Babylonian captivity

The Babylonian captivity or Babylonian

exile is the period in Jewish history during
which a large number of Judeans from the
ancient Kingdom of Judah were captives
in Babylon, the capital city of the Neo-
Babylonian Empire, following their defeat
in the Jewish–Babylonian War and the
destruction of Solomon's Temple in
Jerusalem. The event is described in the
Hebrew Bible, and its historicity is
supported by archaeological and extra-
biblical evidence.

The Flight of the Prisoners (1896) by James Tissot; the exile of the Jews from Canaan to Babylon

After the Battle of Carchemish in 605 BCE,

the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II
besieged Jerusalem, which resulted in
tribute being paid by the Judean king
Jehoiakim.[1] In the fourth year of
Nebuchadnezzar II's reign, Jehoiakim
refused to pay further tribute, which led to
another siege of the city in
Nebuchadnezzar II's seventh year
(598/597 BCE) that culminated in the
death of Jehoiakim and the exile to
Babylonia of his successor Jeconiah, his
court, and many others; Jeconiah's
successor Zedekiah and others were
exiled when Nebuchadnezzar II destroyed
Jerusalem in his 18th year (587 BCE), and
a later deportation occurred in
Nebuchadnezzar II's 23rd year (582 BCE).
However, the dates, numbers of
deportations, and numbers of deportees
vary in the several biblical accounts.[2][3]
After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire
to the Achaemenid Persian Empire and its
founding king Cyrus the Great at the Battle
of Opis in 539 BCE, exiled Judeans were
permitted by the Persians to return to
Judah.[4][5] According to the biblical Book
of Ezra, construction of the Second
Temple in Jerusalem began in c. 537 BCE
in the new Persian province of Yehud
Medinata. All of these events are
considered significant to the developed
history and culture of the Jewish people,
and ultimately had a far-reaching impact
on the development of Judaism.
Archaeological studies have revealed that,
although the city of Jerusalem was utterly
destroyed, other parts of Judah continued
to be inhabited during the period of the
exile. Most of the exiled did not return to
their homeland, instead travelling
westward and northward. Many settled in
what is now northern Israel, Lebanon, and
Syria. The Iraqi Jewish, Persian Jewish,
Georgian Jewish, and Bukharan Jewish
communities are believed to derive their
ancestry in large part from these exiles;
these communities have now largely
immigrated to Israel.[6][7]
Biblical accounts of the exile

Clay tablet. The Akkadian cuneiform inscription lists certain rations and mentions the name of Jeconiah (Jehoiachin), King
of Judah, and the Babylonian captivity. From Babylon, Iraq. Reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, circa 580 BCE. Vorderasiatisches
Museum, Berlin

In the late 7th century BCE, the Kingdom of

Judah was a client state of the Assyrian
empire. In the last decades of the century,
Assyria was overthrown by Babylon, an
Assyrian province. Egypt, fearing the
sudden rise of the Neo-Babylonian empire,
seized control of Assyrian territory up to
the Euphrates river in Syria, but Babylon
counter-attacked. In the process Josiah,
the king of Judah, was killed in a battle
with the Egyptians at the Battle of
Megiddo (609 BCE).

After the defeat of Pharaoh Necho's army

by the Babylonians at Carchemish in 605
BCE, Jehoiakim began paying tribute to
Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. Some of
the young nobility of Judah were taken to
Babylon.

In the following years, the court of

Jerusalem was divided into two parties,
one supporting Egypt, the other Babylon.
After Nebuchadnezzar was defeated in
battle in 601 BCE by Egypt, Judah revolted
against Babylon, culminating in a three-
month siege of Jerusalem beginning in
late 598 BCE.[8] Jehoiakim, the king of
Judah, died during the siege[9] and was
succeeded by his son Jehoiachin (also
called Jeconiah) at the age of eighteen.[10]
The city fell on 2 Adar (March 16) 597
BCE,[11] and Nebuchadnezzar pillaged
Jerusalem and its Temple and took
Jeconiah, his court and other prominent
citizens (including the prophet Ezekiel)
back to Babylon.[12] Jehoiakim's uncle
Zedekiah was appointed king in his place,
but the exiles in Babylon continued to
consider Jeconiah as their Exilarch, or
rightful ruler.

Despite warnings by Jeremiah and others

of the pro-Babylonian party, Zedekiah
revolted against Babylon and entered into
an alliance with Pharaoh Hophra.
Nebuchadnezzar returned, defeated the
Egyptians, and again besieged Jerusalem,
resulting in the city's destruction in 587
BCE. Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the city
wall and the Temple, together with the
houses of the most important citizens.
Zedekiah and his sons were captured and
the sons were executed in front of
Zedekiah, who was then blinded and taken
to Babylon with many others (Jer 52:10–
11). Judah became a Babylonian province,
called Yehud, putting an end to the
independent Kingdom of Judah (Because
of the missing years in the Jewish
calendar, rabbinic sources place the date
of the destruction of the First Temple at
3338 AM (423 BCE)[13] or 3358 AM (403
BCE)).[14]

Illustration from the Nuremberg Chronicle of the destruction of Jerusalem under the Babylonian rule
The first governor appointed by Babylon
was Gedaliah, a native Judahite; he
encouraged the many Jews who had fled
to surrounding countries such as Moab,
Ammon and Edom to return, and he took
steps to return the country to prosperity.
Some time later, a surviving member of the
royal family assassinated Gedaliah and his
Babylonian advisors, prompting many
refugees to seek safety in Egypt. By the
end of the second decade of the 6th
century BCE, in addition to those who
remained in Judah, there were significant
Jewish communities in Babylon and in
Egypt; this was the beginning of the later
numerous Jewish communities living
permanently outside Judah in the Jewish
Diaspora.

According to the book of Ezra, the Persian

Cyrus the Great ended the exile in 538
BCE,[15] the year after he captured
Babylon.[16] The exile ended with the return
under Zerubbabel the Prince (so-called
because he was a descendant of the royal
line of David) and Joshua the Priest (a
descendant of the line of the former High
Priests of the Temple) and their
construction of the Second Temple in the
period 521–516 BCE.[15]
Archaeological and other
extra-biblical evidence

First campaign (597 BCE)

Nebuchadnezzar's siege of Jerusalem, his

capture of King Jeconiah, his appointment
of Zedekiah in his place, and the
plundering of the city in 597 BCE are
corroborated by a passage in the
Babylonian Chronicles:[17]: 293 

In the seventh year, in the

month of Kislev, the king of
Akkad mustered his troops,
 marched to the Hatti-land, and
encamped against the City of
Judah and on the ninth day of
the month of Adar he seized the
city and captured the king. He
appointed there a king of his
own choice and taking heavy
tribute brought it back to
Babylon.

Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets, describing

ration orders for a captive King of Judah,
identified with King Jeconiah, have been
discovered during excavations in Babylon,
in the royal archives of
Nebuchadnezzar.[18][19] One of the tablets
refers to food rations for "Ya’u-kīnu, king of
the land of Yahudu" and five royal princes,
his sons.[20]

Second campaign (589–587 BCE)

Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian

forces returned in 589 BCE and rampaged
through Judah, leaving clear
archaeological evidence of destruction in
many towns and settlements there.[17]: 294 
Clay ostraca from this period, referred to
as the Lachish letters, were discovered
during excavations; one, which was
probably written to the commander at
Lachish from an outlying base, describes
how the signal fires from nearby towns
were disappearing: "And may (my lord) be
apprised that we are watching for the fire
signals of Lachish according to all the
signs which my lord has given, because
we cannot see Azeqah."[21] Archaeological
finds from Jerusalem testify that virtually
the whole city within the walls was burnt
to rubble in 587 BCE and utterly
destroyed.[17]: 295 

Aftermath in Judah

Archaeological excavations and surveys

have enabled the population of Judah
before the Babylonian destruction to be
calculated with a high degree of
confidence to have been approximately
75,000. Taking the different biblical
numbers of exiles at their highest, 20,000,
this would mean that only about 25% of
the population had been deported to
Babylon, with the remaining 75% staying in
Judah.[17]: 306  Although Jerusalem was
destroyed and depopulated, with large
parts of the city remaining in ruins for 150
years, numerous other settlements in
Judah continued to be inhabited, with no
signs of disruption visible in
archaeological studies.[17]: 307 
Archaeologist Avraham Faust states that
between the deportations and executions
caused by the Babylonians, plus the
famines and epidemics that occurred
during the war, the population of Judah
was reduced to barely a 10% of what it had
been in the time before deportations.[22]

Persian restoration

The Cyrus Cylinder, an ancient tablet on

which is written a declaration in the name
of Cyrus referring to restoration of temples
and repatriation of exiled peoples, has
often been taken as corroboration of the
authenticity of the biblical decrees
attributed to Cyrus,[23] but other scholars
point out that the cylinder's text is specific
to Babylon and Mesopotamia and makes
no mention of Judah or Jerusalem.[23]
Professor Lester L. Grabbe asserted that
the "alleged decree of Cyrus" regarding
Judah, "cannot be considered authentic",
but that there was a "general policy of
allowing deportees to return and to re-
establish cult sites". He also stated that
archaeology suggests that the return was
a "trickle" taking place over decades,
rather than a single event.[24]

As part of the Persian Empire, the former

Kingdom of Judah became the province of
Judah (Yehud Medinata[25]) with different
borders, covering a smaller territory.[24]
The population of the province was greatly
reduced from that of the kingdom,
archaeological surveys showing a
population of around 30,000 people in the
5th to 4th centuries BCE.[17]: 308 

A 2017 exhibition in Jerusalem displayed

over 100 cuneiform tablets detailing trade
in fruits and other commodities, taxes,
debts, and credits accumulated between
Jews forced or persuaded to move from
Jerusalem by King Nebuchadnezzar
around 600 BCE. The tablets included
details on one exiled Judean family over
four generations, all with Hebrew
names.[26][27]

Exilic literature
The exilic period was a rich one for
Hebrew literature. Biblical depictions of
the exile include Book of Jeremiah 39–43
(which saw the exile as a lost opportunity);
the final section of 2 Kings (which portrays
it as the temporary end of history); 2
Chronicles (in which the exile is the
"Sabbath of the land"); and the opening
chapters of Ezra, which records its end.
Other works from or about the exile
include the stories in Daniel 1–6, Susanna,
Bel and the Dragon, the "Story of the Three
Youths" (1 Esdras 3:1–5:6), and the books
of Tobit and Book of Judith.[28] The Book
of Lamentations arose from the
Babylonian captivity. The final redaction of
the Pentateuch took place in the Persian
period following the exile,[17]: 310 and the
Priestly source, one of its main sources, is
primarily a product of the post-exilic period
when the former Kingdom of Judah had
become the Persian province of Yehud.[29]

Significance in Jewish history

Depiction of Jews mourning the exile in Babylon

In the Hebrew Bible, the captivity in

Babylon is presented as a punishment for
idolatry and disobedience to Yahweh in a
similar way to the presentation of Israelite
slavery in Egypt followed by deliverance.
The Babylonian captivity had a number of
serious effects on Judaism and Jewish
culture. For example, the current Hebrew
alphabet was adopted during this period,
replacing the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet.

This period saw the last high point of

biblical prophecy in the person of Ezekiel,
followed by the emergence of the central
role of the Torah in Jewish life. According
to many historical-critical scholars, the
Torah was redacted during this time, and
began to be regarded as the authoritative
text for Jews. This period saw their
transformation into an ethno-religious
group who could survive without a central
Temple.[30] Israeli philosopher and Biblical
scholar Yehezkel Kaufmann said "The exile
is the watershed. With the exile, the
religion of Israel comes to an end and
Judaism begins."[31]

This process coincided with the

emergence of scribes and sages as
Jewish leaders (see Ezra). Prior to exile,
the people of Israel had been organized
according to tribe. Afterwards, they were
organized by smaller family groups. Only
the Tribe of Levi continued in its temple
role after the return. After this time, there
were always sizable numbers of Jews
living outside Eretz Israel; thus, it also
marks the beginning of the "Jewish
diaspora", unless this is considered to
have begun with the Assyrian captivity of
Israel.

In Rabbinic literature, Babylon was one of

a number of metaphors for the Jewish
diaspora. Most frequently the term
"Babylon" meant the diaspora prior to the
destruction of the Second Temple. The
post-destruction term for the Jewish
Diaspora was "Rome", or "Edom".

Chronology
The following table is based on Rainer
Albertz's work on Israel in exile.[32]
(Alternative dates are possible.)
 Year Event

609 BCE Death of Josiah.

609– Reign of Jehoiakim (succeeded Jehoahaz, who replaced Josiah but reigned only 3
598 BCE months). Began giving tribute to Nebuchadnezzar in 605 BCE. First deportation,
purportedly including Daniel.

598/7 Reign of Jehoiachin (reigned 3 months). Siege and fall of Jerusalem.

BCE Second deportation, 16 March 597.

597 BCE Zedekiah made king of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon.

594 BCE Anti-Babylonian conspiracy.

587 BCE Siege and fall of Jerusalem. Solomon's Temple destroyed.

Third deportation July/August 587.

583 BCE Gedaliah, the Babylonian-appointed governor of Yehud Province, is assassinated.

Many Jews flee to Egypt and a possible fourth deportation to Babylon.

562 BCE Release of Jehoiachin after 37 years in a Babylonian prison.[33] He remains in

Babylon.

539 BCE Persians conquer Babylon (October).

538 BCE Decree of Cyrus allows Jews to return to Jerusalem.

520– Return by many Jews to Yehud under Zerubbabel and Joshua the High Priest.
515 BCE Foundations of Second Temple laid.

See also
Judaism
portal

Avignon Papacy, sometimes called the

"Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy"
 Al-Yahudu Tablets, 200 clay tablets from
the sixth and fifth centuries BCE on the
exiled Judean community
Biblical Egypt
Return to Zion, biblical account of the
return to Judah by some of the exiled
Juhadites
Psalm 137, expressing lamentation of
the exiles in Babylon for the loss of
Jerusalem

References
1. Coogan, Michael (2009). A Brief
Introduction to the Old Testament. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
2. Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (2011).
Biblical History and Israel S Past: The
Changing Study of the Bible and History (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8E
MoaUC&pg=PA357) . Wm. B. Eerdmans
Publishing. pp. 357–58. ISBN 978-
0802862600. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
"Overall, the difficulty in calculation arises
because the biblical texts provide varying
numbers for the different deportations. The
HB/OT's conflicting figures for the dates,
number and victims of the Babylonian
deportations become even more of a
problem for historical reconstruction
because, other than the brief reference to
the first capture of Jerusalem (597) in the
 Babylonian Chronicle, historians have only
the biblical sources with which to work."
3. Dunn, James G.; Rogerston, John William
(2003). Eerdmans Commentary on the
Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 545.
ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.
4. Jonathan Stökl, Caroline Waerzegger
(2015). Exile and Return: The Babylonian
Context. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co.
pp. 7–11, 30, 226.
5. Encyclopaedia Judaica. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.).
p. 27.
6. The Wellspring of Georgian Historiography:
The Early Medieval Historical Chronicle The
Conversion of Katli and The Life of St. Nino,
Constantine B. Lerner, England: Bennett and
Bloom, London, 2004, p. 60
 7. Dekel, Mikhal. "When Iran Welcomed
Jewish Refugees" (https://foreignpolicy.co
m/2019/10/19/when-iran-welcomed-jewish
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8. Geoffrey Wigoder, The Illustrated Dictionary
& Concordance of the Bible Pub. by Sterling
Publishing Company, Inc. (2006)
9. Dan Cohn-Sherbok, The Hebrew Bible,
Continuum International, 1996, p. x. ISBN 0-
304-33703-X
10. 2Kings 24:6–8
11. Philip J. King, Jeremiah: An Archaeological
Companion (Westminster John Knox Press,
1993), p. 23.
12. The Oxford History of the Biblical World, ed.
by Michael D Coogan. Pub. by Oxford
University Press, 1999. p. 350
13. Rashi to Talmud Bavli, avodah zara p. 9a.
Josephus, seder hadoroth year 3338
14. malbim to Ezekiel 24:1, abarbanel et al.
15. "Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE)
Persian Rule" (http://www.biu.ac.il/js/renne
rt/history_4.html) . Biu.ac.il. Retrieved
2014-03-15.
16. Harper's Bible Dictionary, ed. by Achtemeier,
etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p.
103
17. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher
(2001). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's
New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin
of Its Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster.
ISBN 978-0-684-86912-4.
18. Thomas, David Winton (1958). Documents
from Old Testament Times (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=4cRBAQAAIAAJ&q=ta
blets&pg=PA84) (1961 ed.). Edinburgh and
London: Thomas Nelson. p. 84.
ISBN 9780061300851.
19. Cf. 2Kings 24:12, 24:15–24:16, 25:27–
25:30; 2Chronicles 36:9–36:10; Jeremiah
22:24–22:6, 29:2, 52:31–52:34; Ezekiel
17:12.
20. COJS staff. "Babylonian Ration List: King
Jehoiakhin in Exile, 592/1 BCE" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20130616092557/http://
cojs.org/cojswiki/Babylonian_Ration_List%
3A_King_Jehoiakhin_in_Exile%2C_592/1_B
CE) . COJS.org. The Center for Online
Judaic Studies. Archived from the original
(http://cojs.org/cojswiki/Babylonian_Ration
_List:_King_Jehoiakhin_in_Exile,_592/1_BC
E) on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 23 August
2013. "Ya'u-kīnu, king of the land of Yahudu"
21. Translation from Aḥituv, Shmuel. Echoes
from the Past. Jerusalem: CARTA
Jerusalem, 2008, p. 70.
22. Faust, Avraham (2012). Judah in the Neo-
Babylonian Period: The Archaeology of
Desolation (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=NcnPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA119) .
Society of Biblical Lit. pp. 140–143.
ISBN 978-1-58983-641-9.
23. Becking, Bob (2006). " "We All Returned as
One!": Critical Notes on the Myth of the
Mass Return" (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=1zi2i_C1aNkC&pg=PA8) . In
Lipschitz, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.).
Judah and the Judeans in the Persian
Period. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. p. 8.
ISBN 978-1-57506-104-7.
24. Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the
Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple
Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian
Province of Judah v. 1 (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&pg=PA3
55) . T & T Clark. p. 355. ISBN 978-
0567089984.
25. Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the
Hebrew Yehuda, or "Judah", and "medinata"
the word for province
26. "Ancient tablets on display in Jerusalem
reveal Jewish life during Babylon exile" (htt
p://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4
622505,00.html) . Ynetnews. 3 February
2015.
27. Baker, Luke (3 February 2017). "Ancient
tablets reveal life of Jews in
Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon" (https://www.re
uters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-ba
bylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203) .
Reuters.
28. Rainer Albertz, Israel in exile: the history
and literature of the sixth century BCE
(page 15 link) (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=Xx9YzJq2B9wC&pg=PA15)
Society for Biblical Literature, 2003, pp. 4–
38
29. Blum, Erhard (1998). "Issues and Problems
in the Contemporary Debate Regarding the
Priestly Writings" (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=10E4LpK732sC&pg=PA31) . In
Sarah Shectman, Joel S. Baden (ed.). The
strata of the priestly writings: contemporary
debate and future directions. Theologischer
Verlag. pp. 32–33. ISBN 9783290175368.
30. A Concise History of the Jewish People.
Naomi E. Pasachoff, Robert J. Littma.
Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. p. 43
31. "Secrets of Noah's Ark - Transcript" (https://
www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/video/secrets-of-
noahs-ark) . Nova. PBS. 7 October 2015.
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32. Rainer Albertz, Israel in exile: the history
and literature of the sixth century BCE (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=Xx9YzJq2
B9wC&pg=PR21) , p.xxi.
page 77 with another list of dates (http
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zJq2B9wC&pg=PA77)
33. 2 Kings 25:27 (https://mechon-mamre.org/
p/pt/pt09b25.htm#27)

Further reading
Wikimedia Commons has media related
to Babylonian captivity.

Yehud Medinata (http://lib.cet.ac.il/page

s/item.asp?item=17449&str1=%D7%A
4%D7%97%D7%95%D7%95%D7%AA+%D
7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%94
&str3=&find=1&ex=0&docs=1&pic=1&sit
es=1&title=&all=1&x=0&y=0) map, CET
– Center For Educational technology (htt
p://www3.cet.ac.il/aboutEng.aspx)
Yehud Medinata (http://lib.cet.ac.il/page
s/item.asp?item=9677&str1=%D7%A4%
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r3=&find=1&ex=0&docs=1&pic=1&sites=
1&title=&all=1&x=0&y=0) Border map,
CET – Center For Educational
technology
Alstola, Tero, "Judeans in Babylonia: A
Study of Deportees in the Sixth and Fifth
Centuries BCE" (Brill, 2019) (https://brill.
com/display/title/35981?language=en)
Peter R. Ackroyd, "Exile and Restoration:
A Study of Hebrew Thought of the Sixth
Century B.C." (SCM Press, 1968) (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=fNiTM
hIJDb0C&q=Exile+and+Restoration:+A+
Study+of+Hebrew+Thought+of+the+Sixt
h+Century+B.C.)
Alstola, "Everyday Life in Exile: Judean
Deportees in Babylonian Texts", The
Ancient Near East Today : Current News
about the Ancient Past, vol. 10, no. 6,
2022 (https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstrea
m/handle/10138/345080/2022_Alstola
_ANE_Today_published.pdf?sequence=
1)
Rainer Albertz, Bob Becking, "Yahwism
after the Exile" (Van Gorcum, 2003) (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=hwExA
TCqwvwC&q=Yahwism+after+the+exil
e)
Blenkinsopp, Joseph, "Judaism, the first
phase: the place of Ezra and Nehemiah
in the origins of Judaism" (Eerdmans,
2009) (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=m1V1DeBS6P0C&q=Judaism,+the
+first+phase:+the+place+of+Ezra+and+
Nehemiah)
Nodet, Étienne, "A search for the origins
of Judaism: from Joshua to the
Mishnah" (Sheffield Academic Press,
1999, original edition Editions du Cerf,
1997) (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=rE49wYHz5YUC&q=A+search+for+
the+origins+of+Judaism:+from+Joshua
+to+the+Mishnah)
Becking, Bob, and Korpel, Marjo
Christina Annette (eds), "The Crisis of
Israelite Religion: Transformation of
Religious Tradition in Exilic & Post-Exilic
Times" (Brill, 1999) (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=lak_YWjCjDMC&q=The
+crisis+of+Israelite+religion:+transform
ation+of+religious+tradition)
Bedford, Peter Ross, "Temple restoration
in early Achaemenid Judah" (Brill, 2001)
(https://books.google.com/books?id=M
Od320e710IC)
Grabbe, Lester L., "A history of the Jews
and Judaism in the Second Temple
Period", vol.1 (T&T Clark International,
2004) (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=VK2fEzruIn0C&pg=PA85)
Lipschitz, Oded, "The Fall and Rise of
Jerusalem" (Eisenbrauns, 2005) (https://
books.google.com/books?id=78nRWgb-
rp8C&q=Lipschitz,+Oded+fall+and+ris
e)
Lipschitz, Oded, and Oeming, Manfred
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