Complex Numbers

Anil Kumar
A-408
[email protected]

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 1 30/05/23

 Complex Numbers
• Solution to equations.
• x2 + 2 = 0 has no solution in the real system.
• For solving such equations, the real number system was
enlarged to a complex number system.
• In the middle of the 16th century, Italian Mathematician G.
Cardano introduced complex numbers to find the solution to
cubic equations and realized the importance of complex
numbers.
• The term complex numbers were first introduced by C.F.
Gauss (German Mathematician).
• Later A.L. Cauchy, B. Riemann, K. Weierstrass, and others.

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 2 30/05/23

Definition
Complex numbers may be defined as ordered pairs (x, y) of
real numbers that are to be interpreted as points in the complex
plane.

Complex numbers of the form (x, 0) corresponds to points on

the x-axis.

Complex numbers of the form (0, y)

corresponds to points on the y-axis and are
called pure imaginary numbers.

The y-axis is then referred to as imaginary

axis.
AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 3 30/05/23
 Notations

It is customary to denote a complex number (x, y) by z, so

that z = (x, y) = x + i y, where i2 = -1.

The real numbers x, and y are known as the real and

imaginary parts of the complex numbers and are written
as
Re(z) = x
Im(z) = y

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 4 30/05/23

 Equality of complex numbers

Two complex numbers are said to be equal whenever they have

same real and imaginary parts.

The statement z1 = z2 means that z1 and z2 corresponds to the

same point in complex or z-plane.

Sum and products of complex numbers

If z1 = (x1, y1) and z2 = (x2, y2) are two complex
numbers, then their sum is given as
z1 + z2 = (x1, y1) + (x2, y2) = (x1+ x2, y1+ y2)
and their product is given as:
z1z2 = (x1x2 – y1y2, y1x2 + x1y2)

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 5 30/05/23

 Basic Algebraic Properties
Various properties of addition and multiplication for complex
numbers are the same as that for real numbers.

Some basic algebraic properties are:

Commutative laws w.r.t. addition and multiplication
z1+ z2 = z2 + z1
z1z2 = z2z1
Associative laws w.r.t. addition and multiplication
(z1 + z2) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3)
(z1z2)z3 = z1(z2z3)
Distributive law
z(z1+z2) = zz1 + zz2

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 6 30/05/23

Basic Algebraic Properties…
Additive identity is 0 = (0, 0) and multiplicative identity is
(1,0) over the entire complex number system.
z + 0 = z and z.1 = z
(0 & 1 are the only complex numbers with such properties)

Additive inverse
With every complex number z = (x, y) an additive inverse is
associated. Such that z = (-x, -y)
- Satisfying the equation z + (-z) = 0.
The additive inverse for a complex number is unique.

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 7 30/05/23

 Basic Algebraic Properties contd.

Multiplicative inverse: For any complex number z = (x, y)

there is a number z-1 such that zz-1 = 1

The multiplicative inverse of z = (x, y) is given as :

-1 æ x -y ö
z = çç 2 , 2 ÷
2 ÷
(z ≠ 0)
èx +y x +y ø
2

Inverse is not defined when z = 0. In fact, z = 0 implies

x2 + y2 = 0
which is not permissible in the above equation.

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 8 30/05/23

 Further properties…
Division by complex number
z1 -1
= z1 z 2 ( z 2 ¹ 0)
z2
If z1 = (x1, y2) and z2 = (x2, y2), then
z1 æ x2 - y2 ö æ x1 x2 + y1 y2 y1 x2 - x1 y2 ö
= ( x1 , y1 )çç 2 2
, 2 ÷=ç 2
2 ÷ ç x +y 2
, 2 2
÷
÷
z2 x
è 2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 ø è 2 2 x 2 + y 2 ø
That is,
z1 x1 x2 + y1 y2 y1 x2 - x1 y2
= 2 2
+i 2 2
(z2 ¹ 0)
z2 x2 + y2 x2 + y2

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 9 30/05/23

Complex Conjugates (or simply)
conjugate of a complex number
z=x+iy
is defined as the complex number
x–iy
and is denoted by z .

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 10 30/05/23

 The Geometry of Complex Numbers
The number z = x + i y = (x, y) can be represented by a position
vector in the xy-plane whose tail is at the origin and whose head is
at the point (x, y). When the xy-plane is used to display complex
numbers, it is called the complex plane, or more simply, the z-
plane.

Recall that Re[z] = x and Im[z] = y.

Geometrically, Re[z] is the projection of z = (x, y) onto the x-axis,

and Im[z] is the projection of z onto the y-axis. It makes sense, then,
that the x-axis is also called the real axis, and the y-axis is called the
imaginary axis.

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 11 30/05/23

 The modulus (or absolute value) of z is a nonnegative real
number is given by
z = x2 + y 2
Geometrically, it represent distance between the point z and
the origin on the complex plane and it reduced to the usual
absolute value in the real number system when y = 0.

The inequality z1 < z2 is meaningless unless both are real

numbers.

The modulus being a real number may be compared, |z1| <

|z2| means the complex number z1 is closer to the origin
than the number z2.
AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 12 30/05/23
 The distance between z1 and z2 is given by

z1 - z2 = (x2 - x1 )2 + ( y2 - y1 )2

!
! = !#!

The triangle inequality is given by

z1 + z2 £ z1 + z2
i.e., the length of one side of a triangle is
less than or equal to the sum of the lengths
of the other two sides.

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 13 30/05/23

 The following properties hold true for absolute value:

Since | z |2 = (Re z )2 + (Im z ) 2 implies Re z £ | Re z | £ | z |

and Im z £ | Im z | £ | z | .
z1 z2 = z1 z2
z1 z1
= .
z2 z2

!! − !" ≧ | !! − |z" ||

z = z and | z | =| z |.

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 14 30/05/23

Polar and Exponential form
§ A complex number z = x + i y could be viewed as a vector
in the xy-plane whose tail is at the origin and whose head
is at the point (x, y).

§ A vector can be uniquely specified by giving its

magnitude (i.e., its length) and direction (i.e., the angle it
makes with the positive x-axis).

§ We shall now focus on these two (magnitude and

direction) geometric aspects of complex numbers.

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 15 30/05/23

§ Let r be the modulus of z (i.e., r =
|z|), and let q be the angle that the
line from the origin to the complex
number z makes with the positive x-
axis.

§ Then z = (r cos q, r sin q) = r (cosq

+ i sinq) is known as a polar
representation of z, and (r, q) is
called the polar coordinates of z.

§ If z = 0, the coordinate q is
undefined, Therefore it is understood
that z ≠ 0 whenever polar
coordinates are used.
AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 16 30/05/23
 § q can be any value for which the identities
cosq = (x/r) and sinq = (y/r)
hold true.
§ q is called an argument of z, and the notation used is
q = arg(z) = arctan (y/x)
and is a multivalued function measured in radians for a
given complex number and is unique only up to multiples
of 2p.

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 17 30/05/23

§ Therefore, the polar representation of a complex number is:
z = r cos q + i sin q
§ An argument of z is arctan(y/x), but we must be careful to
specify the choice of arctan(y/x) so that the point z
corresponding to r and lies in the appropriate quadrant.
§ The principal value of arg(z) is denoted by Arg(z) = q,
where - p < q ≤ p.
§ Therefore, arg(z) = Arg(z) + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2,….
§ A famous equation known as Euler's formula is
eiq = cos q + i sin q.
§ The exponential form of z is reiq, where r = |z| and q = arg(z).

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 18 30/05/23

 Circle
§ The equation z = R eiq , (0 ≤ q ≤ 2p)
is a parametric representation of the
circle |z| = R centered at origin and
with radius R.

§ More generally, the circle | z - z0 |= R

with center z0 and radius R has the
parameter representation
z = z0 + R eiq , 0 £ q £ 2p .
§ de Moivre’s formula (cos ( + * sin ()# = cos .( + * sin .(
§ Product and powers in exponential form…

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 19 30/05/23

 Roots of Complex Numbers
Consider a point z = reiq, lying on a
circle centered at the origin with radius
y
r.
z = reiq
As q is increased, z moves around the
r q circle in the counterclockwise
x

O
direction.

In particular, when q is increased (or

decreased) by 2p, we arrive at the
original point.

From the figure, it is evident that two nonzero complex numbers z1 =

r1eiq1 and z2 = r2 eiq2 are equal if and only if r1 = r2 and q1 = q2 + 2k p;
where k is some integer (k = 0, ±1, ± 2, ±3, …).
30/05/23 AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 20
 The nth root of a nonzero complex
§ Let nth root of z0 be a complex number z = reiq such that
z n = z0 or r n einq = r0eiq0 .
§ Then by the equality of complex numbers
rn = r0 and nq = q0 + 2kp
where k is any integer (k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3,…).
§ Therefore r = (r0)1/n where this radical denotes the unique
positive nth root of the positive real number r0, and
q = (q0 + 2kp)/n = (q0/n) + (2kp/n), k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3,…).

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 21 30/05/23

 Consequently, The complex numbers

é æ q o 2 kp ö ù
z = r0 exp êi ç +
n
÷ ú where k = 0, ± 1, ± 2,....
ëèn n øû
are the nth roots of z0

This exponential form of the roots show that all the roots lie on the
circle |z| = (r0)1/n about the origin and are equally spaced every
2p/n radians, starting with argument q0/n.

All the distinct roots are obtained when k = 0, 1, 2, … , n-1.

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 22 30/05/23

Example 1: Find the square roots of 2i
Solution:

é æp öù
2i = 2 expêiç + 2kp ÷ú (k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …)
ëè2 øû
The desired roots are:

é æp öù
(2i ) 1/ 2
= 2 expêiç + kp ÷ú
ëè4 øû

For distinct root k = 0 and 1.

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 23 30/05/23

 ip / 4 æ p pö æ 1 1 ö
That is, c0 = 2e = 2 ç cos + i sin ÷ = 2 ç + ÷ = 1+ i
è 4 4ø è 2 2ø

and c1 = ( )
2eip /4 eip = -c0 = -(1 + i )

Here c0 is called the principal root. y

Representation of roots in a sketch c0

x
(2)1/2

c1

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 24 30/05/23

 Regions in complex planes
e-neighborhood of z0: By a neighborhood of a point z0 in complex
plane ℂ, we mean a set of points given by
Ne(z0) = {z ϵ ℂ: |z - z0| < e}, where e > 0.

Deleted neighborhood: A deleted neighborhood consists of all

points z in an e-neighborhood of z0 except for the point z0 itself.

|z – z0 | Ne(z0) \ z0 = {z : 0 < |z – z0 | < e}

e
z•
•
z0

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 25 30/05/23

 Regions in complex planes…
Interior Point: A point z0 is said to be an interior point of a set & ⊂
ℂ if there is an ) neighborhood of z0 for some ) which is completely
contained in S.

Exterior Point: A point z0 is said to be an exterior point of the set S

when there exists a neighborhood of it containing no points of S.

Boundary Point: When z0 is neither an exterior point nor an

interior point, then it is called the boundary point of S.

The totality of all boundary points is called the boundary of S.

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 26 30/05/23

 Regions in complex planes…

Open set: A set S is said to be an open set if it contains none

of the boundary points.

A set is open if and only if each of its points are interior points.

Closed set: A set S is closed if it contains all its boundary

points.

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 27 30/05/23

 Connected Set: An open set S is connected if each pair of
points z1 and z2 in it can be joined by a polygon line,
consisting of a finite number of line segments joined end to
end that lies entirely in S.

Domain: A nonempty open set that is connected is called a

domain.

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 28 30/05/23

 Regions in complex planes contd.
Region: A domain together with some, none or all its boundary
points is referred to as region.

Bounded Set: A set S is said to be bounded if every point of S

lies inside some circle |z| = R, otherwise it is unbounded.

Accumulation point/Limit point/Cluster point: A point z0 is

said to be an accumulation point of the set S if every deleted
neighborhood of z0 contains a point of S.

Closure of a set: If to a set S, we add all the limit points of S,

the new set is called the closure of S and it is a closed set which
is denoted by S .
AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 29 30/05/23
 Examples

(1)Which of the following sets are domain

(a) | z - 2 + i| ≤ 1 (b) |2z + 3| >4

For solving such questions, draw a rough sketch of the

region and keeping the definition in mind proceed
further

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 30 30/05/23

 Solution to previous examples y

x • x
o -3/2 o
•
2-i

A. Represents a set of B. Represents a set of points

points inside and on the exterior to the circle
circle centered at the centered at -3/2 and
point 2–i, with radius 1. radius 2. it is a domain
It is not a domain.

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 31 30/05/23

 Thank you

AK, Department of Mathematics, BITS - Goa 32 30/05/23