This method uses a field in the header to specify the number of characters in the frame.

When the data

Department of Computer Science and Engineering link layer at the destination sees the character count, it knows how many characters follow, and hence
CS6004 Computer Networking where the end of the frame is. The disadvantage is that if the count is garbled by a transmission error, the
Subject Notes: UNIT-II destination will lose synchronization and will be unable to locate the start of the next frame. So, this
DATA LINK LAYER: NEED method is rarely used.
Data Link Layer is second layer of OSI Layered Model. This layer is one of the most complicated layers and Character stuffing
has complex functionalities and liabilities. Data link layer hides the details of underlying hardware and In the second method, each frame starts with the ASCII character sequence DLE STX and ends with the
represents itself to upper layer as the medium to communicate. sequence DLE ETX. This method overcomes the drawbacks of the character count method. However,
Data link layer works between two hosts which are directly connected in some sense. This direct character stuffing is closely associated with 8-bit characters and this is a major hurdle in transmitting
connection could be point to point or broadcast. Data link layer is responsible for converting data stream arbitrary sized characters.
to signals bit by bit and to send that over the underlying hardware. Bit stuffing
The third method allows data frames to contain an arbitrary number of bits and allows character codes
with an arbitrary number of bits per character. At the start and end of each frame is a flag byte consisting
of the special bit pattern 01111110. Whenever the sender's data link layer encounters five consecutive 1s
in the data, it automatically stuffs a zero bit into the outgoing bit stream. This technique is called bit
stuffing
Physical layer coding violations
The final framing method is physical layer coding violations and is applicable to networks in which the
encoding on the physical medium contains some redundancy. In such cases normally, a 1 bit is a high-low
Fig. 2.1 Seven Layer Architecture pair and a 0 bit is a low-high pair. The combinations of low-low and high-high which are not used for data
Data link layer has two sub-layers: may be used for marking frame boundaries.
• Logical Link Control: It deals with protocols, flow-control, and error control
• Media Access Control: It deals with actual control of media DATALINK LAYER: FLOW CONTROL
Flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
DATA LINK LAYER: SERVICE PROVIDED • It is one of the most important duties of the data link layer.
• Encapsulation of network layer data packets into frames. • Flow control tells the sender how much data to send.
• Frame synchronization. • It makes the sender wait for some sort of an acknowledgment (ACK) before continuing to send more
• Error Control data.
• Flow control, in addition to the one provided on the transport layer. • Flow Control Techniques: Stop-and-wait, and Sliding Window
• LAN switching (packet switching) including MAC filtering and spanning tree protocol
• Data packet queuing or scheduling DATA LINK LAYER: ERROR CONTROL
• Store-and-forward switching or cut-through switching Error control in the data link layer is based on ARQ (automatic repeat request), which is the retransmission
of data.
DATA LINK LAYER: FRAMING • The term error control refers to methods of error detection and retransmission.
Since the physical layer merely accepts and transmits a stream of bits without any regard to meaning or • Anytime an error is detected in an exchange, specified frames are retransmitted. This process is
structure, it is up to the data link layer to create and recognize frame boundaries. This can be accomplished called ARQ.
by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame. If these bit patterns can
accidentally occur in data, special care must be taken to make sure these patterns are not incorrectly To ensure reliable communication, there needs to exist flow control (managing the amount of data the
interpreted as frame delimiters. The four framing methods that are widely used are sender sends), and error control (that data arrives at the destination error free).
• Character count • Flow and error control needs to be done at several layers.
• Starting and ending characters, with character stuffing • For node-to-node links, flow and error control is carried out in the data-link layer.
• Starting and ending flags, with bit stuffing • For end-point to end-point, flow and error control is carried out in the transport layer.
There may be three types of errors:

Fig. 2.3 Single bit error

In a frame, there is only one bit, anywhere though, which is corrupt.

Fig. 2.4 Multiple bits error

Fig. 2.2 Data Link Layer: Framing
Frame is received with more than one bit in corrupted state.
Character Count

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 Propagation Delay = (Distance between routers) / (Velocity of propagation)
Fig. 2.5 Burst error • RoundTripTime (RTT) = 2* Propagation Delay
Frame contains more than1 consecutive bits corrupted. • TimeOut (TO) = 2* RTT
• Time To Live (TTL) = 2* TimeOut. (Maximum TTL is 180 seconds)
DATA LINK LAYER PROTOCOL
The basic function of the layer is to transmit frames over a physical communication link. Transmission may Simple Stop and Wait
be half duplex or full duplex. To ensure that frames are delivered free of errors to the destination station Sender:
(IMP) a number of requirements are placed on a data link protocol. The protocol (control mechanism) Rule 1) Send one data packet at a time.
should be capable of performing: Rule 2) Send next packet only after receiving acknowledgement for previous.
1. The identification of a frame (i.e. recognises the first and last bits of a frame). Receiver:
2. The transmission of frames of any length up to a given maximum. Any bit pattern is permitted in a Rule 1) Send acknowledgement after receiving and consuming of data packet.
frame. Rule 2) After consuming packet acknowledgement need to be sent (Flow Control)
3. The detection of transmission errors.
4. The retransmission of frames which were damaged by errors.
5. The assurance that no frames were lost.
6. In a multidrop configuration some mechanism must be used for preventing conflicts caused by
simultaneous transmission by many stations.
7. The detection of failure or abnormal situations for control and monitoring purposes.
It should be noted that as far as layer 2 is concerned a host message is pure data, every single bit of which
is to be delivered to the other host. The frame header pertains to layer 2 and is never given to the host.

Elementary Data Link Protocols

• Data are transmitted in one direction only
• The transmitting (Tx) and receiving (Rx) hosts are always ready
• Processing time can be ignored Fig. 2.6 Stop and Wait
• Infinite buffer space is available Problems:
• No errors occur; i.e. no damaged frames and no lost frames (perfect channel) 1. Lost Data

Sliding Window protocol:

A sliding window protocol is a feature of packet-based data transmission protocols. Sliding window
protocols are used where reliable in-order delivery of packets is required, such as in the Data Link Layer
(OSI model) as well as in the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
The Sliding Window ARQ has three techniques
1. 1-bit
Fig. 2.7 Stop and Wait- Lost Data
2. Go- Back N
3. Selective Repeat 2. Lost Acknowledgement:
1-bit
One-bit sliding window protocol is also called Stop-And-Wait protocol. In this protocol, the sender sends
out one frame, waits for acknowledgment before sending next frame, thus the name Stop-And-Wait.

Problem with Stop-And-Wait protocol is that it is very inefficient. At any one moment, only in frame is in
transition. The sender will have to wait at least one round trip time before sending next. The waiting can
be long for a slow network such as satellite link.
Stop and Wait Protocol
Characteristics Fig. 2.8 Stop and Wait- Lost Acknowledgement
• Used in Connection-oriented communication.
• It offers error and flow control 3. Delayed Acknowledgement/Data: After timeout on sender side, a long-delayed acknowledgement
• It is used in Data Link and Transport Layers might be wrongly considered as acknowledgement of some other recent packet.
• Stop and Wait ARQ mainly implements Sliding Window Protocol concept with Window Size 1
Useful Terms: Stop and Wait ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)
• Propagation Delay: Amount of time taken by a packet to make a physical journey from one router to Above 3 problems are resolved by Stop and Wait ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request) that does both error
another router. control and flow control.

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 Fig. 2.9 Stop and Wait ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)
1. Time Out:

Fig. 2.12 Working of Stop and Wait ARQ

Characteristics of Stop and Wait ARQ:
• It uses link between sender and receiver as half duplex link
• Throughput = 1 Data packet/frame per RTT
Fig. 2.10 Stop and Wait ARQ-Time Out • If Bandwidth*Delay product is very high, then stop and wait protocol is not so useful. The sender has
2. Sequence Number (Data) to keep waiting for acknowledgements before sending the processed next packet.
• It is a e a ple for “Closed Loop OR connection oriented “protocols
• It is a special category of SWP where its window size is 1
• Irrespective of number of packets sender is having stop and wait protocol requires only 2 sequences
numbers 0 and 1
The Stop and Wait ARQ solves main three problems, but may cause big performance issues as sender
always waits for acknowledgement even if it has next packet ready to send. Consider a situation where you
have a high bandwidth connection and propagation delay is also high (you are connected to some server in
some other country though a high-speed connection). To solve this problem, we can send more than one
packet at a time with a larger sequence numbers. We will be discussing these protocols in next articles.
So, Stop and Wait ARQ may work fine where propagation delay is very less for example LAN connections,
but performs badly for distant connections like satellite connection.
Fig. 2.11 Stop and Wait ARQ-ACK Lost
Go- Back N protocol
3. Delayed Acknowledgement:
Go-Back-N protocol is a sliding window protocol. It is a mechanism to detect and control the error in
This is resolved by introducing sequence number for acknowledgement also.
datalink layer. During transmission of frames between sender and receiver, if a frame is damaged, lost, or
an acknowledgement is lost then the action performed by sender and receiver.
Working of Stop and Wait ARQ:
1) Sender A sends a data frame or packet with sequence number 0.
2) Receiver B, after receiving data frame, sends and acknowledgement with sequence number 1 (sequence
number of next expected data frame or packet)
There is only one-bit sequence number that implies that both sender and receiver have buffer for one
frame or packet only.

Fig. 2.13 Go- Back N protocol

Selective Repeat protocol

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 Selective repeat is also the sliding window protocol which detects or corrects the error occurred in datalink
layer. The selective repeat protocol retransmits only that frame which is damaged or lost. In selective
repeat protocol, the retransmitted framed is received out of sequence. The selective repeat protocol can
perform following actions
• The receiver is capable of sorting the frame in a proper sequence, as it receives the retransmitted
frame whose sequence is out of order of the receiving frame.
• The sender must be capable of searching the frame for which the NAK has been received.
• The receiver must contain the buffer to store all the previously received frame on hold till the
retransmitted frame is sorted and placed in a proper sequence.
• The ACK number, like NAK number, refers to the frame which is lost or damaged.
• It requires the less window size as compared to go-back-n protocol. Fig. 2.16 Transmitter sends a packet-2
Only now this package [2] (bad) is not thrown away, as it is done in conventional ARQ. Now it is stored in a
'buffer'.

Fig. 2.17 Receiver buffers a packet-2

Continuing, the transmitter sends another package [2.1] that also (let's consider) arrives with errors.

Fig. 2.14 Selective Repeat protocol

HYBRID ARQ Fig. 2.18 Transmitter sends another packet-2

The HARQ is the use of conventional ARQ along with an Error Correction technique called 'Soft Combining', We have then in a buffer: bad package [2], and another package [2.1] which is also bad.
which no longer discards the received bad data (with error). Does by adding (combining) these two packages ([2] + [2.1]) we have the complete information?
Yes. So, we send an 'ACK'.
With the 'Soft Combining' data packets that are not properly decoded are not discarded anymore. The
received signal is stored in a 'buffer', and will be combined with next retransmission.

That is, two or more packets received each one with insufficient SNR to allow individual decoding can be
combined in such a way that the total signal can be decoded!

The following image explains this procedure. The transmitter sends a package [1]. The package [1] arrives,
and is 'OK'. If the package [1] is 'OK' then the receiver sends an 'ACK'.

Fig. 2.19 Receiver combining buffers a packet-2 and another packet-2

But if the combination of these two packages still does not give us the complete information, the process
must continue - and another 'NACK' is sent.

Fig. 2.15 Transmitter sends a packet-1

The transmission continues, and is sent a package [2]. The package [2] arrives, but let's consider now that it
arrives with errors. If the package [2] arrives with errors, the receiver sends a 'NACK'.

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 manages the link while it is operational. Secondary nodes are controlled by a primary, which means that
secondary can send information to the primary only if the primary grants permission.

SDLC primaries and secondary can be connected in four basic configurations:

• Point-to-point---Involves only two nodes, one primary and one secondary.
• Multipoint---Involves one primary and multiple secondary.
• Loop---Involves a loop topology, with the primary connected to the first and last secondary.
Intermediate secondary pass messages through one another as they respond to the requests of the
primary.
• Hub go-ahead---Involves an inbound and an outbound channel. The primary uses the outbound
channel to communicate with the secondary. The secondary use the inbound channel to
communicate with the primary. The inbound channel is daisy-chained back to the primary through
each secondary.
Fig. 2.20 Receiver sends NACK SDLC Frame Format
And there we have another retransmission. Now the transmitter sends a third package [2.2].
Let's consider that now it is 'OK', and the receiver sends an 'ACK'.

Fig. 2.22 SDLC Frame Format

• Flag---Initiates and terminates error checking.
• Address---Contains the SDLC address of the secondary station, which indicates whether the frame
Fig. 2.21 Receiver sends ACK comes from the primary or secondary. This address can contain a specific address, a group address,
Here we can see the following: along with the received package [2.2], the receiver also has packages [2] or a broadcast address. A primary is either a communication source or a destination, which
and [2.1] that have not been dropped and are stored in the buffer. eliminates the need to include the address of the primary.
In our example, we see that the package arrived 2 times 'wrong'. And what is the limit of these • Control---Employs three different formats, depending on the type of SDLC frame used:
retransmissions? Up to 4. IE, we can have up to 4 retransmissions in each process. This is the maximum 1. Information (I) frame: Carries upper-layer information and some control information. This
number supported by 'buffer'. frame sends and receives sequence numbers, and the poll final (P/F) bit performs flow and
error control. The send-sequence number refers to the number of the frame to be sent next.
BIT ORIENTED PROTOCOLS The receive-sequence number provides the number of the frame to be received next. Both
A bit-oriented protocol is a communications protocol that sees the transmitted data as an opaque stream sender and receiver maintain send- and receive-sequence numbers.
of bits with no semantics, or meaning. Control codes are defined in terms of bit sequences instead of A primary station uses the P/F bit to tell the secondary whether it requires an immediate
characters. Bit oriented protocol can transfer data frames regardless of frame contents. It can also be response. A secondary station uses the P/F bit to tell the primary whether the current frame is
stated as "bit stuffing" this technique allows the data frames to contain an arbitrary number of bits and the last in its current response.
allows character codes with arbitrary number of bits per character. 2. Supervisory (S) frame: Provides control information. An S frame can request and suspend
SDLC transmission, reports on status, and acknowledge receipt of I frames. S frames do not have an
Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) supports a variety of link types and topologies. It can be used with information field.
point-to-point and multipoint links, bounded and unbounded media, half-duplex and full-duplex 3. Unnumbered (U) frame: Supports control purposes and is not sequenced. A U frame can be
transmission facilities, and circuit-switched and packet-switched networks. used to initialize secondary. Depending on the function of the U frame, its control field is 1 or 2
bytes. Some U frames have an information field.
SDLC identifies two types of network nodes: primary and secondary. Primary nodes control the operation • Data---Contains path information unit (PIU) or exchange identification (XID) information.
of other stations, called secondary. The primary polls the secondary in a predetermined order and • Frame Check Sequence (FCS) ---Precedes the ending flag delimiter and is usually a cyclic
secondary can then transmit if they have outgoing data. The primary also sets up and tears down links and redundancy check (CRC) calculation remainder. The CRC calculation is redone in the receiver. If the
result differs from the value in the original frame, an error is assumed.

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 HDLC BISYNC
High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented code-transparent synchronous data link layer Binary Synchronous Communication (BSC or Bisync) is an IBM character-oriented, half duplex link protocol,
protocol. HDLC provides both connection-oriented and connectionless service. HDLC can be used for point announced in 1967 after the introduction of System/360. It replaced the synchronous transmit-receive
to multipoint connections, but is now used almost exclusively to connect one device to another, using what (STR) protocol used with second generation computers. The intent was that common link management
is known as Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM). The original master-slave modes Normal Response rules could be used with three different character encodings for messages. Six-bit Transcode looked
Mode (NRM) and Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM) are rarely used. backwards to older systems.
BISYNC establishes rules for transmitting binary-coded data between a terminal and a host computer's
FRAMING BISYNC port. While BISYNC is a half-duplex protocol, it will synchronize in both directions on a full-duplex
HDLC frames can be transmitted over synchronous or asynchronous serial communication links. Those links channel. BISYNC supports both point-to-point (over leased or dial-up lines) and multipoint transmissions.
have no mechanism to mark the beginning or end of a frame, so the beginning and end of each frame has Each message must be acknowledged, adding to its overhead.
to be identified. This is done by using a frame delimiter, or flag, which is a unique sequence of bits that is BISYNC is character oriented, meaning that groups of bits (bytes) are the main elements of transmission,
guaranteed not to be seen inside a frame. This sequence is '01111110', or, in hexadecimal notation, 0x7E. rather than a stream of bits. The BISYNC frame is pictured next. It starts with two sync characters that the
Each frame begins and ends with a frame delimiter. A frame delimiter at the end of a frame may also mark receiver and transmitter use for synchronizing. This is followed by a start of header (SOH) command, and
the start of the next frame. A sequence of 7 or more consecutive 1-bits within a frame will cause the frame then the header. Following this are the start of text (STX) command and the text. Finally, an end of text
to be aborted. (EOT) command and a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) end the frame. The CRC provides error detection and
When no frames are being transmitted on a simplex or full-duplex synchronous link, a frame delimiter is correction.
continuously transmitted on the link. Using the standard NRZI encoding from bits to line levels (0 bit =
transition, 1 bit = no transition), this generates one of two continuous waveforms, depending on the initial
state:
Fig. 2.25 BISYNC
Most of the bisynchronous protocols, of which there are many, provide only half-duplex transmission and
require an acknowledgment for every block of transmitted data. Some do provide full-duplex transmission
and bit-oriented operation.
Fig. 2.23 HDLC Framing BISYNC has largely been replaced by the more powerful SDLC (Synchronous Data Link Control).
This is used by modems to train and synchronize their clocks via phase-locked loops. Some protocols allow
the 0-bit at the end of a frame delimiter to be shared with the start of the next frame delimiter, i.e. LAP AND LAPB
'011111101111110'. Link Access Procedure (LAP) protocols are Data Link layer protocols for framing and transmitting data
Frame structure across point-to-point links. LAP was originally derived from HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control), but was
The contents of an HDLC frame are shown in the following table: later updated and renamed LAPB (LAP Balanced).
LAPB is the data link protocol for X.25.LAPB is a bit-oriented protocol derived from HDLC that ensures that
Flag Address Control Information FCS Flag frames are error free and in the right sequence. It can be used as a Data Link Layer protocol implementing
the connection-mode data link service in the OSI Reference Model as defined by ITU-T Recommendation
X.222.
8 bits 8 or more bits 8 or 16 bits Variable length, 0 or more bits 16 or 32 bits 8 bits LAPB is used to manage communication and packet framing between data terminal equipment (DTE) and
the data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) devices in the X.25 protocol stack. LAPB is essentially HDLC in
Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM). LAPB sessions can be established by either the DTE or DCE. The
Fig. 2.24 HDLC Frame structure
station initiating the call is determined to be the primary, and the responding station is the secondary.
Note that the end flag of one frame may be (but does not have to be) the beginning (start) flag of the next
Frame types
frame.
• I-Frames (Information frames): Carries upper-layer information and some control information. I-
Data is usually sent in multiples of 8 bits, but only some variants require this; others theoretically permit
frame functions include sequencing, flow control, and error detection and recovery. I-frames carry
data alignments on other than 8-bit boundaries.
send and receive sequence numbers.
There are three fundamental types of HDLC frames.
• S-Frames (Supervisory Frames): Carries control information. S-frame functions include requesting
• Information frames, or I-frames, transport user data from the network layer. In addition, they can
and suspending transmissions, reporting on status, and acknowledging the receipt of I-frames. S-
also include flow and error control information piggybacked on data.
frames carry only receive sequence numbers.
• Supervisory Frames, or S-frames, are used for flow and error control whenever piggybacking is
• U-Frames (Unnumbered Frames): carries control information. U-frame functions include link setup
impossible or inappropriate, such as when a station does not have data to send. S-frames do not have
and disconnection, as well as error reporting. U-frames carry no sequence numbers
information fields.
Frame format
• Unnumbered frames, or U-frames, are used for various miscellaneous purposes, including link
management. Some U-frames contain an information field, depending on the type.

Fig. 2.26 Frame format

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 Flag – The value of the flag is always 0x7E. In order to ensure that the bit pattern of the frame delimiter –Each state has zero or more possible transitions to other states
flag does not appear in the data field of the frame (and therefore cause frame misalignment), a –One particular state is initial state: from initial state, some or possibly all other states may be reachable
technique known as Bit stuffing is used by both the transmitter and the receiver. by a sequence of transitions.
Address field – In LAPB, this field has no meaning since the protocol works in a point to point mode and • Simplex stop and wait ARQ protocol:
the DTE network address is represented in the layer 3 packets. This byte is therefore put to a –State SRC: S = 0, 1 → which frame sender is sending;
different use; it separates the link commands from the responses and can have only two values: R = , → which frame receiver is expecting;
0x01 and 0x03. 01 identifies frames containing commands from DTE to DCE and responses to these C = 0, 1, A (ACK), − (e pt ) → channel state, i.e. what is in channel
commands from DCE to DTE. 03 are used for frames containing commands from DCE to DTE and for There are 9 transitions
responses from DTE to DCE. Transition Who runs? Frame Accepted Frame Emitted To Network Layer
Control field – it serves to identify the type of the frame. In addition, it includes sequence numbers, 0 – Frame lost Frame lost
control features and error tracking according to the frame type.
1 R 0 A –
Modes of operation
LAPB works in the Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM). This mode is balanced (i.e., no master/slave S
2 A 1 Yes
relationship) and is signified by the SABM (E)/SM frame. Each station may initialize, supervise, recover
from errors, and send frames at any time. The DTE and DCE are treated as equals. 3 R 1 A –
FCS – The Frame Check Sequence enables a high level of physical error control by allowing the integrity of S
4 A 0 Yes
the transmitted frame data to be checked.
Window size – LAPB supports an extended window size (modulo 128 and modulo 32768) where the 5 R 0 A –
maximum number of outstanding frames for acknowledgment is raised from 7 (modulo 8) to 127 (modulo R
128) and 32767 (modulo 32768). 6 1 A No
Protocol operation 7 S Time out 0 No
LAPB has no master/slave node relationships. The sender uses the Poll bit in command frames to insist on
8 S Time out 1 –
an immediate response. In the response frame this same bit becomes the receivers Final bit. The receiver
always turns on the Final bit in its response to a command from the sender with the Poll bit set. The P/F bit Table 2.1 List of Transitions
is generally used when either end becomes unsure about proper frame sequencing because of a possible –Initial state (000): sender has just sent frame 0, receiver is expecting frame 0, and frame 0 is currently in
missing acknowledgment, and it is necessary to re-establish a point of reference. It is also used to trigger channel
an acknowledgment of outstanding I-frames. –Transition 0: States channel losing its content.
–Transition 1: consists of channel correctly delivering packet 0 to receiver, and receiver expecting frame 1
Protocol verification: and emitting ACK 0. Also receiver delivering packet 0 to the network layer.
Finite State Machine Models –During normal operation, transitions 1,2,3,4 are repeated in order over and over: in each cycle, two
A finite-state machine (FSM) or finite-state automaton (plural: automata), or simply a state machine, is a frames are delivered, bringing sender back to initial state.
mathematical model of computation used to design both computer programs and sequential logic circuits.
It is conceived as an abstract machine that can be in one of a finite number of states. The machine is in
only one state at a time; the state it is in at any given time is called the current state. It can change from
one state to another when initiated by a triggering event or condition; this is called a transition. A
particular FSM is defined by a list of its states, and the triggering condition for each transition.
Finite-state machines can model a large number of problems, among which are electronic design
automation, communication protocol design, language parsing and other engineering applications. In
biology and artificial intelligence research, state machines or hierarchies of state machines have been used
to describe neurological systems. In linguistics, they are used to describe simple parts of the grammars of
natural languages.
The FSM Consist of
 States are those instants that the protocol machine is waiting for, the next event to happen e.g.
waiting for ACK.
 Transitions occur when some event happens. E.g. when a frame is sent, when a frame is arriving,
when timer goes off, when an interrupt occurs.
 Initial State gives description of the system i.e. when it starts running.
 A deadlock is a situation in which the protocol can make no more forward progress, there exists a
set of states from which there is no exit and no progress can be made. Fig 2.27 FSM for Stop and Wait Protocol (Half Duplex)
Petri Net
How to know a protocol really works → specifies and verify protocol using, e.g. finite state machine Petri Net(PN) is an abstract model to show the interaction between asynchronous processes. It is only one
–Each protocol machine (sender or receiver) is at a specific state at every time instant of the many ways to represent these interactions. Asynchronous means that the designer doesn't know

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 when the processes start and in which sequence they'll take place. A common manner to visualize the and here it is after firing:
concepts is with the use of places, tokens, transitions and arcs. We refer to the basics of Petri Net for a first
introduction in notations. We want to mention that a transition can only fire when there are tokens in
every input-place. When it fires, one token is taken from every input-place and every output-place from
the transition gets an (extra) token.
The Basics:
A Petri Net is a collection of directed arcs connecting places and transitions. Places may hold tokens. The
state or marking of a net is its assignment of tokens to places. Here is a simple net containing all
components of a Petri Net:

Fig 2.31
When a transition fires, it takes the tokens that enabled it from the input places; it then distributes tokens
to output places according to arc weights. If the arc weights are all the same, it appears that tokens are
moved across the transition. If they differ, however, it appears that tokens may disappear or be created.
That, in fact, is what happens; think of the transition as removing its enabling tokens and producing output
tokens according to arc weight.
Fig 2.28 Petri Net Model
A special kind of arc, the inhibitor arc, is used to reverse the logic of an input place. With an inhibitor arc,
Arcs have capacity 1 by default; if other than 1, the capacity is marked on the arc. Places have infinite
the absence of a token in the input place enables, not the presence:
capacity by default, and transitions have no capacity, and cannot store tokens at all. With the rule that arcs
can only connect places to transitions and vice versa, we have all we need to begin using Petri Nets. A few
other features and considerations will be added as we need them.

A transition is enabled when the number of tokens in each of its input places is at least equal to the arc
weight going from the place to the transition. An enabled transition may fire at any time. When fired, the
tokens in the input places are moved to output places, according to arc weights and place capacities. This
results in a new marking of the net, a state description of all places.

Fig 2.32
This transition cannot fire, because the token in P2 inhibits it.
Tokens can play the following roles:
A physical object: a robot;
• An information object: a message between two robots;
• A collection of objects: the people mover;
• An indicator of a state: the state in which a robot is: defender/attacker;
• An indicator of a condition: a token indicates whether a certain condition is fulfilled (ex. Soccer game
Fig 2.29
starts when the referee gives the signal).
When arcs have different weights, we have what might at first seem confusing behaviour. Here is a similar net, ready
to fire: Transitions can play the following roles:
• An event: start a thread, the switching of a machine from normal to safe mode;
• A transformation of an object: a robot that changes his role, see further;
• A transport of an object: the ball is passed between the robots.
An arc connects only places and transitions and indicates the direction in which the token travels.

Petri net Link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EmYVZuczJ6k

Finite State Machine Models https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hJIST1cEf6A
SDLC AND HDLC https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_fwVTFO-u4g

Fig 2.30

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