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Introduction To Vectors-1

The document introduces vectors and their key properties. It defines a vector as having both magnitude and direction, unlike scalars which only have magnitude. Vectors can be represented geometrically using arrows or algebraically using components. The document also discusses how to denote vectors, perform operations like addition and multiplication on vectors, and how vectors can be translated without changing their meaning.

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Doreen Benezeth
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
109 views35 pages

Introduction To Vectors-1

The document introduces vectors and their key properties. It defines a vector as having both magnitude and direction, unlike scalars which only have magnitude. Vectors can be represented geometrically using arrows or algebraically using components. The document also discusses how to denote vectors, perform operations like addition and multiplication on vectors, and how vectors can be translated without changing their meaning.

Uploaded by

Doreen Benezeth
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Introduc)on

 to  Vectors  

November  2017  
Basic  Concepts  
•  Physical  quan))es  are  either  scalars  or  vectors.    
•  A  Scalar  is  a  quan)ty  that  has  magnitude  only.  
•  Examples:  distance,  speed,  mass,  money,  
density,  temperature,  volume,  )me,  pressure,  
etc.  
•  A  vector  is  a  quan)ty  that  has  both  a  magnitude  
and  a  direc1on.  
•  Examples:  displacement,  velocity,  force,  
accelera)on,  momentum,  electric  and  magne)c  
field.  
 Geometrical  representa)on  
•  A  vector  is  represented  geometrically  by  a  
directed  line  segment.    
•  The  direc)on  of  the  arrow  at  one  end  of  the  
line  segment  specifies  the  direc)on  of  the  
vector,  and  its  length  describes  its  magnitude.  
                                         B
                   
                                                                               a  
                 A
       Figure  1:  An  example  of  vector  representa)on  
Algebraic  Representa)on  
•  Vectors  are  not  only  geometric  quan))es,  but  
also  may  be  represented  algebraically.  
 
•  For  example  consider  the  vector  a  shown  below.  
This  vector  has  components  2  and  3  in  the  x  and  
y direc)ons  respec)vely.  Thus,  we  write  the  
vector  a = (2, 3).
y

a
3

2
  ⇥ x

•  Similarly  the  three-­‐dimensional  vector  OP              shown  


below,  which  
ly the three-dimensional has  
vector ini)al  
v shown below, point   at  
which has the   origin  2,    5    and
components            3  
x, y and Oz (0, and  tas
0, 0)is written
directions erminal  point  at  P (2, 3, 5) and  
has  components   v2 35,and  
= ,(2, 3). 5 in  the  x, y and  z

direc)ons  is  wriRen  as  OP       = (2, 3, 5).
 Nota)on  of  Vectors  
     Symbolically,  vectors  can  be  denoted  in  any  of  
the  following  ways:  
•  Using  lowercase  boldface  type,  for  instance, a, k,
v, w, and  x.
•  In  handwri)ng,  where  boldface  type  is  either  
unavailable  or  unwieldy,  vectors  are  oTen  
represented  with  right-­‐poin*ng  arrow  nota*on  
!
above their names, for instance, as in v .

•  Shorthand  nota)ons  of  vectors  may  also  include  


*ldes  and  straight  lines  placed  above  or  below      
the name of the vector, for instance, as in v˜ and u.
Nota)on  
•  A  vector  which  starts  from  point  A and  ends  at  
point  B is  denoted  by    AB.
   
•  Note  that  vectors  do  not  have  a  fixed  posi)on  in  
the  coordinate  
€ plane,  so  they  can  be  translated  
(moved)  without  changing  their  meaning.  
 
•  In  other  words,  regardless  of  their  loca)on,  two  
vectors  with  the  same  direc)on  and  magnitude  
are  the  same  vector.  
•  The  four  vectors  in  the  figure  below  have  the  
same  magnitude  and  direc)on.  Thus  they  
represent  equivalent  vectors;  that  is,  
AB = v = OP = w

                               Figure2:  Equivalent  vectors  


Vector  Opera)ons  
Nega)ve  of  a  vector    
•  The  vector  −a is  a  vector  of  the  same  length  but  
opposite  direc)on  to  a.  Clearly  then,  in  the  
alterna)ve  nota)on,  the  nega)ve  vector      
!!!" !!!"
  −AB equals BA.
•   Algebraically,  we  have,  in  general,  that  if                            
a = (a, b, c) then  −a = (−a, −b, −c).  
•  For  example,  let  a = (2, 3).  The  nega)ve  of  a is        
−a = (−2, −3) as  shown  below.  
-2

a -3
3 a

2
  Figure: A vector with its negation
Scalar  mul)ple  of  a  vector  
•  The  vector  ka (where  k is  a  scalar)  is  called  a  
scalar  mul)ple  of  a.
•  ka  is  a  vector  of  length  |k|  )mes  the  length  of  a.  
•  If  k > 0,  then  the  direc)on  of  ka  is  the  same  as  
the  direc)on  of  a.    
•  If  k < 0, then  the  direc)on  of    ka    is  opposite  to  
the  direc)on  of  a  .    
•  If  k = 0 or  a = 0 (or  both),  then    ka = 0.
•  The  figure  below  illustrates  the  rela)on  between  
a  vector  a  and  the  vectors   −a, 2a, 1 a and − 2 a
2 3
•  Algebraically,  we  have,  in  general,  that  if  
  v = (a, b, c) then kv = (ka, kb, kc).
 
For  example,    
       
If a = (2, 3) then 2a = (4, 6) and
 
  if v = (4, 8, 2) then 1 v = (2, 4,1).
2
Vector  Addi)on  and  Subtrac)on  
•  Let  u = (x1, y1) and v = (x2, y2)    be  the  two  
vectors  in  the  plane.  The  sum  of  the  vectors u
and  v  is  the  vector  (x1+x2, y1+y2) and  is  denoted  
by u + v.  
•  Thus  the  vectors  are  added  by  adding  the  
corresponding  components.  
•  The  opera)ons  of  vector  addi)on  is  easy  to  carry  
out  in  terms  of  components.  As  illustrated  in  
Figure  below,    
•  if  u = (x1, y1) and v = (x2, y2)  then  
           u + v = (x1+x2, y1+y2).    
•  if  u = (x1, y1, z1) and v = (x2, y2, z2)  then  
           u + v = (x1+x2, y1+y2, z1+z2).    
Subtrac)on  of  vectors  
•  Subtrac)on  of  two  vectors  is  just  a  special  case  
of  addi)on.  The  vector  u - v  is  defined  to  be    
      u − v = u + (−v)
•  The  following  theorem  state  basic  proper)es  of  
vector  addi)ons.  
   Theorem  

•  Let  u, v, w be  vectors,  and  let  k, l be  scalars.  
Then  the  following  rela)onship  hold    
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w"
# Associative law
k(lv) = (kl)v $
u+ v = v+u Commutative law
(k + l)v = kv + lv "
  k(u + v) = ku + kv # Distributive law
$
 
u + (−u) = 0
u+0 = 0+u = u
  1u = u
•  Proof:  Exercise  
Position Posi)on  
Vector Vector  
•  The  posi1on  
The position vector  
vector of  of a  pa oint  
point A in  2D
A in oro3D
2D   r  3space
D   is the v
space  itos  tA.he  Algebraically,
vector      OA
     if      point
 fÄ!
rom   the  coordinates
A has origin  to  
(a,Ab,.  c) then th
written identically, i.e. OA= (a, b, c).
•  Algebraically,  if  point A has  coordinates  (a, b, c)
then  the  posi)on  vector  of  A  is  wriRen  
iden)cally,    €i.e.     OA = (a, b, c). z

Ä!
A(a, b, c)
OA
€ c
⇥ y
a

b
x
Basic Concepts Algebraic Representation

Vector   b etween  
Vector Between Two Points T wo   Points  
•  If  A  and  B  are  two  points  in 3D we  may  find  the   ⇥
!!!A" and B are two points in 3D we may find the vector AB.
If
vector  vector
AB, i.e.   the  vector  from  A  to  B, using  
A to B using vector notation addition
vector  addi)on.   z

 

B
*
⇥ ⇥
OB
⇤ y

⇥⇧
OA
⇧⌃

A
x Figure: Vector between two points

.
•  From  the  sketch,  using  vector  addi)on,  we  see  
that      OA     + AB = OB
•   Thus  
  AB = OB − OA

                   =  posi)on  vector  of  B  −  posi)on  vector  of  A          
                   =  coordinates  of  B  −  coordinates  of  A.

•  This  gives  us  the  simple  rule  for  finding  a  vector  v  


between  two  points:  
v  =  end  point  −  star)ng  point
•  Example:  
Find the vector AB from A(1,−4,7) to B(−2, 5, 8).
  AB = end point − starting point
= (−2,5,8) − (1,−4,7)
= (−3, 9,1)
•  Example:  
     Determine  the  midpoint  of  the  points  A(1, 0, 4)
€and  B(5, 6, 12).
•   The  midpoint  M  of      AB
             can  be  found  by  vector  
addi)on.    
     
OM = OA + AM
1
= OA + AB
2
1
(
= OA + OB − OA
2
)
1
(
= OA + OB
2
)
1
= ((1, 0, 4) + (5, 6,12))
2
1
= (6, 6,16)
2
= (3, 3, 8)
Length  (Magnitude  or  Norm)  of  a  Vector  
•  The  length  of  a  vector  u is  oTen  called  the  norm  
or  magnitude  of  u and  is  denoted  by        u        .  
•  It  follows  from  the  Theorem  of  Pythagoras  that  
the  norm  of  a  vector  u = (u1, u2) in  2-­‐space    is                      
2 2
                                       1                  2      .        [see  Figure  
u = u + u € below]      
•  Let  u = (u1, u2, u3)  be  a  vector  in  3-­‐space.  Using  
the  Figure  below  and  two  applica)ons  of  the  
Theorem  of  Pythagoras,  we  obtain  
2 2 2
u = (OR) + ( RP )
         
2 2 2
= (OQ) + (OS ) + ( RP )
2 2 2
= u +u +u
1 2 3

Thus
u = u12 + u22 + u32
•  The  length  (magnitude  or  norm)  of  the  vector          
u = (u1, u2,…, un)  in Rn is  
2 2 2
u = u + u +! + u .
1 2 n

       Example:    
•  Find  the  length  of  the  vector  v = (−1, 4, 7).
Solu1on:  
2 2 2
        v = v1 + v 2 + v 3

  2
= (−1) + 4 + 72 2

         
= 1+16 + 49 = 66.
The  distance  between  two  points  
•  If  P1(x1, y1, z1) and  P2(x2, y2, z2)  are  two  points  in  
3-­‐space,  then  the  distance  d  between  them  is  the  
norm  of  the  vector      P    1  P    2        [see  Figure  below].    


•  Since     P1P2 = ( x 2 − x1, y 2 − y1, z2 − z1 )
     It  follows  from  the  defini)on  of  norm  that  
d = (x 2 − x1 ) 2 + (y 2 − y1 ) 2 + (z2 − z1 ) 2

 
•  Similarly,  if  P1(x1, y1) and  P2(x2, y2)  are    points  in  
2-­‐space,  then  the  distance  between  them  is  
given  by  
d = (x 2 − x1 ) 2 + (y 2 − y1 ) 2
•  A  vector  of  norm  1 is  called  a  unit  vector.  
•  The  length  of  the  vector  ku  is       ku = k u

Unit  Vectors  
•  A  unit  vector  is  a  vector  whose  length  is  1.  
•  If  v  is  any  nonzero  vector,  then  the  vector    
    1
v̂ = v
  v
     is  a  unit  vector  in  the  direc)on  of  v [see  Figure  
below]. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

1
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"!!!!!!! ! !!!!!!
!
•  In  general,  we  may  convert  a  vector  v  into  a  unit  
vector  v̂
       which  is  parallel  to  v  using  scalar  
mul)plica)on,  i.e.  using  the  formula  
1
v̂ = v
  v
•  The  formula  for  calcula)ng  a  unit  vector  may  be  
rearranged  to  obtain    
                                    v = v v̂
•  This  shows  that  not  only  do  vectors  have  
magnitude  and  direc)on,  any  vector  may  be  
created  by  mul$plying  the  vector’s  magnitude  by  
its  direc)on.    
Example:    
     Find  a  vector  of  length  5  units  which  is  parallel  to  
v = (4, 7, 4).
Solu1on:    
•  The  magnitude  of  v  is  
2 2 2
4 + 7 + 4 = 16 + 49 +16 = 81 = 9.
•  A  unit  vector  parallel  to  v  is  thus    
    v 1
v̂ = = (4, 7, 4).
    v 9
•  The  required  vector  w  has  magnitude  5  and  
direc)on   1 9 (4, 7, 4).
•  Thus  
5 ! 20 35 20 $
w = (4, 7, 4) = # , , &.
€ 9 " 9 9 9 %
 
 
•  Simple  examples  of    unit  vector  are  the  standard  
unit  vectors.  
         i   = (1, 0, 0), j = (0,1, 0), k = (0, 0,1).
•  These  vectors  each  have  length  1  and  lie  along  
the  coordinate  axes  (see  the  Figure  below).    

                     Figure:  The  standard  unit  vectors.      


•  They  are  called  the  standard  unit  vectors  in  3-­‐
space.  Every  vector  v = (v1, v2, v3)  in  3-­‐space  is  
expressible  in  terms  of  i, j, and  k  since  we  can  
write  
v = v1 (1, 0, 0) + v2 (0, 1, 0) + v3 (0, 0, 1)
= v1i + v2 j + v3k
•  Example:  Express  the  following  vectors  in  an  
alterna)ve  form:  
     (a) (4,−5, 2) (b) 3i+7k (c) 5j+6k.
     Solu)on:  
(a) 4i−5j+2k (b) (3, 0, 7) (c) (0, 5, 6).

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