Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 7 (2022) 100085

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Cleaner and Responsible Consumption

journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/cleaner-and-responsible-consumption

Development of a low-cost dispenser-type water filtration system

Roselle Y. Mamuad a, b, Ma. Faye T. Pascual b, Angelo Earvin Sy Choi a, *
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, De La Salle University, 2401 Taft Ave, Manila, 0922, Philippines
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Mariano Marcos State University, City of Batac, 2906, Ilocos Norte, Philippines

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Water has always been one of the most significant utilities for humans because of its wide array of applications.
Ceramic filter The economic impact of the scarcity of supply to clean water for consumption in emergent nations like the
Drinking water Philippines, where a large proportion of the people suffer from water-related diseases due to scarcity of supply to
Water filtration
clean water consumption. There is the proliferation of water refilling stations in the Philippines and the pro­
Sustainable
portion of Filipino households relying on commercial water has been escalating but not everybody can adapt to
this lifestyle. Another problem identified is, not every place has the access to such system like the communities
living on the islands and near the shorelines. The low-cost dispenser-type water filtration system (LCDTWFS)
developed will provide readily safe drinking water in the household. The equipment is made up of clay and has a
volume capacity of 10 L. The clay used for filter fabrication has no harmful elements and no effect on the filtered
water when used as a ceramic filter. The quality of the tap water was significantly improved after passing it
through the LCDTWFS. The equipment was tested for 6 consecutive weeks after which, the characteristic of the
filtered water is still within the standards of the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW). The
bacteriological/microbiological, chemical, and physical characteristics of the filtered water are within the
allowable limits of the PNSDW making it potable and safe for consumption. LCDTWFS is effective yet affordable
since it has no electricity requirements, is sustainable, environment-friendly, easily manipulated, and easily
produced by local craftsmen. This study can also contribute to the prosperity of rural potters since introducing
this newly innovated product could be their source of additional income.

1. Introduction accredited water services, and the multitude of the population lacking
safe water supply lessened by 342 million. Out of the 2 billion popula­
Water has always been one of the most important necessities for tion that until now go without a supply of safe water for consumption in
humans because of its wide array of applications in the industries of 2020 includes the 1.2 billion population utilizing essential services, 282
food, medicine, metal, and almost everything on the planet. Water is million employing limited services, 367 million connected to unsafe
abundant but only a small portion is available for human consumption. services, and 122 million using run-off water for consumption
United Nations and the World Health Organization (WHO) have re­ (WHO/UNICEF, 2021). It is also projected that as early as 2025, half of
ported many times the serious dilemma globally with the water the world’s population could be living in areas facing water scarcity,
contamination and accessibility to safe water for consumption exists some 700 million people could be displaced by intense water scarcity by
(Khalili et al., 2006) including in the Philippines (Andrews, 2018). 2030 and roughly 1 and 4 children worldwide will be living in areas of
About 785 million population globally have no connection to the extremely high-water stress (UNICEF, 2021).
potable supply of water, collecting from unsafe water sources (Edokpayi The scarcity of supply to clean water is a serious barrier to the
et al., 2018) or still need to commute to gather drinking water (Maciel improvement in individual wellness and progress of the neighborhood in
et al., 2021). It is approximated worldwide that 1.8 billion population the Philippines (Lee et al., 2020) and the entire world (Boretti and Rosa,
use a potable supply of water that is contaminated with fecal coliforms 2019). Family may have supplied to public water connection supervised
(Bain et al., 2014), especially in the coastal areas (Ben et al., 2021). The by the local government unit; however, deficiency of water supply and
worldwide population had grown from 6.1 billion to 7.8 billion between damage to municipal water network causing the substandard quality of
2012 and 2020. At this time, 2 billion population acquired supply to drinking water is still a recurring problem (Ehdaie et al., 2017).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A.E.S. Choi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clrc.2022.100085
Received 30 June 2022; Received in revised form 27 September 2022; Accepted 1 November 2022
Available online 7 November 2022
2666-7843/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
R.Y. Mamuad et al. Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 7 (2022) 100085

Waterborne disease resembles diseases resulting from contamination materials in the locality like the clay, rice husk and potential source of
of food and water (Arvelo et al., 2008) and is still the major cause of granulated activated carbon from peanut shells (Roselle Y Mamuad
human mortality worldwide (Griffiths, 2016). Approximately one-half et al., 2022), this study will provide a low-cost and efficient water
of all population in the emerging countries worldwide is experiencing filtration system. It is effective yet affordable since it has no electricity
one or more of six primary diseases caused by substandard water supply requirement, sustainable because the materials are readily found in the
and sub-optimal sanitation as assessed by WHO at a given point of time. area and ably produced by local artisan, environment-friendly and easily
The identified diseases are diarrhea, Ascaris, dracunculiasis, hookworm, operated. The study aimed to develop a low-cost, dispenser-type water
schistosomiasis, and trachoma (WHO/UNICEF, 2021). filtration system. This study can also contribute to the prosperity of the
The leading cause of the scarcity of clean water is a shortage of water business of local potters since introducing this newly developed tech­
supply or contamination of water sources according to the Environ­ nology could be their source of additional income.
mental Protection Agency (EPA) and the World Summit of Sustainable The study also specifically aimed to determine the height and
Development (Jury and Vaux, 2007). Another identified factor in water diameter of a 10-L water container suitable for single household use,
scarcity is climate change, and social and physical determinants determine the thickness and diameter of the water filter to process 5 L/h
(Schimpf and Cude, 2020). The scarcity of safe water for drinking is due to 6 L/h of tap water, characterize the clay used for filter fabrication in
to both lack of interest in improving the water systems of the govern­ terms of chemical composition, analyze the filtered water and compare
ment involved and inadequate maintenance of available systems. This it with the characterized tap water and compare the filtered water to the
problem is more obvious in under-developed and developing countries PNSDW.
due to economic factors, awareness, hygiene, and lack of access to
appropriate technologies (Khalili et al., 2006). In the Philippines, the 2. Methodology
long dry season in the country is the reason why most of the individuals
are relying on the groundwater for their utilities, and part of the water 2.1. Materials
supply problem is due to the lack of up-to-date information on
groundwater levels (Lee et al., 2008). Another identified problem faced The materials utilized for the development of LCDTWFS were clay
by water concessionaires in developing countries is approximately half and rice husk from the locality of San Nicolas, Ilocos Norte, Philippines
of the water is dropped to leakage, illegal hook-ups, and vandalism for the container. Sieve trays were used to collect even particles size of
(Muller, 2020). clay to produce the filter. Silver Nitrate solution utilized (1%) to
In the Philippines, water supply for consumption is highly subsidized enhance the antimicrobial activity of the filter was purchased from the
for the individual connected to the water supply and on expensive pri­ Curated Chemical Collection. Granular activated carbon is also incor­
vate sellers, generally wealthy individuals while the destitute should porated in the filter was purchased at Water Filter Philippines. The
depend on substandard sources (Tansengco-Schapero et al., 2013). Ac­ Spigot, Cement (XS, 327), and water-proof paint (RU103) were pur­
cording to the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), inaccessibility chased at the local construction supply in the area. A schematic diagram
to safe water is experiencing adverse consequences on children world­ of the LCDTWFS is shown in Fig. 1.
wide. The purpose for this involves lack of water supply, indigence, and
lack of understanding concerning the impact of drinking unsafe water 2.2. Experimental method
(WHO/UNICEF, 2021). There are 3.5 million deaths every year due to
deficient supply of water, sanitation, and hygiene, among them, are 2.2.1. Design equation and specification
around 6000 Filipinos dying prematurely of waterborne diseases Determination of dimensions. The thickness of the filter and
(Rodriguez, 2015). The economic impact on emerging countries like the container wall was prearranged to the measurement of 0.5 in as
Philippines where vast proportions of the population experiencing such accounted by the artisan to be the optimum thickness. At 85% of the
illnesses is intelligibly atrocious. container filled, the diameter of the container and the height of the
People then tend to choose to buy bottled purified waters from container was computed using Eq. (1). Considerations were based on
water-purifying stations to ensure safe drinking water. But not everyone the standard continuous stirred tank (CST) design.
can afford this in the long run, and not every place has access to such
systems. There is a proliferation of water refilling stations in the πD2 H
V= (1)
Philippines and the portion of Filipino households relying on commer­ 4
cial water has been growing, but not everyone can bear this. Another
problem is limited locations have access to such system and some areas where V = volume of the container; D = diameter of the container; H =
cannot access it like the area near shorelines. While potable water in the height of the liquid + twice the thickness of the filter (Hicks and Chopey,
household establishment is not possible for a multitude of people, water 2012).
purification to a household degree could be a quick solution (Pradhan Determination of the Filter Thickness using the Flowrate. After
et al., 2018). Current technologies in water purification systems include determining the final dimensions of the container and the filter and to
the homogeneous granulation process that has been used to remove ensure that the filters are working correctly, the flow rates of the filters
oxalate (Roselle Y. Mamuad et al., 2022), nickel (Salcedo et al., 2016),
calcium carbonate (de Luna et al., 2020; Sioson et al., 2020), cobalt
(Bayon et al., 2021), zinc (Udomkitthaweewat et al., 2019), manganese
(Alvarez-Bastida et al., 2018), and copper. Other actions taken to
improve the situation have offered water treatment solutions based on
ceramic membrane filtration (Wang et al., 2022), household cartridge
filtration (Maciel et al., 2021), and electrochemical ceramic filtration (Li
et al., 2022), among others. The problem with the conventional micro­
filtration/ultrafiltration membrane is the difficulty of efficient and
economical removal of the refractory pollutants (Wang et al., 2022).
Other water purification systems are developed to meet a small group of
household but are not suitable for isolated single-household locations
(Arnal et al., 2010).
By introducing a water filtration system made from readily available Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the LCDTWFS.

2
R.Y. Mamuad et al. Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 7 (2022) 100085

were tested. The filter was soaked in a water bath and then filled to the 3.2. Fabrication and assembly of the LCDTWFS
rim. A 24-h initial run was performed to remove impurities from firing
the ceramic container and filter. Flowrate was observed and recorded The upper and lower storage were fabricated separately by the
afterward. artisan and assembled by the researcher by attaching the two storage
v containers using cement. The cement was also used to attach the spigot
Q= (2) to the hole in the lower storage. The water filtration system was coated
t
with water-proof cement paint to prevent water from leaching out of the
Eq. (2) was used in determining the flowrate of the water passing container and avoid moisture from the environment to stick to the sur­
through the filter (Perry and Green, 2008). The time of observation was face of the container.
always 1 h, and the volume of the water that passes through the filter The equipment is a cylindrical container and has a volume capacity
was observed and recorded. of 10 L. It has upper storage to contain the tap water and lower storage
If the measured flowrate is not within the range of 5 L/h to 6 L/h, the for the filtered water to be extracted from a faucet which can be seen in
thickness of the filter was adjusted keeping the height and the diameter Fig. 2.
of the container and filter constant. A series of trials was observed until
the 5 L/h to 6 L/h flowrates was achieved.
3.3. Characterization of the clay for filter fabrication
2.2.2. Fabrication and assembly
The clay gathered in Ilocos Norte, Philippines utilized for filter
After determining the dimensions of the equipment, the specifica­
fabrication was characterized through an XRF spectrophotometer and
tions were provided to the artisan at Barangay 8 San Rufino, San Nicolas,
the result is presented in Table 1. The result indicates that the clay has
Ilocos Norte for fabrication. Clay was the primary component of the
minimal traces of metals, and the presence of the tabulated elements is
container and filter. The filter was incorporated with rice husks and
within the normal concentrations which will have no harmful effect on
adsorbent at a ratio of 7:3.
the filtered water when used as a ceramic filter. Silicon (Si), aluminum
The upper storage and lower storage were fabricated separately.
(Al), magnesium (Mg), and iron (Fe) are the major components of clay
Cement was used by the researcher in attaching the spigot to the hole in
effective for ceramic water filter utilization after drying the heat treat­
the lower storage and merging the upper and lower storage forming the
ment of the clay causes the particles to agglomerate into cohesive, much
low-cost dispenser-type filtration system.
stronger, finished product (Annan, 2016). The result is related to the
observation that the clay-containing aluminum and iron oxide surfaces
2.2.3. Characteristics of the clay for filter fabrication
and chemically modified clay has higher fluoride adsorption through the
The components of the clay as one of the raw materials were
swapping of OH− ions with F− (Zereffa and Desalegn, 2019).
analyzed at the Center of Innovative Materials and Emerging Applica­
tions (CIMEA) at Mariano Marcos State University, City of Batac, Ilocos
Norte. 3.4. Analysis of the tap and filtered water

2.2.4. Analysis of tap water and filtered water Base on the Department of Health (2007), the Philippine National
Tap water was collected from the borehole at Payas, Barangay 16, Standards for Drinking Water is developed to assist the Water conces­
San Marcos, San Nicolas, Ilocos Norte. Filtered water samples were sionaires both Government and Private sectors, health and sanitation
collected from the lower reservoir of the water filtration system. Tap administrators, and the citizens, and all others concerned. The guide­
water and filtered water samples were analyzed in the laboratory of lines contain standards for the acceptable values of the determined pa­
Ilocos Norte Water District (INWAD) located at Laoag City, Ilocos Norte rameters in measuring the quality of water. These parameters include
for parameters that conform to the PNSDW. microbiological, physical, chemical, and radiological compositions of
the water (Department of Health, 2017). Presented in Table 2 are the
2.2.5. Comparison of tap water to filtered water PNSDW standards for microbial analysis where the standard method of
The characteristics of the tap water and filtered water were detection and values of microbial quality is indicated. This information
compared to determine the effectiveness of the water filtration system. was utilized in evaluating whether the filtered water produced using.
The LCDTWFS passed PNSDW and could be utilized for safe drinking
2.2.6. Comparison of filtered water to PNSDW water. The PNSDW standard for physical and chemical parameters were
The characteristics of the filtered water were compared to the presented in Table 3. The following information was utilized in evalu­
PNSDW to determine the safety of the filtered water if it conforms to the ating whether the filtered water using LCDTWFS is within the standard
set standard. and safe for consumption.
Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a species of fecal coliform bacteria usually
3. Results and discussion located in the intestines of humans and animals. An excellent indicator

3.1. Determination of the dimensions of the LCDTWFS

Using Eq. (1), the determined height of the liquid and the diameter
of the container is 9.1934 inches. Considering the standard container
volume at 85% filled, the height of the container is 10.8153 inches
(Hicks and Chopey, 2012). Given a fixed thickness of 0.5 in as per the
instruction and proposition of the artisan as the optimum thickness for a
jar container, the total height of the container is 11.82 in. The thickness
of the filter was given a fixed measurement of 0.5 in as per the in­
struction and proposition of the local artisan and using Eq. (2) to ach­
ieve the targeted flowrate ranging from 5 L/h to 6 L/h.

Fig. 2. Schematic 3D diagram and fabricated low-cost dispenser-type water

filtration system.

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R.Y. Mamuad et al. Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 7 (2022) 100085

Table 1 Table 3
XRF analysis of clay. PNSDW Standard values for physical and chemical parameters.
Elements Amount Deviation (±) Parameters Maximum level (mg/L) or characteristics

LE (Light Elements) 61.48% 0.4597% Physical

Si 18.68% 0.1710% Taste No objectionable taste
Al 7.80% 0.1438% Odor No objectionable odor
Fe 7.27% 0.0655% Color
Mg 2.69% 0.6570% Apparent 10 color units
Ca 1.57% 0.0160% True 5 color units
Ti 3607 ppm 180.73 ppm Turbidity 5 NTU
Mn 1057 ppm 46.91 ppm Hardness 300 as CaCO3
Sr 125 ppm 3.04 ppm pH 6.5–8.5
Zn 102 ppm 7.03 ppm Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 500
Cu 96 ppm 9.53 ppm Chemical
Zr 65 ppm 2.65 ppm Aluminum 0.2
Y 34 ppm 2.20 ppm Chloride 250.0
Rb 5 ppm 1.27 ppm Copper 1.0
Hydrogen sulfide 0.05
Iron 1.0
Manganese 0.4
Table 2 Sodium 200
PNSDW Standards methods of detection and values for microbiological quality. Sulfate 250
Zinc 5.0
Parameters Methods of Value Units of
Antimony 0.02
determination measurement
Arsenic 0.05
Total coliform Multiple Tube <1.1 MPN/100 mL Barium 0.7
Fermentation Technique Boron 0.5
(MTF) Cadmium 0.003
Chromogenic substrate Absent MPN/100 mL Chromium (Total) 0.05
test (Presence-Absence) <1.1 Cyanide (Total) 0.07
Membrane Filter (MF) <1 Total coliform Fluoride 1.0
Technique colonies/100 mL Lead 0.01
Compliance with Total Coliform Mercury (Total) 0.001
(a) For water systems analyzing at least 40 samples per Nickel 0.02
month, no more than 5% of the monthly sample may be Nitrate 50
positive for total coliform Nitrite 3
(b) For water systems analyzing fewer than 40 samples per Selenium 0.01
month, no more than one sample per month may be
positive for total coliform
Source: EPA, 40CPR Part 1, 136, II and 1999 (Department of Health, 2007).
At least 95% of standard samples taken in each year from each
reservoir are total coliform negative is presented in Table 5. TDS are ions dissolved in water, including salts,
No standard sample taken each month should exceed the
minerals, and metals, that can be found in all non-pure water sources
maximum allowable value specified in the above.
Fecal coliform Multiple Tube <1.1 MPN/100 mL (Campbell, 2021). Water that flows through natural springs and wa­
Fermentation Technique terlines with a high amount of organic salts within minerals and rocks,
(MTF) or groundwater that comes from wells with a high amount of salt will
Chromogenic substrate <1 Fecal coliform also lead to higher particle measurements (Wang, 2021). Several studies
test colonies/100 mL
Membrane Filter (MF) <1.1 MPN/100 mL
were conducted to lower TDS such as boiling and heating tap water with
Technique and without sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), absorption by food-grade
Heterotrophic Pour Plate <500 CFU/mL activated carbon (Sujiono et al., 2022), and battery-powered electrol­
plate count Spread Plate ysis (Resan Kalash et al., 2015). In the physical analysis of the filtered
Membrane Filter
water using LCDTWFS, an increase in the total hardness of the filtered
Technique
water was observed. The possible infusion of the soluble materials in
Source: Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, clay and the over burn-out materials in the filter influences the increased
(Department of Health, 2017). *Most Probable Number (MPN) - a statistical amount of total hardness in the filtered water. Similar to the study
method of determining microbial populations.
conducted that higher the amount of burn-out material during the
production of the filter elements will increase the porosity and flow rate
that there is an occurrence of recent sewage or animal waste contami­ which lead to lower removal efficiency of turbidity, microorganisms,
nation is the presence of E. coli in water (Khan et al., 2021). Sewage and water hardness from the source water (Bulta and Micheal, 2019).
might have several varieties of disease-causing organisms. Comparing
the tap water to the filtered water which was passed thru the water
filtration system for six consecutive weeks, the result demonstrates that
there is a significant decrease in the total coliform organisms and fecal
coliform organisms indicating that the water filtration system functions
as required. This might also be due to the integration of silver nitrate in
the ceramic filter which caused the degradation of bacteria (Maxwell
et al., 2021). Based on the result presented in Table 4, the low-cost
dispenser-type water filtration system has the potential to produce
safe drinking water since the result of microbial analysis within five
weeks of utilization is still within the limit set by PNSDW.
One of the basic procedures to evaluate water quality is to measure
its physical characteristics such as total dissolved solids (TDS), pH and
hardness. The result of the physical analysis of the tap and filtered water

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R.Y. Mamuad et al. Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 7 (2022) 100085

Table 4
PNSDW limit and microbial analysis of tap and filtered water.
Parameters Tap water PNSDW limit Filtered water

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Weeks 5–6

Total coliform organisms 8 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1

Fecal coliform organisms 8 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1

Table 5
PNSDW limit and physical analysis of tap and filtered water.
Parameters Tap water PNSDW limit Filtered water

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Weeks 5–6

Total dissolved solids (mg/L) 324 600 351 347 339 343 330
pH at 25 ◦ C 6.7 6.5–8.5 7.6 7.4 7.7 7.5 8.0
Hardness (mg/L CaCO3) 170 300 208 204 196 200 188

tap water subject to filtration is within the PNSDW, it could be observed

Because pH is considered an aesthetic water quality, there is no that a minimal amount of sulfate was eliminated. In the study conducted
prescribed standard for pH although one of the most important in­ by Nigay et al. (2020), the ceramic filter developed which is made of
dicators for water quality is its pH level. Dissolved metals might be clay and sawdust show a high removal efficiency of sulfate. Chemical
included in drinking water with a low pH level since metals easily analysis of the tap and filtered water using the LCDTWFS is presented in
dissolve in acidic water. Metals like iron, manganese, copper, and lead Table 6. The results show that LCDTWFS can effectively remove nitrates,
can infiltrate drinking water located in pipes or the local aquifer (Judith, manganese, sulfate, and iron. The integration of carbonated rice hull in
2019). The PNSDW pH standard for drinking water is 6.5–8.5. The the filter enhanced the efficient removal of these materials in tap water
filtered water utilizing the LCDTWFS has a pH of 7.6–8.0, there is an as revealed in the study of Fseha et al. (2022), biochar improves the
increase in pH compared to the 6.7 value of the tap water. In a study on efficiency of the filter to eliminate manganese and nitrate from synthetic
the evaluation of point-of-use ceramic water filters, an increase in the pH groundwater. Based on the PNSDW limit, the filtered water is still within
of the filtered water was also observed (Bolaji and Akande, 2013). the acceptable value for drinking water standard up to five weeks of
The conventional scale of the ability of water to react with soap is utilization of the LDTWFS.
water hardness. Hard water requires significant amount of soap to create Chloride is an important nutrient for human health and the major
a lather. Hard water frequently builds a noticeable deposit of pre­ supplier of chloride is foods and drinking water making up only a small
cipitates like insoluble metals, soaps, or salts in vessels, including portion of normal dietary intake. Drinking water containing chloride is
“bathtub rings”. It is not due to a single material but by a variety of not dangerous, and most interests are associated with the often rela­
dissolved polyvalent metallic ions, primarily calcium and magnesium tionship between high chloride levels with elevated sodium levels. There
cations, minimal contributions can be observed with other cations like is no health-based drinking water standard for chloride however the
aluminum, barium, iron, manganese, strontium, and zinc. Hardness is standards for Canadian Drinking Water Quality suggest an appealing
usually measured in mg of calcium carbonate equivalent per L (WHO, taste for chloride levels of 250 mg/L, based on the possibility of unac­
2010). Varying levels of total hardness, calcium and magnesium con­ ceptable tastes at concentrations above this level. Chloride is an element
centrations in different sources of drinking water are used by pop­ that is commonly present in almost all natural waters and is consistently
ulations in different regions. The use of water purifiers can address the discovered as a component of salt such as sodium chloride (NaCl) or in
dilemma of maintaining the standard levels of hardness. An opposite some situations in solution with potassium or calcium. The existence of
relationship between various conditions, including cardiovascular dis­ chloride underneath water sources could be from several sources
ease and hard water has been found out (Kanadhia et al., 2014). The TDS including the deterioration of soils, salt-bearing geological generations,
analysis of the filtered water utilizing LCDTWFS has increased compared salt spray deposition, utilization of salt for road de-icing, an endowment
to that of the tap water. Total dissolved solids are directly proportional from wastewaters and in coastal areas, intervention of water from the
to the hardness of water (Rafiqul Islam, 2016). Since an increase in total ocean into sources fresh groundwater (“Chloride in Drinking Water |
dissolved solids was observed, then it is expected that the hardness of Government of Prince Edward Island,” 2015). This is possible as indi­
water will also increase. cated in the chloride analysis of the filtered water using LCDTWFS
Manganese, iron, nitrates, sulfate, and other materials in drinking where the amount of chloride in the filtered water increases but still
water may be the cause for its turbidity and these materials may come within the PNSDW limit.
from corrosion of iron pipes (Peng and Korshin, 2011) and residual
related to agricultural activities (Bangar et al., 2020). Dissolved man­ 4. Conclusions
ganese in water may cause several issues including tinged water, stains,
and mud in water systems among others (Gerke et al., 2016). Manganese This study has developed and scientifically evaluated the effective­
susceptibility alters the nervous system roles, and might even create an ness of LCDTWFS to provide household drinking water, particularly
irreversible Parkinson-like disorder called manganism (Alvarez-Bastida those living in the coastline area who have limited access to potable
et al., 2018). The presence of nitrate in drinking water has a clear impact water lines and water purification facilities. The equipment developed is
on human health since it causes blue child disorder (Bangar et al., 2020). a cylindrical container and has a volume capacity of 10 L. It has upper
The ceramic filter incorporated with the biochar type of the LCDTWFS storage to contain the tap water and lower storage for the filtered water
efficiently removed nitrates in water similar to the study conducted on to be extracted from a faucet. The filter is made up of clay, activated
the removal mechanisms of contaminants in the ceramic filter (Nigay carbon, and enhanced with 0.1% silver nitrate. The raw materials were
et al., 2020). Sulfate is a substance that is present naturally in drinking gathered locally and the LCDTWFS was crafted by a local artisan. The
water and studies claim that ingestion of water containing high levels of XRF analysis of the clay utilized for filter fabrication has a minimal trace
sulfate causes diarrhea (EPA, 2022). Although the sulfate content of the of metals and other elements present have no harmful effect on the

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R.Y. Mamuad et al. Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 7 (2022) 100085

Table 6
PNSDW limit and chemical analysis of tap and filtered water.
Parameters Tap water (mg/L) PNSDW limit (mg/L) Filtered water (mg/L)

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Weeks 5–6

Chloride 96 250 122 115 118 116 108

Iron 0.05 1 0.01 Nil Nil Nil 0.01
Manganese Nil 0.4 Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
Nitrate 14 50 11.2 9.4 9.4 8.8 9.0
Residual Chlorine Nil 0.3–1.5 Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
Sulfate 11 250 9 8 9 9 9

*Nil – not detectable/less than the method detection limit.

filtered water. The microbial analysis of the filtered water is less than 1.1 Bulta, A.L., Micheal, G.A.W., 2019. Evaluation of the efficiency of ceramic filters for
water treatment in Kambata Tabaro zone, southern Ethiopia. Environ. Syst. Res. 8,
MPN/100 mL for the total coliform count and fecal coliform count and
1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-018-0129-6.
the value is within the standard set by PNSDW. The physical analysis of Campbell, B., 2021. What Is Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)? WWD.
the filtered water is within the allowable limit although the value has de Luna, M.D.G., Sioson, A.S., Choi, A.E.S., Abarca, R.R.M., Huang, Y.H., Lu, M.C., 2020.
increased compared to the tap or raw water. The chemical analysis of the Operating pH influences homogeneous calcium carbonate granulation in the frame
of CO2 capture. J. Clean. Prod. 272 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122325.
processed water is within the standard set by PNSDW. All the chemicals Department of Health, 2017. Administrative Order No. 2017-0010. Philippine National
present in the tap water indicate a decrease in value except for Chloride Standards for Drinking Water. DOH.
which was increased from 96 mg/L to 122 mg/L. It was observed that Department of Health, 2007. Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water. https://
tanauanwd.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/TS-1.2.2-PNSDW-2007.pdf.
the LCDTWFS can effectively remove microorganisms and materials (Accessed 31 October 2021).
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groundwater using date palm biochar: application for drinking water. Environ. Adv.
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The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
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