Cell

Two cell types

 Prokaryotes (Prokaryotic Cells)
 Eukaryotes (Eukaryotic Cells)
Prokaryotes - Bacteria
 No Nucleus
 No Membrane bound organelles.
Eukaryotes
 Have a nucleus
 Have membrane bound organelles
Two Types of Eukaryotic Cells
1. Animal Cell
2. Plant Cell

Cell Organelles
Organelle = “little organs”
 Specialized structures that perform specific jobs in the cell
Found only in eukaryotic cells
Many are “membrane-bound” (a membrane surrounds the organelle)
Cytosol: watery matrix that organelles float in
Cytoplasm: Everything in a cell except the nucleus

Cell Membrane
Surrounds the cell and decides what comes in and out
Semi-permeable: allows nutrients in and waste products out
Made of a phospholipid bilayer
Also called Plasma Membrane
Factory Part:
 Gates or Doors
Found in:
 Plant cells
 Animal cells
 Prokaryotic cells

Nucleus
Control center of the cell
Stores DNA (chromosomes)
Surrounded by the nuclear membrane
 Pores let material in and out
Also contains the Nucleolus, which makes ribosomes
The nucleus has two main functions: 1.) It directs chemical reactions in cell. 2.) It acts as storage of
genetic information and transfer such information during cell division to the resulting daughter cells

Factory Part:
 Manager’s Office
 Found in:
 Plant cells
 Animal cells

Nuclear Envelope
• Separates nucleus from rest of cell
• Double membrane
• Has pores
DNA
• Hereditary material
• Chromosomes
– DNA
– Protiens
– Form for cell division
• Chromatin
Nucleolus
• Most cells have 2 or more
• Directs synthesis of RNA
• Forms ribosomes

Ribosome
Smallest organelle
NOT surrounded by a membrane
Makes proteins according to DNA instructions.
Two Types:
 Free ribosomes: float free in cytosol
 Bound ribosomes: attached to rough ER
Factory Part:
 Machines
Found in:
 Plant cells
 Animal cells
 Prokaryotic cells
Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum(ER) is an extensive network of membranes that connects the nuclear
envelope to the cell membrane.
There are two kinds of ER – rough ER and smooth ER
Rough ER(RER) has ribosomes attached on its surface.
RIBOSOMES consist of RNA and proteins. These are sites for protein synthesis inside the cell. They are
referred to as the protein factories of the cell
Smooth ER(SER) is continuous with RER but lacks ribosomes. Its main function is to synthesized lipids

Factory Part:
 Conveyor Belts
Found in:
 Plant cells
 Animal cells
 Golgi Apparatus
Delivery system of the cell
Collects, modifies, and packages molecules in the cell
Distributes and transports molecules in vesicles
This structure was first describes bY an Italian biologist and physician, Camillo Golgi.
The Golgi Apparatus packages and secretes products of the ER

Factory Part:
 Post office or Mail Room
Found in:
 Plant cells
 Animal cells
Lysosomes
Trash Disposal of the cell
The word lysosome was derived from Greek words meaning “breaking body”
These organelles contain macromolecule-digesting enzymes enclosed in its membranous sac
Contain digestive enzymes that break down waste
Factory Part:
 Janitors
Found in:
 Plant cells
 Animal cells
Mitochondria
“Powerhouse” of the cell
Site of cellular respiration
Converts energy stored in food into energy the cell needs – ATP
Factory Part:
 Power Plant / Electrical Room
Found in:
 Plant cells
 Animal cells
Chloroplast
Found only in plant cells and algae
Contains green pigment, chlorophyll
Changes sunlight (solar energy) into food like glucose (chemical energy)
Factory Part:
 Solar Powered Energy Panels
Found in:
 Plant cells
Cell Wall
Rigid, protective barrier (maintains cell shape)
Found in plant and bacterial cells
Located outside of the cell membrane
Made of cellulose (Carbohydrate fiber)
Factory Part:
 Factory Gates
Found in:
 Plant cells
 Some Prokaryote cells
 Vacuoles
Large central vacuole usually in plant cells
Many smaller vacuoles in animal cells
Storage container for water, food, enzymes, wastes, etc
Supports cell shape in plants
Factory Part:
 Storage room
Found in:
 Plant cells
 Animal cells (smaller)

Centrosome and Centrioles

 Centrioles produce and organize microtubules

 Centrosome is called as the microtubules organizing center
Centrioles
 Found only in animal cells
 Paired organelles found together near the nucleus, at right angles to each other.
 Role in building cilia and flagella
 Play a role in cellular reproduction

Cytoskeleton
 Framework of the cell
 Contains small microfilaments and larger microtubules.
 They support the cell, giving it its shape and help with the movement of its organelles.

Cilia & Flagella

• Provide motility
• Cilia
– Short
– Used to move substances outside human cells
• Flagella
– Whip-like extensions
– Found on sperm cells
• Basal bodies like centrioles

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm includes everything between the cell membrane and the nucleus.
• It consists of two main parts: the cytosol and the organelles
• Cytosol refers to the viscous colloidal substance of the cytoplasm where the organelles are suspended
• Organelles are specialized cellular parts suspended in the cytosol

Peroxisomes
 Are organelles about the size of lysosomes and are bounded by a single membrane
 Contains enzymes, specifically the enzyme catalase which catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen
peroxide, a very toxic product of cellular metabolism.
 Peroxisomes may also act as other toxic molecules that enter the cell, such as alcohol and drugs
Animal Cell
 PROKARYOTIC CELLS

 PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Cells are the basic units of life and have many characteristics in common.
They can be divided into different groups based on major characteristics. One such:
 Prokaryotic
 Eukaryotic
Prokaryotic cells (less than 1mm in diameter) are smaller and simpler than eukaryotic
They are thought to have appeared on Earth first.
Bacteria are prokaryotic cells which play a huge role in our world today.
 Features of Prokaryotic cells:
 The cell wall
 The plasma membrane
 Flagella
 Ribosomes
 The nucleoid (a region containing free DNA)
 Others: plasmid, capsule and pili

 Cell wall
 Protects and maintains the shape of the cell
 Some have an additional layer of a type of polysaccharide outside the cell wall to adhere to
structures such as teeth, skin and food.
 There are two types of bacterial cell wall, which are identified by the Gram Stain
technique (pink and purple when observed under the microscope)

 Plasma membrane
 Inside the cell wall (composition similar than eukaryotic cells)
 It controls the movement of materials in and out.
 It plays a role in binary fission
 Cytoplasm occupies the complete interior of the cell
 No compartments. All cellular processes occur in the cytoplasm.

 Pili
 Some bacterial cells contain hair-like growths (pili) on the outside of the cell wall.
 They are used for attachment
 Main function is in joining bacterial cells in preparation for the transfer of DNA from one cell to
another (sexual reproduction)
 Flagella (pl) or Flagellum (s)
 Longer than pili
 They allow cell motility
 Ribosomes
 Sites of protein synthesis in all prokaryotic cells
 They occur in very large numbers in cells with high protein production. When numerous,
granular appearance to an EM of the prokaryotic cell
 The nucleoid region
 Non compartmental and contains a single, long, continuous, circular thread of DNA.
 Region involved in cell control and reproduction.
 Bacteria may also contain plasmids (small, circular DNA molecules).
 They are not connected to the main bacterial chromosome.
 Replicate independently of the chromosomal DNA
 Not required by the cell under normal conditions, but it may help the cell to adapt to
unusual circumstances.

 Binary fission
 Prokaryotic cells divide by a very simple process.
1. DNA is copied
2. The two daughter chromosomes become attached to different regions on the plasma membrane
3. Cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells
 This process includes an elongation of the cell and a partitioning of the newly produced DNA

SUMMARY
 Their DNA is not enclosed within a membrane and is one circular chromosome
 Their DNA is free; it is not attached to proteins
 They lack membrane-bound organelles. Ribosomes are complex structures within the plasma
membrane, but they have no exterior membrane
 Their cell wall is made up of a unique compound called peptidoglycan
 They usually divide by binary fission, a simple form of cell division.
 They are characteristically small in size, usually 1-10 mm
 EUKARYOTIC CELLS

 Whereas prokaryotic cells occur in the bacteria, eukaryotic cells occur in organisms such as algae,
protozoa, fungi, plants and animals.
 Eukaryotic cells range in diameter from 5 to 100mm.
 They contain nucleus and organelles (non-cellular structures that carry out specific functions)
 Organelles bring about compartmentalization which allows chemical reactions to be separated
(especially important when the adjacent chemical reaction is incompatible). As a result, there is an
increase in efficiency.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS ORGANELLES

 CYTOPLASM
 It occurs inside the plasma membrane or the outer boundary of the cell. The organelles occur
here.
 The fluid portion of the cytoplasm between the organelles is referred to the cytosol.
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
 Extensive network of tubules or channels that extends almost everywhere in the cell from the
nucleus to the plasma membrane.
 Its structure enables its function which is the transportatioin of materials throughout the
internal region of the cell.
 Two general types:
1. Smooth (does not have Ribosomes)
2. Rough (does have Ribosomes)
1. Smooth ER
 Unique enzymes embedded on its surface
 Functions:
 Production of membrane phospholipids and cellular lipids
 Production of sex hormones such as testosterone and oestrogen
 Detoxification of drugs in the liver
 Storage of Calcium ions needed for contraction in muscle cells
 Transportation of lipid-based compounds
 Aid the liver in releasing glucose into the bloodstream when needed
2. Rough ER
 It has Ribosomes on the exterior of the channels
 They are involved in protein synthesis
 This ER is involved in protein development and transport
  These proteins may become part of membranes, enzymes or even messengers between cells
 Most cells contain both types of ER with the rough ER being closer to the nuclear membrane.
 RIBOSOMES
 Unique structures that do not have an exterior membrane.
 They carry out protein synthesis in the cell
 Free in the cytoplasm or attached to the ER
 Composed of a type of RNA and protein
 Ribosomes of eukaryotic cells are larger and denser than those of prokaryotic cells
 Eukaryotic composed of two subunits: 80S
 Prokaryotic composed of two subunits:70S
*S (Svedberg units)

 LYSOSOMES
 Intracellular digestive centers that arise from the Golgi apparatus.
 They lack any internal structure
 Sacs bounded by a single membrane that contain as many as 40 different enzymes
 The enzymes are hydrolytic and catalyze the breakdown of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and
carbohydrates.
 Lysosomes fuse with old or damaged organelles to “recycle” them.
 Also involved in the breakdown of materials brought by phagocytosis.
 The interior of Lysosomes is acidic, to hydrolyze large molecules.
 GOLGI APPARATUS
 Flattened sacs (cisternae) which are stacked on top of one another
 Function is the collection, packaging, modification and distribution of material synthesized in
the cell.
 One side of the apparatus is near the rough ER (cis side). It receives products from the ER which
move into the sacs. Movement continues to the discharging or opposite side (trans side). Small
sacs called vesicles come off from the trans side to wherever they are needed (inside or outside
the cell)
 MITOCHONDRIA
 Rod-shaped organelles that appear throughout the cytoplasm.
 Size is close to a bacterial cell.
 They have their own DNA, circular chromosome similar to that in bacterial cells, allowing them
some autonomy within the cell.
 They have a double membrane.
 Outer membrane is smooth, but the inner is folded (more surface area)
 Most mitochondrial reactions involve the production of ATP (energy)
 Because of this, it is called the “cell powerhouse”
 It produces and contains its own ribosomes (70S type)
 Cells that have high energy requirements, such as muscle cells, have large numbers of
mitochondria.
 NUCLEUS
 Isolated region where the DNA resides.
 Bordered by a double membrane referred as the nuclear envelope.
 This membrane allows compartmentalization of the eukaryotic DNA.
 Pores in the nuclear membrane allow communication with the cell’s cytoplasm.
 DNA of eukaryotic cells occur in the form of chromosomes
 Chromosomes:
 Vary in number depending on species
 Carry all the information necessary for the cell to exist
  DNA is the genetic material of the cell. It enables certain traits to be passed to the next
generation.
 When the cell is not in the dividing process, chromosomes are not visible.
 During this phase, the cell’s DNA is in the form of chromatin.
 Chromatin is formed as strands of DNA and proteins called histones.
 This combination often results in structures called nucleosomes (8 histones + strand of DNA
wrapped around + 1 histone to secure)
 Nucleus is located centrally in the cell’s cytoplasm (in some cells pushed to one side. I.e.: plant
cells)
 Without a nucleus cells can not reproduce, it means, more specialization.
 I.e.: Red blood cells do not have nuclei
 Most nuclei also include one or more dark areas called nucleoli (singular: nucleolus)
 Molecules of the cell Ribosomes are manufactured in the nucleolus. The molecules pass
through the nuclear envelope before assembly as Ribosomes.
 CHLOROPLAST
 Occur only in algae and plant cells
 Contains a double membrane
 Same size as a bacterial cell
 It contains its own DNA and 70S Ribosomes
 DNA is the form of a ring
 Besides DNA and Ribosomes, they contain other structures (thylakoids, stroma and grana)
 Grana are piles of thylakoids
 Thylakoids are flattened membrane sacs with components for the absorption of light
 Stroma is the fluid outside the grana (similar to cytosol of the cell)
 Capable of reproducing independently of the cell.
 CENTROSOME
 In all eukaryotic cells
 Pair of centrioles at right angles to one another.
 These centrioles are involved in assembling microtubules, which are important to the cell in
providing structure and allowing movement.
 Microtubules are important to cell division
 The centrosome is located at one end of the cell close to the nucleus.
 VACUOLES
 Storage organelles that usually form from the Golgi apparatus.
 Membrane-bound and have lot of functions.
 Occupy a very large space inside the cells of most plants.
 Store different substances (food, wastes, toxins and water)
 It enables cells to have higher SA:V even at larger sizes.
 In plants, they allow an uptake of water that provides rigidity for the organism.
 SUMMARY OF EUKARYOTIC CELL ORGANELLES AND AREAS
 COMPARISON OF PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

 Similarities between Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes

 Both types of cell have some sort of outside boundary that always involves a plasma membrane
 Both types of cells carry out all the functions of life
 DNA is present in both cell types
 Most cellular organelles are present in both plant and animal cells. If so, they have the same structure
and functions
 The outermost region of various cell types is often unique:
 Bacteria: cell wall of peptidoglycan
 Fungi: cell wall of chitin
 Plants: cell wall of cellulose
 Animals: no cell wall, plasma membrane secretes glycoproteins (sugars and proteins) that forms
the extracellular matrix
 Cell wall:
 Involved in maintaining cell shape
 Regulates water uptake
 Extracellular matrix (ECM):
 Collagen fibers plus glycoproteins
 Strength plasma membrane and allows attachment between adjacent cells.
 Allows cell to cell interaction (…“Stem cells differentiation”)