(POS260S): Power Systems 2

Chapter 1 - INTRODUCTION
Contact:
Mr S. D. Lumina, B.Tech (Elec Eng), M.Eng (Elec Eng)
Email: [email protected]
Department of Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering.
CPUT, Bellville Campus
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 NATIONAL GRID

• The national grid consists of an interconnected transmission network supplying the entire
country and is controlled by the Electrical Supply Commission ( ESKOM).

• The grid is made up of three building blocks: generation, transmission and distribution.
Generation consists of power stations (or plants) that generate electricity.

• The national grid is supplied from several and efficient power stations strategically placed
where fuel( usually coal) and water ( hydro electric and pump storage) are easily available.

• South Africa has a generation capacity of approximately 53.7 GW – mostly made up of

Eskom’s coal-burning power plants. At the end of October 2022, Eskom announced that the
generation capacity of the national grid failed below 60% of its installed capacity.

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• Transmission comprises the 28,000 km of high voltage lines that transport electricity
at high voltage levels (such as 400 kV or 765 kV).

• There, it branches out to 325,000 km of lower-voltage lines that distribute electricity to

homes and businesses.

• All generating plants, including coal-burning plants, solar farms, wind farms and
hydro-electric plants, are synchronised and interconnected in this way. Fig. 1.1 show
the map of the national grid.

• Eskom exports 1830 MW of electricity to neighbouring countries.

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• Below is an outline of the maximum fixed exports to the respective neighbouring
countries:
1. Mozambique: 950 MW
2. Lesotho: 90 MW
3. Swaziland: 250 MW
4. Namibia: 440 MW
5. Botswana: 100 MW
• When Eskom has a shortage of supply, it suspends all sales to Namibia and Botswana
while cutting supplies to the other countries by 10%.

• South Africa imports 1920 MW DC of electricity from the Cahora Bassa hydroelectric
generation station in Mozambique.

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Fig 1.1: The national Grid.

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 GENERATION OF ENERGY ELECTRIC
• Energy is key to the growth and prosperity of any modern economy
• The conversion of energy available in different forms in nature into electrical energy is
known as generation of electrical energy.
• In south Africa energy is from different natural sources. Below fig.1.2 is the 2021 map
of primary energy source in South Africa.

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Fig.1.2: Total primary energy source as in 2021
 WHAT THREATENS STABILITY ON THE GRID
• South Africans are facing another round of power cuts despite promises from South
Africa’s power utility, Eskom, that it would keep the lights on. The cause can be
attributed to:
1. Unexpected breakdowns.
2. Load demand increase.
3. Backlog of maintenance of various generation plants.
4. Mismanagement.
These have compromised the stability of the national power grid.
• When no generation is happening, the grid collapses and there’s a blackout. To avoid a
collapse of the grid, Eskom, which controls the grid frequency from a National Control
Centre in Johannesburg, has put in place a severe form of demand management for
situations in which demand starts to outstrip supply.
• Eskom imposes a series of planned power cuts – called load shedding – to reduce
demand.

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 ELECTRIC POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM

• The conveyance of electric power from a power station to consumer’s premises is know
as electric power supply system.
• Components of Power system:
1. Generation System
2. Transmission System
3. Distribution System
• Generation system is generally comprised between 11kV and 33 kV

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 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
• High voltages of above 132 kV
• Power generation 50 – 1000 MW
• Carry power long distances; Generator step up transformers at power plant(Ref fig.1.3)
• Low energy losses, P=𝑉 2 /R
• Large structures to pprovides bulk power from generators to the grid
• Extra-high voltages (EHV's) are used to supply bulk power over long distances.

Fig.1.3: Typical transmission lines 9

for high voltage.
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Primary: 132 kV (less)
• Secondary: 480V -120V AC
• Power capacity:10- 40 MW
• Shorter distance, higher losses
• Smaller overhead structures
• Underground capability
• Fig.1.4 describe an example of
distribution lines.

Fig.1.4: example of distribution lines.

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 SUBSTATION: DEFINITION AND OPERATION
Definition of substation
• A substation is a site where power transformers are used to step-up or step-down
voltage and includes switching and protection equipment.
• A distribution system is supplied from a grid substation

Operation of substation
• From a grid substation which steps the EHV down to distribution voltage level, usually
275kV or132kV.
• The lines feeding out away from the grid substation into the distribution system called
"Feeders".
• Theses feeders supply power to specified areas within the distribution district.

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• Power being received at distribution substations where voltages are once again
stepped down. Typically, voltages are 66kV, 33kV and11kV.

• When 11kV is received it is further stepped down to 380V at which point the ac
system changes from a 3-wire to a 4-wire system.

• These low voltage (LV) supply are often called "Service mains" from which
individual consumers are supplied.

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 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Radial system

Fig.1.5: Radial system

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 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES
• Only one substation to feed all feeders in the system.
• The simplest system
• The initial cost is low.
• Require less amount of cables
• Power flow is only one direction.
DISADVANTAGES
• Voltage is affected much at far away load from the substation.
• A fault in the feeder will result in supply failure to associated consumers ass there
won’t be any alternative feeder to feed distributors.

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Ring main system

Fig.1.6: Ring system 15

 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES
• Each distribution transformer is fed with two feeders but in different paths
• Voltage is affected less at far away from the substation
• There are fewer voltage fluctuation at consumer’s terminal. Voltage fluctuations in high
loaded areas can be reduced using a tie line
• In case of a fault in the radial circuit the entire system goes off unlike in ring where by
incase one end gets a fault the other end still keeps on supplying power
• More subscribers can be installed to the system than the radial system
DISADVANTAGES
• Ring is very expensive and requires more materials than radial
• High maintenance cost
• It is not usable when the client is located at the center of the load

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• In practice, a distribution system is connected in a manner to form a spider's
web (ring main).
• Such an arrangement has the advantage that if for some reason a feeder must be
disconnected, the current to the section normally supplied by that feeder can
still be supplied through other feeders and distributors.

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 D.C DISTRIBUTION

Fig.1.7: Typical d.c distribution system 18

• Not only is a.c. required but also d.c. (e.g., traction systems). A d.c. system is usually
supplied either from d.c. generators or rectifiers at a voltage that is maintained
approximately constant.
• Traction substations are used to convert electrical power as supplied by the power
utility (or rail operators own network) to a form suitable for providing power to a rail
system (via third rail or overhead line). Depending on the type of rail system this
power would be either direct current (dc) or alternating current(ac). Ref Fig.1.8
• For dc systems, the traction substation core equipment will be the transformers and
rectifiers to used to convert the utility supply to dc. Rectifiers are either 6, 12 or 24
pulse.
• In addition, the dc traction substation will contain circuit breakers to ensure the system
is adequately protected and switching devices allowing operation and maintenance of
the system.
• AC system has reactive power-demand which doesn't not exist in DC, this means that
only active power is transferred, and loss is much lower

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Fig.1.8: South Africa rail way system is powered by d.c traction
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 SMART GRID
• A smart grid is an electrical grid which includes a variety of operation and energy
measures. The existing electrical grid has evolved slowly over the past century. Fig 1.9
below describe the smart grid typology.

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Fig.1.9: Smart grid topology
The smart grid will be an evolution of the existing electrical grid
integration of technology for:
• Measurement/monitoring
1. Sensors throughout the transmission/distribution networks will monitor loads
and voltages.
2. Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) will provide visibility into individual
loads (remote control).
3. Smart meters
• Communication
1. Two-way communication between customers and utilities:
Customers provided with real-time pricing information allowing them to make
informed usage decisions
• Control
1. Coordination of loads in an area without sacrificing customer requirements
2. Ability to more effectively re-route power flows
3. Increased reliability
4. Self-healing networks 22
• Incorporation of renewables
1. Smart grid will include technology for incorporating renewables into the grid
without sacrificing stability or quality of power
2. Control over reactive power supplied by renewable sources – FACTS controllers
3. Use of storage to smooth variable generation

• Storage
1. Energy storage will be an important component of the smart grid
2. Batteries
3.Super capacitors
4. Mobile energy storage
Utilities may have some control over and access to the energy stored in electric vehicles
attached to the grid

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 MICROGRID
A microgrid is a local electrical grid with defined electrical boundaries, acting as a single
and controllable entity. It can operate in grid-connected.

Fig.1.10: Microgrid topology 24

• Local portions of the electrical grid, which are capable of disconnecting from the
grid and operating autonomously
• Distributed generation
• Storage
• Control of the local network and its connection the grid
• Improved reliability of the overall grid
• The smart grid may be an interconnection of microgrids

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 MAIN SUBSTATION COMPONENTS
Transformer
Transformers are electrical devices consisting of two or more coils of wire used to
transfer electrical energy from one circuit to other without change of frequency.( To increase
or decrease the voltage level).

Fig1.11: Transformer
description 26
Control equipment
• Devises used for protection purpose
1. Circuit breaker
Different types such as oil circuit breaker, air-blast circuit breaker, vacuum circuit breaker,
SF6 circuit breaker. High voltage circuit breaker in figure. They operate during fault
condition.

Fig.1.12: Circuit breaker

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 2. Isolator
Isolators are used to isolate the part of system during maintenance. They operate only
during no-load condition. 132kV isolator in figure

Fig.1.13: Circuit Isolator

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3.Bus bar

• Busbars are copper or aluminum bars that extend the entire length of the switchboard.
"Bus" being an abbreviation of "omnibus", a Latin word meaning "for all". Thus, all the
cables connecting to the various points are connected to the busbars, a common point;
also called anode. Its function is to carry electricity from line to switchyard or vice versa.

Fig.1.14: Bus bar

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 6% RULE

• The voltage supplied to a consumer must be within a given range.

• A constant voltage is preferred but in practice is not achievable.
• However, in order to protect a consumer, a distribution regulation is in force which
provides that the voltage at a consumer's premises must not vary by more than±6%.
(This% can vary from district to district).
• If a consumer is supplied at a nominal voltage of 220V, the actual voltage supplied
should not exceed 233.2V or fall below 206.8V to comply with the ±6%rule.
• This is the most requirement when designing distribution systems. All designs should
be checked to ensure compliance with this rule.

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 FREQUENCY

• Many different frequencies were hired in the early days for electrical power system.
(E.g., 25 Hz, 50Hz and 60Hz as well as D.C).
• 25Hz fell from favor in the USA because incandescent lights flickered at such a low
frequency. 60Hz was chosen in the USA because of its convenient fit with the 60-
second minute.
• The lowest possible frequency is desirable to keep the reactive volt drop on an a.c line to
a minimum.
• South Africa has settled on 50Hz.
• IEEE preferred frequency for power system simulation is 60 Hz.

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Thank you

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