BSE532 Fire Engineering Systems

MSc Lecture 1:
Fire Detection Systems

Dr. Gigi C.H. LUI

Department of Building Environment and Energy Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hong Kong, China
MScFES2022-01-FD.ppt 1
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Different signatures
3. Types of automatic fire detectors
4. Components of fire detection system
5. Detection of fire and activation of fire protection
system
6. References

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1. Introduction
 Goals of detection system
Life safety
Property protection
Business protection
Environmental concerns

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 Functions of detection system
Identifying a developing fire
Alerting building occupants
Actuating fire suppression systems
Alerting organized assistance
Supervising processes

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 Specification of detection system
Code of practice for Minimum Fire Service
Installations and Equipment by Fire Services
Department (FSD)/ FSD Circular Letters
British Standard 5839: Part 1 or other standards
Direct telephone link (DTL) provided to the Fire
Services Communication Centre (FSCC)
Requirements of detection heads
Monitoring of system in building operation

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2. Different signatures
 Fire signatures
Fire product that changes ambient conditions
Necessary criteria for detection purpose:
 measurable

 high signal to noise level

 during the earliest period of fire development

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 Aerosol signatures
solid and liquid particles
size in 5 x 10-4 to 10 micrometers
< 0.3 micrometers
 do not scatter light efficiently
 considered invisible

> 0.3 micrometers

 usually called ‘smoke’

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Invisible aerosol
 earliest appearing
 size in 5 x 10-4 to 0.3 micrometers

 in huge quantities

 temperature below ignition temperature

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Visible aerosol
 heating to ignition temperature
 concentration of invisible aerosol
increases
 larger particles forms by coagulation

 0.3 to 10 micrometer

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 
 m (e.g. Volatiles from Burning Wood Soot)
Smoke
Visible DUST GRIT

Smoke Powder
0.3 m 76 m 10  m
Pre-ignition
Particles
(e.g. CH 4 , CO)

 
10 m 10-3 m 10 m 0.1 m 1 m 10 m Diameter

Detection methods:

Detection by: Ionization Detector

Operating Range
1. Particle counting

2. Modified light scatter

detector

3. CO detector

4. Semi-conductor detector
(Flammable gas detector)
Ionization Obscuration
Detector Detector Sensitive,
Sensitive Light Scatter
(Turbulent Detector Sensitive
atmosphere) (Quiescent atmosphere)
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 Energy release signatures
Infrared (IR) signature
 IR from hydrocarbon at 4.4 micrometer
(CO2) and 2.7 micrometer (H2O)
 high signal-to-noise ratio

 possible false signals from human

generated sources
Flame flickering signature at 1.5 to
15 Hz

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Ultraviolet (UV) signature
 emissions from OH, CO2 and CO
 0.27 to 0.29 micrometer

 lower signal-to-noise ratio than IR

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Electromagnetic wave spectrum

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Convection
Causes increase in air temperature
Time required (less than 1 minute
to days)
Not an effective signature for life
protection

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 Gas signatures
gas generated not normally present in the
atmosphere
 “evolved gas signatures”

 e.g. H2O, CO, CO2, HCl, HF, H2S, NH3

 very much fuel-specific, except CO

CO generated may vary

reduction of oxygen content
detection of slow burning and smouldering
fires
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Fire stages

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3. Types of automatic fire detectors
 Heat Detectors
 Smoke Detectors
 Flame Detectors
 Gas Detectors
 Special purpose

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Heat detectors
 Oldest type, started with sprinklers in the
1860’s
 least $ and lowest false alarm rate
 slowest in detecting hostile fire
 best
at detecting high energy output fire
suited for confined space with rapidly
building high-heat output fires
convected thermal energy

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 Fixed temperature
eutectic metal type
glass bulb type
continuous line type
bimetal type
snap disc
 Rate of temperature rise
pneumatic line type
pneumatic air chamber
thermo-electric
 Combination heat detectors
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Line type fire detection cable using a
glass semiconductor

Fire Detection System 22

Rate of rise’ thermal fire detector with
two bimetal strips

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Rate compensation type heat detector

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Fusible-element- type

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Rate-of-rise heat detectors

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Combination type of heat detectors

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Electronic spot-type

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Smoke detectors
 Operating principles
Ionization
 fastresponse to flaming fires
 detects invisible and visible smoke
particulates
Photoelectric
 fastresponse on smoldering fires
 detects visible smoke particulates

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Smoke detectors
(Ionisation detectors)

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Smoke detectors (Photoelectric detectors –
Light obscuration detectors

Light scattering detectors

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Smoke detector installation
 High money value areas
 Areas where life safety is primary
 Return air ducts of heating, ventilation
and air-conditioning HVAC systems in
large buildings
 Automatically activates smoke doors

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Smoke detection system design calculation
 Information concerning
the expected fuel,
fire growth,
sensor and
compartment characteristics is required
 Smoke production and characteristics
Fuel characteristics
 Material

 Mode of combustion

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 Common equations found in modeling smoke detector response

Intensity of a light beam

Percent obscuration O:  I  In the presence of smoke
O  1001  
 Io 
Initial intensity of a
light beam reaching
a photocell
Percent obscuration  1

  I  
per unit distance Ou: Ou  1001     Distance between the source
  Io   and the photocell
 
Optical density D: Optical density per unit distance Du (m-1):

 Io   I  D 1 I  1  I 
D  log10     log10   Du   log10  o    log10  
 I   Io     I    Io 

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 To estimate the response of smoke detector, need to estimate the optical density

Volume of the smoke test chamber

mass optical density

DVC
Dm  mass loss of the sample

M
(accurate measurement needed)

optical density per meter

Depends on size distribution and
K extinction coefficient optical density of smoke
D 
2.3 2.3
extinction coefficient per unit mass  mass conc. of aerosol

2.3

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Type (Sample) Maximum Ds Dm (mass optical Combustion Sample thickness
(specific optical density) (m2/g) conditions (cm)
density) Computed by
Quintiere
plywood 5.3 x 102 0.29 pyrolysis 0.6

polyvinylchloride 1.8 x 102 0.12 pyrolysis 0.6

polyvinylchloride 3.5 x 102 0.64 pyrolysis 0.6

(with plasticizer)
Polyurethane (MO1) - 0.22 Flaming -
( a mattress)

Extracted from SFPE Handbook section 2 chapter 15 (Specific optical density and mass optical
Density of wood and Plastic)

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 The design objective is to detect the smoke from a flaming 200g
polyurethane pillow in less than 2 min. The pillow is located in a
36 m2 room with a ceiling height of 2.5 m. Assume that the pillow
is burning at a steady rate of 50 g/min.
Can the design objective be achieved ?

DVC Dm M 2 min x 50 g/min = mass loss of the sample

Dm  D
M VC
36 m2 x 2.5 m = volume of the room

From table = 0.22 m2/g

Optical density=0.244 m-1

From UL the upper sensitivity limit if 0.14 m-1 (black smoke)

It can be assumed that the detector will respond within 2 min
Assumed : smoke is confined to the room, well mixed, can reach ceiling level, can enter
the detector.

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– Stratification
 Detection of low energy fires
 Very high ceiling
 Temperature within plume = that of the surrounding air
– Insufficient thermal energy
– Stratification effects can be calculated using

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Stratification and detection

Temperature profile of hot air layer under atrium ceiling

Klote J, Milke J, Principles of smoke management, ASHRAE, SFPE, 2002

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 Arrangements of beam smoke detectors
Klote J, Milke J, Principles of smoke management, ASHRAE, SFPE, 2002

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 Arrangements of beam smoke detectors

Klote J, Milke J, Principles of smoke management, ASHRAE, SFPE, 2002

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 Arrangements of beam smoke detectors
Klote J, Milke J, Principles of smoke management, ASHRAE, SFPE, 2002

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Flame detectors
 Optically sense UV or IR radiation
 ‘line or sight’ devices: must ‘see’ the fire
 Extremely reliable in hostile environment
 Very expensive and labor intensive to
maintain

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 infrared flame detectors
 filter and lens filters out unwanted
wavelengths
 photovoltaic cell
 in combination with flame flicker in the
frequency range of 5-30 Hz
 sensitive to most hydrocarbon fires

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 ultraviolet flame detectors
 insensitive to sunlight and artificial light
 sensitive to most fires
 arc welding, X-rays, lightning
 UV absorbing gases may affect the
sensitivity
 combined IR/UV detectors

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 Supervised areas
of equal sensitivity

Ref: Bryan, Fire Suppression and detection systems

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Cloud chamber smoke detection
 air sampling type detectors
 cloud chamber smoke detection principle
 continuous air-sampling smoke detection
 detector responds when density of particulate
matter exceeds pre-determined level
 can sample multiple areas
 control and knowledge of background
levels of particulate matter critical

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Gas sensing type fire detectors
 Slower than smoke detection
 Faster than heat detection
 Semiconductor principle
 oxidizing gases or reducing gases generate
electrical charges in the semi-conductor
 Catalytic element principle
 catalyst accelerates oxidation resulting in a
rise in temperature of the catalyst

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Other detection devices
 Manual pull stations
 Suppression system actuators
 water flow indicators
 system trip
 Supervisory devices
 valve position
 suppression system tank
 level, pressure etc.

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4. Components of
fire detection system
 Fire Alarm Initiating Devices
 Fire Alarm Notification Devices
 Fire Alarm Control Panel (FACP)
 Backup Power Supply
 Remote Control & Display Panels
 Sprinkler Systems

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 System control unit
 Main power supply
 Secondary power supply
 Basic Components:
initiating devices
alarm notification devices
remote signal notification

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5. Detection of fire and activation
of fire protection systems

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Stage A
 Determination of objectives
 Required time to response
 Location and extent of detection
 Type of detection
 Siting and spacing
 Calculated time to response

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Stage B
 Fire Control and Warning Systems
B.1: Determine type and extent of local and remote
fire warning systems and the likely response times
of persons within the premises and fire fighting
personnel
B.2: Fire suppression systems
B.3: Fire barrier systems
B.4: Smoke control systems

Stage C
 Review

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(from PD 7974-4)

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6. References
 BRE information paper, IP13/92, Building Research
Establishment, June (1992)
 Bryan J., Fire Suppression and detection systems, 3rd
edition, Prentice Hall (1993)
 Fong, N.K., MSc Lecture on Fire Detection Systems
(2017)
 Okayama, Y., A primitive study of a fire detection
method controlled by artificial neural net, Fire Safety
Journal, Vol. 17, p.409-432 (1991)
 PD7974-4:2003 Application of fire safety engineering
principles to the design of buildings – Part 4:
Detection of fire and activation of fire protection
systems (Sub-system 4)
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 Pfisher, G., Multisensor fire detection: a new trend
rapidly becomes state of the art, Fire Technology, vol.
33, p.115-139 (1997)
 Tuillard, M., New methods for reducing the number
of false alarms in fire detection systems, Fire
Technology, second quarter, p.250-268 (1994)

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