r i g g e r level will n o r m a l l y result
transverters** unfinished project!
in a c o n s i s t e n t t r i g g e r point.
• A c c u r a t e S - m e t e r r e a d i n g d i s p l a y e d in
dBm
DSP-10 Multi-Rate
• S a v i n g of s p e c t r a l data in c o m p u t e r f i l e s
Processing DSP-Based Audio
T h i s s u m m a r y of t h e f e a t u r e s i l l u s t r a t e s As d i s c u s s e d earlier, t h e o n l y h a r d w a r e Processor
t h e p o t e n t i a l of a d d i n g s o p h i s t i c a t i o n lo i n t e r r u p t o c c u r s at a 4 8 - k H z rate. C e r t a i n T h e D S P - 1 0 r a d i o uses an I - F of 10 to
the radios operation through software. The p r o c e s s e s , s u c h as t h e a u d i o f i l t e r i n g and 2 0 k H z w i t h a d i g i t a l s a m p l i n g r a t e of 4 8
initial r a d i o c a n b e q u i t e p r i m i t i v e with the serial d a t a t r a n s m i s s i o n , d o n o t r e q u i r e this k H z . H o w e v e r , n o t h i n g r e s t r i c t s u s i n g the
f e a t u r e s g r o w i n g with time. N e w f e a t u r e s h i g h rate of p r o c e s s i n g . T o m i n i m i z e t h e I - F p o r t i o n of the r a d i o w i t h o u t R F h a r d -
are a d d e d to e x i s t i n g r a d i o s b y l o a d i n g the p r o c e s s i n g t i m e r e q u i r e s , m u c h of the p r o - w a r e by e x l e n d i n g t h e i n p u t f r e q u e n c y
n e w s o f t w a r e . T h i s p r o c e s s l e n d s itself to c e s s is p e r f o r m e d at 1/5 rate, o r 9 6 0 0 H z . r a n g e d o w n i n t o the a u d i o r a n g e . W h e n
g r o u p a c t i v i t i e s , w h e r e the f i n a l p r o d u c t S i n c c this is a s u b - m u l t i p l e of the b a s i c t h e " B F O ' " g e t s to z e r o H z , o n e h a s an
c a n be s h a r e d b y s o f t w a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n . r a t e , o n l y t h e o n e i n t e r r u p t r o u t i n e is a u d i o p r o c e s s o r . W h a t this m e a n s is that
A n a d d i t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the s o f t - needed. the same EZ-K1T Lite D S P board used for
w a r e - b a s e d r a d i o is the ability to c h a n g e Within the interrupt routine, a software t h e o t h e r p r o j e c t s in this c h a p t e r b e c o m e s
its " p e r s o n a l i t y " b y t h e l o a d i n g of d i f f e r - d i v i d e - b y - f i v e is u s e d to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h a full-featured audio processor, suitable
ent s o f t w a r e . O f t e n , n e w m o d e s of o p e r a - of the 9 6 0 0 rate r o u t i n e s a r e t.0 b e p r o - f o r use with a n y t r a n s c e i v e r . O n l y t w o el-
tion a n d c o n t r o l of t h e r a d i o s o p e r a t i o n
m a y b e a d d e d a s s o f t w a r e is w r i t t e n . H o w -
e v e r , the h a r d w a r e d e s i g n p r o c e s s is c h a l -
l e n g e d lo a n t i c i p a t e f u t u r e a p p l i c a t i o n s .
A d d i n g a little m o r e c o n t r o l , such as a g a i n
a d j u s t m e n t , to t h e h a r d w a r e m a y a l l o w Input Spectrum
c o n s i d e r a b l e g r o w t h in c a p a b i l i t y b y f u -
ture s o f t w a r e changes. However, adding
c o n t r o l of e n o u g h f u n c t i o n s a n d h a v i n g

Frequency
*EME refers to the Earth-Moon-Earth path
of signal reflection. Due to the Earth's ro-
tation and the non-circularity of the Moon's Fig 11.33—Input and output
orbit, there is a Doppler shift in the re- spectrums for the SSB l-Q mixer.
turned signal. This shift is up to about ±400 Output Spectrum
Note the simple shift in frequency
Hz at 2-meters and proportionally more at with no new introduced spectral
higher frequencies. components.

" O p e r a t i o n at frequencies other than 2-

meters is possible by using transverters
to produce external frequency mixing of Frequency
both the transmitted and received signals.

DSP Applications in Communications 11.29

ements are not fully achieved without add-
ing the DSP-10 R F hardware:
• Accurate R F frequency control under an [M7PUA PSPiO i^I |
external 10-MHz reference RECEIVE JIV
• Tight integration of the control functions,
such as frequency display and transmit/
receive sequencing. 1 :IIUi I'llll) fiOUO II.

The overall block diagram of the audio

processor is the D S P portion of Fig 11.31
sigrtal Lffvol
that is inside the dashed lines. Modes such -S6.3 r*
712 Hz
as F M make little sense when the input is ContrAsI 1»»
the audio coming from a receiver, but they Bright t 4
MikeGain ~~ ~~. VI
r
remain available waiting for an applica- CM Speed 10 WPH
X«it Pwr >i(|
tion! Since the SSB mixing structure Mode ...; 1 A l t
remains on the input to the audio proces- RIT ~ n
F i i t*t- U f» S T H
sor, it is possible to provide a frequency LMS Mft
Binaural IK t
offset. 9 as shown in F i g 11.33. The I-Q
mixing removes the lower sideband that SpccAve a
Sn«ciAnl HanPKiO
would appear as a mirror image of the ttF Gain
input spectrum, folded about the BFO fre- RFUairt
ftGC
quency. The very high balance of the D S P AutDisp
multiplier mixers then allows the input and
output spectrums to overlap without inter-
ference. The frequency display is modi-
Fig 11.34—Audio processor display with operation oil 10-meter CW. The top graph
fied for the audio processor and displays a
is the latest measured audio spectrum, which is updated every 0.6 seconds. Each
Frequency Offset in Hertz in place of the of the approximately ten peaks are CW stations. The lower waterfall display shows
radio frequency. the signal strength for each frequency plotted downward as time progresses. The
time in minutes and seconds is shown at the left edge of the waterfall display. As
The D S P - 1 0 audio processor can be explained in the text, brighter colors on the waterfall represent stronger signals.
used as a 0 to 20-kHz spectrum analyzer. The station at about 250 Hz is the DX station. He has asked stations calling him
At any time the frequency band being ob- to operate at higher frequencies. The multiplicity of stations desiring a QSO and
served can be 1200. 2400 or 4800-Hz wide responding to the request are to the right at offsets up to at least 2400 Hz.
with resolution bandwidths of about 3. 6 The bandwidth occupied by each station is mainly set by the rise and fall
or 12 Hz respectively. The vertical display waveforms of the CW keying (key clicks) as was discussed for the 18-MHz
transceiver.
can be set to 1, 2, 5 or 10 dB/div and un-
limited video averaging is available
through the PC software. • If transmit functions are to be used, an Extensions
The DSP and PC programs that are used audio cable and possibly level adjust-
for the DSP-10 R F operation also support ment circuitry is needed between the The features of the DSP-10 and the as-
the audio processor. The executable pro- E Z K I T output and the transceiver micro- sociated audio processor happen to be as-
grams, along with all source code are phone jack. sociated with weak-signal c o m m u n i c a -
available on the Experimental Methods in • If a parallel port is available there are tions. Since all of the source files are
RF Design CD. The general requirements optional T/R controls f r o m P C program. available, it can be a good place lo begin
for the audio processor arc: These come f r o m the paral le I port as TTL a project for very d i f f e r e n t uses. This
levels and usually need some level con- might be a data communications mode, a
• An EZ-KTT Lite to run the D S P program. version. propagation monitor or a radio astronomy
project. Or it might be some only slightly
• A PC to run the control program. This With these minor adaptations the audio
runs under D O S and uses 640x480 V G A processor is compatible with most of the related area such as ornithology research.
16-color graphics. A serial port is needed other projects in this book. It is o f t e n easier to m o d i f y a s o f t w a r e
for c o m m u n i c a t i n g with the EZ-KIT. Fig 11.34 shows the audio processor projcct that is working than to bring up a
The computer need not be fast; a 4 8 6 screen with a C W D X p i l e u p . This is inter- new one f r o m an " e m p t y f i l e . " Either
level is adequate. This is a great applica- esting to observe, but there was no magic way, though, the software approach al-
tion for the old computers that are col- as far as copying the stations! However, lows a different kind of flexibility than
lecting dust somewhere. there is utility in using this type of spectral can be achieved in hardware m o d i f i c a -
• An audio cable connecting between the re- display for choosing a frequency on which tion. The opportunities for exploration are
ceiver audio output and the EZK1T input. to operate. endless!

11.30 Chapter 11
REFERENCES AND NOTES
1.1). D . R a s m u s s e n . "A Tuning Control 4. G . L . M a t t h a e i . L. Y o u n g , E. M . T . Signal, Direct-Conversion Receiver with
f o r D i g i t a l F r e q u e n c y Synthesizers." Q S T . J o n e s , Microwave Filters, Impedance- D S P , " QST, Apr, 1998, p p 40-45.
Jun. 1974, p p 29-32. This articlc on the Marching Networks, and Coupling
8. An excellent discussion of the general
inner w o r k i n g s of the rotary optical Structures, McGraw-Hill. 1964.
characteristics of E M E c o m m u n i c a t i o n s
encoder has all of the information needed R e p r i n t e d in 1980 by Artech H o u s e , Inc..
is C h a p t e r 10, " E a r t h - M o o n - E a r t h ( E M E )
to c o n s t r u c t an e n c o d e r instead of D e d h a m , M A . Section 8 . i i c o v e r s the
C o m m u n i c a t i o n s " by D . T u r i n and A.
purchasing a m a n u f a c t u r e d version. direct-coupled resonator filters. The
K a t z . f r o m the b o o k The ARRL UTIF/
2. T h e r e are m a n y registers that control r e m a i n d e r of this book is a wealth of R F
Microwave Manual, Antennas, Com-
f u n c t i o n s or sclcct options. T h o s e that are and m i c r o w a v e design i n f o r m a t i o n .
ponents and Design, A R R L , 1990.
selected through data m e m o r y m a p p e d
5. W . H a y w a r d . " M e a s u r i n g and C o m p -
locations must not also be used for other 9. J. Forrer, " A D S P - B a s e d A u d i o Signal
e n s a t i n g O s c i l l a t o r D r i f t , " QST. D e c ,
data storage. M o r e information on these Processor." QEX, S e p , 1996. This article
1993, pp 37-41.
registers is available f r o m " E Z - K I T Lite p r o v i d e s b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n on
R e f e r e n c e M a n u a l . " Analog Devices that 6. G. C . S o u t h w o r t h , Principles and several of the basic routines as well as a
is supplied as part of the E Z - K I T . Applications of Waveguide Transmission, set of routines that can be run on the E Z -
3. S. B. C o h n . " D i r e c t - C o u p l e d - R e s o n a t o r Van N o s l r a n d , 1950, p 606. Kit Lite. T h i s material is c o n t a i n e d on the
Filters," I'roc. IRE. Vol 45. Feb, 1957. pp 7. R. Frohne, "'A High-Performance, Single book CD.
187-196.

DSP Applications in Communications 11.31

 CHAPTER

Field Operation, Portable Gear

and Integrated Stations

This b o o k is perhaps more personal than the m o u n t a i n s of the Pacific West to the ety of rigs are described, showing one or
it's predecessor with the individual chap- coastal waters of Oregon; W e all operate more of our interests. The equipment is pre-
ters written by easily identifiable individu- stations f r o m home, with virtually all of sented not for exact duplication, but mainly
als. But there is also a strong c o m m o n that operation using, or relating to equip- as encouragement for other experimenters.
thread of interests a m o n g us: we all e n j o y ment we have built; Although Q R P is a None of the equipment we have built will
a wide sampling of f r e q u e n c y bands, rang- f r e q u e n t pursuit, we all use higher p o w e r include the features that another designer/
ing f r o m VLF through m i c r o w a v e s ; we all al limes, and wc all integrate e x p e r i m e n - builder will want. But, the tools of the other
have e q u i p m e n t that we have built that we tal activity with station operation. chapters can be evoked for the design of
take to unusual locations, ranging from the This chapter illustrates some of that activ- whatever you might need.
hills of M i c h i g a n ' s Northern Peninsula to ity. both from the field and at home. A vari-

12.1 SIMPLE EQUIPMENT FOR PORTABLE OPERATION

A longtime favorite activity al W 7 Z O ! In spite of these virtues, the ubiquitous three dot lengths wrhile the pause after a
has been p o r t a b l e o p e r a t i o n , p r e d o m i - alkaline flashlight cell remains the most word is five. Our sample "transmission"
nantly f r o m the m o u n t a i n s of the western popular energy source. T h e reason is then produced a duty cycle of just over
United States. M a n y of our mountain rigs simple: the total energy p e r pound con- 50%. A similar receiving period accompa-
are simple ( n o n - p h a s i n g ) direct c o n v e r - tained is far in exccss of that available from nies this during a contact, reducing opera-
sion C W designs. While not o p t i m u m for popular rechargeable cells. A 1.2-V NiCd tion to a 25% key down duty cycle. Most of
contests (such as Field Day), they are oth- AA cell has a typical capacity of 5 0 0 us spend at least as much time listening as
erwise adequate. T h e s e are the rigs that niA-hours with the ability to be recharged we do making contacts. So. we estimated a
are thrown into the pack when we just want for up to 1000 cvclcs. An alkaline cell, typical key down use as being '/s. or 12.5%,
to make a few e n j o y a b l e backcountry con- used only oncc. weighs about the same increasing to 25% during contests.
tacts. They also provide a link to the out- amount with a rated capacity of 2800 A circuit that will test batteries with a
side world when we hike alone. T h e sev- mA-Hours. The ccll voltage can vary f r o m 12.5% duty cycle is shown in Fig 12.1. A
eral rigs described here are not presented 1.5 V at the beginning of use to 0.8 V for 7555 timer IC oscillating at an audio rate
f o r exact duplication, but as a source of complete discharge. Data is available on is divided with a chain of 14 divide-by-2
ideas f o r the designer/builder. the W e b at data.energizer.com/ and www. elements within a 7 4 H C 4 0 6 0 TC. Q 1 3 and
duraeell.com/OEM/Primary/Alkaline/. Q 1 4 outputs are decoded to produce a 2 5 %
Some emerging but more expensive bat- duty cycle. T h e s e are then c o m b i n e d with
Batteries and Power tery technologies are also of interest. the Q 6 output to create a "string of dits"
Sources The e x p e r i m e n t e r may wish to m e a s u r e with net duty cycle of 12.5%. A 7 4 H C 1 3 8
A wide variety of batteries o f f e r por- battery p e r f o r m a n c e . Single ccll testing is one-of-eight d e c o d e r extracts the k e y i n g
table p o w e r f o r the experimenter. adequate, but the test should emulate the signal, w h i c h then controls a p o w e r
R e c h a r g e a b l e N i c k e l - C a d m i u m (NiCd) or expected duty cycle, for total energy avail- M O S F E T switch.
Nickel Metal H y d r i d e ( N i M H ) batteries able f r o m batteries may d e p e n d upon the R e s i s t a n c e R R X sets the load d u r i n g
are ideal for radio applications, for they way it is e x t r a c t e d . A c c o r d i n g l y , we receive p e r i o d s w i t h R T X switched in
are c a p a b l e of high current output, rea- graphically e x a m i n e d a typical C'W trans- d u r i n g " k e y down'" intervals. A 1-12
s o n a b l e total capacity, and are easily mission. A dash length is three times that M O S F E T on-resistancc is part of the trans-
charged. They also feature rather stable- of a dot while a space f o l l o w i n g either is mit load. T h e resistor v a l u e s can be
output voltage. one dot length. T h e pause a f t e r a letter is changed to a c c o m m o d a t e other conditions

Field O p e r a t i o n , Portable G e a r a n d Integrated S t a t i o n s 12.1

 switched between 8 and 10 cells. Clearly,
there are numerous opportunities available
for the experimenter.

Portable Antennas
Choosing a backcountry antenna pre-
sents interesting problems. The stay-
at-home radio amateur generates numer-
ous exciting ideas when first considering
field operation. Thoughts of exotic beams
hanging between the trees or other avail-
able structures are c o m m o n . But these
grand plans often change after the first trip
when the complications of getting lines
into available trees are encountered. Also,
the impact of long runs of coaxial cable is
greater when they must be carried over a
few miles of trail.
Our main antenna is an inverted-V
dipole. The inverted form is preferred over
a flat dipole because only one support is
needed. We usually carry three 50-ft
pieces of '/s inch nylon cord. T w o pieces
are tied together and attached to a rock that
is launched into a tree. This line supports
the dipole center and the feedline. Once in
the tree, only one line is needed to support
the center. The remaining two pieces then
support the dipole ends. Tf suitable rocks
are not found, a cloth bag filled with
smaller rocks, sand, or even snow can be
used.' Some back-country radio amateurs
will tie antenna ends to a cord that is then
tied to a rock. The rock is flung into the
tree where i( remains suspended during
Ohm Keyed Load. operation. This is a poor practice if there is
the slightest chance that the knot will
become undone in the wind and drop the
rock on a passing hiker!
25.5 Ohm "Key Up." DC load. Dipole center insulators are easily fab-
ricated from hardware store plastic water
pipe fittings. Plastic insulated wire is usu-
ally used for portable antennas, with the
Fig 12.1—Timing circuit for testing a single cell battery at 50-mA receive and ends secured with nylon cord or rope, so
300-mA TX current. RTX and RRX will change with a different transceiver.
end insulators are never needed.
The height of a dipole impacts perfor-
mance. More often than not, we are satis-
fied with an antenna that is only 25 or 30
or batteries. While the schcme is ccrtainly the entire battery life. This is the resull of feet above ground, high enough for effec-
not a standard, it approximates actual use internal battery resistance of about 0.33 12. tive daylight 7-MHz operation. A higher
with a rcpeatablc experiment. This scheme The perturbation at 360 minutes showed antenna will do as well during the day, and
tests the battery with a pulsed constant the result when the test was terminated will develop the low angle radiation
resistance load. The manufacturers also in (he evening, bul restarted the next needed for longer distance nighttime
show battery behavior with constant cur- morning. operation. But it will also require thai more
rent. Switch SI allows the circuit to be The battery life exceeds 1000 minutes rope and feedline be packed up the trail. A
switched off to read the receive voltage or for an AA cell for a key down voltage of simple transmateh (shown later) is usually
toggled to a "key d o w n " mode to measure 1.1 at "end of life." This constrains our used, even with dipoles.
transmit current. Manual measurements equipment design if we wish to obtain End fed wire antennas are especially
arc done with a DVM. maximum battery life. The AA cell i s p r o b - useful in the field, featuring a complete
Fig 12.2 is typical of the data we ablv suitable for higher transmit current, lack of feedline. A h a l f w a v e wire (67 feel
obtained, based upon the load presented by limited by internal resistance. at 7 M H z ) is easily hauled into a tree with
the "Western Mountaineer" transceiver We have modified one transceiver a single line. The polarization is usually a
described later. There was about a 0.1-V (below) to include a voltage measurement mixture of vertical and horizontal. The
difference between R and T loading over circuit and use a battery pack that can be wire end near camp is fixed in place with

12.2 C h a p t e r 12
 Pulsed + D C loading, A A Cell

Portable transmatch using screwdriver

V
\ j
v
\ \ \
h
adjustments.

\
- v \ \
m

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000110012001300 1400
t
time, minutes

Fig 12.2—Battery voltage during pulsed testing for a single AA cell. See text for
conditions.

Center of inverted-V dipole. The rope

Back yard supports both the antenna and the
experiments transmission line.
should include
some listening to
be sure the
antenna is really
functioning.

The end of a portable antenna requires

no insulator. A tie-off cord or rope with
the insulation on the wire is sufficient.
a short p i e c e of r o p e and f e d with a tally p o l a r i / e d signal with lower a n g l e
t r a n s m a t c h . O n e or t w o q u a r t e r w a v e - c o m p o n e n t s . The full wave wire can also
length pieces of wire are laid on the ground be c o n f i g u r e d as a loop.
to f o r m a r e f e r e n c e f o r the transmatch. A An antenna support is a problem when
transmatch that d i f f e r s f r o m that used with operaiing above timberline. We h a v e car-
dipoles is usually required, f o r typical Z is ried a 12-foot telescoping whip (14 inches
a r o u n d 3 0 0 0 £2. M e a s u r e m e n t s on back collapsed) to support a dipole. The whip
yard s y s t e m s show that while an end fed base is lashed to a rock, ice ax, or ski pole.
wire without a r e f e r e n c e radial or two can Fishing poles of various sorts are popular
s o m e t i m e s f u n c t i o n , the m a t c h is then sus- a m o n g Q R P enthusiasts, s o m e c o m i n g in
ceptible to hand c a p a c i t a n c e effects. These lengths of 2 0 f t or more. S o m e t i m e s no
p r o b l e m s disappear with even o n e radial. support at all is needed; a dipole on snow
Slip the radials into the brush w h e r e they or dry rocks can still f u n c t i o n , although
w o n ' t be u n d e r foot. experimentation is required.
An e n d - f e d full wavelength wire also V H F antennas present a different chal- A dipole insulator is fabricated from an
e n j o y s a lack of feedline, and can be con- l e n g e . Our s t a n d a r d p o r t a b l e m a s t uses end cap of PVC pipe. This cap is 1.25-
figured to generate a d o m i n a n t h o r i z o n - Q.625-OD a l u m i n u m tubing in the f o r m of inch OD.

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.3

two 5-foot tent poles, each in three sec- environment, some arc taking this permissible to merely connect the panel to
tions. A ten-foot length is formed with a minimalist equipment into the field. More the battery, perhaps with a diode to pre-
connecting piece of 0.75-inch OD tubing. is to be found on the ARS W e b site. vent leakage into the panel. The current
A slip ting provides a guy point at the f r o m the panel should be less than the
5-foot level. The usual antennas used at maximum allowed charging current for the
144 and 432 M H z are coax fed Yagis. 2
Alternative Power battery. Current is confined with a series
Many of the folks participating in Q R P current limiter, shown in Fig 12.3A. With
and in baekpackingradio are alsointrigued the components shown, current is limited
Bands and Modes with alternative energy. The most common at either 50 or 130 mA from the charger.
The dominant band we use in the moun- form is solar power, although the present This circuit should not be used without a
tains remains 7-MHz CW. Other operators " w i n d - u p " broadcast receivers suggest rechargeable battery, for that would allow
have different preferences. A good friend many mechanical sources, including wind voltages greater than 15 to be applied to
and hiking companion. W A 7 M L H , has and waterpower. the transceiver. Figure 12.3B uses a shunt
done a great deal of winter camping from Some simple circuits for use with solar regulator with current limiting to either
snowshoes or skis. Jeff has found both panels are shown in Fig 12.3. With some charge a battery or to supply a voltage
80-meter C W and 75-meter SSB to be solar cells and rechargeable ballcrics, it is regulated output. The latter occurs when
effective. Unfortunately, 80-meter C W
often lacks people with whom to converse.
The higher bands can be great fun when
working other Q R P stations. The antennas
are usually a bit easier at 14 M H z and
above. Simplicity remains the best guide-
line. Some simple b e a m s are useful for
Field Day and other committed radio
events, but are not recommended for rou- (A)
tine backpacking where the radio gear is a
secondary goal.

The Trail-Friendly
Radio 12 Volt
Hi-Cad
The term "Trail Friendly Radio." or TFR
was introduced in 1996 by members of the
"Adventure Radio Society (ARS)." an in- JD
formal group of Q R F enthusiasts who
D43C8
regularly take radio gear beyond the limits power PHP
of motorized travel.- A TFR need not look
like the usual home bound transceivers
that must sit on tables or shelves. Some of
the following equipment is in the TFR cat-
(B)
egory. Also see the "Sleeping Bag Radio" 2 1 V Open C k t ,
described elsewhere in this chapter. 0.65R S h o r t Ckt
-=r- 12 Volt
E q u i p m e n t for backpacking or other — Hi-Cad
field use should lie lightweight, compact,
and should be easy to operate. A minimum Transceiver
1
of controls is desirable, and they should be
capable of use even when the operator
wears gloves or mittens. Temperature test-
ing prior to use is vital.
The Adventure Radio Society sponsors
an informal, monthly contest called the
"Spartan Sprint" that e m p h a s i z e s these
ideals. The scoring for this contest is
essentially the number of contacts divided
by the total station weight, including key,
(C)
headphones, and batteries. It is common
to encounter several stations in the contest
with total station weight under a pound,
with some around 0.1 pound! This is real-
ized only with meticulous attention to
details such as small circuit boards with
less than normal thickness, screwdriver
tuning (with very light-weight tools), rigs
without cabinets. Lithium batteries, and
absolute m i n i m u m power. While most
Fig 12,3—Some circuits for handling solar panels. See text for discussion. A TIP-32
" w i n n e r s " are operating from a h o m e may be used for the power PNP, replacing the D43C8.

12.4 Chapter 12
 Front panel of Portable CW transceiver. The station weight,
including batteries, earphones, keyer paddle, transmatch,
and an end fed antenna, Is about 2 pounds. The transceiver
includes a bridge and VSWR indicating meter, so the
transmatch consists of nothing more than the matching
network.

A solar panel provides energy to keep batteries "topped

off" during a 1993 Field Day operation. The operator is
sitting in the tent to escape a light rain.

Fig 12.4—Block diagram for a simple direct conversion

transceiver. A single crystal oscillator serves a dual function.
the 13-V Zener diode is switched into the
circuit and is useful when making contacts
with the solar panel being the only energy
source. The 15-V Zener diode protects the
transceiver against excessive voltage. Q3 L O for a direct conversion receiver. A A simpleMicromountaineer transceiver
can dissipate the full energy capability of block diagram is shown in Fig 12.4. results from combining the " B e g i n n e r ' s
the panel, so a heat sink should be used. This transceiver topology is the result Transmitter" of Chapter 1 with the Micro-
Solar panels are capable of short circuit of current operating practiccs where R1 basic direct conversion receiver of
operation without damage. Power Zener operators calling CQ will rarely look for Chapter 8. The sidetone oscillator and
diodes are expensive and are best replaced an answer more than a kHz away from their transmit-receive switch included with the
with the adjustable shunt regulator circuit transmitter frequency. With such a prac- transmitter complete the station.
shown in Fig 12.3C with Q4 also attached tice, there is little value in receiving on A contemporary version of the Micro-
to a heat sink. The designer/builder should frequencies other that those where your mountaineer was presented in QST for
investigate modern battery management transmitter can function. July, 2000 with the article included on the
integrated circuits from Maxim and other Some sort of offset capability is required book CD. That version featured 2N3904
vendors. for the crystal oscillator in such a trans- transistors throughout the R F portion of
ceiver, needed to produce a beat note that the design with a NE602-LM386 combi-
can be heard when a station is zero beat nation as the receiver. (See the beginner's
Micro-Mountaineer- with your transmitter. This can be an receiver in Chapter 1 M O S F E T switches
Class Transceivers inductor or capacitor in series with the crys- are used in the T/R system for a rig that can
A simple transceiver can be built with a tal. The extra element can be switched in or be built for any band f r o m 1.8 to 50 MHz.
single crystal controlled oscillator serv- out automatically with the keying, or can T h e 28-MHz version has been used
ing a dual function: The oscillator is the be manually activated by the operator. for contacts all over North America and
frequency control for a simple two or three These differences are all details that the Japan.
stage transmitter; the oscillator is also the experimenters can individually implement. The July 2000 version lends itself well

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.5

 V from
Must be b u i l t lit m e t a l box. regulator

7 MHz ">1 Colpitts Oscillator plus

cotrmon-base i s o l a t i o n
a r | i l i f i e r . P-out about
-5 «Bm o r s o .

T l : Bhout 15 t KT 37-
43, 3 o r 4 t l i n k
s

0=100
A Micromountaineer class transceiver C2=100
uses Internal crystals, but accepts an LI: D 7 - 6 t o r o i d . 18t #Z4
external VFO.

Adjust t h i s & t o
s e t VFO Output

Fig 12.6—7-MHz VFO for use with the July 2000 QSTtransceiver.

Fig 12.5—An audio bandpass filter

for use with the QST July 2000
Micromountaineer. ceiver is shown in Fig 12.8. T h e user m a y
c o u n t e r s h o u l d be c o a x i a l cable or a
twisted wire pair. wish to disable the s i d e t o n e o s c i l l a t o r
This transceiver also includes a built in included on the original QST design.
clcctronic kcycr. Both the k c y e r and f r e - The K A 7 E X M version of the QST trans-
to m o d i f i c a t i o n s . Fig 12.5 s h o w s a passive quency counter provide sidetone outputs ceiver was built as a Trail Friendly Radio
L C audio filter that can be added in the that are routed to the audio system. T h e as described above. It was put in a plastic
h e a d p h o n e lead to substantially i m p r o v e m o d i f i c a t i o n to the a u d i o on the trans- box (approximately 3 x 5 x 9 inches) with
selectivity. Ed Kesslcr. A A 3 S J . built this internal shielding of the V F O . shown in
circuit. the p h o t o g r a p h s . C o n t r o l s are on the larger
A variable frequency oscillator is easily surface with all intcrfacc attachments to
added to Micromountaineer class portable one end. W h i l e this may not be o p t i m u m
rigs. Fig 12.6 shows one that was added to for a classic h o m e station e n v i r o n m e n t
the QST July 2000 version built by Roger with table and chair, it w o r k e d well when
Hayward, K A 7 E X M . The V F O operates at used on b a c k p a c k i n g trips in O r e g o n ' s
the 7 - M H z output frequency, so it is vital Cascade M o u n t a i n s .
that the oscillator be shielded f r o m the rest E a r p h o n e s , rather than speakers, should
of the circuitry. If the oscillator frequency always be used with portable transceivers.
was reduced to 3.5 M H z and was followed This is a courtesy to other back-country
by a frequency doubler, no shielding would travelers.
be needed. This transceiver is shown in the There are clearly n u m e r o u s m o d i f i c a -
photographs. Fig 12.7 shows the modifica- tions and variations that can be applied to
tions used within the transceiver. The pre- this projcct w i t h new bands being of spe-
viously tuned output at Q2 was replaced End view of the KA7EXM 7-MHz cial interest. Versions with the V F O oper-
with a fcrrite transformer. The VFO signal Micromountaineer. ating at the output f r e q u e n c y would work
is then injected at the base of that stage. The well at 1.8. 3.5 and 10.1 M H z . Variations
gain is set with the addition of Q2 emitter using a f r e q u e n c y doubler f o l l o w i n g the
components while a dc signal f r o m the A I T V F O would be p r e f e r r e d at 7 M H z and
switch is routed to the feed-through capaci- h i g h e r with a h e t e r o d y n e V F O o f f e r i n g
tor feeding the 1N4152 diode. The capaci- better p e r f o r m a n c e at 21 M H z and higher.
tor marked " s e l " in the V F O may be
A photograph shows a diode ring prod-
selected to set the offset with the value
uct detector based variation that w e built
show p r o d u c i n g about 800 Hz in the
and used in the mid 1980s time f r a m e .
KA7KXM transceiver.
Crystal control was included with a pair of
A 1 - k O resistor is added to the trans- internal crystals. H o w e v e r , an outboard
ceiver to feed a sample of the oscillator V F O could also be attached when desired.
signal to a f r e q u e n c y counter. K A 7 E X M B a n a n a plugs and j a c k s p r o v i d e d a conve-
used a F r e q u e n c y Mite f r o m Small W o n d e r nient mechanical interface. Coaxial cable
Labs for this function. See the discussion provides a V F O output connection and a
of c o u n t e r s in C h a p t e r 4. T h e i n t e r f a c e The external "plug-on" VFO for use with p o w e r supply interface between units. T h e
f r o m the main t r a n s c e i v e r board to the the hand held rig. o f f s e t control to the V F O was multiplexed

12.6 Chapter 12
 to >
Coax to Freg.Mite o
Counter.

m^^rnmmm' -
* «

Ail controls and I/O lines attach to the

end of the "Western Mountaineer,"
allowing it to reside in a small camera
case inside a parka. The turns counting
dial is on a 10 turn pot to control a
temperature compensated VCO. The
knob in the upper right comer allows
the supply voltage to be "measured."

with the RF line. This transceiver has seen

nearly two dccadcs of 40-meter C W use.
The VFO is usually included, bul is left at
home or in a base c a m p during summit
climbs where weight must be minimal.
T1:16t FT37-43,
4t output link The "Western
Mountaineer"
+12v dcpi This rig is a simple direct conversion
Q1 no longer used. transceiver based upon the popular
Phillips NE-602 Gilbert Cell mixer. The
n a m e was chosen bccause the rig was
designed for use in the mountains of the
Fig 12.7—Modifications applied to the July 2000 QSTtransceiver when a VFO was western USA where strong international
added. See text.
broadcast signals are rarely a problem.
Builders in the eastern USA or in Hurope
will find this circuit unsuitable and should
consider a diode ring based design such as
the still excellent W 7 E L transceiver. 4
The VFO and transmitter, shown in Fig
12.9, begins with a high-C Colpitts oscil-
lator tuned with a varactor diode. D2. This
circuit is temperature compensated with
two methods. Part of C2 consists of poly-
styrene elements with most capacitance
built from NPO parts. The tuning diode is
IK
^vvv- \ir~-3
;28 —
then compensated with D l . a sccond sili-
con diode. This oscillator was discussed in
r28 Chapter 4. R1 is selected to determine the
Phones
diode current. It is vital that a thermal
chamber be used to adjust the temperature
r32 compensation. Details arc presented in tile
From TIC *[220K r33
Keyer book CD 5 and in Chapters 4 and 7.

Sel. —
Si tie tone The VFO operates directly at the 7-MHz
transmitter output f r e q u e n c y , making
From oscillator shielding vital. The shield was
Freq.Mite
built f r o m tin sheet stock. A wall was built
Sidetone
around the part of the circuit board con-
taining the oscillator and soldered directly
Fig 12.8—Sidetone signals from the counter and the keyer may be injected as to the ground foil. A lid was attached, leav-
shown. Removing R23 will disable the original sidetone from the output. ing access to C I . Compensation diode D.1

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.7

 is enclosed in the same compartment.
The VFO is tuned with R2, a pot eon-
trolling a current pulled from the summing
node of op-amp U3A. A CW offset of
about 800 Hz is provided with Q13. This is
configured for the Almost Incremental
Tuning scheme outlined in Chapters. R1T
could be implemented if desired: see
Chapter 4.
The VFO output is buffered and ampli-
fied in several stages, eventually driving a
power amplifier. Q5 and Q6. consisting of
a pair of 2M3904 transistors with an out-
put of 0.6 W. An output low pass filter
provides impedance matching to the PA
and harmonic attenuation.
The receiver, shown in Fig 12.10,
begins with the NE-602 product detector,
U2. The detector output is then dc coupled
to U4. which then drives U6, an RC active
peaked low pass filter. An interesting
subtlety was discovered when this topol-
ogy was first built: although the bias was
Interior of KA7EXM transceiver. The original plan called for internal batteries, but as expected with about 4 V dc through the
they didn't quite fit. chain of U4 and U6, the voltage changed

Fig 12.9—The VFO and transmitter portion of the "Western Mountaineer" direct conversion transceiver.

12.8 C h a p t e r 12
by several volts when the LO was attached
to U2, pin 6. This was the result of unbal-
ance in the input circuitry driving pins
I and 2. Changing to a fully balanced
topology at T ! eliminated the problem. If
the circuit was duplicated today, we would
use ac coupling between U2 and U4.
The receiver is muted with two FETs
during transmit intervals. Q12 was usually
adequate. Initially a pair of back-to-back
diodes was used across USA. but they dis-
torted on loud signals. Complete muting
was not possible after diode removal, so
Q14 was added. Q12 could probably be
eliminated.
The receiver schematic includes a volt-
age comparator using U7A. This circuit is
driven by a front panel mounted potenti-
ometer. R4. As R4 is varied, the voltage on
the non-inverting input of U7A also
changes. The reference voltage at the
inverting input is merely the 5 V regulated
supply. The output of U7A changes slate
when the two op-amp inputs are equal, Inside shot of the Western Mountaineer showing the VFO and transmitter,
which toggles the sidetone (Q9 and QIO) excluding voltage-measuring circuitry.

Field Operation, Portable Gear a n d Integrated Stations 12.9

A Micromountaineer-Class transceiver In use for Field Day.
The rig is in use here on the 9500-foot summit of Oregon's Mt Here W7ZOI tries to get in just a few more Field Day contacts
McLoughlin. before the rain becomes more intense. KK7B photo.

oscillator on or off. This serves as a vital information for equipment that will The transceiver is breadboarded on PC
method for measuring the battery voltage operate from a power source that may board material containing a matrix of islands
without a voltmeter, R4 is a 25-kQ pot. a change as it is consumed. The results are where components are mounted. The TX
small part that was 011 hand. The designer/ shown in Fig 12.11. The receive current is board had components on the ground foil side
builder may wish to use other values. nearly constant at 50 inA for this trans- while the RX used a surface mount like
The same results will be obtained if R5 ceiver. the result of having used a large scheme with standard leaded components
and K6 are scaled with R4. 1'he pot is number of 5532 op-amps. The designer/ The rig has most input and output c a h k .
normally set to rest in a position that inhib- builder may wish to find substitutes that attached to the small end of a 2 x 3.5 x h iiK"
its oscillation. consume less power while still offering box. shown in photos. This allows it •
The transceiver was examined for out- low noise. U4 and U6A should use fairly reside in a small camera baa that also inclutfc-
put power and key down current consump- low noise p a n s while the rest of the a battery pack. The rig can even he operate.;
tion as supply voltage changed. This is op-amps are less critical. from inside a down parka during winK*

12.10 Chapter 12
 excursions. A keyer is built into the rig.
TX Output (mW) and Total Current m A
A p o r t a b l e t r a n s m a t c h is s h o w n in t w o
f o r m s in Fig 12.12. This circuit uses s c r e w -
driver adjusted trimmer capacitors. While
less c o n v e n i e n t than c a p a c i t o r s with k n o b s ,
Fig 12.11—Power the c o m p a c t and l i g h t w e i g h t features are
Power Output output and key useful for b a c k p a c k i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s .
down power
consumption for
500
the transceiver Single Signal S y s t e m s
for voltages from
400 10 to 16 V. W h i l e the work reported here uses
300 Current I j d i r e c t c o n v e r s i o n f o r p o r t a b l e r i g s , t h e r e is
c e r t a i n l y n o t h i n g to p r e c l u d e t h e u s e of
super-heterodyne equipment. The "Unfin-
i s h e d " t r a n s c e i v e r d e s c r i b e d n e x t has been
u s e d f o r a n u m b e r of F i e l d Day e v e n t s ,
13 14
V„ a l w a y s with g o o d p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e ulti-
m a t e p o r t a b l e r i g m i g h t well be a s i n g l e
signal design (supcrhet or phasing) opti-
m i z e d f o r low c u r r e n t . A n e x c e l l e n t b e g i n -
n i n g d e s i g n is a t r a n s c e i v e r d e s c r i b e d b y
Benson.6 This design has been extended
in n u m e r o u s k i t s built b y Q R P c l u b s w o r l d
Lorr-Z w i d e including the p o p u l a r NorCaI-40.
ci C2 Antenna A d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n is p r e s e n t e d in
;
- f a o) t h e A R R L c o m p e n d i u m . QRP Power.
A R R L . 1996.7

C I , 2 , 3 ; 90-400 pF mica compression trimmer

C4: 30-180 -pF mica compression trimmer

L I : 1.7 uH, 19t #22 T68-6

L2: 12 vH t 41t T94-6
o r 24t #22, FT50-63.
mft
911 r e s i s t o r s 0.5 <watt.

Fig 12,12—A small transmatch

suitable for portable use. The bridge is
C3 L2 switched into the signal path only
when tuning. A small screwdriver is
- X -
included for tuning. The upper circuit
is suitable for coax lines while the
lower one is intended for end fed
wires. Component values are set for
7-MHz antennas.

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.11

 12.2 THE "UNFINISHED," A 7-MHZ CW TRANSCEIVER
This transceiver (single conversion
super-heterodyne. 5-MHz IF with 2-MHz
l.O) has earned the name "Unfinished."
for it is an ongoing effort that has been in
a slate of transition for over a decade. It
has been a perpetual design platform to try
new circuit ideas as they are generated. A
homebrew crystal filter provides selectiv-
ity. This is intended here lo be a source of
ideas rather than a construction project.
Fig 12.13 shows the LO and R1T sys-
tem. which tunes from 2 to 2. i MHz. pro-
ducing coverage of the bottom 100 kHz of
the band. A JFET, Q7. serves as an
oscillator with a bipolar buffer. Q6. Tem-
perature was compensated with a polysty-
rene capacitor, adjusted with an experimen-
tal oven. (See Chapter 7) Q8 and a Zener
diode provide a stable voltage for the sys-
tem, although an IC regulator would serve
as well. The output is low pass filtered and
routed to a diode ring receiver mixer. A low
power tap is extracted for use with an IC
transmit mixer. A pair of varactor diodes arc
used as part of a RIT system.
The 2-MHz 1.0 is built in an aluminum
box. approximately 2 x 2 x 5 . 5 inches. No
lid is used, for isolation requirements arc
minimal.
The receiver front end is shown in Fig
12.14. A diode ring mixer, U l , is
preselected with a double tuned circuit and
followed by a bipolar post-mixer ampli-
fier. Q l . A 2N5I09 Or equivalent is used,
although a 2N3904 could also be applied.
This transceiver is sometimes used for
portable applications, so post-amp current
is modest. A pad and a homebrew crystal
filter follow the amplifier. The circuit
shown here has a bandwidth of 250 Hz
with 500-Q terminations. The filter is
designed for a Gaussian-to-6 dB shape,
which has minimal ringing, even with the
narrow bandwidth. The rounded peak
shape is selective enough to be extremely
effective, yet the low number of crystals
produces a response that maintains a
receiver "brightness" rarely experienced
with narrow, multi-resonator filters. Im-
pedance match is carefully controlled at
500 Si around the crystal filter.
The Gaussian-to-6 dB filter shape is an
especially good one for the experimenter,
for it is very tolerant of changes in crystal
characteristics or filter capacitors. Alter-
ing crystal motional L from the design
value of 0.1 Henry by +/- 309c. or drop-
ping Q„ from 200.000 to 50.000 still pro-
duced useful fillers.
The receiver has a noise figure of about
17 dB with an input iniercept of around
+ 15 dHm for a two-tone DR of 97 dB
High-level mixers and a higher current

12.12 Chapter 12
 T h e bottom inside view of the "Unlinished-7" Transceiver.
u* 41 v ' —m* )X T h e upper circuitry includes audio, regulators, and
sidetone. T h e board along the lower edge is the transmit
Fig 12.14—Receiver front end for the Unfinished. A Gaussian- mixer and triple tuned bandpass filter. T h e transmitter
to-6 dB shaped crystal filter is included. T h e double-tuned cir- driver is the small board above the bandpass. T h e V F O
cuit is not symmetric, because an adjustment was made to com- module is at the right.
pensate for interaction with the tuned circuit in the T/R system.

to P r o d u c t D e t .

+12V

Q25

P. terminates
1
crystal
filter.

1N4152
+ 1 2 T.
1N4152

r W r
- i - IK

50 pF

Fig 12.15—IF Amplifier. See text for details.

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.13

Fig 12.16—BFO and product detector for the Unfinished.

The "Unfinished-7" Transceiver front

panel.

posl mixer amplifier should easily extend

this well past 100 dB.
The IF amplifier, shown in Fig 12.15. is
effective, hut is probably the weak point in
the design. A l o w e r noise IF would extend
the overall receiver t w o - t o n e DR slightly,
as discussed earlier in this chapter. T h i s
system uses a pair of M C 1 3 5 0 P integrated
circuits, but only one has A G C applied.
The output of the second is detected with
transistor Q 2 3 , p r o d u c i n g a dc signal that
is applied to o p - a m p U11 that feeds A G C
signal to the first M C - 1 3 5 0 P . A J F E T fol-
lower, Q 2 6 . provides output to the detec-
tor. A J F E T f o l l o w e r . Q25. p r e c e d e s the
first M C I 3 5 0 . H o w e v e r , the impedance is
only 5 0 0 SI. set by an input resistor. A
higher i m p e d a n c e at this point would d r o p
the IF noise figure. This A G C system is
strictly an " e a r - s a v e r , " with a threshold set
high to preserve a clean response. This is
a choice available to the designer/builder.
T h e p r o d u c t d e t e c t o r and B F O arc

12.14 Chapter 12
 100
^ 47k
Q12
2N3904 ( " U i

from
6 8k <£
f<
10l"£ 5-4
Prod "M"
Detector l-T)S13
2N3804 jfe>> L14 f 12 0
«SmH Qii y^r-h

Tc Au:i i:
<>51 -s[ 2 7K| Output
l-'.H^"
Tit I -=r

^ Audio Preamp

Fig 12.18—Audio preamplifier for the Unfinished.

Top inside view of the "Unfinished-7" Transceiver. The VFO

module is at the right. The board parallel to the VFO is the
double tuned front-end filter, mixer, and post-mixer amplifier.
The third order Gaussian-to-6-dB crystal filter and IF
U4a amplifier are along the bottom with the BFO and product
detector just above. The crystal calibrator and transmitter
•i| -4 1/2 output amplifier are toward the upper left.
1458
U5a
~ -
2H7000~~r|~

4- T
'".Jl"
U5b 2.2K<\
' V2 •=
1468 2

U4B U7 [ _ ' < , .

LM386 ~ " - '_((-
t J
>'00 • < SlCeLO:!*
J Level
I )| „

U6a
U6b ico

"f

Fig 12.19—Audio output system. An RC active low pass filter, The transmit mixer and triple tuned bandpass filter. Shield
sidetone oscillator, 6-V regulator and T/R control are strip along one side of the board helps to confine ground
included. currents.

shown in F i g 1 2 . 1 6 . A bipolar transistor shown) allows calibration in the field. with little shielding. The signal from Q 1 9
oscillator is followed by a pair o f F E T fol- T h e transmit mixer. 7 - M H z bandpass is routed to a keyed amplifier. Q 2 0 and
lowers. One drives a bipolar power ampli- filter, and R F power chain are shown in Q 2 2 with output "up to 0.5 W . The Q 2 2
fier that then drives a diode ring product F i g 12.17. A modest NK602, U8. works emitter resistor is adjusted for the desired
detector while the other routes signal to well as the transmit mixer. The B F O and drive to the PA in use. No power amplifier
the transmit mixer. A separate keyed car- V F O signals are both confined to 0.3 V design is shown, allowing the designer/
rier oscillator was originally used. How- peak-to-pcak at the IC. T h i s is a place builder to use what he or she needs. Spec-
ever, this produced a slight chirp. Any where measurement is important, for tral purity was measured with a high effi-
detectable chirp was deemed intolerable, " m o r e " is not better. A triple tuned ciency 8 - W PA in place ( S e e the W 7 E L
so the design was altered. T h e R1T is bandpass filter terminated in an un-keyed " B r i c k e t t " described in Chapter 2). T w o
always activated during use. with the " c e n - amplifier. Q 1 9 . follows the mixer. The non-harmonic output spurs found close to
ter" position providing a zero offset situ- circuitry from U8 through Q 1 9 is built on the 7 - M H z carrier at the - 6 0 and - 6 3 d B c
ation. A simple crystal calibrator (not a separate board with a long narrow shape levels.

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.15

 The product detector drives an audio ubiquitous LM386. provides audio out- extracted from a point that does not change
prcamp, shown in Fig 12.18. An input LC put. Bypassing of pin 7 improved power dc level when keyed.
low pass filter drives a familiar common supply rejection problems that produced a U6B with Q I 7 form a 6-V regulated
base stage, followed by a common emitter thumping sound with strong CW signals. supply. This is used in the audio system as
amplifier driving a high pass LC filter. U6a and Q18 form perhaps the best side well as in the transmit mixer. Q14 pro-
The rest of the audio system is shown in tone oscillator we have used. The op-amp vides a switched +12 V in transmit. The
Fig 12.19. U4a and b form a 4-pole RC is a Weinbridgc oscillator with back- transceiver is breadboarded with no
active low pass filter with a peak at 850 to-back limiting diodes. The circuit is printed circuits, allowing frequent and
Hz. -6 dB cutoff at 1.3 kHz. and a - 4 0 dB close to oscillation with an open key. Cir- convenient changes.
response at 3.3 kHz. This low pass is a cuit gain is changed by FET switch Q18 Although this rig is featured here as an
wonderful supplement to the minimal, but when the key is pressed. Q18 was picked experimental vehicle, it has done well in
carefully designed IF crystal filter. U5 for low pinchoff o f - 1 . 5 V. The relatively extended operation for several years of
provides additional audio gain and a con- small gain shift produces a sidetone out- home use as well as several backpacked
venient place for receiver muting. U7. an put that is free of clicks. Output is Field Day efforts.

12.3 THE S7C, A SIMPLE 7-MHZ SUPER-HETERODYNE RECEIVER

This receiver began with a long list of
goals. It was to be a super-heterodyne
design, offering the basic selectivity, sen- jrai
1 D(i l!lxer It Biz
sitivity, and stability of the classic topol-
ogy. The design was to use generic
devices, avoiding the market driven
whims of the semiconductor manufactur-
ers An adaptable circuit was desired,
something that could be altered for other
bands and modes. Low power consump-
tion was a goal, allowing the circuit to
function for an extended period with a
handful of AA cells. And, above all else, Fig 12.20—Block diagram for the S7C.
it was to be a simple design, suitable for
both the beginner and the seasoned
designer/builder. The resulting superhct Top Inside view of
example shown is for the 7-MHz CW the simple superhet
band, generating the S7C designator. receiver. The left
board houses the
A block diagram for the receiver is front-end mixer and
shown in Fig 12.20. A cascode JFET the VXO. The board at
mixer front is driven by a VXO. While the the right contains the
tuning range is restricted, the stability is IF and crystal filter.
excellent. The restricted range simplifies The power connector
construction, for no dial drive mechanism uses a quick
disconnect normally
is required. The mixer then drives a two- used with audio
crystal filter embedded between two bipo- speaker cables.
lar transistor amplifiers. The output is
routed to a product detector, audio ampli-
fier. and headphones.
The circuit, shown in Fig 12.21. began BFO. Q3. to the proper frequency. ally substituted a fixed capacitor in the cir-
with the elements of the "Micro-R 1 " The audio and BFO sections were bread- cuit for C I . saving the trimmer for yet
Minimalist Direct Conversion Receiver boarded on a scrap of circuit board mate- another project. The builder should review
presented in Chapter 8. Q1 is an audio rial, a 7-MHz crystal was dropped in at Y2. the discussion in Chapter 8.
output amplifier driven by audio pream- and the receiver was tested as a direct The I F amplifier was built next. This
plifier. Q2. A crystal controlled BFO. Q3. conversion circuit. The original Micro-Rl design obtains selectivity from a double
provides the needed injection for a two- of Chapter 8 was driven by a link coupled tuned circuit using two crystals. The filter
diode product detector. The only changes double tuned circuit. The low impedance is placed between two feedback amplifi-
of significance are the addition of an of the link provided the low audio imped- ers. each followed by a 6-dB pad. Each
audio gain control and a few component ance needed for proper detector operation. amplifier is biased for a 3-mA emitter cur-
value changes. The most significant of We added a radio frequency choke (value rent with a 9-V supply. The amplifiers and
these is C4. which is larger than the value not critical) to the circuit to obtain the pads are designed for a characteristic-
used in the original direct conversion required gain. C I . a 5-65-pF trimmer impedance of 150 £2, a departure from the
receiver. This component was increased capacitor in the BFO allowed some tuning more common 50-Q designs. The product
to provide greater flexibility in setting the around the crystal frequency. We eventu- detector works well when driven from this

12.16 Chapter 12
 LI,2: 23t#22, T50-2 toroid

Fig 12.21—Schematic for the 7-MHz super-heterodyne.

This emphasizes the need for front-end

selectivity. W e ' l l discuss this later.
The audio and

n
The IF system was breadboarded on a
( product detector
small scrap of PC board material and tested

\
board for the simple
superhet receiver. with the product detector, which had been
outfitted with a 10-MHz crystal. While
n i detailed evaluation of the IF filter would
happen later, wc used a signal generator to
confirm that the functionality of the cir-
cuit. The single signal response was dra-
matic, considering the circuit simplicity.
The next part that w a s built was the
17-MHz V X O , Q6. This circuit used a
crystal that had been specially ordered for
impedance. The crystal filter was also de- should be within about 50 Hz of each other. the desired frequency, although the crys-
signed for 150-£2 terminations at each end. Y2, the B F O crystal, is much less critical, tal is not otherwise special. We wished to
The builder should purchase a few inex- for that frequency will be adjusted with have the tuning approximately centered at
pensive HC-49 crystals from one of the C I . See Chapter 3 for information on crys- 7.040 MHz, the gathering spot for North
popular mail order sources (Mouser, Digi- tal filters. American Q R P operators. Our TF turned
Key, etc.) The crystals are then matched We used a 10-MHz IF in this example, out to be centered at 9.9989 MHz, just over
with an oscillator circuit and a frequency for crystals were available in our junk box. one kHz below 10 MHz. The sum of these
counter. The B F O ( Q 3 ) could even be used This presented a problem, for 10-MHz sig- frequencies is 17.039 MHz, VXOs tend to
as the test oscillator if you d o n ' t wish to nals f r o m W W V and/or W W V H leaked tunc upward with much greater ease than
build a separate test circuit. Y3 and Y4 through the front end and could be heard. they do downward, so we picked a fre-

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.17

 Front panel view of
the simple superhet.

Fig 12.22—Single tuned mixer input

circuit.

quency of 17.034 and ordered an HC-49

cased fundamental mode crystal, specified
for a 20-pF load capacitancc. The final tun-
ing range for our receiver was from 7030
to 7045 kHz. (The crystal was measured
using equipment described in Chapter 7.
resulting in Lm = 3.72 mH and CO = 6 pF.)
The builder will need to pick a different Receiver Response
crystal frequency for compatibility with an
alternative IF or target frequency. The
VXO was buill on yet another scrap of cir-
cuit board, and was eventually moved to
the breadboard containing the mixer.
The receiver is completed with a front-
end mixer. Several circuits were tried, pro-
ducing the cascode of two JFETs. Q7 and
Q8. This mixer has no balance, so it will
function as an amplifier, allowing input RF
signals to appear at the output. This is the
route of the 10-MHz feed-through prob-
lem mentioned earlier. The mixer can also
become an oscillator operating at the fre-
quency of the input tank. This oscillation
was easily suppressed with the 2.2-k0 re-
sistor in the Q7 drain circuit. If you en- 34 36 38
counter a problem here, reduce the value
of this resistor. A tuned circuit at T3 on a Relative Frequency, kHz
powdered iron toroid would be a preferred
solution. Fig 12.23—Measured audio output as a signal generator is tuned through the
receiver. The calculated response of the crystal filter alone is superimposed for
This mixer has some strong virtues. comparison. The BFO was set up for a 1-kHz beat note for this measurement.
First, it is quiet: We measured a 10-dB
noise figure with this circuit. The current
is low at about 3 mA. Very little LO power
is required, allowing drive from simple Virtually any of the common JFETs will experiment that is always performed with
oscillators. We found that the performance work well. If a higher l D S S part is used it a new receiver is a session of listening.
is best with a signal at the gate of Q7 of may be worthwhile to experiment with the The narrow bandwidth is effective on a
about 5 V peak-to-peak. This circuit is bias resistor. moderately crowded band, yet the use of
similar to the popular dual gate MOSFET The mixer in our receiver used a double just two crystals produces a bright and
mixers that were common in receivers in tuned input circuit. The front-end selec- lively sound not compromised by excess
the 1970 to 1990 timeframe. We measured tivity eliminated all traces of the feed- filtering. The constrained gain, modest se-
IIP3 of +5 dBm for this mixer, making it through from WWV. Initial experiments lectivity. and lack of AGC make the
suitable for wide dynamic range applica- used a single tuned input, shown in Fig receiver especially useful when the
tions. 12.22. An external low pass filter (7th 40-meter band is dominated by the thun-
The mixer is also breadboarded on order 7.5-MH/ cutoff Chebyshev. see derstorms of late summer.
scraps of PC board material. The fcrrite Chapter I) was then effective in eliminat- After a period of listening, we measured
output transformer, T3, is wound on a low ing WWV feed-through. A 10-MHz trap the receiver and experimented with some
loss - 6 1 core material, offering better gain (LC or crystal) could also suppress the alternative circuits. A 7-MHz signal gen-
than a more common - 4 3 core. The FF.T spurious response. erator was applied to the receiver to deter-
type used was a 2N5454, again a choice mine the selectivity, shown in Fig 12.23.
dictated by the junk box. These parts had The single-signal character is clear. The
I D S S = 10mA and V P = - 3 V. However, Results and Variations response null occurs as the generator is
there is nothing special about this FET. This receiver is a joy to use. The first tuned throueh zero beat, a result of the

12.18 Chapter 12
audio characteristics. 3-MHz signal generator, which worked terminated in this position. The additional
We measured MDS o f - 1 3 8 dBm with well. A simple single transistor oscillator two crystals should be frequency matched
this receiver, consistent with the NF mea- would serve in this application. to Y3 and Y4.
surement and an overall bandwidth Some users will want more selectivity. Ed Kessler, AA3SJ. built a similar re-
slightly narrower than the 500 Hz of the The crystal filter could be redesigned to ceiver with inexpensive o f f the shelve
crystal filter. use more crystals. A simple alternative crystals for the IF and the VXO. In his
The stability of the V X O was excellent, would add another crystal filter just like version, he used 4.0 MHz for the IF with a
but left us wondering what was happening the first one. The impcdancc at the output I.Q at 11.046 MHz. The L O used a "super
down just a few kHz down the band. So. of T3 and the input impedance of Q5 are V X D " with two parallel crystals, a topol-
we temporarily replaced the V X O with a both 15012. so the filter would be properly- ogy discussed in Chapter 4.

12.4 A DUAL BAND QRP CW TRANSCEIVER

This transceiver began as an experi- Band selection begins with a mechani-
ment to investigate electronic band cal switch in the transmitter portion of
switching methods, but evolved into an the circuit. The three-section swilch se-
enjoyable QRP rig. The super heterodyne lects the iwo ends of the transmitter low
design, Fig 12.24, covers the 14- and 21- pass filters and establishes dc lines that
MHz CW bands with an output of two route throughout the transceiver for
watts. An available junkbox 9-MHz crys- frequency control. For example, a line
tal filter provided receiver IF selectivity. labeled -+12(21)" provides +12 V
This circuit is described to illustrate ideas only when the rig operates in the 21 MHz Front panel view of dual band
rather than for duplication. band. transceiver.

•!?(?!>

Fig 12.24—Block diagram for the dual band transceiver. The upper region is the receiver with the transmitter at the bottom of
the page. LO details appear In the middle of the block.

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.19

Inside view of dual band transceiver.
Mounted below the V F O enclosure
are the L O chain bandpass filters.
The PA is bolted to the side of the
box near the bandswitch. The triple
tuned transmitter bandpass filters
are along the lower edge of the
photo. Most receiver front-end
circuitry is hidden below the
transmitter chain. Audio, product
detector, and BFO circuitry are along
the upper edge of the photo. The IF
amplifier is between the V F O and the
rear apron with the crystal filter
under the board.

Local Oscillator System

The LO uses a 5 - M H z LC oscillator, a
mixer, and a 25-MHz crystal controlled
oscillator, shown in Fig 12.25. This por-
tion of the LO resides in a shielded box. A
signal is extracted from the VFO resonator
lo drive a common base buffer. Q2. The
output is applied lo a resistive power split-
ter with one output available at a coaxial
connector. The other output is filtered and
applied to a diode ring mixer. U2. The
" L O " for that ring mixer is the 25-MHz
crystal controlled oscillator which is
active only when the 15-meter band is se-
lected. Signal levels are stabilized with an
S-V regulator. Powers are measured and
carefully established before the module is
sealed, ideally with a spectrum analyzer.
The mixer output is attached to coaxial
cable with short leads and then to an out-
put connector with the desired 30-MHz
signal and a 20-MHz image.

RF outputs from the oscillator module

are applied to a filter board, shown in Fig
12.26. The 30-MHz signal drives a three-
section bandpass filler. Feedback amplifi-
ers Q5 and Q6 increase the 30-MHz level
to +11 dBm after low pass filtering.
The 5 - M H z signal from the VFO mod-
ule is attenuated in a 6-dB pad and then
applied to a series M O S F E T switch, Q9.
This switch is "on" only in 14-MHz opera-
tion. The output is then increased in cas-
caded feedback amplifiers, Q7 and Q8, and
low pass filtered, generating an available
power of +12 d B m for use with 14-MHz
operation. The gain is slightly l o w e r i n Q 7 /
Q8 than in Q5/Q6. Only one of the two
outputs is available at a time, for only one

12.20 C h a p t e r 12
 *12(21>

Fig 12.26—The LO signals are processed in this board. The 30-MHz signal is bandpass filtered, amplified, and low pass
filtered. The 5-MHz signal is amplified and low pass filtered. Outputs are combined with a 0-degree hybrid. Another hybrid
splits the signals, providing +7 dBm for both the transmit and receive mixers.

Fig 12.27—The receiver front end for the dual band transceiver. PIN diode switching is used to select the bandpass filter
output appropriate to the band in use.

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.21

 5532 Dual
Op-Map

(C? XF9-M
T
|65 -zL-

J1'-
L16: 2.65 uH, 26t H30 T30-6 Mute + i -> 10K
Cascode JFET IF &mp from Side 1
Chapter 6, Sec,6.2 Tone I n

Fig 12.28—Input section of the crystal filter and IF amplifier

for the transceiver. See text. Fig 12.30—An audio output amplifier for the receiver.

h a n k of a m p l i f i e r s is b i a s e d o n . S u p p r e s -
sion of the 5 - M H z c o m p o n e n t d u r i n g iz—r
2 1 - M H z o p e r a t i o n is i m p r o v e d w i t h a
shunt M O S F E T switch. Q10. The two out-
£ 122 OK i
p u t s are c o m b i n e d w i t h o u t s w i t c h i n g in a
1
0 - d e g r e e h y b r i d buill f r o m T 7 . T h e o u t p u t
i I -
w o u l d c o n t a i n b o t h s i g n a l s if b o t h w e r e o n
at t h e s a m e t i m e . T h e r e s u l t i n g o u t p u t is A >,
Fig 12.29—
split i n t o t w o e q u a l , but i s o l a t e d c o m p o - y T T f l H i Product detector
n e n t s w i t h a n o t h e r h y b r i d , T 8 . T h e result Fran
< -1 | S _ and audio
• i. 3X| —
amplifier. The
is a p a i r of + 7 - d B m s i g n a l s f o r the t w o
emitter of Q28
d i o d e r i n g m i x e r s in the r e c e i v e r a n d t r a n s - 1.33: 100 uH on tcrritc tocoid.
may be bypassed
mitter. for gain higher
T h e h a r m o n i c s a r e m o r e than 5 0 d B than needed here.
below the desired LO outputs, and images
are d i f f i c u l t to f i n d . B e f o r e t h e shunt F E T
switch, Q10, was added, some 5 - M H z 0.1, lift
e n e r g y c o u l d be s e e n w h e n the 3 0 - M H z *
component was dominant. However, add-
4 1 JJJK 2ZK
ing t h e s w i t c h p u s h e d t h e 5 - M H z c o m p o - o. om, m
n e n t to the - 8 0 d B c level. T h i s is m o r e
e x t r e m e than n e e d e d , b u t i n s t r u c t i v e . Hide

•L
Receiver Circuits
T h e r e c e i v e r is m u c h like o t h e r s w e h a v e
described. A low-gain, moderately low-
noise RI; amplifier drives a diode ring
mixer. The R F amplifiers were designed w h i l e t h e o u t p u t in t h e 2 1 - M H z c i r c u i t is d e s i g n e r / b u i l d e r m a y w i s h to a d d a trans-
f o r g o o d i n p u t m a t c h r a t h e r than l o w e s t t u n e d . A pad ( j u s t o v e r 3 d B ) d r o p s t h e f o r m e r t o m a t c h b e t w e e n t h e crystal filter
noise. A post mixer amplifier. Q 1 5 . pro- gain a bit and h e l p s to f i x the i m p c d a n c c and t h e 2.2 k Q o r i g i n a l l y in p l a c e ; the
v i d e s s i g n a l s to a c r y s t a l f i l t e r . A J F E T f o r the f o l l o w i n g d o u b l e t u n e d b a n d p a s s h i g h e r i m p e d a n c e will allow g r e a t e r g a i n ,
b a s e d IF a m p l i f i e r a d d s g a i n a n d p r o v i d e s filters. lower noise figure, and greater flexibility
a convenient place for A G C . Another T h e d i o d e r i n g m i x e r is f o l l o w e d by a in A G C t h r e s h o l d a d j u s t m e n t .
d i o d e ring s e r v e s as t h e p r o d u c t d e t e c t o r post m i x e r a m p l i f i e r w i t h m o d e s t c u r r e n t A n e a r l y v e r s i o n of this r e c e i v e r u s e d
with a conventional audio chain. of 18 m A . T h i s t h e n d r i v e s the crystal fil- nothing more than a single J F E T as the IF
The front end, the only place where band ter and I F circuit, s h o w n in the a b b r e v i - amplifier. Only manual I F gain control
s w i t c h i n g is n e e d e d , is s h o w n in F i g 12.27. ated c i r c u i t of F i g 12.28. T h e input 5 0 12 w a s u s e d ; m o s t of the o v e r a l l g a i n w a s
F.ach of the R F a m p l i f i e r s , Q 1 2 and Q 1 4 , is t r a n s f o r m e d up to 5 0 0 Q w i t h t h e L- o b t a i n e d at a u d i o . P e r f o r m a n c e w a s
is p o w e r e d o n l y w h e n the r e s p e c t i v e b a n d network s h o w n . A v a r i e t y of I F a m p l i f i e r s c x c c l l e n t f o r use in w o r k i n g o t h e r Q R P sta-
is s e l e c t e d . T r a n s i s t o r s w i t c h e s r e m o v e h a v e b e e n u s e d in this c i r c u i t , m o s t w i t h tions. H o w e v e r , w e f o u n d it l a c k i n g f o r
c u r r e n t f r o m Lhe R F a m p l i f i e r s d u r i n g l o w g a i n . T h e o n e p r e s e n t l y in u s e is t h a t general use when stronger signals were
transmit intervals. from Chapter 6 using cascode connected routine, T h e present system includes A G C
M P N 3 4 0 4 P I N d i o d e s are u s e d f o r b a n d J310 JFETs. The original circuit was with an a d j u s t a b l e t h r e s h o l d .
selection. T h e r e are slight d i f f e r e n c e s m o d i f i e d b y c h a n g i n g t h e input r c s i s t o r t o T h e d e t e c t o r and a u d i o s y s t e m , s h o w n
in the t w o R F a m p l i f i e r s . T h a t f o r t h e 5 1 0 Q to p r o p e r l y t e r m i n a t e the G e r m a n in F i g 1 2 . 2 9 . is t h e " s t a n d a r d " used
14-MHz band uses a ferrite transformer ( K V G X F 9 - M ) crystal filter w e u s e d . T h e throughout the b o o k for direct conversion

12.22 Chapter 12
 U3

Fig 12.31—Transmit mixer with PIN diode switched bandpass filters. See text for details.

systems and simple supcrhcts A TUF-1 op-amp keeps distortion low. This circuit, system. B F O and IF shielding would both
diode ring product detector drives a com- with only 10 mA in Q I 8 and Q19. would improve performance.
mon-base amplifier. The second audio benefit from increased standing current, re-
stage operates at a gain of about 0.2, but it
could be increased as needed. A f t e r the
ducing clipping that occurs with high output.
The rest of the receiver is routine and is
Transmitter Details
audio gain control, an op-amp provides not repeated here. The crystal controlled A simple heterodyne process generates
voltage gain, followed by a switchablc B F O and sidetone oscillator are not the output signals for the transmitter,
peaked low pass filter with a Q of 5. shown. This receiver measured NF=11 shown in Fig 12.31. A 9 - M H z crystal
The circuit shown in Fig 12.30 using plas- dB, IIP3=+3 dBm, for DR=93 dB with a oscillator is applied as the R F signal to a
tic transistors and an op-amp will drive a 500 Hz bandwidth. The receiver AGC is diode ring mixer. The larger drive at 5 or
small speaker. The high open loop gain of the degraded by BFO energy reaching the IF 30 MHz comes from the L O chain. The

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.23

 2H3906 100

tSTTft
I-A/AmT .22 A.J,

[ K«y

14 o r 21
MHz I n

- f g r ^
220

30 MHZ
trap

L32: St 1(24, T30-6 L24,L25: 9 t H24, T30-6

T11,T12: 6 bifilar turns
L26/L27: 13t #24, T30-6
N26, FB-43-6301
L2B: 3 . 3uH, 2 8 t 150-6
T13: 5 bifilar turns
»26, FB-43-6301 L29: SuH, 3 5 t T50-6
T14: 4 t u r n s on BH-43-202 1.30,1.31: 475 n H , lOt »22, T50-6
ferrlte balun c o r e , tag) at
3 turns.

< 0 . 1 Ch 23 MHz)

Fig 12.32—RF power chain for the transceiver.

mixer output is then filtered in one of two The 14-MHz double-tuned circuit was 1Z32. begins with a 30-MHz trap, tuned by
PIN diode switched bandpass filters. changed to a triple tuned filter with a band- compressing turns on L32. A two-stage
The initial transmit mixer system used width of 0.5 MHz. The higher frequency driver amplifier then provides the bulk of
double tuned circuits for both bands and had spur was now1 suppressed to -75 dBc and the the gain and adequate drive pow:er for Q25.
no 9-MHz low pass filter. The results were lower one was lost in the noise. We later the 2SC2075 output stage. A wideband
interesting. Although the 21-MHz observed found some 30-MHz energy in the 21-MHz transformer. T14, reflects a load of about 28
output was clean, there were spurious out- output, which prompted a change to a triple Q to the PA collector. Both driver stages are
puts related to the 14-MHz band. These oc- tuned filter for that band as well. None of keyed to produce a backwave below -70
curred at 13 and 16 MHz at -52 and -56 dBc. these results would ever have been observed dBc. Low pass filters for both bands are se-
The ] 3-MHz spur was a 1:2 spur that could without the use of spectrum analyzer for the lected with the mechanical band switch. A
be solved with reduced harmonics in the experiment. But the result is a justification final 23-MHz low pass is then added to the
9-MHz drive. The higher frequency spur for using a triple tuned bandpass over a sim- output.
was related to a 5:1 product. ( A N:M spuri- pler double tuned circuit when one seeks im- We were still able to find two spurs in the
ous output frequency results from N x f L 0 proved spectral purity. While triple tuning output for each band. They were, however,
+/- Mxfgj.: Sec Chapter 5.) The third order uses more components, it is no more diffi- all at -62 dBc or less. The worst harmonic
low pass filter was added to the 9-MHz RF. cult to design or tune at HF than one with was the 2nd when operating at 14 MHz at -
pushing the first spur to the -72-dBc level two resonators. 63 dBc. With the exception of the VFO, only
with no change in the other. The transmitter power chain, shown in Fig incidental shielding is used.

12.5 WEAK-SIGNAL COMMUNICATIONS USING T H E DSP-10

Chapter 11 contained an overview of cations. In addition to the following sum- enthusiast. Simplifying matters for our
the DSP-10 DSP-based 2-meter trans- mary of weak signal operation, detailed consideration here, the primary noise
ceiver and the associated audio processor. material is available on the CD-ROM that source considered is the well-behaved
The published material on this project is accompanies this book.* thermal noise, also known as white
on the CD-ROM and has the details neces- Gaussian noise ( W G N ) . The "white" re-
sary to build and modify this radio. An fers to the flatness with frequency and
interesting application of the DSP-10 is Additive Noise "Gaussian" refers to the probability distri-
the processing of signals to allow detec- The expression weak signals is a rela- bution, also called normal or bell-shaped.
tion of stations too weak to hear with the tive term. Normally, the signal is refer- WGN dominates the VHF and higher fre-
ear. and to allow communication with enced to the received noise level. Of quencies, but this source extends down
these stations at very slow data rates. This course, the nature of this noise changes into the HF bands as well.
is an example of what is practical to with frequency and conditions. Interfer- This W G N is added to the signals
achieve using the programmable aspects ing signals and static from lightning can received at the antenna terminals. This is a
of the radio. As was discussed in the over- provide a complex noise environment that result of our receiver being linear. As was
view, there are many other possible appli- is most challenging to the weak-signal discussed in Chapter 2. filtering can

12.24 Chapter 12
reduce this additive noise, since it is flat sidebands depends on the speed with which • Maximize the transmitter average
with frequency. This gives us a way to the amplitude varies. Faster changes pro- power by having it 011 continuously
remove noise from signals, so long as the duce sidebands farther from the carrier. In • Minimize the receiver (pre-detection)
bandwidth of the signal is less than the addition, the length of the transmission bandwidth, consistent w ith the signal and
filter bandwidth. path will vary, again often randomly. propagation path modulation
Movement of the refractive and reflective • Use detectors to estimate the signal
layers causes this. In this case, we have amplitude at each frequency
Signals and phase modulation (PM), again producing • Trade off time and sensitivity by fol-
Multiplicative Noise sidebands on either side of the signal. lowing the detectors with low-pass filterfs)
The signals being transmitted for weak- It is possible for the AM and PM side- to provide averaging (integration) of the
signal work can generally be chosen to bands to add and cancel in different ways signal amplitude.
occupy reasonable bandwidths. 9 Simple for those above the carrier than for those The performance of the system was lim-
modulation methods are the most easily below. Consequently, the modulation ited by the availability of low-pass filters
dealt with and can generally be used. An placed on the signal by the transmission (RC networks), suitable for very long inte-
example is a single frequency tone, trans- media is not symmetrical about the carrier gration times. But as Poor points out, so
mitted for a predetermined amount of time. frequency, and may not look like a typical long as one can build a low enough cut-off
This signal can be extended to two or more modulation spectrum. As a modulation it to the filter, the ultimate sensitivity of this
tones in order to convey information as is multiplicative noise and different from approach is limited only by our paticnce
frequency shift keying. This idea will be the additive noise just discussed. We do for the answers to appear.
explored further below, but here it is not have the option of removing this noise Going to more than two frequencies was
important to observe that the received sig- by filtering, since lowering the bandwidth not part of the 1965 system, but was known
nal is not generally an attenuated version removes the signal along with the noise. to offer improvement for communications
of that transmitted. Instead, as the signal The propagation media places a lower s y s t e m s . " Today the multi-tone filtering
passes through the transmission media limit on the filter bandwidth usable with a can be performed by discrete Fourier
(atmosphere, ionosphere. Moon reflec- narrow-band signal. transforms (see Chapter 10). Long-term
tion, etc.) modulation is applied to the sig- integration is easily done in a digital com-
nal. This is akin to the modulated signals puter. The following two examples, taken
described in Chapter 6. A General Approach from the DSP-10. show how these idea-,
As the signal passes through the trans- A wonderful paper by K3N10"'i>utlines can be applied using D S P techniques.
mission media the amplitude varies—in this weak-signal communications problem
amateur lingo, this is QSB. Typically, this and proposes a practical solution that he
variation is random in nature. What we and K 8 D K C demonstrated on 2 0 meters. Example 1 - EME-2 for
have is a signal with amplitude modulation Poor's model for signal and noise were the Moon-bounce Echoes
(AM). Frequency sidebands will appear on ones w e have above and his communica-
either side of the transmitted carrier as with tions system, built around RTTY and FSK, THE GOAL
all AM signals. The frequency offset of the applied these principles: A 2-meter station, with the antenna

The K3NIO Experiments

The 1965 experiment reported by K3NIO represented below. The normal 14-MHz receiver had improved
an early attempt at signal processing to receive beyond selectivity, provided with an audio bandpass filter. The
the limits of the human ear. K3NIO and his collaborator in audio signal was applied to a limiter, and then to a
this effort, K8DKC, were RTTY enthusiasts and had frequency discriminator. The output from that circuit is a
frequency shift keying (FSK) equipment available. They dc level indicating the frequency of a tone moving
did their 14-MHz experiments in the late evening hours through the system. T h e dc w a s filtered, or averaged
w h e n the band was essentially dead. T h e transmitters with an RC active low pass filter with a 1 -Hz cutoff. The
were set up for narrow FSK and keyed with standard CW, resulting dc then drove a comparator and a strip chart
driven with a n automatic keyer set for a typical s p e e d of recorder, allowing visual copy of CW.
3 words per minute. T h e two stations were separated by T h e results w e r e dramatic. Essentially, they found it
500 miles, used three element Yagi antennas and 1 - k W possible to make slow speed contacts, even w h e n they
transmitters. T h e stations were crystal controlled to could not detect the presence of any signal w h e n
provide stability that was not c o m m o n in 1965. listening to the receiver operating in the normal mode.
Their receiving system is shown in the block diagram

Field O p e r a t i o n , Portable Gear a n d Integrated S t a t i o n s 12.25

pointed at the Moon, can transmit a pulse bandwidth to the limit set by the modula- Thus, we might as well work with the
for roughly two seconds and then receive tion of the propagation path. On 2-meters simple approach and that is a keyed sine
the resulting echo. T h i s comes back 2.6 this is generally 1 Hz or less. Next, any wave.
seconds after it was transmitted, as shown amount of i m p r o v e m e n t is possible by
in Figure 12.33. Adding to the challenge, post-detection averaging that we call long- PRE-DETECTION FILTERING
i f t h i s " M o o n - b o u n c e " station is of modest term integration. This resulted in a mode The one-Hz filter f o r our system is a
proportions, the received signals will be called EME-2 that was implemented in the m a j o r challenge for L C construction, but
extremely weak. For instance, a station DSP-10 software, as will be described is easily accomplished with the discrete
with two 12-element Yagis and 500 W of below. However, before exploring these Fourier transform (DFT) of Chapter 10.
transmitter p o w e r can expect to see an receiver concepts, it is worth considering There are other possible D S P implementa-
average power return of about - 1 6 0 dBm. the transmitter side to sec if we might d o tions. but the DFT provides a bank of fil-
For the noise levels encountered on this better there as well. ters that is useful f o r estimating the noise
band the resulting signal-to-noise ratio level and for the case that the signal is not
might be about - 5 dB in a 50-Hz band- TRANSMITTER WAVEFORMS received on frequency f o r some reason.
width, which is totally inaudible. Regard- In the discussion above, we decided it The filter response of the D F T may not be
less. the goal of this example is to be able was desirable to increase the average the exact matched filter, but the bandwidth
to measure this and much weaker echoes power of our transmitter by having it on as is close to proper and the losses for
coming back from the Moon. The value, in much as possible. Holding the key down improper shape are not large.
addition to satisfying a general curiosity, for two seconds and listening for about 3 The DSP-10 implementation of the DFT
is allowing the measurement of the system is only on 4 0 % of the time. It might be has several bandwidths available, in steps
performance of the station and the propa- possible to transmit on one frequency for of two, with the narrowest being about 2.3
gation path. 2 seconds and then move a MHz higher Hz. This is not a fundamental restriction,
As a reference point, we should exam- and transmit for seconds two through four. but neither does it provide optimal perfor-
ine just how well this "marginal" Moon- If the transmitter and receiver could be mance. Those with an interest in this area
bounce station can hear his cchoes. Help- separated sufficiently, either in a geo- might explore using narrower bandwidths
ing the situation, the signal strength fades graphical sense or by use of filtering, such by increasing the sampling time interval.
above and below the average return. This as that of FM repeaters, this might be a
is due to the irregular surface of the Moon preferred method of operation. But for LONG-TERM INTEGRATION
and the shifting nature of the path. With most stations, the simplicity of merely At each filter bin of the D F T the power
some patience, the signal will appear for a sharing a single antenna by means of an can be calculated as the square of the
second or so at, perhaps, 6 dB higher level antenna relay is an overwhelming consid- received envelope (see Chapter 10). This
or 1 dB S/N, Additionally. if the antenna is eration. The loss of average power can still power can be added up for a number of
along the E a r t h ' s surface the signal be made up for by more integration. bins near that where the signal should be
reflected from the ground will sometimes The waveform considered here is a con- received. The bins on either side are esti-
add to that c o m i n g in directly, adding as stant-frequency sine wave, keyed on and mates of the noise power and the center
much as 6 dB more to the signal. Now wc then off two seconds later, generating a bin is signal-plus-noise power. From these
are up to about 7 dB S/N. At this level, a pulse. One might hope that a more elabo- two quantities an estimate of the signal
perceptive operator will sense by ear the rate modulation would be helpful for strength alone can be made, using only
presence of a Moon-bounce echo. How- identifying the returned signal. Radar subtraction.
ever. if the station is located where ground designers have considered this problem A complication in continuing the inte-
reflections are poor, such as at the edge of for many years. In terms of detectability, gration process for extended periods is the
the forest, the echoes may never be heard. the theory offers no encouragement in this changing Doppler shift of the return sig-
Looking for a way to use D S P to area. The key factors are the power in nal. 1 3 In the DSP-10 implementation of
enhance the detectability of the echo, one the transmitted pulse and the care with this process, the Doppler calculation is
should explore the elements outlined which the receiver pre-detection filter is quite elaborate and accurate to better than
above. First, we narrow the pre-detection " m a t c h e d " to the received w a v e f o r m . 1 2 1 Hz at 2-meters. This allows the integra-

Transmrtled Apparent S/N Improvement

* Pulse
Time
i
£ 3 4 j ^

Received
Pulses. Pic-Deiectwn Fi
— - —
Receiver Off ^ T ^ V t M . Time
i tcbon Integration
0 1 2 3 4 .> 6
Sec

Fig 12.33—Timing diagram showing the 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

two-second pulse being transmitted and
the delay before the reception of the Relative Time Required
weak echo. This timing is repeated
every five seconds for the EME-2 Fig 12,34—This is a comparison of the improvement In apparent signal-to-nolse
measurement mode. ratio for the pre-detection filtering and long-term post-detection Integration.

12.26 Chapter 12
lion to continue as long as the M o o n is. c o m m e r c i a l M-* 2 M X P 2 8 p r o d u c t used method for weak-signal c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
within view. with a home-built c o m b i n i n g hybrid, has L o o k i n g at the spectral plot for E M E - 2
T h e r e m a i n i n g element is a means of circular polarization to minimi7.e the deg- certainly supports the idea that one might
displaying the return value. T w o systems radations f r o m Faraday rotation. c o m m u n i c a t e by lining up multiple fre-
h a v e proven of value for EME-2. A simple T h e lower tracc is the result of one quencies. each s o m e h o w corresponding to
tabic of the signal-plus-noise estimates, t w o - s e c o n d - p u l s e return. Because the a portion of a message. T h e reference by
expressed in dB, for 21 bins, centered on b a n d w i d t h of each D F T is wider than that Murray G r e e n m a n . Z L 1 B P U . points out
the return frequency provides most of the of the pulse, there are nine D F T ' s involved the advantage of using m o r e frequencies
data. A l o n g with this is the n u m b e r of in generating this tracc. T h e amplitude of than the two used by Poor. With an eye
power values that have been integrated. A the signal-plus-noise shown here is about towards pushing the limits of slow, weak-
graphical plot of this s a m e data also 6 dB over the average noise and somewhat signal communication, a modulation and
allows one to easily digest the results of a stronger lhan average. T h e upper trace is coding system was i m p l e m e n t e d in the
test and is always available. the result of a v e r a g i n g 71 t w o - s e c o n d D S P - 1 0 that applied these principles. This
A comparison of the improvement in pulse returns together, requiring about six used 43-tone modulation, where each tone
apparent signal-to-noisc ratio for the pre- minutes. The noise averages to its power represented a different symbol such as an
detection filtering and long-term post- at all f r e q u e n c i e s while the signal-plus- alphabetic character. At the time a number
detection integration is shown in F i g 12.34. noise at the 3 2 3 Hz line is about 2.4 dB of different s c h e m c s were being tried, and
For cither method, the parameter describ- greater. A f t e r this many pulses, the signal this particular one was nicknamed PUA43.
ing the amount of improvement is time. return on the upper trace b e c o m e s very P U A 4 3 sends the same message repeat-
Expressed in dB, the rate of improvement well defined and the level of the return can edly. once or twice during each minute. It
is twice as great for the pre-detection filter- be measured quite accurately. This signal is quite structured. The message length can
ing. This obviously only applies to the e c h o was never heard by ear. only be either 28 or 14 s y m b o l s long, each
extent that multiplicative noise from the corresponding to specific two-second time
modulation path is not a limiting factor.
Example 2 - PUA43 for periods. T h e number of minutes that the

A SAMPLE OF EME-2 Weak Signal message is sent is determined by the u»er».

giving flexibility for improving weak-Mi:
A n u m b e r of tests have been m a d e using
Communications nal copy by using many repeats of the
E M E - 2 in the DSP-10. T h e s e have veri- The work of K3N1Q suggests the possi- same message.
fied the concept that the amount of inte- bility of using the E M E - 2 approach with Power received for each of the svmboK
gration d e t e r m i n e s the sensitivity and f r e q u e n c y - s h i f t k e y i n g as a m o d u l a t i o n is added over multiple repeats, just as «
there is no obvious lower limit to the pro-
cess. iA O n e of these test results is shown in
Fig 12.35. where a reasonably modest 100
W w as used by W 7 P U A with a single Yagi.
having a 34-foot boom. This antenna, a

JiliJiliiSSHMl
M M M i M M H
H M M M H I M n i

Fig 12.35—This portion of a DSP-10

screen shot shows the graphical output
with the EME-2 mode Moonbounce
echo. Some editing has been done to
remove uninteresting parts of the
display. The vertical scale is relative
power in dB and the horizontal scale Is
audio pitch in Hertz. The bottom trace
Is the power average of one return. The
upper trace results from averaging 71 of
the lower traces together. The return Fig 12.36—Screen shot from DSP-10 showing the reception of a PUA43 message by
signal has had its frequency adjusted W7LHL. The signal-plus-noise to noise ratio of this plot Is similar to that of the
for Doppler shift and always lines up EME-2 reception of the previous example. The frequency band for the 43
with the vertical line at 323 Hz. The frequencies in use extends from 450 to 1238 Hz, corresponding to the DFT bin
scale is different for the two traces, spacing of 4.3 Hz that was being used. The large characters at the top of the
with 2 dB per division for the lower screen are the most likely possibilities. The smaller characters above them are the
trace and 1 dB per division for the top second most likely. Various informational items relative to both transmission and
averaged trace. At 144 MHz, the reception are In the box on the right side of the screen. The straight line down the
transmitter power was 100 W and the waterfall is a local interfering signal that is being ignored by means of frequency
antenna was a single 34-foot Yagi. randomization.

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.27

done for each frequency in EME-2. Exam- ing the noise levels across the band allows number of terrestrial and EME contacts
ining the power corresponding to the 43 any variations in gain to be corrected so have been made using the PUA43 mode.
possible symbols generates the display of that thev do not bias the symbol selection Perhaps one of the more interesting early
the 14 or 28 characters. The most likely toward particular frequencies. Also, E M E contacts is that done Feb 25, 2001.
(highest power) and sccond-most likely knowing the signal-to-noise ratio allows by Ernie Manly. W 7 L H L , and Larry
symbols are displayed. The display color the c o n f i d e n c e in a particular charactcr Liljeqvist, W 7 S Z . on 1296 M H z using
depends on the confidence of the particu- being correct to be found, enhancing the only 5 W on each end. The antennas were
lar character being correct, based on the data presented to the operator. ordinary surplus T V R O dishes of 10 and
measured noise characteristics. A characteristic of most weak-signal 13-foot diameter.
An example of signal reception is in Fig schemes is a need for accurate frequency
12.36, again on 144 MHz. The waterfall dis- control at the transmitter and receiver.
play (see Chapter 11) shows very little evi- This mode works best when the frequency
Further Directions
dence of any signal being present, other than can be controlled within a few Hz. As was The DSP enhanced copy of weak sig-
an interfering signal that is coming straight done for EME-2, the P U A 4 3 type of modes nals provides an alternative to bigger
down the waterfall at about 770 Hz. The copy can be used for Moon reflections with the antennas and higher power. One can
of the message, seen in large letters at the top Doppler corrections that are available in expect that various schemes will be devel-
of the screen is the result of integration of the DSP-10. This adds a slight complica- oped to use this capability. These should
power for 39 minutes. tion in needing to know the latitude and improve on the examples that are shown
Several provisions of the P U A 4 3 mode longitude of both stations. here.
enhance the copy of signals. Every minute The performance of this type of mode Other avenues exist that emphasize dif-
the frequency corresponding to a particu- can be very good. A signal-lo-noise ratio ferent elements of signal propagation. One
lar symbol changes by a positive offset that o f - 1 0 dB in a 50-Hz bandwidth will allow example of this is the work of Joe Taylor,
is the same for all symbols. The frequen- good copy of a message in about 6 min- K I J T with the WSJT program. 1 6 This uses
cies outside the frequency band being used utes. As noted above. C W copy by ear a multiple frequency modulation and cod-
for the 43 symbols are wrapped around to might need 16 to lB-dB higher levels. Ad- ing scheme, called FSK441, that is opti-
the bottom part of this band. This random- ditional time allows even lower signal-to- mized to use bursts of signal, such as
ization. called stirring, causes coherent noise ratios, but quadrupling the time used occur with meteor scatter. This contrasts
interfering signals (birdies) to get moved only has the effect of doubling the trans- strongly with the approach of the P U A 4 3
around to various symbols, rather than mitter power. Though most people will not mode that must grind out signal copy,
appearing as a false symbol. Additionally, have interest in using extremely long times based only on the average power being
there are unused frequencies between the for a transmission, even a few minutes of received. Each propagation situation
43 symbol frequencies. These are for noise transmission will provide a major im- needs to be considered as a strong deter-
estimation and serve two purposes. Know- provement relative to audible copy. A mining factor in the system to be used.

12.6 A 28 MHZ QRP MODULE

One approach to adding new bands to
an existing low power station is to build
an add-on m o d u l e where a stand-alone
transmitter is combined with a receiving
converter. This example interfaces with a
home station C W receiver (Chapter 6)
with a 4 - M H z input. This module uses a
28 to 4 - M H z receiving converter and a
V X O based 28-MHz CW transmitter. The
power output is purposefully confined to
1 W, adding sport to an already exciting
band. A single crystalprovides a transmit-
ter tuning range of over 60 kHz.

The Transmitter
The transmitter s h o w n in Fig 12.37
begins with a V X O operating at 18.7
M H z . This free running oscillator is even-
tually frequency divided by 2, creating a
square wave. The third harmonic of that
signal, at 28 M H z , is selected with a
bandpass filter, amplified, and keyed to
form the transmitter. The V X O circuit
with oscillator Q1 w a s originally like
others shown in Chapter 4, providing Inside view of the 10-meter module with the VXO and triple tuned bandpass filter in
about a 4 0 - k H z tuning range at 28 M H z . the center. The receiver RF amplifier board is at the bottom of the photo.

12.28 C h a p t e r 12
Fig 12.37—An 18.7-MHz VXO (Q1) is frequency divided by 2 with U1 to form a square wave. The third harmonic is selected
with the bandpass filter and amplified to a 10-miiliwatt output level. T1 is 10 blfllar turns #28 on an FT-37-43. S1 is a wafer
switch with low capacitance. A toggle switch should not be used here.

~ 36S
Max
c-v

Fig 12.38—An even larger tuning range

is available with a separate tuning
Inside view of the 10-meter module. The VXO board is below the board containing control for each range. C ^ is
the rest of the transmitter. The output low pass filter and T/R relay are on the small selected from the junk box to have
board at the upper right. The delay control is on the side panel. a low minimum capacitance.

The circuit was modified to use two each range. This variation is shown in Fig is a 2N3866 with a I -12 emitter degenera-
ranges and now tunes from 28.000 lo 12.38. Experimentation is almost always tion resistance. A 7-elcment low pass fil-
28.062 MH/ with the available compo- useful with VXO circuits. (We measured ter follows the transmitter, suppressing
nents. The low end of ihe band is tuned our crystal as having L m = 3.0) mH and harmonics and other spurious responses.
when SI inserts a series inductance in the C„=ft pF.» The only harmonic observed was the sec-
circuit. Experiments showed an even The transmitter continues in Fig 12.39 ond at -69 dBc. The 18-MHz output is
larger upward range was available if a with a driver using a parallel pair of present in the output, but at the - 7 3 dBc
separate tuning capacitor was used for 2N3904 transistors. The power amplifier level.

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.29

 o.ii 0.1

•I
T

2 . 7u rfc > K1

Q4

2 215I
'f- 215
/2H3866 120

iisoT | + Heat Sink

1
J^ -i- I Tl: 8 bxfilar t #26, FE43-240I
~ ~ T2i 3 bifilar t. # 2 6 , s m a l l #43 baluri core
-+12
i 1 . 5KI
11,13: 365nH, 9 t #22 T 3 0 - 6
12: 410r.H, l O t # 2 2 T 3 0 - 6 K f r L > 2BS322
> I 1H4001
Fig 12.39—The transmitter power
chain for the 28-MHz station. The
T/R relay was a 5-V fast acting 1H4152
junk box item; a suitable 12-V
-K1 + Res
substitute is the Nais DS2Y-S-
DC12V. Hold-in time is set with Key Line , a s needed
the 10-kn pot.

Receiving Converter
A d i o d e r i n g m i x e r is ihe b a s i s of t h e f i l t e r . T h e m i x e r is p r e s e l e c t e d w i t h a
receiving converter, driven from a double tuned circuit.
crystal-controlled oscillator using a A n R F a m p l i f i e r is i n c l u d e d in the
32-MHz third-overtone oscillator. T h e receiver. W e used a circuit left f r o m an ear-
p o s t m i x e r a m p l i f i e r is a c o m m o n g a l e lier e f f o r t e m p l o y i n g a dual gate M O S F E T .
J F E T w i t h a d r a i n c u r r e n t of a b o u t A c o m m o n gate J F E T , described in C h a p t e r
13 n i A . A n a r r o w b a n d w i d t h 4 - M H z o u t - 6, w o u l d b e ideal, o f f e r i n g low noise figure
put f e e d s a w i d e b a n d w i d t h b a n d p a s s with less gain.

Front panel view of the 10-meter

module.

12.7 A GENERAL PURPOSE RECEIVER MODULE

T h i s m o d u l e is e s s e n t i a l l y the heart of a capacitors and coax connectors, effec- ter a m p l i f i e r . 0 3 . f o l l o w s this. At this point
direct conversion receiver. A T U F - 3 tively r e d u c i n g s p u r i o u s r e s p o n s e s f r o m the user could exit the board to drive a vol-
d i o d e r i n g w a s c h o s e n f o r i m p r o v e d per- local V H F s i g n a l s . u m e c o n t r o l a n d / o r L C filter. T h i s
f o r m a n c e at l o w e r f r e q u e n c y , a l t h o u g h t h e T h e s c h e m a t i c is s h o w n in F i g 12.40. A option is s h o w n in F i g 12.41. T h e filter is a
T U F - 1 will fit the b o a r d . T h e m i x e r is f o l - l o w p a s s filler u s i n g a f c r r i t e toroid i n d u c - three e l e m e n t high p a s s c o n f i g u r e d to sup-
l o w e d b y an L C l o w p a s s f i l t e r a n d an tor f o l l o w s the ring mixer. The one we press f r e q u e n c i e s b e l o w 3 0 0 H z . A low pass
a u d i o a m p l i f i e r c h a i n u s i n g a m i x t u r e of used w a s a p r c - w o u n d 5 5 - ^ H part f r o m could be c a s c a d e d if desired. W e h a v e u s e d
bipolar transistors and op-amps. Muting t h e j u n k box, b u t w o u l d i d e a l l y u s e h i g h e r the board without this filter. Ideally, the sig-
c i r c u i t r y , an R C a c t i v e l o w p a s s filter, an i n d u c t a n c e with a l a r g e r c o r e . An i n c r e a s e nal after the high pass filter, if used, would
audio attenuator, and a sidetone oscillator in ihe v a l u e of C 2 w o u l d then i m p r o v e the exit ihe e n c l o s u r e on a f e e d t h r o u g h capaci-
arc i n c l u d e d on the s i n g l e b o a r d . low p a s s f i l t e r i n g . T h e t o r o i d f o r m is p r e - tor. T h e rest of the c i r c u i t r y ( d e s c r i b e d
T h e m o d u l e w o r k s very well as a direct f e r r e d , f o r it is less s u s c e p t i b l e to h u m b e l o w ) w o u l d then b e built on a separate
c o n v e r s i o n r e c e i v e r . C a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n to p i c k u p t h a n the o t h e r i n d u c t o r s o f t e n u s e d . board without shielding.
g r o u n d i n g in t h e e a r l y a u d i o s t a g e s h a s A resistor, R l , p r o v i d e s a t e r m i n a t i o n f o r T h e first o p - a m p stage includes a F E T
e l i m i n a t e d m a n y of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r o b - s u m p r o d u c t s e x i t i n g the r i n g m i x e r . s w i t c h f o r r e c e i v e r m u t i n g . A n RC. a c t i v e
lems encountered, which were described T h e a u d i o amplifier begins with a c o m - low p a s s f i l t e r . U l b , f o l l o w s this. T h i s cir-
in C h a p t e r 8. T h e b o a r d is sized to f i t in a mon b a s e stage o f f e r i n g a 50-12 i m p e d a n c e c u i t is p r o g r a m m a b l e by the d e s i g n e r /
H a m m o n d 1 5 9 0 B box w i t h f e e d t h r o u g h to the m i x e r . A degenerated c o m m o n e m i t - b u i l d e r . T h e r e s p o n s e of the filler a l o n e

12.30 Chapter 12
 <-12V
Active Filter
02
2N3904 shown
w i t h SSB parts.

•>ev

U2A
1458
USS 7
-W\r-f-
2K -=±- 6.8K
H2I
<

ffij ™
5SuH
-

Sidetone Osc
TUF-3 T
^ tMes
10Q <
Mixer c* 10n, 10% 15K 100

RF •
IF •
"Ann" >
Bad • (Gam I Out
LO • Switch) i2
+
A V v
**> -»6V 22k
View
1N4152
(*2)

Key

Fig 12.40—General-purpose direct-conversion receiver.

Fig 12.41—Option with an added audio gain control. Also Fig 12.42—Calculated response for low pass filter with three
shown is an LC high pass filter. The altered or added different component value sets.
components are highlighted.

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.31

 A shot of the
module installed In
shielded enclosure.
A box built from
circuit board would
also work well.

General purpose direct conversion

module contains a diode ring mixer,
audio amplifier, active audio filter, gain
programmable active filter, and
sidetone oscillator. This board is
normally mounted inside a shielded box
Table 12.1
with coax connectors and feed-through
General-Purpose Receiver Module—Components for capacitors for all interfaces. Two
the Low Pass Filter boards can be used for a binaural
Bandwidth and Shape R18 and R19 C12 C13 receiver.
3 kHz flat 8.2 kQ 10 nF 4.7 nF
1kHz flat 22 k n 10 nF 4.7 nF
Peak at 700, Q=3 12 k i l 100 nF 2.7 nF

(without the rest of the rcccivcr) is shown

in Fig 12.42 for three component value
sets summarized in Tabic 12.1.
An inverting amplifier. U2A, with a
gain that can be switched with an external
signal, follows the active low pass filter. A
12-dB gain step is available with the com-
ponents shown. This op-amp has enough
output to drive low impedance head-
phones.
The remaining half of U2 serves as a
sidetone oscillator. This Weinbridge
topology was used in the " U n f i n i s h e d "
transceiver discussed elsewhere.
There is considerable flexibility avail-
able in this design. If a simpler receiver is
needed. U l b is capable of driving head-
phones. allowing U2 to be eliminated.
Fig 12.43—View of the component side of the circuit board. Copper runs on both Gain can be programmed in the second
sides of the circuit board are shown. The board layout is double sided,
audio stage with changes in RIO. in U1A
through-hole plated, and was done with the program Express PCB Version 2.1.1
found at w w w . e x p r e s s p c b . c o m . through R15 and R16. and in U2A.
We have used these modules in three
d i f f e r e n t receiver types. The first is a
simple direct conversion receiver where
the circuitry and p e r f o r m a n c e are very
much like that of the W 7 E L classic so long
as the board is well shielded and used with
a well isolated LO. Sccond, we have used
a pair of these as a binaural receiver. 1 7
Finally, the board has been a handy ''tail
end" for several superhet rigs. A pair of
the boards could be used to build a phasing
receiver, although there is probably too
much selective circuitry in the version
shown, encouraging a redesign using the
guidelines of Chapter y. The PC board lay-
out used is shown in Figs 12.43 and 12.44.
Repeated building of the same design jus-
tifies a printed board. The name on the
board, "Roy-Rx." indicates that this is a
variation of the Roy Lcwallen design from
Fig 12.44—This view is identical to that of Fig 12.43, but shows only the runs on
QST, August, 1980. 1 8
the opposite side of the board.

12.32 Chapter 12
12.8 DIRECT CONVERSION TRANSCEIVERS FOR 144-MHZ SSB AND CW
These transceivers were built using pro-
totype circuit boards during the develop-
ment of the line of products sold by Kanga
+ 12 V + 13dBm
US. They illustrate different packaging
techniques, and also some of the effort that
goes into moving f r o m prototype or ugly
construction to a commercially available
production circuit board. Both transceiv-
ers use identical circuitry, and the basic
design is intended as a tunable IF for mi-
crowave transvcrtcrs. A wooden box was
chosen to investigate the problems that re-
sult from having no shielding at all around
the circuit boards. The radio works well as
Ant Relay
a tunable IF. but is subjcct to hum and noise
p i c k u p when directly connected to a
nearby, non-directional 2 - m e t e r antenna.
T i Keyed +12 V
It works fine on the 2-meter band, h o w - DC
) PTT, Semi-Break-In
Switch
ever, with a small Yagi 10 meters away,
i Ant Relay
and pointed away f r o m the transceiver. The
version built in the gray steel chassis has

i
no shielding between PC boards, but is well
shielded f r o m the outside world. It works Key
with a whip antenna, but has some micro-
phonics that are not present in direct con-
version rigs with more extensive shielding.

T h e circuitry is all on three printed cir-

cuit boards. T h e block diagram is shown Fig 12.46—Block diagram of LM2 PC board, which contains the VXO, LNA and TR
in F i g 12.45. T h e m i n i R 2 and T 2 PC switching circuits.

Fig 12.45—Block diagram of direct-conversion 144-MHz SSB/CW transceiver.

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.33

Fig 12.47—LM2 schematic 1.

Fig 12.48—LM2 schematic #2 and parts C9 See Table 12.3 L1 VXO range inductor, 33t T37-2
list. C10 See Table 12.3 toroid. See Text.
R1 4.7 kn C11 0.01 (iF disk ceramic L2 See Table 12.3
R2 10 k n C12 4.7 (iF tantalum L3 See Table 12.3
R3 50 kn Trimpot Panasonic 36C C13 10 jiF electrolytic L4 See Table 12.2
series C14 0.1 |iF Panasonic V series L5 See Table 12.2
R4 47 kfi C15 22 (iF tantalum CW semi-break-in L6 See Table 12.2
R5 100 kfl delay L7 6 turns FT 25-43 ferrite toroid
R6 1 M n C16 0.1 (iF Panasonic V series L8 See Table 12.2
R7 10 kfl C17 0.1 |j.F Panasonic V series L9 See Table 12.2
R8 10 k n C18 0.1 p.F Panasonic V series L10 See Table 12.2
R9 33 n C19 22 pF chip L11 See Table 12.2
R10 22 n C20 0.01 (iF chip L12See Table 12.2
R11 510 n C21 10 nF electrolytic L13See Table 12.2
R12 3.9 kn C22 See Table 12.2 L14See Table 12.2
R13 51 n C23 See Table 12.2 D1 1N4148
R14 4.7 kn C24 See Table 12.2 D2 MV2107 or similar tuning diode
R15 10 kn C25 See Table 12.2 D3 4.7-V Zener
R16 4.7 kn C26 See Table 12.2 D4 1N4148
R17 10 kn C27 See Table 12.2 D5 1N4148
R18 4.7 kn C28 See Table 12.2 D6 1N4148
R19 10 kn C29 0.01 (iF chip D7 1N4148
R20 4.7 kn C30 0.01 nF chip D8 1N4148
R21 10 kn C31 See Table 12.2 D9 1N4148
R22 10 kn C32 See Table 12.2 Q1 2N3906
R23 1 Mn chip C33 See Table 12.2 Q2 2N3904 or PN5179
R24 120 n 1/2 W C34 See Table 12.2 Q3 2N3904 or PN5179
R25 100 n chip C35 See Table 12.2 Q4 2N3906
R26 100 n chip C36 See Table 12.2 Q5 2N3904
R27 51 n chip C37 See Table 12.2 Q6 2N3906
R28 510 n C38 See Table 12.2 Q7 2N3906
C1 Approx 40 pF variable Main Tuning. C39 See Table 12.2 Q8 2N3906
See Text. C40 See Table 12.2 U1 78L09
C2 Upper frequency limit or C41 See Table 12.2 U2 78L06
temperature comp. See Text. C42 See Table 12.2 U3 74AC04
C3 RIT range set. See Text. C43 0.01 jiF chip U4 MAV-11 or MAB-4. See Text.
C4 0.1 (iF Panasonic V series C44 See Table 12.2 U5 Toko splitter
C5 0.01 |±F disk ceramic C45 See Table 12.2 U6 Toko splitter
C6 See Table 12.3 C46 See Table 12.2 U7 MAR-6
C7 See Table 12.3 C47 See Table 12.2 K1 OMRON 65V-2-H
C8 10 mF electrolytic C48 See Table 12.2 X1 Crystal See Text

12.34 Chapter 12
 $ Shift

Receive Preamp
Table 12.2
Filter and Phase Shift Compnents
All chip capacitor values are in pF, 1206- or 0805-series ilc. All inductor values in nH, MC122- or MC134-series Toko
with case.
Frequency (MHz)
Component 18 21 24 28 SO 144 222
C22 56 56 39 33 20 3.9 3.9
C23 68 68 47 47 22 5.6 3.9
C24. C26, C33, C40, C46 10 10 10 10 5 1 1
C25 120 120 76 68 39 9.1 6.8
C27. C31, C34, C38, C41, C44, C47 180 180 120 120 56 12 8.2
C28, C32. C35, C39, G42, C45
C48 390 390 270 270 150 47 27
C38, C37 180 150 120 120 68 22 15
L4. L5, 16, L8, L9. L11, L12, L13. L14 422 422 422 350 226 108 53
Lib 422 383 350 291 159 53 32

boards have been previously described in L M 2 block diagram is shown in Fig 12.46. the w o o d - b o x e d transceiver, and Figs
QST.'9-20 The L M 2 P C board contains the Figs 12.47 and 12.48 are the LM2 sche- 12.51 and 12.52 arc the version in the
V X O . L N A and TR switching circuits. The matics. In Figs 12,49 and 12.50 you'll see metal chassis.

Table 12.3
VXO Components
All capacitor values are in pF, Panasonic 100 V COG, monolithic ceramic. L2 values represent the suggested number of turns on a
T37-2 toroid core. Adjust for maximum output across 50£2. L3 values are in LIH using a JW Miller epoxy conformal coated iron core.
Frequency Range (MHz)
Component 6-8 8-70 10-15 15-20 20-26
C6, C7 220 220 150 100 82
C9 150 120 82 68 56
C10 680 560 390 330 220
L2 24 21 19 17 16
L3 18 15 12 8.2 6.8

Fig 12.50—An interior view of the Wood Box 144-MHz Fig 12.52—An inside look at the Metal Box 144-MHz
transceiver. transceiver.

12.36 Chapter 12
12.9 A 52-MHZ TUNABLE IF FOR VHF AND UHF TRANSVERTERS
This transceiver was designed and built
to serve as the base station tunable IF for
weak signal SSB and CW DXing on the
bands from 222 through 2304 MHz. It is
mounted in a large rack-mount box, and is
connected to a set of rack mount
transverters. A front-panel switch selects Fig 12.53—The 52-
the desired transverter. The transverters MHz IF transceiver
in operation.
provide 100-W output on 222 and 432
MHz. 10 W on 903 MHz, 15 W on 1296
MHz and 4 W o n 2304 MHz. with less than
2-dB noise figure on each band. 52 MHz
was chosen for the IF because it is not har-
monically related to any of the desired
band segments, and there is no CW or SSB
activity near 52 MHz to cause IF break-
through problems.
Fig 12.53 isaphotograph of the IF trans- in a steel chassis. The filters and preamp The LO phase shift adjustments and
ceiver in operation, and the block diagram are in aluminum boxes with screw-on cov- amplitude trimmer adjustments are acces-
is shown in Fig 12.54 Modular construc- ers. The receiver and exciter each has its sible on top of the shielded enclosures, but
tion is used, and each module is mounted own independent phase-shift network with after initial alignment they have remained
in a shield box. The T2 exciter and LO an air-variable phase trim capacitor, hard- untouched during the 6 years (and a move
modules are build in boxes soldered up wired directly to the receiver or exciter half-way across the country) that the rig
from PC board material: the R2 receiver is circuit board. has been in service. Detailed schematics

r
oae OdB OdB o as
R2 PC -fuD
-yyd © ® ©
-©-
joaa r^1 © 6dB 10 dB 20 dS Board —-gmutt

"I—jt-
(•Hi) 52 MHz
r - S -- 8 - 1
TR Switched Attenuators quad hybrid
© - <•> relay
T2 PC
Board 3 KHZ L

52 MHz
©-•
quad hybrid

J.

VFO SBL-1 -
rSf
§
- t - - I n

- t >
i PIN
t *»2T

: *i2R
51-9 - 52 4 MH*

j :
.12

-S-|
=5 LM-2 Board
CWks?

I T O
rm*s RTF *12R •12T

Fig 12.54—52-MHz IF transceiver block diagram.

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.37

 of each of the circuit blocks arc shown in
Figs 12.55 through 12.61. Figure 12.62 is
LNA a close-up of one ot' the 1.0 phase-shift
networks, illustrating the mechanical and
clectrical symmetry and connection of the
phase-trim capacitor. Figure 12.63 is a
view of the 52-MHz filter. Figure 12.64 is
a look under the hood, and Fig 12.65 is a
bottom view, showing much of the cir-
cuitry.
The Local Oscillator system is pre-
mised from the 4-MHz range up to
52 MHz. A 5-section helical resonator fil-
ter selects the 52-MHz product, rejects the
44-MHz image, and provides additional
attenuation of the 48-MHz premix oscilla-
tor. The output tunes from 51.9 MHz to
52.4 MHz. and the vintage Eddvstonc Dial
provides a smooth, slow tuning rate and
may be reset to within 1 kHz.
This IF transceiver was built to replace
a commercial 6-meter rig being used as a
tunable IF in a competitive VHF contest
station. The commercial rig had a few
spurs and birdies, and synthesizer noise
Fig 12.55—LNA schematic. burbles that sounded like weak signals

78L09

T 4.7uF^
tant

2.2 pf
NPO

• 220pF-
1M ^ J310
' NPO '
Ml
bearing piston
variable trimmer

4.7 pF
WO
-AAAr
am22«iTBMeors
<70
-16 0
tap^Siticra

Fig 12.56—The 4.4-4.9 MHz VFO schematic

12.38 C h a p t e r 12
 52-MHz center freq. 2 MHz Bandwidth 1 dB loss LO Premix filter 47.5-MHz center freq. filter

: Cc
L j U

L 10T 0.50" i.d. 0.75" long bare number 18 copper

in and out taps 1 full turn from ground end
C 50 pF air variable
Cc 0.25* gimmick twisted #22 Teflon Covered

Fig 12.58—The 47.5-MHz premix

All L 10T 0,50" i.d, 1.00" long bare number 18 copper oscillator filter.

in and out taps 1 full turn from ground end

C 50 pF air variable
Modular construction with individual
Cc1 0.32" gimmick twisted #22 Teflon Covered shielded modules, and a spacious cabinet,
Cc2 0.25" gimmick twisted #22 Teflon Covered contributes to a very large piece of radio
equipment with fine performance.
Fig 12.57—Schematic of the 52-MHz premix filter. This 52-MHz tunable IF is a "work in
progress," with unfinished audio gain con-
trol. metering, and mode selection func-
tions. It has been in service for 6 years, and
when tuning for U H F DX. In addition, the brew 52-MHz transceiver has no spurious every year or so a function will be added
audio distortion of the commercial radio responses or birdies, and all undesired out- There is ample room inside for additional
contributed to operator fatigue over the puts are more than 70 dB below the de- circuit modules, and room on the front
course of a weekend contest. The home- sired output. panel for additional controls.

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.39

 LO Mixer 52 MHz center freq. filter

!
C C

i
0 ©
; If t ;
4^

4,7k

+12 T

L 10T 0.50" i.d. 0.75" long bare number 18 copper

in and out taps 1 full tum from ground end
C 50 pF air variable
Cc 0.25" gimmick twisted #22 Teflon Covered
Fig 12.60—Schematic of the premix LO mixer.
Fig 12,63—The 52-MHz filter.

52 MHz LO Quadrature Hybrid

with phase trim

LOin

one mounted in box with R2

another one mounted in box with T2

Fig 12.61—Schematic of the 52-MHz LO quadrature hybrid.

Fig 12.62—Close-up of LO quad-rature hybrid.

12.40 Chapter 12
Fig 12.64—A peek at the inside top of the 52-MHz transceiver. Fig 12.65—The inside bottom of the 52-MHz transceiver.

12.10 SLEEPING BAG RADIO

On winter camping trips in the North- completely changes the usual ergonomics feel to it, and is heavy enough that it is
west and M i c h i g a n ' s Upper Peninsula, of a radio. This 40-meter CW transceiver is u n w e l c o m e on a wceklong s u m m e r trek
radio operation typically occurs at night, designed to sit on either its back or bottom, through the baekcountry—but for a short
while snuggled deep inside a warm sleep- with all connections and controls on the overnight jaunt on snowshoes it is ideal.
ing bag. This is a different environment that front/top. It is stable in either position. The The tuning knob is large enough to tune
controls are kept to a m i n i m u m , with a with mittens, and stiff e n o u g h that it
large, stiff tuning knob, a volume control, d o e s n ' t move when bumped.
.v
and RIT. C W is full break-in, and the use of T h e f o u r p h o t o g r a p h s in F i g s 12.66

kHI
a keyed receiver L N A along with conven- through 12.69 illustrate the construction.
tional receiver muting eliminates any re- Figure 12.70 illustrates how the receiver
ceiver thumps during keying. The radio is c o m p a r t m e n t is d o u b l e shielded f r o m
built in two die-cast boxes screwed the o u t s i d e w o r l d . All c o n n e c t i o n s into
together, with feedthrough capacitors to the receiver c o m p a r t m e n t are m a d e using
carry the signals and power into the back 0.001 ,uF f e e d t h r o u g h c a p a c i t o r s into the
compartment. The back compartment con- V F O / P A c o m p a r t m e n t . F i g u r e 12.71 is a
tains an interchangeable receiver circuit block diagram. The VFO/frequenc\
board, which may be either an R1 direct d o u b l e r is shown in Fig 12.72. the PA.
conversion receiver, a mini-R2 receiver, or using a h i g h - g a i n d i f f e r e n t i a l a m p l i f i e r
Fig 12.66—The Sleeping Bag Radio. a binaural receiver. This radio has a solid d r i v i n g a 5 - W CB p o w e r transistor U

Fig 12.68—The PA compartment.

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.41

 Fig 12.69—The
Sleeping Bag
Radio receiver
compartment.

n ^ \

| / , A
*
/
==,
H o B ^ — L = j = 3 — — . 1

I OfflMlFL 1
Fig 12.70—A Sleeping Bag Radio construction sketch.

Fig 12.71—Block diagram of the

Sleeping Bag Radio.

12.42 Chapter 12
Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.43
 6 hole bead trifilar 6 hole bead
U310

Fig 12.74—The LNA/attenuator.

shown in Fig 12.73, and the LNA/attenu-

ator is shown in Fig 12.74. The 7-MHz RF
and LO signals arc routed through the
VFO receiver shield walls on the feedthrough capaci-
compartment compartment tors using the bandpass networks shown
in Fig 12.75. This is the best CW trans-
ceiver I have ever used.
27pF 27pF

rih
150pF 4 10pF 150pF
1000pF
feedthnj 3.1 uH ^ V 3.1 uH lOOOpF

pass LO and RF signals through shield walls

High attenuation to FM and AM Broadcast

Signals and Harmonics Fig 12.75—The 7-MHz bandpass
feedthrough filter used in the Sleeping
Bag Radio.

12.44 Chapter 12
 12.11 A 14-MHZ CW RECEIVER
T h i s is a s i m p l e h o m e station r e c e i v e r s t r u c t i o n . T h e r e are i w o s c l c c t a b l e b a n d - s u p p r e s s i o n , 9 - d B n o i s e f i g u r e , a slow t u n -
f o r the C W p o r t i o n of the 2 0 - m e t e r band, w i d t h s a n d f r o n t - p a n e l m u l i n g f o r use with ing rate. 8 0 d B b e t w e e n (he r e c e i v e r n o i s e
ll uses R 2 p r o circuit b o a r d s and a K a n g a a small Q R P t r a n s m i t t e r o r v i n t a g e 4 0 - W f l o o r a n d o n s e t of a u d i o c l i p p i n g . 9 2 - d B
U V F O u n i v e r s a l V F O b o a r d , a l o n g wilh lube t r a n s m i t t e r . A p p e a r a n c e a n d c o n t r o l s SSB bandwidth two-tone third-order dy-
lightweight aluminum chassis construc- are b a s i c . P e r f o r m a n c e is u n c o m p r o m i s - n a m i c r a n g e , and a b s o l u t e l y no s p u r i o u s
tion. F i g 1 2 . 7 6 is a c o n s t r u c t i o n s k e t c h , ing, wilh o v e r 5 0 d B of o p p o s i t e s i d e b a n d responses or synthesizer noise.
a n d F i g 1 2 . 7 7 is a b l o c k d i a g r a m . T h e
R 2 p r o receiver circuit h o a r d s are de-
s c r i b e d in detail in C h a p t e r 9 . F i g 1 2 . 7 8 is
a s c h e m a t i c of t h e U V F O b o a r d . F i g s
VFO compartment UVFO
12.79, 12.80 a n d 1 2 . 8 1 i l l u s t r a t e the c o n -
PC board
1 4 . 0 - 14.1 M H z

7.0 - 7.05
X2
MHz VFO

quad

4- X 2 . r X 3"
utility box
LNA downconverter
ANT<£-
PC board PC board receiver compartment

5" X 7" X 2" aluminum cap cover chassis analog signal processor _ filter A F amp
E — —<3
R2pro PC PC board PC boards PC board
boards

Fig 12.76—A construction sketch of the

14-MHz R2pro. Fig 12.77—The 14-MHz R2pro block diagram.

F i e l d Operation, Portable G e a r a n d integrated S t a t i o n s 12.45

o
m
•o
5
X
N
c
<
u
o - n r r r x , — £
RX
12IT30-6 I
lOul
C24 ^ C25
r r r r ' i
220pF

. / m n r v - i RX
12tT30-6 |
Q Out

J8
-O TX

X
Oul
REFERENCES AND NOTES
1. "How to Frustrate a Bear." Back-packer (QRP Transceiver for 40 or 30 Meters." modes. For US amateurs, a short summary
Magazine, Oct. 2001, p 86, (QST. Nov. 1994. pp 37-41. of die interpretation of FCC regulations on
2. Britain. "Some Really Cheap 17. J. Kleinman and Z. Lau. QRP Power, these matters is the sidebar by Paul Rinaldo,
Antennas". CQ VHF. Aug. 1998 and Oct. i
ARRL. 1996. "Is Hellschreiber Permissible Under Part
1998. f8. Detailed operation of the various weak- 97 ?." QST, Jan. 2000. p 54. Before using any
mode on the air, it is important to determine
3. "From Our Vantage Point."The ssignal modes is described in the file
the legality of its usage and the frequencies
Sojourner, on-line travel magazine of the fREADME20.TXT. The source code, in
that are allowable.
Adventure Radio Society (ARS), May. " C . for these modes is primarily in the
1998, www.natworld.com/ars/. ttiles LLCODE.C. UMATRIX'C and 10. V. Poor. "R9/S1," QST. Oct. 1965. pp
4. R. Lewallen. "An Optimized QRP MOONSUN.C. The specification for 33-37. This was not the introduction of
Transceiver." QST. Aug, 1980, pp 14-19. tthe -PUA43' code is in the file these ideas, but it is a good summary of the
PUA43_02.ZIP. All or these files are amateur experimenter art of the time.
5. W. Hayward. "Measuring and Comp- ?
1included on the CD-ROM. 11. The advantages of multi-tone keying,
ensating Oscillator Frequency Drift,"
QST, Dec. 1993. pp 37-41. S9. Different countries have different along with historic background is in the
6. D. Benson. "A Single-Board Supcr-hct restrictions
r on the amateur use of data article by M. Greenman. "MFSK. for the

Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 12.47

New Millennium," QST. Jan. 2001, pp 33- statement, since coherent "birdies'' VHF Meteor-Scatter Communication,"
36. coming from the all pervasive electronic QST, Dec, 2001, pp 36-41.
12. Interested readers might start their gadgetry in people's houses will make 17. R. Campbell, "A Binaural 1-Q
exploration for further information with extended integration times frustrating! Receiver." QST. Mar, 1999, p 44.
the "'Matched Filter " topic in books such EME-2 includes provisions for
randomizing the transmitting frequency 18. R. Lewallen, "An Optimized QRP
as D. K. Barton. Radar System Analysis,
effectively to shift the interfering signals Transceiver," QST. Aug, 1980, pp 14-19.
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
1964. around, making them noise-like. This 19. R. Campbell, "High-Performance,
prevents the interference from adding in Single-Signal Direct-Conversion
13. D. Turrin. and A. Katz. "Earth-Moon- any particular bin but does not remove the Receivers," QST. Jan, 1993. pp 32-40.
Earfh SEME) Communications," The ARRL equivalent noise power that is added.
UHF/Micmwuve Ex/ierimemers Manual. 20. R. Campbell. "A Multimodc Phasing
ARRL. 1990. Chapter 10. 15. See reference 13. Exciter for 1 to 500 MHz." QST. Apr.
14. Urban dwellers might quarrel with this 1993, pp 27-31.
16. J. Taylor, "WSJT: New Software for

12.48 Chapter 12
 CD-ROM Contents

The material contained on the C D - R O M packaged on the 7. R. Campbell, "High Performance Direct Conversion
inside back cover o f this book contains articles, reference Receivers," QST. Aug. 1992, pp 19-28. q s t 1 9 9 2 0 8 . p d f
material, and software. This material is organized in the following 8. R. Campbell, " N o Tune Microwave Transceivers,"
directories: Proceedings of Microwave Update '92. Rochester. N Y . Ocl.
\software 1992. A R R L Publication number 161. pp 41-54.
\articles pmu1992.pdf
\dsp 9. R . Campbell. "High Performance Single-Signal Direct
The Vdsp directory contains specific lists of materia) for the Conversion Receivers." QST. Jan, 1993. pp 32-40.
DSP programs in Chapters 10 and 11 and the DSP-10 2-meter qst199301.pdf
transceiver project, 10. R. Campbell. " A Multimode Phasing Exciter for I to 500
MHz." @5T. Apr. 1993. pp 27-31. qst199304.pdf
ARTICLES AND REFERENCES 11.R. Campbell, "Single-Conversion Microwave SSB/CW
Transceivers." QST. May, 1993, pp 29-34. q s t 1 9 9 3 0 5 . p d f
A l l o f the following articles and references are on the CD-
12. R. Campbell. " A Single Board No-Tune Transceiver for
R O M in Adobe Acrobat PDF format. Double-click a r t i c l e s . p d f
1296," Proceedings of Microwave Update '93. Atlanta, G A ,
to access a summary of these materials. Alternatively, open any
Sep. 1993, A R R L Publication number 174, pp 17-38.
PDF document in the \ a r t i c l e s directory to access that specific
pmu1993.pdf
article. The article filename on the C D - R O M is shown after each
13. R. Campbell. "Simply Getting on the A i r from D C to
reference listing.
Daylight," Proceedings of Microwave Update '94. Estes Park.
While the Adobe Acrobat Reader program used to view the
CO. Sep, 1994. A R R L Publication number 188. pp 57-68.
articles and references is normally run directly from the C D . there
pmu1994a.pdf
is a copy included on the C D - R O M that you may optionally
14. R. Campbell. "Subharmomc IF Receivers." reprinted from
choosc to install on your hard disk for viewing other P D F files.
the North Texas Microwave Society feed/mint in Proceedings
T o Install Acrobat Reader for Windows: of Microwave Update '94. Estes Park. C O . Sep. 1994. A R R L
1) Close any open applications and insert the C D - R O M into your Publication number 188. pp 225-232. p m u 1 9 9 4 b . p d f
C D - R O M drive. 15. R . Campbell. " A V H F S S B - C W Transceiver with V X O . "
2) Select R u n from the Windows S t a r t menu. Proceedings of the 29th Conference of the Central States VHF
3 ) T y p e d : \ A c r o b a t \ s e t u p (where d : is the drive letter of your Society, Colorado Springs, CO, Jul, 1995. A R R L Publication
C D - R O M drive: if the C D - R O M is a different drive on your number 200, pp 9 4 - l 0 6 . p m u 1 9 9 5 b . p d f
system, type the appropriate letter) and press Enter. 16. R. Campbell. "The Next Generation of No-Tune
4 ) Follow the instructions that appear on your screen. Transverters," Proceedings of Microwave Update '95.
Arlington, T X , Oct. 1995. A R R L Publication number 208. pp
T o Install Acrobat Reader for the Macintosh: 1-22. pmu1995a.pdf
1) Close any open applications and insert the C D - R O M into your 17. R. Campbell, " A Small High-Performance C W Transceiver."
C D - R O M drive. QST. Nov. 1995, pp 41-46. qst199511.pdf
2) Open the ''Experimental Methods in R F Design C D " icon on 18. R. Campbell. "Direct Conversion Receiver Noise Figure,"
the desktop, then double-click the "Acrobat Reader" icon. QST. Technical Correspondence. Feb 1996. pp 82-85.
3) Double-click the "Acrobat Reader Installer" icon. qst199602.pdf
4 ) Follow the instructions that appear on your screen. 19. R. Campbell. " M i c r o w a v e Downconverter and Upconvertcr
Update." Proceedings of Microwave Update '98. Estes Park.
1.D. Benson. "Freq-Mite — A programmable Morse Code CO, Oct. 1998. A R R L Publication number 241. pp 34-49.
Frequency Readout." QST. Dec. 1998. pp 34-36. pmu1998.pdf
qst199812.pdf 20. R. Campbell. " A BinauralIQ Receiver." QST. Mar. 1999. pp.
2. D. Bramwell, "Understanding Modern Oscilloscopes." QST. 44-48. qst199903.pdf
Jul. 1976. pp 18-19. qst197607.pdf 21. R. Campbell. " L O Phase Noise Management in Amateur
3. D. Bramwell, " A n R F Step Attenuator," QST. lun, 1995. pp Receiver Systems." Proceedings of Microwave Update '99.
33-34. qst199506.pdf Piano, T X . Oct, 1999, A R R L . Publication number 253.
4. G. A . Breed, " A New Breed of Receiver," QST. Jan, 1988, pp pp 1-12. pmu1999a.pdf
16-23. qst198801.pdf 22. R. Campbell. "Medium Power Diode Frequency Doublers."
5. R. Campbell. "Binaural Presentation of SSB and C W Signals Proceedings of Microwave Update '99. Piano, T X . Oct. 1999.
Received on a Pair o f Antennas," Proceedings of the 18th ARRL. Publication number 253. pp 397-406.
Annual Conference of the Central Slates VHF Society. Cedar pmu1999b.pdf
Rapids. I A . Jul. 1984. p m u 1 9 8 4 . p d f 23. B. Carver, "High Performance Crystal Filter Design."
6. R. Campbell, "Getting Started on the M i c r o w a v e Bands." QST. Communications Quarterly. Winter, 1993, pp 11-18.
Feb. 1992, pp 35-39. qst199202.pdf cq199301a.pdf
24. B. Carver, "The LC Tester." Communications Quarterly, 51. D. Rutledge, el al, "High-Efficiency Class-E Power Ampli-
Winter. 1993. pp 19-27. cq199301b.pdf fiers." QST, May. 1997. Part I. pp 39-42, and Jun, 1997, Part
25. B. Carver, "A High Performance AGC/1F Subsystem," QST. II, pp 39-42. qst199705a.pdf, qst199706.pdf
May. 1996, pp 39-44. qst199605.pdf 52. W. Sabin, "Measuring SSB/CW Rccciver Sensitivity," QST.
26. R. Fisher. "Twisted-Wire Quadrature Hybrid Directional Oct, 1992. pp 30-34. qst199210.pdf
Couplers," QST, Jan, 1978, pp 21-23. qst197801.pdf 53. W. Sabin, "A Calibrated Noise Sourcc for Amateur Radio,"
27. J. Grebenkerapcr, "The Tandem Match — An Accuratc QST. May. 1994. pp 37-40. qst199405.pdf
Directional Wattmeter." QST, Jan, 1987, pp 18-26. 54. W. Sabin, "Diplexer Filters for an HF MOSFET Power
qst198701.pdf Amplifier." QEX. Jul/Aug, I999, pp 20-26. qex199907.pdf
28. R. Hayward. "The Ugly Weekender II. Adding a Junk Box 55. W. Sabin, "A 100-W MOSFET HF Amplifier." QEX, Nov/
Receiver." QST. Jun, 1992, pp 27-30. qst199206.pdf Dec, 1999. pp 31-40 qex199911.pdf
29. W. Hayward and R. Bingham, "Direct Conversion; A 56. B. Shriner and P. Pagel. "A Step Attenuator You Can Build,"
Ncslcclcd Technique." QST. Nov, 1968. pp 15-17. QST, Sep. 1982. pp 11-13. qst198209.pdf
qst196811.pdf 57. K. Spaargaren, "Frequency Stabilization of LC Oscillators,"
30. W. Hayward and J. I.awson. "A Progressive Communica- QEX. Feb, 1996. pp 19-23* qex199602.pdf
tions Receiver," QST, Nov, 1981, pp I I -21. qst198111 .pdf 58. J. Stephensen, "Reducing IMD in High-Lcvel Mixers," QEX.
31. W. Hayward and R. Hayward, "'The Ugly Weekender," QST, Mav/Jun, 2001, pp 45-50. qex200105.pdf
Aug, 1981, pp 18-21. qst198108.pdf 59. P. Wade, "Noise Measurement and Generation." QEX, Nov,
32. W. Hayward, "The Double Tuned Circuit: An Experimen- 1996, pp 3-l2.qex199611.pdf
ter's Tutorial". QST. Dec. 199I. pp 29-34. qst199112.pdf 60. A. Ward. "Noise Figure Measurements," Proceedings of
33. W. Hayward, "Reflections on the Reflection Coefficient: An Microwave Update '97, Sandusky. OH, Oct, 1997, ARRL
Intuitive Examination," QEX. Jan. 1993. pp 10-23. Publication number 231, pp 265-272. pmu1997.pdf
qex199301.pdf
34. W. Hayward, "Measuring and Compensating Oscillator SOFTWARE
Frequency Drift," QST. Dec, I993.pp37-4l.qst199312.pdf • LADPAC-2002. Design programs for Windows. Run
35. W. Hayward, "Electronic T/R Switching," QEX, May, 1995. setup.exe and follow the on-screcn directions lo install the
pp 3-7. qex199505.pdf software.
36. W. Hayward. "Refinements in Crystal LadderFilterDesign,'' • Analysis of mixing with a JFET (Mathcad file
QEX, Jun. 1995. pp 16-21. qex199506.pdf mixerJfetl.mcd. Adobe Acrobat file mixer_jfet1.pdf).
37. W. Hayward, "Extending the Double Tuned Circuit to Three See Chapter 5, section 1. Using mixer_jfet1.mcd requires
Resonators." QEX. Mar/Apr. 1998. pp 41-46. qex199803.pdf Mathsoft Mathcad version x.x or higher. Mixer jfetl .pdf is
38. W. Hayward and T. White. "A Tracking Signal Generator for compiled from screenshots showing the equations used in the
Use with a Spectrum Analyzer." QST, Nov, 1999, pp 50-52. Mathcad file, useful the those who don't have Mathcad.
qst199911b.pdf
39. W. Hayward and T. While, "A Spectrum Analyzer for the
Radio Amateur," QST. Aug and Sep, 1998, pp 35-43. DSP (DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING)
qst199808.pdf, qst199809.pdf Programs for Chapters 10 and 11
40. W. Hayward and T. White. "The Micromountaineer The programs for Chapters 10 and l l arc in the directories
Revisited," QST, Jul. 2000. pp 28-33. qst200007.pdf CHAP] 0 and CHAP11. For each Clxxx.dsp file there is also a
41. W. Hayward and R. Larkin, "Simple RF-Power c1xxx.exe file created by the Id21 linker as described in
Measurement". QST, .kin. 2001, pp 38-43. qst200106.pdf read.txt. The contents of the two directories are:
42. N. Heckt, "A PIC-Based Digital Frequency Display," QST,
May, 1997, pp 36-38. qst199705b.pdf CHAPTER 10
43. H. Johnson, "Helical Resonator Oscillators." w4zcb.pdf d s h e l l . d s p Basic DSP structure for EZKIT- Lite
44. R. Larkin. "The DSP-10: An All-Mode 2-Meter Transceiver c1shell.exe
Using a DSP IF and PC-Controlled Front Panel." QST. Sep, d s i n . d s p Generates single sine wave at 1000 Hz
1999. pp 33-41: Oct, 1999. pp 34-40; Nov, 1999. pp 42-45. dsin.exe
qst199909.pdf, qst199910.pdf, qst199911.pdf d s i n 2 . d s p Generates 2 sine waves at 700 and 1900 Hz
45. R. Larkin. "An 8-Watt, 2-Meter Brickette," QST, Jun, 2000, dsin2.exe
pp 43-47. qst200006.pdf d s p n . d s p Generates 1000 Hz sine wave plus Gaussian noise
46. R. Lewallen. "An Optimized QRP Transceiver." QST, Aug, dspn.exe
1980. pp 14-19. qst198008.pdf d f i r . d s p FIR filter coefficients
47. R. Lewallen, "A Simple and Accurate QRP Directional dfir.exe
Wattmeter." QST. Feb. 1990, pp 19-23. qst199002.pdf fir200bp.dat Part of d f i r . d s p - Band pass FIR filter coeffi-
48. J. Makhinson. "A Dril't-Free VKO." QST. Dec, 1996, pp 32- cients
36. qst199612.pdf firdsn3.bas A QBASIC program for calculating FIR filters
49. J. Makhinson, "DEMPHANO. A device for measuring phase using the Kaiser window method.
noise." Communications Quarterly. Spring. 1999. pp 9-17.
cq199904.pdf CHAPTER 11
50. J. Reiscrt. "VHF/UHF Frequency Calibration." Haw Radio. C1 knob.dsp Interaction with a rotary knob, switches, LCD dis-
Ocl. 1984. pp 55-60. hr198410.pdf play
dknob.exe
C l t b O X . d s p Uses the cl knob to generate 2 sine waves plus noise HARDWARE
c1tbox.exe dsp10hdw.txt - General notes, corrections and improvements.
c18.dsp An 18 M H z I-Q transceiver for CW and USB dsp10n45.txt - Assembly notes for the project
c18.exe dsp10pd2.txt - Assembly part-by-part list, with locations on
Ip2_8.dat Part of C18.dsp - Low pass FIR filter coefficients the PCB
lp_5_48.dat Part of C18.dsp - Low pass KIR filter coefficients dsp10ph5.htm - Part list for purchasing parts
b p c w l .dat Part of C18.dsp - CW audio FIR filter coefficients u 1 5 _ m o d . h t m - Improvement information referenced by
hil_3_48.dat Part of C18.dsp - Hilbert transform for 90 degree dsplOhdw.txt
phase shift. These are coefficients for a specialized FIR filter. ll15mod1.gif - A sketch required for u l 5 _ m o d . h t m .
f10.gif - A corrected figure 10 for the QST articles.
All of the c1xxx.exe programs can be put into E P R O M for f11.gif - A corrected figure 11 for the QST articles.
loading when the EZKTT-Lite starts operation. See the Analog
Devices P R O M Splitter for details. EXECUTABLE
Uhfa.exe - DOS Executable from panel program
Documentation for the DSP-10 Uhf3.exe - Machine language program (NOT A DOS . E X E
2-Meter Transceiver file)
Included in f i v e directories is a complete set of documentation Egavga.bgi - Borland graphics drivers for P C
for (he DSP-10 2-meter transceiver. All .TXT files are simple Gnugpl.txt - User license (Please Read)
ASCII text with embedded end-of-lines. All .HTM files can be Uhfa_43a.rnd - Random number list for several of the weak
read on a W e b browser. signal modes.
Readme16.txt - Software user information for basic modes
This documentation is up-to-date as of March 2002, Further Readme20.txt - Additional user information, including weak-
data may be available on the internet. The U R L currently is signal modes.
http://www.proaxis.com/~boblark/dsplO.htm. If the Web Wat_exe.txt - A reminder that U H F 3 . E X E is N O T a DOS .exe
page location is changed it will still include the word file.
ABCDSP10ABCD that may be helpful for locating it with a search
engine! See the .txt files listed below for more information. S O U R C E CODE A N D M I S C E L L A N E O U S
CSRC - Source code f o r the PC program, in Borland C: 28 files.
Here is a quick summary of the contents to help in finding D S P S R C - Source code forthe EZKit program: 33 files.
files. Included in the last two directories arc two batch files. U.BAT.
that assembles and links the program from the various mod-
ARTICLES ules. The file. U3.BAT. serves the same function for the DSP
Contains the Ihree QST articles from Sept-Nov 1999 in .PDF program.
format.
1. R. Larkin, "The DSP-10: An All-Mode 2-Mcter Transceiver The file Pc_dsp2.txt in the directory C S R C has the details of
Using a D S P IF and PC-Controlled Front Panel," QST, Sep. the communication between the PC and the DSP.
1999, pp 33-41; Oct, 1999, pp 34-40; Nov, 1999. pp 42-45.
 INDEX

Editor's Note: Except for commonly used phrases and abbre- (such as "Modulator. Balanced" and "Balanced, Modulator"),
viations. topics are indexed by their noun names. Many topics The letters " f f ' after a page number indicate coverage of the
are also cross-indexed, especially when noun modifiers appear indexed topic on succeeding pages.

18-MHz Bidirectional: 6.60

Schematic diagram: lL14ff Bipolar transistor: 6.16
Transceiver: 11.12ff Buffer: 9.47
DSP circuits used: I1.19ff Circuits: 2.1
Transceiver output (CW) spectrum: 11.25 Classes o f amplifier operation: 2.3 Iff
Transceiver, sampling rates: 11.26-11.27 Class A: 2.1 Iff, 6.55
2-m Class AB: 2.31-2.32.6.56
Transceiver (DSP-10): 11.27ff Class AB1: 2.31
28-MHz QRP module: 12.28 Class B: 2.31
40-m Class C: I.18ff. 2.3 Iff
D-C receiver block diagram: 8.3 Class D: 2.31-2.32
7-MHz portable transmatch: 7.24 Class E: 2.3 Iff
Common source JFET: 6.33
.4 Differential amplifier (diff-amp): 2.l6ff
AA3X: 2.38 General-purpose IF: 6.20
AD8307: 7.8 High-performance post-mixer: 6.47
Adaptive Intermediate frequency (IF) and AGC: 6.15ff
Mixer Balance: 8.11 Junction field cffcct transistor (JFET)
Adjustment Bidirectional: 6.62
Amplitude balance: 9.22-9.23 Cascode pair: 6.18
Phase trim: 9.23-9.24 Common gate. RF: 6.12
Advanced Power Technology: 2.37 Common source: 6.13
Adventure Radio Society (ARS): 12.4 Gain of: 6.33
Spartan Sprint: 12.4 Keying of transmitter stage: 6.63ff
AGC (Automatic gain control) Large signal amplifiers: 2.1
Amplifier: 6.20 Lichen transceiver power chain: 6.79
Audio derived: 6.22 Limiting, using digital IC: 5.18
Hang system: 6.25 Linear power. 6.54
Intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier: 6.15ff Low noise (LNA)
Pop: 6.22 Swept frequency plot: 9.36
Testing of. in receivers: 7.40 Low-noise RF: 8.13
Threshold: 6.19 Metal oxide silicon field effect transistor (MOSFET)
Almost incremental tuning (AIT): 6.67 IF: 6.17,6.24
AM: 3.17.6.1 RF: 6.13
Demodulation: 8.11 Microphone: 9.45-9.46
Excitcr. low-distortion: 9.48-9.49 Mixer IF-port driver: 9.47ff
Amateur Radio: I. Iff Monoband SSB/CW transceiver power chain: 6.86
• Amidon Inc.: 3.32 Noise: 2.19
Amplifier: 2.1 Thermal: 2.19
Audio power: 9.41 Operational: 2.16ff, 3.25ff
Automatic gain control (AGC): 6.16 1458: 3.26-3.27
 5532: 3.26 Gain
741: 3.26-3.27 High, in D-C receivers: 8.6-8.7
LM-324: 3.25 Generator. 11.11-11.12
L.V1 358: 3.25 Lichen transceiver, receive: 6.78
Topologies: 9.32 Phase shift network (PSN): 9.47
Oscillation: 2.31 Power amplifier: 9.41
Post mixer, with JFET: 5.14 Processor. DSP-based: 11.29
Power for 50 MHz: 6.86 PSN
Power, with IRF511 MOSFETs: 11.18 Modulator circuitry: 9.46
Radio frequency (RF): 6.12 Signal sources: 7.13
Roofing filter: 6.50 Auto-transformer: 2.36
Small signal: 2.1 Available noise: 2.20
Speech, analog signal processor: 9.45-9.46 Available power: 2.14, 2.19
SSB (linear amplifiers): 2.37
Transparency: 2.26 B
VXO transmitter, with digital frequency multiplier 5.20 Backwave: 2.32, 6.64
Amplitude and phase Balanced
Errors, with phasing method: 11.22 Mixer: 5.5, 5.7
Amplitude balance adjustment: 9.22-9.23 Better L-R isolation of: 11.25
Amplitude modulation (AM): 6.1-6.2 Modulator: 6.2,6.56
Double-sideband, full-carrier: 6.7 Band-spread tuning: I 10
Analog Bandpass diplexer network: 9.17
w. digital: 11 -27 Bandpass filter (See also Filter)
Analog Devices: 10.2 14-MHz for VXO transmitter: 5.20
AD 1847 CODEC: 10.2ff 21-MHz for VXO transmitter: 5.21
ADSP-2100 family: 10.2, 10.5 Lichen transceiver. 6.76-6.77
ADSP-2181: 10.2, 10.4 Monoband SSB/CW transceiver: 6.83
Analog Devices 9831: 4.26 Bandwidth: 6.11
EZ-KitLite: 10.2, 11.1 Resolution: 7.26
Analog signal processor (ASP): 9.39-9.40 Bartlett's bisection theorem: 36
Analog to digital (A/D) converters: 10.3 Baseband: 6.1. 6.3
A/D noise: 10.3 Beat-frequency oscillator (BFO): 6.6. 6.85
D/A noise: 10.3 Bell Labs: 42
Dynamic range, limits of: 10.4 Bells and whistles: 1.4
Sample rate: 10.4 Berlin, Howard: 3.27
Sigma-delta A/D converters: 10.3 Beta cutoff: 2.9
Angle, Chip, N6CA: 6.12 Bidirectional amplifier: 6.61
Antenna JFET: 6.62
Transmit/receivc (T/R). switching: 6.68, 11.18 Bifilar windings: 3.33ff
Appliance: 1.4 Binary
Number conversion to ASCII digits: 11.8
Applications
Binaural
Of spectrum analyzers (hints for use): 7.30
Delay: 11.23-11.24
ARRL Field Day: 12.4
Mode: 9.42
ARRL Handbook (See The ARRL Handbook)
Ascn Binaural receiver. 9.19ff
BJT (base-junction transistor) model: 2.10
Digits from binary number (converting): 11.8
Bleeder resistor 1.15
AT cut (See Crystal, quartz)
Block converter: 7.35
Attenuators: 7.10-7.11
Block diagrams: 14. 1.6,6.4
10-dB pad: 6.14
14-MHz R2pro CW receiver 12.46
Continuously variable: 7.10
14-MHz receiver: 6.27
Fixed: 7.11
18-MHz transceiver: 11.13
Pi (it) and Tee: 7.10
2-m (DSP-10) transceiver: 11.28
PIN Diode: 6.18
40-m D-C receiver: 8.3
Power Pi (7t): 7.10
52-MHz IF transceiver: 12.38
Radio frequency (RF): 6.12
Basic D-C receiver: 8.2
Schematics and design equations for: 7.9
CW transmitter: 6.5
Step: 7.11
Direct conversion 144-MHz transceiver: 12.33
Audio: 6.1
LM2 PC board: 12.33
Amplifier: 112
Direct-conversion (D-C) receiver: 6.6
Derived automatic gain control (AGO: 6.23
Double-sideband transmitter: 6.7
Filter. SSB and CW: 9.40
Dual-band QRP CW transceiver 12.19
Filtering, DSP in: 11.23-11.24 Elements of: 1-6
 Filter-type SSB exciter: 9.1 C
General-purpose receiver front end: 6.32ff Calibration
High performance D-C receiver during measurements: 7.31
High-dynamic-range receiver. 6.44 Capacitance
Hilbert transform, 247-tap: 11.21 Measurement: 7.11-7.12
I and Q corrections Capacitor
Better sideband rejection using: 11.24 Phasing: 3.17
Image-rejecting D-C receiver: 9.16 Small numeric value: 3.15
Lichen transceiver. 6.71 Capital Advanced Technologies: 1.2
Mixer: 5.1 Carrier. 2.14,2.21.4.10.6.1
Mixer/LO with reflection eoeff.: 8.7 CW, generation: 6.58
Modern front end: 6.46 Oscillator, for monoband SSB/CW transceiver: 6.85
Modular receiver: 8.13 Carrier to noise ratio (CNR): 4.10,4.12
Monoband SSB/CW transceiver: 6.83 Carver, Bill, W7AAZ: 2.28, 3.24ff. 6.24ff
Phasing D-C rccciver: 9.3 Cathode ray tube (CRT): 7.3
Phasing rccciver Central limit theorem: 10.12
DSP error corrcction: 11.22 Chamber testing
Phasing-type SSB exciter: 9.2 Of oscillators: 7.42
Preamp diode ring D-C receiver: 8.3 Chebyshev filter (See low-pass filter)
Preamp. Gilbert D-C receiver: 8.3 Circuit boards
R2pro: 9.35 Multiple, in D-C receivers: 9.33
Receiver front end: 6.11 Clapp oscillator (See Oscillator)
Single-conversion superheterodyne receiver: 6.6 Clarke and Hess: 3.34
Single-sideband (SSB) transceiver 6.9,6.61 Classes of amplifier operation (See Amplifier)
Single-sideband (SSB) transmitter: 6.7 Clean equipment (signals): 1.5
Sleeping Bag Radio: 12.43 Clock wire: II .2-11.3
Superheterodyne receiver CODEC (coder/decoder): 10.2ff
with a phasing SSB demodulator 9.2 Cohn. S. B.: 3.10.3.21
with a SSB IF bandwidth: 9.2 Color buret crystal: 6.90
Superheterodyne single-sideband (SSB) receiver 6.8 Colpitis oscillator (Set also oscillator):.... 1.13. 7.37-7.38
The S7C superhet receiver. 12.16 Common base amplifier (CB): 2.8
Tone and noise generator 11.11 Current gain: 2.8
VXO transmitter with digital frequency multiplier: 5.19 Voltage gain: 2.8
Blocking elements: 2.31 Common-collector amplifier (CC): 2.7
Blocking capacitor: 2.31 Common-emitter amplifier (CE): 1.13, 2.7
Bolometer: 2.13 Common-mode
Boltzmann's constant: 2.2ff, 6.10 Choke: 2.16,3.34
Bottom, Virgil: 3.17 Drive: 2.16
Boulouard. Andre: 3.36 Hum: 8.8-8.9
Breadboard circuits: 1.2 Input range: 2.18
Breadboard: 1.2 Common-source JFET amplifier: 6.33
Low inductance grounding: 1.3 Communications
Manhattan breadboarding: 1.3 DSP applications in: 11.1 ff
Quasi-Printed boards: 1.3 Weak signal
Ugly construction: I.2ff Using the DSP-10: 12.24
Bridge Communications Concepts, Inc.: 2.38
Impedance measurement using: 7.2Iff Compact Software
Rectifier 1.14 Super Spice: 3.25
Return loss (RI.B): 7.22 Compensation
RF impedance: 7.23 Of oscillator drift: 7.42
RF resistance: 7.22 Temperature, process of: 7.42
Suitable for UHF: 7.24 Component Testing
Wheatstone: 7.21 Setup f o r 7.20
Wien: 7.13 Computer programs
Buffer amplifier 1.17-1.18, 9.47 ARRL Radio Designer: 3.4
Buttcrworth filter I.W Low-pass filter) GPLA: 3.4
Bypassing and decoupling: 2.28ff Structure of: 11.1-11.2
Grounded points: 2.28 Controller
Parasitic inductance: 2.28 DSP device as: 11.2
Problems of: 2.30 Conversion gain
Signal grounded: 2.28 Mixer: 5.6
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors: 2.30 Conversion loss
Mixer: 5-6
Conversion oscillator: 5.1 Resistance: 2.25
Converter 6.41 DeMaw, Doug, W1FB: I.I
An experimenter's receiving: 7.40 Demodulation
Block: 7.35 AM: 8.11
D/A: 11.1 Denormalization equations: 3.4
For baseband spectrum analyzer: 7.34 Design
Frequency Receiver: 9.7ff
A minimum-parts-count: 9.8 Detector: 1.10. 6.19.6.23
RF to TTL/CMOS: 7.12 Peak: 7.5
Converting Phase: 4.19ff
Binary number to ASCII digits: 11.8 Product: 5.1
Coupling coefficient 3.33 DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform): 7.35
Creeping features: 1.4 Diagram
Cross modulation: 6.28 Shift-register timing: 11.4
Crystal Diagrams, block. (See Block diagrams)
Color burst: 6.90 Differential amplifier (See Amplifier)
Filter: 3.17, 6.48 Differential-mode drive: 2.16
4th order monolithic: 7.28 Digi-Key: 12.17
8th order (ref. WB4RNO and W2EKB): 7.28 Catalog: 1.2
Bidirectional: 6.62 Digital
Response: 6.27. 6.84 i s. analog: 11.27
Measurement of: 7.37-7.38 Digital noise: 10.4
Oscillator. 1.11. 1.17.4.14. 6.65 Digital signal processing (DSP): 10.Iff
Quartz: 3.17,4.14 Alternate DSP devices: 10.29
AT cut: 3.17 Audio processor 11.29
Equivalent scries resistance (ESR): 3.17 Automatic noise blankers: 10.28-10.29
Model: 7.37 Building blocks: 10.2
Motional parameters: 3.18 CODEC (coder/decoder): 10.2ft
Piezo-electric effect: 3.17 Components: 10.2. 10.6
Resonant frequency: 3.17 Amplifiers: 10.6
Surface effects: 3.17 Attenuators: 10.6
Testing of. using Colpitis oscillator: 7.38 Automatic gain control (AGC): 10.21-10.22
Variable oscillator (VXOi: 6.91 Discrete Fourier transform (DFT): I0.23IT
Current controlled device: 2.3 Ins and outs of: 10.26
Current gain (b): 2.3 Spectrum analyzer: 10.24
Current source: 2.7 FM reception: 10.22-10.23
CW: 1.2 FM transmission: 10.22
Carrier generation: 6.58 Multiplier 10.7
Considerations, of phasing D-C receivers: 9.18 Shift register: 10.7
Monoband transceiver: 6.83 Device, as a controller: 11.2
Receiver: 6.6 Digital filter: 10.2, 10.13
Receiver, 14-MHz: 12.46 DSP IF: 10.20
Transceiver, portable: 12.5 Finite impulse response (FIR) filter
Transmission with DSP: 11.24ff Computation: 10.15
Transmitter: 6.4fT Hilbert transform: 10.20
IF amplifier 6.58 Kaiser window: I0.16ff
Performance: I0.I8ff
D Infinite impulse response (IIR) filter: 10.13-10.14
D-C receiver DSP program
A minimalist: 8.4-8.5 Autobuffering: 10.6
D/A converter: 11.1 Gaussian random numbers: 10.12
Darlington configuration: 2.27 Gaussian noise: 10.9
Data wire: 11.2-11.3 Index registers: 10.8
dBm: 7.6 Polynomial coefficients: 10.8
dBW: 7.6 Sequential addresses: 10.8
DC measurements: 7.2 Instruction: 10.5
Dead bug style: 4.30 Interrupt overrun: 10.5
Decibel (dB): 2.14 Interrupt service routine (1SR): 10.5-10.6
Arithmetic: 7.6 Jump instruction: 10.6
Ratio: 2.14 Primary register set: 10.5
Decoupling resistor: 1.18 Secondary register set: 10.5
DeFatta, D. J. et al: 10.28 Dynamic range: 10.3
Degeneration: 2.25-2.26 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT): 10.4
 In communications: 11. Iff Dobbs, George, G3RJV: 1.9, 1.11
Phase shifters: 9.32 Domain: 3.1
Phase-lockcd loop: 10.6 Frequency: 3.1.6.1ff
Process: 10.3 Time: 3.1,6.2ff
Adaptive filters: 10.3 Doppler
SSB generation: 10.3 Effects: 8.8
Program shell (also Shell program): 10.4-10.5 RF, Illustration of: 8.8
Signal generators: 10.7 Double sideband (DSBVCW 50 MHz station: 6.90ff
Integer coefficients: 10.7 Double-sideband AM: 6.7
Sine wave: 10.7 Transmitter: 6.7
Calculated functions: 10.7 Double-tuned circuit (See Filter)
Lookup tables: 10.7 Doubly-terminated filter (See low-pass filter)
SSB signal generation Downconvertcn 9.37ff
Gain expander: 10.30 Drift
Predistorter: 10.30£f Compensating for oscillators with: 4.4ff, 7.42
Predistorter distortion reduction: 10.29ff Drive, common-mode: 2.16
Predistortion: 10.30 Dropout; 1.14-1.15
Predistoftion polynomial coefficients: 10.32 DSB
Transmitter: * 10.31-10.32 Modulator, low-distortion: 9.47ff
Why DSP?: 10.3 With carrier 9.49
Digital voltmeter (DVM): 4.5, 7.2 DSP-10 2-m radio: 10.27. 12.24ff
Diode: 2.1 Dual-gate MOSFET mixer. 5.12
Equation: 2.2 Dummy load: 1.16,2.33,7.8
Frequency doubler: 5.16 50-ohm termination: 116
Frequency tripler: 5.17 Dynamic range (DR): 6.29ff. 7.20
Ideal: 2.1,2.4 Compression algorithms: 10.2
Junction: 2.1 Receiver with enhanced: 6.44ff
Mixer: 5.3
Ring: 5.13 E
Ring, commutating balanced: 5.8 Easy-90 receiver: 6.34
Offset voltage: 2.1 Ebers-Moll equations: 2.10-2.11
PIN: 6.16ff Electronic T/R system: 2.33
Polarity dependent properties: 2.1 EME-2 moon-bounce mode: 12.25ff
Saturation current: 2.2 Faraday rotation: 12.27
Small signal model: 2.2 Pre-detection filtering: 12.26
Switching: 6.62 Transmitter waveforms: 12.26
Varactor: 4.17, 6.67 Emitter bypassing: 2.31
Motorola MV209: 4.17 Emitter degeneration: 1.13,2.7ff
Zener: 2.34-2.35, 4.4 Emitter follower: 2.7ff
Diode ring Input resistance: 2.7
Preamp, D-C receiver: 8.3 Output impedancc: 2.7
Dip meter: 7.12 Voltage gain: 2.7
Diplexer: 2.40ff, 3.36-3.37 Emitter resistance: 2.8
Low-pass output filter: 2.42 Emitter saturation current: 2.10
Direct digital synthesis (DDS): 4.18,4.26 Encoder
Spurious responses related to: 7.41 Rotary optical: 11.2
Dircct-conversion (D-C) receiver: 1.6ff. 6.6,6.10, 8.Iff Rotary, programming of: 11.5-11.6
Block diagram of, basic: 8.2 Engelbrecht, R. S.: 3.38. 6.47
Modular. 8-13ff ENR (Excess noise ratio): 2.21,7.39
Noise figure: 8.12 Environmental chamber
Peculiarities: 8.6-8.7 For oscillator testing: 7.42
Single-sideband (SSB): 6.7 Epiphyte transceiver. 6.71
Directional coupler: 3.16,3.36 EPROM: 10.2
Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) Equations
Spectral frequency response: 10.27 Calculating power from oscilloscope readings: 7.9
Spectrum analyzer display: 10.27 Equivalent series resistance (ESR)
Windowing functions: 10.28 Value in crystals: 7.38
Hamming: 10.27-10.28 Error, Phase and amplitude
Dishal Method: 3.9 Phasing method: 11.22
Display Excess noise ratio (ENR): 2.21.7.39
Waterfall: 11.28-11.29 Excessive miniaturization: 1.4
Distortion: 2.10, 2.12 Exciter
Ditter (The Ditter): 7.40 AM. low-distortion: 9.48-9.49
Experiments Crystal, 8th order: 7.28
Tunable hum: 8.9 Double tuned circuit (DTC): 3.10
Express PCB, Version 2.1.1: 12.32 Design: 3.14
EZ-Kit Lite: 10.2ff, 11.1 Top-coupled: 3.10
Transmission line: 3.15
F DSP: 3.1
Fair-Rite (Amidon) cores: 2.31, 3.34 Audio filter: 3.28
Faraday rotation: 12.27 Finite impulse response (FIR): 3.Iff
Faraday's Law: 3.33 Taps: 3.28
Fast Fourier Transform (I-'FD: 7.35, 10.4 Frequency domain response: 3.1
FCC: 1 -5 Hairpin: 3.16
Feedback: 2.19 High fidelity speech: 9.46-9.47
Amplifier: 2.24ff High-pass, for harmonic evaluation: 7.32
Negative: 4.Iff Tmpedance matching networks: 3.29, 3.32
Positive: 4. Iff Directional impedances: 3.29
Fcrrite balun core: 2.36 L-network: 3.30
Binocular type: 2.36 jt-network: 3.30
Ferrite bead: 1.17 T-network: 3.30-3.31
Fcrrite transformer: 3.17, 3.33 Infinite impulse response (IIR): 3.1
Magnetic field: 3.33 Input impedance match as performance measure: 3.2
Ferrite transmission-line transformers: 3.34 Insertion loss (IL): 3.Iff
FFT (Fast Fourier Transform): 7.35. 10.4 LC: 3.1
Field Day ( ARRL): 12.11 Loop: 4.18
Field effect transistor (See Transistor, field effect) Lossless: 3.1
Filter Low-pass
Active: 3.24 In harmonic evaluation: 7.31
Selectivity from audio filtering: 3.24 Lichen transceiver: 6.82
Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS): 3.24 Measurements, and tracking generators: 7.34
All pass: 1 3. Iff Optional, for phasing receivers: 9.40-9.41
At VHF and higher: 3.11 Passband: 3.Iff
Audio. SSB and CW: 9.40 Ripple: 3.1-3.2
Band rejeel: 3.1 Passive: 3.1
Bandpass: 3.Iff. 5.4. 12.1111 Preselector: 6,44
14-MHz. for VXO transmitter: 5.20 Quartz crystal: 3.3ff
21-MHz, for VXO transmitter: 5.21 RC active: 3.1
Active: 3.26 Real: 3.1
Coupling: 3.9 Receiver
Finite impulse response (FIR): 3.28 Crisp sound: 3.23
Infinite gain multiple feedback (IGMFB): ..3.26-3.27 Resonator: 3.9ff
LC: 3.8 Acoustic: 3.8
Lichen transceiver: 6.76 Electric: 3.8
Losses in: 3.8 Microwave: 3.9
Monoband SSB/CW transceiver: 6.85, 6.88 UHF helical: 3.9
Multiple resonator. 3.9 VHF helical: 3.9
Stopband attenuation: 3.12ff Response improvement with decimation: 11.27
Transmission line resonators: 3.11 Roofing: 6.46
Triple tuned: 3.11, 12.13 Shape: 3.9
Bandwidth: 3.2 Simple video: 7.39
Crystal: 3.1ff, 12.13 Spectrum analyzer IF: 7.29
4tli order monolithic: 7.28ff Stopband: * 3.Iff
8th order: 7.28 Time delay: 3.1
Bandwidth: 3.20 Transfer properties: 3.1
Bidirectional: 6.62 Voltage transfer function: 3. Iff
Buttcrwonh design: 3.23 Filter (See also High-pass filter)
Group delay: 3.23-3.24 Filter (See also Low-pass filter)
KVG XI-9-M (German): 12.22 Filtering
Linear phase: 3.24 Audio. DSP in: 11.23-11.24
Lower sideband ladder topology: 3.19 LMS denoise: 11.28
Mesh: 3.19-3.20 Fisher. Reed, W2CQH: 3.36ff
Min-Ioss (Cohn filter): 3.2 Iff Flag
Response: 6.28,6.84 Programmable: 11.4. 11.10
Using 3.58-MHz TV color burst: 3.20-3.21 Formulas
Crystal, 4th order monolithic: 7.28ff Power density: 8.8
Forward bias: 2.1 Distortion, measurements of: 7.31-7.32
Fourier Transform: 7.25 Suppression: 1.19
Discrete Fourier transform (DFT): 10.23ff. 12.25 Harmonics: 2.10
Fast Fourier transform (FFT): 10.26 Hartley oscillator (See also Oscillator): 1.9
Frequency Hawker, Pat: 5.15
Carrier: 4.2 Hayward, Roger, KA7EXM: 12.6
Counter: 1.11.4.5,4.29,7.11 Haywarxi. Wes. W7ZOI (author): 12.1, 12.10
Accuracy: 431 Helical resonator: 3.16
Domain:..." 2.10. 6.1£f Hexfet amplifiers: 2.37
Mixer output: 5.5. 5.12 High fidelity
Doubler: 5.16 Speech filter: 9.46-9.47
Incremental tuning: 6.66 High frequency effects: 2.9
Intermediate (IF): 5.1,6.6 High level FET mixer: 5.15
Measurement: 7.11-7.12 High-level mixer: 6.47
Multiplier: 5.1.5.16,6.91 High-pass filter: 1.10, 3.1ff
Normalized rate of changc of (TCF): 4.5 Bandstop: 3.8
Offset: 6.66 For harmonic evaluation: 7.32
Shift: 6.65 Transfer functions: 3.26
Synthesis: 4.18 Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS): 3.25
Synthesizer: 4.1, 4.31 High-performance post-mixer amplifier: 6.47
Tripler: 5.17 Hilbert transform
Frequency converter 247 taps/48-lcHz sampling: 11.20
A minimum-parts-count: 9.8 247-tap, block diagram: 11.21
Front-end design, receiver: 6.27. 6.30 Homebrewing: 1.1
General-purpose: 6.32 Horrabin, Colin, G3SBI: 5.15, 6.47-6.48
Modern: 6.46 HP-8970 Noise Figure test set: 2.21
FSK44I: 12.28 HP3400A true-RMS voltmeter: 4.17
Huff n Puff scheme: 4.6ff
G Hum
G3UUR method: 3.19 Probe: 8.9
G3UUR oscillator. 3.19 Tunable or common mode: 8.8-8.9
Gain Hybrid: 3.35
High audio, in D-C receivers: 8.6-8.7 Hybrid-Jt model: 2.9
Gain compression: 2.21-2.22.6.28
Mixer: 5.6 I
General-purpose receiver front end: 6.32 I-V characteristic: 2.1
Generator Ideal diode (See diode)
Audio: 11.11-11.12 Ideal element: 2.1
Swept voltage: 7.26-7.27 Ideal transformer: 3.32
Tracking: 7.34 IF (Intermediate frequency)
Generators and sources: 7.13ff Filters, for spectrum analyzers: 7.29
GI3XZM: 1.11 1IP3 (receiver input intercept): 7.18
Gilbert cell: 1.7, 1.9,4.20 Test setup to determine: 7.19
Balanced modulator: 6.57 Image
Bipolar junction transistor mixer: 5.11 Response: 5.4
Mixer: 5.10. 6.54, 6.62, 12.7 Signal: 5.4. 6.6
Gilbert D-C receiver Suppression: 5.4
Preamp: 8.3 Image-rejection detector
Gilbert, Barrie: 5.10 A minimum-parts-count: 9.8
Golden screwdriver: 1.4 IMD testing: 7.17
Greenman. Murray, ZL1BPU: 12.27 Impedance match/missmatch measurement: 2.15
Gumm, Linley, K7HFD: 4.12-4.13 Impedance transformation circuits: 2.33
Inductance
H Common mode: 3.35
H-mode mixer: 5.15,6.48£f Measurement: 7.11-7.12
Hairpin circuit: 3.15 Inductor
Hairpin filter: 3.16 Self-shielding type: 8.6
Ham radio: 1.1. 1.11 Injection locking: 4.20
Hamilton, Nick. G4TXG: 3.36 Input intercept: 6.30
Hamming window function: 10.27 Mixer: 5.6
Hang automatic gain control (AGC) system: 6.23 Insertion power gain: 2.14
Harmonic: 2.21 Instruments: 2.14
Distortion: 1.19, 2.14ff, 6.28 Power meters: 2.14
 RF detection: 2.14 Lewallen, Roy, W7EL (See W7EL)
Spectrum analyzers: 2.14 Lichen transceiver: 4.18, 6.71ff
"Wideband oscilloscopes: 2.14 Carrier oscillator: 6.77
Wideband voltmeters: 2.14 Local oscillator: 6.77
Integrator: 1-20 Low-pass filter: 6.82
Intercept point: 6-30 Main board: 6.73
Interface Mixer injection switching: 6,76
Circuitry for other mixer types: 9.44 Receive audio: 6.78
Three-wire serial: 11.2-11.3 RF power chain: 6.79
Intermediate frequency (IF): 5.1, 6.6, 6.15 Transmit bandpass filter: 6.76
Amplifier and AGO. 6.15 Liebenrood, John, K7RO: 6,62
Field effect transistor (FET) system examples: 6.23 Liljeqvist, Larry, W7SZ: 12.28
General-purpose amplifier: 6.20 Limiting amplifier: 5.18
Speech processor: 6.59 Linear power amplifier: 6.54
Systems: 6.18 Liquid-crystal display (LCD)
Intermodulation distortion (IMD): 2.2Iff. 6.28 With DSP data device: 11.6-11.7
Mixer: 5-6 LM317 voltage regulator: 1-15
Order: 2.21 I.M386 audio amplifier: 1.7ff
Ratio: 2.22 LMS denoise filtering: 1' -28
Testing: 7.17 LO to RF isolation: 1.9
International Rectificr (Hexfets): 2.37 Local oscillator (LO): 5.1, 6.2, 6.41, 9.42
Interrupt sen-ice routine (1SR): 11.1 Eliminating radiation effects: 8.9ff
Interrupts: 10.4. 11.1-11.2 Mixer drive level: 5.6
Introduction to Radio Frequency Design: .. 2.8ff. 3.9. 4.33 Monoband SSB/CW transceiver: 6.83
Inverting input: 2.18 Radiation and reflection
ISB Transients: 8.7-8.8
Mode: 9.42 Loop filter: 4.18ff
Isolation Lore: 1-4. 2.29
Mixer: 5-4 Low frequency
Resolution: 7.11
J Low-noise amplifier (LNA)
JA0AS: 4.16 Swepl frequency plot of: 9.36
JFET (See Transistor, field effect) Low-noise RF amplifier: 8.13
JI11IC/.. 4.16 Low-pass filter: 1.1 Off. 2.33, 3.1ff, I0.9ff. 12.30
Johnson, D. E,: 3.25 3rd-order: 3.3
Johnson, Harold. W4ZCB: 6.48, 6.52 Bessel: 3-3
Junction diode (See diode) Butterworth: 3.3ff, 10.14
Cauer-Chebvshev (elliptic): 3.7, 3.16
K Chebyshev: 1.20, 2.33, 3.3ff, 10.14, 12.18
K3BT: 2.39 Cutoff frequency: 3.1. 3.3
K3NIO: 12.25, 12.27 Doubly-terminated: 3.2
K3NIO Experiments (The): 12.25 For harmonic distortion evaluation: 7.31
K4XU: 2.37 Lichen transceiver: 6.82
K8DKC: 12.25 Odd-order Pi: 3.3
Kanga US: 12.33 Passband: 3.1
Keep It Simple, Stupid (KISS): 1.4 RC active: 3.25
Kessler. Ed, AA3SJ: 12.19 Stopband: 3.1
Keying Transfer function: 3.4ff
Transmitter: 6.64 Transformation: 3.8
Waveform: 6-64 Trap frequencies: 3.7
Kitchin. Charles. N1TEV: 1.9 Ultra-spherical: 3.5
Koren, V.: 2.28
Kurokawa, K.: 3.38 M
Maas. Steve: 5.4
L MacCluer, C. R.. W8MQW: 10.29
L-leakage: 3.34 Makhinson, Jacob, N6NWP: 6.47
L-network: 1-18, 3.38 Manhattan breadboarding (See Breadboard circuits)
Large scale integration chips (LSI): 4.25 Manhattan construction (See Breadboard circuits)
Large signal amplifiers: 2.1, 2.10 Manly. Ernie, W7LHL: 12.27-12.28
Latch wire: 11.2-11.3 Master oscillator, power amplifier (MOPA): 6.5
LC Tester by Bill Carver, W7AAZ: 7.12 Matched (source to load): 2.14
Learn by doing: 1-5 MathCad 7.0: 4.33
Leeson, D. B.: 4.11
Mathcad file Balance, adaptive: 8-11
On book CD: 5.2 Balanced
Mathematical analysis: 1.6 Increased L-R isolation of: 11.25
Mathematics Bipolar transistor: 5.3
Audio phase-shift network: 9.4 Conversion gain: 5.6
Image-rejeelion: 9.4 Conversion loss: 5.6
Low-pass filter: 9.4 Diode: 5.3
Mixer: 9.4 Ring: 5.13
of image suppression: 9.5 Ring, commutating balanced: 5.8
of recovering the desired signal: 9.6 Dual gate MOSFET: 5.12
Q-channel: 9.4 Environment: 9.49
Sideband suppression: 9.6 FET: 6.47
For D-C receivers: 8.12
MAX038 (Maxim): 7.13
Gain compression: 5.6
Maximum smoke: 1.4
Gilbert cell: 5.10.6.54,6.62
MDS measurement: 7.18
H-modc: 5.15. 6.48ff
Measurement: 2.14
High-level: 5.15,6.48
Calibration during: 7.31
IF-port driver amplifiers: 9.47ff
DC: 7.2
Injection switching: 6.76
Impedance
Input intercept: 5.6
Bridge use in: 7.21 ff
Intel-modulation distortion (IMD): 5.6
Impedance, of diplexer driving point: 9.17-9.18
Isolation: 5.4
In situ (in-place): 2.14. 7.1
JFET with LO: 5.1
Mixer noise figure: 5.6
Local oscillator (LO) drive level: 5.6
Noise figure, test setup for: 7.39 Measurement: 5.4
Of crystals: 7.37-7.38 Mini-Circuits: 5.15
Of frequency, inductance and capacitance: 7.11 -7.12 MOSFET
Of harmonic distortion: 7.31-7.32 Dual gate: 5.12, 12.18
Of 1IP3: 7.18 MOSFET ring: 5.9
Of MDS: 7.18 NE-602: 5.10
Of Q, in LC resonators: 7.36-7.37 Noise figure: 5.6
Receiver, for SSB transmitters: 7.33-7.34 Other types, interfaces for: 9.44
RF power: 7.5ff Output: 5.5
Substitution: 2.14 Recommendations: 8.12
Test equipment for: 7.1 ff Specification: 5.4
Using substitution in: 7.1 Switching-mode: 5.4. 6.47
Measurement receiver: 7.26 Commutating, with FET: 5.8
Mechanical displacement: 3.17 Mixer/LO
Metcalf, Mike. W7UDM: 6.61 Block diagram, with reflection coeff.: 8.7
Meter, S: 6.21 Mixing product detector: 1.13
Micro-Mountaineer Transceivers: 12.5-12.6 MMICs: 7.8
Western Mountaineer: 12.7ff Moda. Giancarlo, T7SWX: 6.48
Micro-Rl: 12.16 Mode
Micro-strip: 3.36 Binaural: 9.42
Transmission line: 3.15 ISB: 9.42
Micrometals, Inc.: 3.14ff, 4.6 Model: 2.1
T30-6, a common toroid core: 3.31 Current generator: 2.11
Toroid numbering scheme, copyright: 3.32 Field effect transistor (FET): 5.1
Microphone Of a quartz crystal: 7.37
Amplifier: 9.45-9.46 Modeling: 2.1
Microphonics: 8.7 Model: 2.1
Microwatt meter circuits: 7.7 Model current generator. 2.11
Microwave Process: 2.11
SSB exciter prototype: 9.44 Modular equipment: 1.4
Mini-Circuits Modulation
MAR-2: 2.27 Amplitude: 6.1-6.2
Mixer: 5.15 Cross: 6.28
POS-1IO VCO: 4.21 Modulator
SBL-1 mixer: 4.19 Balanced: 6.2. 6.56
Minimum detectable (or discernable) signal (MDS): Circuitrv used with audio PSN: 9.46
6.11. 6.29 DSB: ..." 9.49
Mixer: 2.19, 5.1, 6.5ff Low-distortion DSB: 9.47fl'
Amplifier, post: 5.14 Monoband SSB/CW transceiver: 6.83
Balance: 5.5 BFO/carrier oscillator: 6.85
 Control circuits: 6 86, 6.90 O
Local oscillator: 6.84 Ohm's Law: 2.Iff
Power chain: 6.86 Open loop gain: 2.19
Receiver circuits: 6.90 Operating system (OS): 11.1
SSB generator: 6.85 Operational amplifier (See amplifier)
MOSFET (See Transistor, field effect (FETl) Optical (Rotary) encoder: 11.2
Mouser Electronics: 12.17 Optrcx DMC-16117A display: 11.7
Multiple-pom networks: 335 Oscillator
Splitter/Combiner: 3.35 Beat-frequency (BFO): 6.6, 6.85
Multiplier Butler: 4.15
Frequency: 5.1. 5.16 Carrier: 6.85
MWS Wire'Industries: 3.33 Circuits: 6-65
Multifiiar® parallel banded magnet wire: 3.33 Clapp: 4.2,4.14
Colpitis: 1.13, 4.Iff. 7.37-7.38
N VHF: 4.9
NE-602 Integrated circuit: 1.7ff Conversion: 5.1
Mixer: ....1 5.10 Crystal controlled: 4.1, 6.65, 7.16ff
Negative feedback: 1.12. 2.4t'f Crystal controlled, for 7 and 50 MHz: 7.17
Network Crystal controlled, for receiver MDS: 7.18
All-pass pair: 9.29 Crystal, for receiver input intercept (1IP3): 7.18
All-pass, sccond-ordcr: 9.30 Drift, compensating for: 4.3, 7.42
Audio phase-shift (PSN): 9.27IT Negative positive zero (NPO): 4.3ff
Bandpass diplexer: 9.17 Hattlev: 1.9. 4. Iff, 7.15
Bifilar toroid quadrature hybrid: 9.26 1.C: 4.1.6.66. 7.12
In-phase splitter-combiner: 9.24ft Lichen transceiver, carrier: 6.77
LO and RF phase-shift: 9.24H Local: 4. Iff, 5.1, 6.2. 6.41. 9.42
LO quadrature: 9.26 Evaluating noise in: 7.40
Op-amp, all-pass, single-stage: 9.28 Lichen transceiver: 6-'
Phase-shift Monoband SSB/CW transceiver: 6.X4
Component tolerances for: 9.29ff Negative resistance: 4.1
Polyphase: 9.32 Noise: 4. In
Simple logic LO phase-shift: 9.27 Spectrum of: 4.! 1
Noise: 1 7.38ff Wideband: 4.11
Additive: 12.24
Permeability-tuned: 4.17
Bandwidth: 6-29
Pierce: 4.14
Evaluating, in local oscillators: 7.40
Seller: 4.2ft
Figure: 2.20-2.21. 6.1 Off
Synthesized: 4.6
Direct conversion: 8.12
Testing of. in environmental chamber: 7.42
Measurement: 2.21. 2.27
Vackar: 4.2ff
Measurement of mixer: 5.6
Variable-frequency (VFO): 6.65, 6.84
Mixer: 5.6
Voltage-controlled (VCO): 4.17, 6.52
Receiver
Wide-range timing: 7.15
Effect of mixer IF-port attenuation: 9.18
Oscilloscopc: 2.14-2.15. 7.3ff
Test setup to measure: 7.39
1 OX probe: 7.4
Figure differential
Block diagram (partial): 7.4
Hot-cold resistor: 8.12
RF power measurement using: 7.8fl
Gaussian, white (WON): 12.24
Traditional measurements (K70WJ reference): 7.5
Power: 10.13
Signals and multiplicative: 12.25 Trigger level: 7.4
Sources: 7.38ft Output impedance transformation: 2.12
Temperature: 6.11 Output intercept (01P3): 6.30, 7.20
Noise factor (See Noise. Figure) Output power: 2.7
Noise gain: 2.20 Oven
Noise power: 2.20 For evaluating oscillator drift: 7.42
Non-inverting input: 2.18 Oxner.Ed: 5.8,5.15
Nonlinear dcvicc: 5.3
Normalized resistance: 2.14 P
Norton, D.: 2.27-2.28 Pi-type matching network: 1.19, 2.25
Notes Parasitic inductance (See bypassing and decoupling)
On phasing rig construction: 9.49 Parts list
NPO (See oscillator, drift, compensating for) Easy-90 receiver: 6.35
Nyquist criteria: 10.26 Peak detector: 7.5
Phase Power supply: 1.14
and amplitude Schematic: 8.9
Errors, with phasing method: 11.22 Power tap: 7.8
Shifters, DSP: 9.32 Power termination: 7.6
Phase detector: 4.19ft" Preamplifier
Phase locked loop (PLL): 4.18ff. 7.41. 10.6 Use. permitting mixer loss: 9.35
Diode ring phase detector: 4.20 Prcsclector filter: 6.44, 6.51
Loop filter: 4.21.4.24 Primitive explanations: 1.1
Pull-in range: 4.20 Printed circuit boards (PCB): 1.2
Synthesizer: 4.25 Etchant: 1.2
Tracking filter: 4.22 Ferric chloridc: 1.2
Phase noise: 4.Iff Insulating material: 1.2
Blocking: 6.28 Epoxy-fiberglass: 1.2
Measurement: 6.52 Photo-resist material: 1.2
Phase trim adjustment: 9.23-9.24 Printed metal runs: 12
Phasing Surface mount technology (SMT): 1,2ff, 2.29
Receiver trimming: 9.42ff Surfboards: 1.2
Receivers and exciters Probe
Adjusting: 9.19ff Hum: 8.9
Receivers and transmitters: 9.Iff Processing
Rig construction Multi-rate, in DSP-10: 11.29
Notes: 9.49 Processor
SSB exciter, high-performance: 9.45 DSP-based audio: 11.29
Phasing capacitor: 3.17 Product detector: 5.1
Phasing mathematics: 9.4ff Programmable divider: 4.25
Phasing method: 1.6-1.7 Programmable flag: 11.4, 11.10
PIN diode: 6.l6ff Programming the rotary encoder: 11.5-11.6
Attenuator: 6.18 PSPICE
Transmit/receive (T/R) switch: 6.69 Simulations of phase and amplitude variations: 9.17
Pinch-off voltage: 2.5, 2.9
PUA43, Weak signal communications mode: 12.27-12.28
PLL (Phasc-lockcd loop): 4.18ff, 7.41
Polyphase networks: 9.32
Q
Portable operation: 12.1
and filler losses: 3.8
Battery-voltage testing: 12.3
Determination of, via bandwidth measurement: 7.36
Batteries and power sources: 12.1
Loaded: 4.12
Alkaline flashlight cell: 12.1
Loaded tank: 4.10
Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH): 12.1
Measurement of. in LC resonators: 3.9, 7.36-7.37
Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd): 12.1
Measurement, test fixture for: 7.36
DSB/CW 50 MHz station: 6.90ff
Quartz crystal: 3.17
Portable antennas: 12.2
QEX: 3.21
Invened-V dipole: 12.2
QRP: 1.4
Portable transmatch: 12.3
Complete rig for 2m (DSP-10): 11.7
Sleeping bag radio: 12.4
Power meter: 7.7
Power amplifiers: 2.3Iff
Transceivers: 1.4
50 MI!/: 6.86ft'
QRP Power: 12.1 I
A CW-QRP Rig: 2.33ff
Audio: 9.41 QRP Quarterly 3.33
Class-A: 6.55 QST: 1.2, 2.28ff, 12.6
Class-AB: 6.56 Quadrature coupler: 3.36—3.37
Classes of operation: 2.31 Twisted-wire hybrid directional: 3.36
Using 1RF511 MOSFETs: 11.18 Quarter wavelength line, synthetic: 3.32
Power available: 2.14 Quartz crystal: 3.17
Power density formula: 8.8
Power gain: 2.7. 2.14 K
Transducer: 3.1 R2 Receiver
Power measurement: 2.13 A next-generation, single-signal conv.: 9.33
Power meter Updating: 9.33
Logarithmic: 7.7 R2pro receiver: 9.33ff
Low-level: 7.6 Radiation
QRP (Lcwallcn rcfercncc): 7.7 Eliminating in an LO: 8.9ff
W7EL design: 7.6 Radio frequency (RF)
Power pad: 7.6 Amplifier: 6.12
Power resistors Attenuator: 6.12
At RF: 7.10 Ramp: 7.3
Ratios Return loss (VSWR): 2.16. 7.31
Power: 2.7 Return loss bridge (RLB): 2.16. 7.22
Voltage: 2.7 Directivity: 2.16
Receiver: 6.1 Reverse biased: 2.1-2.2
14-MHz: 6.34 RF
AGO. testing of: 7.40 Low-noise amplifier: 8.13
Binaural: 9.l9ff RF amplifier: 1-10
Converter: 6.9 Iff Lichen transceiver: 6.79
Design and development: 9.1ft RF Doppler
Design of 20- to 60-dB sideband suppression: 9.l3ff Illustration of: 8.8
Detector: '-9ff RF impcdance bridge: 7.23
Direct-conversion (D-C): 6.6. 6.10, 8. Iff. 12.31 RF load: 7.7
Single-sideband (SSB): 6.7 RF power measurement: 1.15.7.5ff
Dynamic range (DR): 6.29 RF probe: 1.16-1.17
Enhanced: 6.44 RF resistance: 7.10
Easy-90: 6.34 RF resistance bridge: 7.22
Factor: 6.30 RF signal generator
Front-end 3-45 MHz: 7.15
Cross modulation: 6.28 Lab-quality: 7.13
Design: 6.27,6.30 Traditional, gen. purpose servicing: 7.13
Gain compression: 6.28 RF sources
General-purpose: 6.32 General purpose: 7.14
Harmonic distortion: 6.28 Rhode and Schwartz: 10.21
Intermodulation distortion (TMDi: 6.28 Rhode. U.: 2.28. 4.13
Phase-noise blocking: 6.28 Ripple: 1.14
Reciprocal mixing; 6.28 Roofing filter: 6.46.6.50
Fundamentals: 6.9 Amplifier: 6.50
High performance D-C: 9.3 Rotary optical encoder: 11
Incremental tuning (R1T): 6.66 RSCB Radio Communications Handbook: 4.10
Direct-conversion (D-C) transceiver: 6.67 Ruthroff: 3.34
Superheterodyne: 6.66
Input intercept: 6.30 S
Modular D-C: 8.13ff S meter: 6.21
Modular, block diagram: 8.13 Sabin. William. W0IYH: 2.43.6.56. 7.38
Noise figure Sampling Rate
Effect of mixer IF-porl attenuation on: 9.18 For 18-MHz transceiver. 11.26-11.27
Phasing: Iff Saturation current (See diode)
Phasing D-C: 9.3 Saturation region: 2.5
R2pro: 9.33ff Saw tooth waveform: 7.3
Regeneration: 1.10, 1.11 Schcmatic diagrams: 1.6
Regeneration control: 1.10, 1.11 10.1-MHz converter: 5.13
Regenerative: l-9ff 14-MHz CW receiver
Schematic of a modular: 8.14 Universal VFO: 12.47
Schematic of binaural from Mar. '99 QST: 9.20-9.21 18-MHz transceiver: 11.14ff
Simple fixed-frequency: 9.8 28-MHz QRP module
Single-signal superheterodyne: 6.6 Transmitter power chain: 12.30
Superheterodyne: 6.15 VXO & frequency divider module: 12.29
The Triad: 6.48.6.52 Modified tuning range: 12.29
Tickler coil: 1-9 52-MHz tunable IF
Receiver module, general purpose: 12.30 4.4-4.9-MHz VFO: 12.39
Reciprocal mixing: 6.28 47.5-MHz premix oscillator filter: 12.40
References: 5.21.6.94 52-MHz filter 12.41
Resistors 52-MHz LO quadrature hybrid: 12.41
Hot-cold noise figure differential: 8.12 52-MHz premix filter: 12.40
Power, at RF: . ..1 7.10 52-MHz premix LO output amplifier: 12.40
Resolution LNA: 12.39
In a spectrum analyzer: 7.26 Premix LO mixer: 12.41
Low-frequency: 7.11 Analog signal processor (ASP): 9.38
Resolution bandwidth (RBW): 7.26 Audio power amplifier. 9.41
Resonator: 1.10, 3.8ft" Bandpass diplcxer: 9.16
Helical: 3.16 Basic miniR2: 9.34
Tank: 1.10 Better L-R isolation of balanced mixer: 11.25
Transmission line: 3.15 Bidirectional amplifier: 6.60
Binaural receiver. Mar. '99 QST: 9.20-9.21 PIN diode transmit/receive (T/R) switch: 6.69
Broadband quadrature hybrid: 9.28 Post-mixer amplifier 5.14
Carricr-oscillator for CW: 6.60 Power amplifier for 50 MHz: 6.86
CW/SSB IF amplifier 6.58 Power supply: 8.9
Downconverter: 9.36 Receiver incremental tuning (RIT): 6.66
Drive and load designs: 9.28 S7C superhet receiver
DSB/CW 50-MHz station Single-tuned mixer input: 12.18
Reccive converter: 6.93 Simple quadrature hybrid: 9.27
Transmitter: 6.92 Simple SSB cxciter: 9.12
VFO: 6.93 Sleeping Bag Radio
VXO and frequency multiplier: 6.90-6.91 Bandpass feedthru filter 12.45
Dual-band QRP CW transceiver LNA/attenuator 12.45
Audio output amplifien 12.22 Power amplifier 12.44
IF amplifier & filter section: 12.22 VFO, doubler 12.44
LO signal processor board: 12.21 Solar panel interfaces: 12.2
Product detector & audio amplifier: 12.22 SSB Transceiver: 9.14-9.15
Receiver front end: 12.21 Timing circuit for battery testing: 12.2
RF power amplifier chain: 12.24 Transmit/receive (T/R) untenna switching: 6.68
Transmit mixer & PIN diode filters: 12.23 Unfinished transceiver
VFO, mixer & crystal oscillator: 12.20 Audio output & control system: 12.15
Easy-90 receiver: 6.34ff Audio preamplifier: 12.15
Frequency multiplier 5.18 BFO and product detector: 12.14
Frequency tripler: 5.17 IF amplifier. 12.13
Gen purpose, direct conversion receiver: 12.31 Receiver front end: 12.13
Option for audio gain control & filter 12.31 Transmit mixer, filter, keyed RF amplifier 12.14
General-purpose receiver front end: 6.32 VFO and RIT: 12.12
Gilbert cell mixer with discrete transistors: 5.11 VXO transmitter with digital frequency multiplier: 5.19
H-mode mixer: 6.48 21-MHz bandpass filter: 5.21
Hardware interface Power amplifier: 5.20
DSP to multiple control devices: 11.5 Western Mountaineer transceiver
High-performance post-mixer amplifier: 6.47 Receiver: 12.9
IF speech processor: 6.59 Transmatch: 12.11
Image-rejection mixer for 40m: 9.16 VFO and transmitter circuitry: 12.8
Image-stripping preselector filter 6.45 Second-order intcrmodulalion distortion (1MD): 6.28
Keying shape of amplifier stage: 6.63 Seiler oscillator (See Oscillator)
LC oscillator: 6.66 Selectivity: 9.32
Lichen transceiver Serial three-wire interface: 11.2-11.3
Audio system and AGC detector: 6.79 Servo loop: 4.19
Bandpass filter: 6.78 Shielding
Carrier oscillator: 6.77 Of spectrum analyzers: 7.30
Local oscillator: 6.77 Sideband: 5.4
Main board: 6.73 Inversion: 5.4
RF driver: 6.80 Selection: 9.49
Limiting amplifier. 5.18 Suppression, in transmitters: 9.1 Off
LM2 transceiver. 144-MHz SSB & CW Switching: 9.42
LM2 schematic 1: 1234 Sidetone oscillator 1.21-1,22
LM2 schematic 2: 12.35 Signal analysis: 6-2
Micromountaineer transceiver Signal generator 1.11, 2.15
7-MHz VFO: 12.6 Signal generator extender: 7.16
Circuitry to inject sidetonc signals: 12.7 Signal grounded (See bypassing and decoupling)
Rig modifications to add VFO: 12.7 Signal processing: 6.1
MicroRI: 8.5 Signetics: 1.7
Modular receiver: 8.14 Siliconix
Modulator-demodulator: 9.15 Commutating double-balanced mixer: 5.8
Monoband SSB/CW transceiver Silverman. Hal" W3HWC: 3.31
BFO and carrier generator: 6.85 Sine wave: 6.1
Control circuits: 6.90 Single-sideband (SSB) (Ser also SSB)
Local oscillator amplifier: 6.85 Gen. board for monoband SSB/CW transceiver: 6.87
Power amplifier for 50 MHz: 6.89 Monoband transceiver: 6.83
QRP amplifier: 6.89 Receiver
SSB generator: 6.87 Direct-conversion (D-C): 6.7
Transmitter power chain: 6,86 Signal: 6.4
MOSFET mixer: 5.12 Transmission with DSP: 11.24
 Transmitter: 6.7 Suppression
IF amplifier. 6-58 of opposite sideband in receivers: 9.13
Single-signal superheterodyne receiver 6.6 of sideband
Sleeping bag radio: 12.42H Design, in transmitters: 9.1 Off
Small-signal amplifiers: 2.1 Surface mount technology (SMT). (See printed circuit boards
Small-signal bipolar transistor mode! <See Transistor) (PCB))
Small-signal diode model (See Diode) Swept voltage generator: 7.26-7.27
Smith chart: 2.29ff.3.31 Switching
Smith, Doug, KF6DX: 10.2 Antenna: 11.18-11.19
Solar panel: 12.5 Diode: 6.62
Solid State Design for the Radio Amateur: 1.1. 1.4 Mode mixer: 5.4,6.47
Solid State Radio Engineering: 2.32 of sidebands: 9.42
Source resistor method: 2.5
Sources T
Noise: 7.38ff Table
Sources and generators: 7.131T Lookup, to determine knob motion: 11.7
Spectral power density: 2.20 Output power of JFET mixer, 5.1: 5.2
Spectral purity: 1.18. 2.41 Tantalum electrolytic capacitors (See bypassing and decoupling)
Spectral voltage density: 2.20 Taylor. Joe. KIJT: 12.28
Spectrum TCF (Temperature coefficient of frequency):.... 4.5ff, 7.42
18-MHz CW transceiver output: 11-25 Tee network: 2.36
Of a re-radiated LO: 8.9 l.-C-C type: 2.36
Of a typical SSB transmitter: 9.11 Tektronix 494A: 4.26
Spectrum analysis: 7.25ff Temperature
Spectrum analyzer: 1.5 Coefficient of frequency (TCF): 4.5ff, 7.42
Application hints: 7.30 Coefficient of inductance (TCL): 4.5
Converter, for baseband: 7.34 Compensation: 4.4,7.42
Compensation process: 7.42
DFT use in: 7.35
Kelvin (K): 6.10
Experimenters, block diagram of: 7.27
Terminator: 7.8
IF filters for use in: 7.29
Test
Lichen transceiver two-tone test: 6.81
Notes from min. sideband supp. experiments: 9.11 -9.12
Output: 4.11-4.12
Setup for component testing: 7.20
Reference level on screen of: 7.25
Setup for minimum sideband suppression: 9.11
Resolution: 7.26
Setup for noise-figure measurement: 7.39
Rudimentary: 7.25-7.26
Setup for receiver dynamic-range measurement: 6.29
Shielding: 7.30
Setup to evaluate NE-602 mixer: 5.11
Triple conversion: 732
Test equipment: 1.5, 7.Iff
Speech processor
Audio generator: 7.13
Intermediate frequency (IF): 6.59
Dip meter: 7.12
Spittle, Derry, VE7QK: 6.71
DVM (Digital voltmeter): 7.2
SPOT switch: 6.67
LC tester by Bill Carver. W7AAZ: 7.12
SPRAT: Ill
Logarithmic power meter: 7.7
Spurious
Oscilloscope: 7.3ff
Emissions: 1 -5
QRP power meter (Lewallen ref.): 7.7
Responses (DDS-rclated): 7.41
RF measurement: 7.Iff
Responses (Mixer): 5.5
RF signal generators: 7.13ff
Square-law device: 1-9
Spectrum analyzers: 7.25ff
Squeeging: 4.4
True RMS voltmeter: 7.2
SSB (See also Single-sideband): 1.2. 3.17
Two-tone audio generator: 7.13
Exciter prototype VTVM (Vacuum Tube Voltmeter): 7.2
Microwave: 9.44 W7EL power meter: 7.6
Gear: 1.4 Test fixture
Phasing exciter, high performance: 9.45 For Q measurement: 7.36
SSB transmitter The ARRL Handbook: 1.2. 2.23
Measurement of: 7.33-7.34 The Art of Electronics: 2.8
Structure Third-order intercept point: 2.22
Of computer programs: 11-1—11.2 Third-order input intercept: 2.22
Summing node: 2.19 Third-order output intercept: 2.22
Super-Star Professional, Eagle Software: 3.27 Third-order intermodulation distortion (IMD): 6.28
Superheterodyne: 1.6-1.7, 12.16 Three-terminal devices: 2.8
Receiver: 6.15 Tickler coil: 1.9,4.12
Single-signal: 6.6 Time domain: 2.10
Time domain waveform: 6.2ff Common drain (source follower): 2.8, 2.9
Diode ring commutation mixer: 5.9 Common gate: 2.8
Timing diagram Common source: 2.8, 6.33
Shift register: 11.4 GaAs MOSFET: 2.9,4.12
Tolerance HEXFET: 2.37ff
Component, in phase-shift networks: 9.29ff High-speed CMOS: 4.29
Toraid: 1.10. 3.3Iff. 4.5 Junction (JFET): 2.5-2.6.4.12
Ferritc inductor. 12.30 Amplifier 6.33
Powdered iron: 3.31 Balanced mixer: 5.7
Tracking filter: 4.22 Bidirectional amplifier: 6.62
Tracking generator: 7.34 Cascode pair amplifier: 6.18
Trail-friendly radio (TFR): 12.4. 12.6 Common gale RF amplifier: 6.12
Transceiver Common source amplifier: 6.13
18-MHz IF amplifier: 6.17
DSP circuits: 11.19ff Mixer with LO: 5.1
52-MHz tunable II- for VHF/UHF transverters: . 12.37ff Post mixer amplifier: 5.14
An 18-MH/: 11. O f f Metal oxide silicon (MOSFET): 2.5ff. 4.12, 4.23
CW/SSB: 11.12IT Availability: 6.14
Design: 6.53 IF amplifier: 6.17, 6.27
Direct-conversion (D-C): 6.65 RF amplifier: 6.13
For 144-MHz SSB and CW: 12.33 Mixer
Metal box version: 12.36 Commutating. switching mode: 5.8
Wood box version: 12.36 High level: 5.15
Frequency offset: 6.67 Modeling: 5.1
Receiver incremental tuning (RIT): 6.67 Passive mixer: 6.47
DSP-10 (2-m): I1.27ff Small signal, bipolar model: 2.3
Epiphyte: 6.71 Transmatch: 2.33ff
Lichen: 6.7 Iff Portable, for 7 MHz: 7.24
Carrier oscillator 6.77 Transmission
Low-pass filter: 6.82 Of CW/SSB using DSP: 1 l-24ff
Main board: 6.73 Transmission line
Mixer injection switching: 6.76 Microstrip: 3.15,3.31
Rcceive audio: 6.78 Transformer: 3.31, 3.34
RF power chain: 6.79 Balun: 3.34
Transmit bandpass filter: 6.76 Current balun: 3.34
Monoband SSB/CW: 6.83 Isolation transformer: 3.34-3.35
Single-sideband (SSB): 6.9 Q-section (Quarter-wave line): 3.31, 3.34
Superheterodyne: 6.66 Synthetic: 3.31
Receiver incremental tuning (RTT): 6.66 Transmit-receive system (T/R): 1-20. 2.41
Transeotiductance (g m ): 2.3ff Antenna switching: 6.68
Hexfets: 2.37 PIN diode: 6.69
Transducer power gain: 2.7ff, 3.1 Transmitter: 6.1
Transform CW: 6.4ff
Fourier: 7.25 Design: 6.53
Hilbert, 247 taps/48-kHz sample: 11.20 Double-sideband AM: 6.7
Transformer Intermediate frequency (IF) systems: 6.57
Bifilar windings; 3.33 Phasing: 9. Iff
Multifilar® parallel-banded magnet wire: 3.33 Sideband suppression design: 9.1 Off
Fertile: 3.17, 3.33 Single-sideband (SSB): 6.7
Ideal: 3.32. 3.34 VXO, with digital frequency multiplier: 5.19
Wideband: 3.35 Trask, C : 2.28,3.34
Transients Triad receiver: 6.48, 6.52
In LO radiation and reflection: 8.7. 8.8 Trigger level: 7.4
Transistor: 2.1 Trigonometric identities: 6.2-6.3
Beta (P): 2.3ff Trimming
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT): 2.1ff
a phasing receiver: 9.42ff
Bidirectional amplifier: 6.61
Triple conversion
Gilbert cell mixer: 5.11
Spectrum analyzer 7.32
Mixcn 5.3
Tunable hum: 8.8-8.9
Bipolar transistor biasing: 2.4
TVRO dish: 12.28
Bipolar, amplifier: 6.16
Two-tone dynamic range: 6.29
Field effect (FET): 2.Iff. 4.3ff
Two-tone generator: 7.13-7.14
Channel: 2.9
Two-tone test W
Lichen transceiver: 6.81 W7AAZ: 3.19
W7EL: 2.27ff, 3.36, 4.6, 12.7, 12.32
U Optimized QRP transceiver: 1.3
UART: 10.2 Power meter: 7.6
Ugly construction (See Breadboard circuits) The "Brickette": 2.37, 2.40
Ugly Weekender: 4.27^.28 W7LRL (See Manly)
UHF W7PUA: 12.27
Bridge suitable lor: 7.24 W7Z01: 12.1, 12.10
Unfinished, The (aka The Unfinished-7): I2.12ff WA3RNC: 1.9
Uniform random noise: 10.12 WA7MLH: 1.4, 12.4
WA7TZY: 4.17
V Wade, Paul, W1 GHZ: 7.38
Vackar oscillator (See Oscillator) Walkman®: 1.11-1.12
Vacuum Tube Voltmeter (VTVM): 7.2 Waterfall display: 11.28-11.29
Varactor diode: 6.67 Waveform
Variable crystal oscillator (VXO): 4.15^1.16, 6.91 Frequency domain: 6.Iff
Super: 4.16 Mixer output: 5.5, 5.12
Variable-frequency oscillator (VFO): 6.65. 6.84 Keying: 6.64
Video Saw tooth: 7.3
Simple filter for: 7.39 Time domain: 6.2ff
Voltage Diode ring commutation mixer: 5.9
Controlled oscillator (VCO): 6.52 Diode switching-mode mixer: 5.3
Voltage-driven component: 2.3 Waveforms: 2.11
Voltage drop: 2.1 Waveforms, Class C amplifier: 2.34
Voltage follower: 2.18 Wenzel, Charles: 5.17
Voltage gain: 2.3ff Western Mountaineer: 4.17. 12.2ft
Voltage limiting: 2.13 Wheatstone bridge: 7.21
Voltage reflection coefficient (T): 2.15 Wien bridge circuit: -13
Voltage regulator: 1.15 Wilson, Robert, KL7ISA: 3.31
LM317: 1.15 Wireless technology: 12
Switching-mode regulator: 1.15 H O T program: .*. 12.2b
Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR): 2.15 WWV, WWVH: 12.17
Voltage-variable resistor: 2.9
VXO (See also Variable crystal oscillator):.... 12.28-12.29 X
VXO extender: 4.33 XR-2206 lExari: 7.13
VXO transmitter
Digital frequency multiplier: 5.19 Z
Zener diode: 2.33ff
Zverev: 3.11