Communication Skills

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
COMMUNITY BASED LEARNING

PROGRAMME
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CHAPTER 1;
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
In this section, we shall examine the field of communication to serve as a foundation to what follows in
the course. Principally, we shall define communication; outline its elements; principles and its importance
in academic and life in general. We shall also briefly examine the various types of communication.
1.1 Objectives of the topic

At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
a) Define communication
b) Discuss the elements that constitute communication
c) Explain the importance of communication in academics and in life in general
d) Outline the importance principles of communication
e) Discuss the various types of communication
1.2 What is Communication?

The term communication comes from a Latin word ‘communicare’ which means to make common or
share. Therefore, communication is a process by which meaning is exchanged between individuals or an
individual and a group through a common system of symbols, signs and behaviour.
 The definition of communication is shared in the Webster’s Dictionary as “sending, giving, or
exchanging information and ideas,” which is often expressed non-verbally and verbally.
 A plethora of authors have defined communication including Gamble and Gamble, who define
communication as a desirable or accidental transfer of meaning.
 Communication is also a process of sharing or exchanging ideas, information, knowledge,
attitude or feelings through certain signs, symbols and behavior.
 Communication is more than transfer of ideas and thoughts; it is a dynamic process of action and
interaction towards desired goals.
a) Communication is a process: It is an activity which is an exchange of meaning that is dynamic.

Communication is therefore not static. Communication as a process is a concept whose critical
element is the changing nature of its occurrence.
b) Communication involves meaning: meaning is shared understanding of message. The
understanding of the meaning of another person’s message only occurs when you elicit common
meanings for words, phrases and non-verbal messages.
c) Communication is a system of symbols, signs and behavior: the system may be in form of
language, gesture, demeanor, facial expressions, etc.
1.3 Importance of Studying Communication

Communication is central to human life. You cannot avoid communication and you will engage in
communication nearly every minute of every day in your life. In addition, communication plays a major
role in every aspect of your life. Effective communication therefore both enhances your daily life and at
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the same time solves problems in your professional and personal life. Communication experts believe that
poor communication is at the root of many of our problems.
Therefore there are various reasons why studying communication is important:
Studying communication helps in understanding and insight of oneself and others
Self awareness is the way we see ourselves. Most of our self knowledge comes from
communication with us (intrapersonal communication) and communication with other people
(interpersonal communication). The message and feedback we receive from others helps improve
our self concept.
Studying communication and using it effectively can lead to more positive feelings of ourselves.
Effective communication can improve our self worth by enabling us to positively project
ourselves in what is called image management.
Studying communication can increase our knowledge about human relationships because
studying communication includes learning about how people relate with one another and about
what communication is appropriate for a given situation.
Studying communication can teach us important life skills. For instance it can help us acquire
problem solving skills. Studying communication is also instrumental in helping us acquire
important life skills such as decision making skills, public speaking etc. All this skills are
important in academic and career development.
Studying communication can help us succeed professionally. Employers regard highly written,
oral and other communication competencies. The ability to listen and analyze messages is usually
considered an essential professional skill. Entrepreneurs too regard communication skills as top
priority skills for success.
Poor communication may lead to misunderstanding, frustration, being ignored by others,
unsuccessful careers, among many other negative consequences.
1.4 Elements of Communication

Elements of communication are the components that constitute the communication process. These are:
a) People
-These are the participants in the communication process. People are involved in communication
in two roles. They are sources and receivers of messages. Sources initiate / compose the intended
message. S/he encodes the message, while receivers are the intended target of messages, i.e. a
receiver is the person who receives, decodes, comprehends and attaches meaning to the message
sent. The participants’ knowledge, interest and emotional state will affect how the message is sent
or received. In the communication process, people are sources and receivers of a message
simultaneously and continually.
b) Message
-This is the verbal or non-verbal form of idea, thought or feeling that one person (source) wishes
to communicate to a group of people (receivers). The message, therefore, is the content of
interaction. A message may be easy to understand or long and complex, it may be intentional or
un-intentional.

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c) Channel
-This is the means by which a message moves from a source to a receiver. It is also called the
medium of transmission. The medium may be in form of sound waves (in oral-auditory
messages) or as light waves (in visual communication such as written communication).
d) Feedback
-This is the receiver’s verbal, non verbal or written response to the message from the source.
Feedback is part of any communication situation such that even non-response is feedback.
e) Code
-This is the systematic arrangement of symbols used by the source or receiver to create
meaning in the mind of another person(s) or receiver(s). The code may be in form of
i) Language you choose to communicate in e.g. English, Kiswahili or Sheng
ii) Grammatical structure, for instance, a statement, question etc.
iii) Words and phrases you choose to use
iv) Non-verbal codes you may choose.
f) Encoding and decoding
Encoding is the act of putting ideas and thoughts into a code, while decoding is interpreting /
making sense those ideas or thoughts.
g) Noise
Noise is any interference in encoding or decoding process that reduces the clarity of a message.
Noise can be in the form of:
i) Physical noise which can be in form of decoding process that reduces the clarity of a
message to prevent in a speaking or listening situation. For example, closing doors to a noisy
room wearing ear plugs, etc.
ii) Psychological noise, mental and emotional interferences that distract communication, such as
day dreaming, pain, hunger and the like.
iii) Semantic noise, which is the use of expressions that are unknown to the receiver or are too
complex in grammatical structure. They include language differences, inattention and
misunderstanding caused by different interpretations of a word or an expression. Cultural
diversity can also lead to semantic noise.
1.5 Principles of Communication

There are important properties of communication that we need to keep in mind as we study and employ
communication. The properties constitute the invaluable attributes of communication:
a) Communication is inescapable: communication is always occurring in human life at various
levels for instance, at the intra-personal level when you are thinking, planning, meditating, as well
as when you are observing, gathering information and making conclusions. It also occurs at the
interpersonal level as you interact with one another.
b) Communication is irreversible: you cannot take back something once it is communicated. Even
if you can, what has been communicated cannot entirely be erased. Traces of the effect of the
communication will always remain.

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c) Communication is dynamic: all elements in communication (i.e. setting, participants, their
knowledge, their roles, etc) affect each other as communication progresses.
d) Every communication interaction has a content dimension and relationship dimension:
Content dimension is the information or message that a source desires to communicate, which has
to be packaged in a strategic manner to elicit a desired reaction. The relationship dimension of
communication constitutes the elements in the communication that seek to signal and
acknowledge the state of the social relation between the communicating parties. The relationship
dimension ‘oils’ the attainment of communication goals. For instance, if your lecturer entered
into the lecture room with unzipped trousers and you wanted to alert him to this fact, you will not
just blurt out to him the content of what you want to say to him! You will need to do a lot of
damage control about the awkward situation, while at the same time recognizing his superior
position in relation to you as a student. Just think of the exact kind of language you would use and
point out the content and relationship dimension of what you will say.
e) Communication is contextual: communication does not occur in a vacuum. It involves various
aspects of context of communication. The context of communication is the environment in which
communication takes place. The context of communication involves:
 Psychological context: that is the needs, desires, values, personality and so on that
people communicate and bring to the communication activity.
 Situational context: this involves the place and time of communication, which affects
what and how we communicate.
 Environmental context: this involves the physical features of the communication
setting, such as noise level, cultural context, objects available in setting, etc.
f) Communication is complicated: Communication is complicated in several respects. For
instance:
i) It involves choice about multiple aspects of message i.e. we have to make verbal and
code choices, as well as non-verbal behavioral aspects to be used in communication. We
also have to make choices of channel, and all these aspects must be combined
strategically in order to pass across a unified message.
ii) Communication is also complicated because of our differing perception of the same
object that we may wish to communicate about.
1.6 Types of Communication

Communication can be categorized in two ways:
a) By the number of people involved in the communication process.
b) By the channel or medium used in the communication process.
c) By the direction of flow
a) Communication categorized by number of people involved:
i) Intrapersonal communication: this is the process of sharing meaning within oneself
in the mind, which involves such activities as reflection, problem solving, planning,
and solving internal conflict among others. This is continuous process we always
engage in but rarely realize we are involved in it.

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ii) Inter-personal communication: this involves exchanging meaning between at least
two people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and
listening. Interpersonal communication can be of two types:
 Dyadic communication: involves two people in communication such as a doctor and
a patient, a lecturer and a student.
 Small group communication: involves three to ten people such communication
includes that which takes place in families and work groups.
iii) Public communication: it involves one person communicating to large group of
people.
iv) Mass communication: this is communication mediated via a technological area. The
system involving a source (professional communicator often representing an
organization), and a large number of unseen receivers spread over a wide
geographical area. The transmission system might be in the form of electronic, audio,
audio-visual signal or visual technologies such as publication in form of books or
newspapers.
b) Communication Categorized by Channel or Medium

i) Verbal communication: this type of communication relies on the oral-auditory signal
for communication.
ii) Graphic communication: this communication is also known as visual communication. It
involves visual representation of ideas, facts and objects other than written
communication e.g. cartoons, graphs, charts, models, objects, etc.
iii) Written communication: this is the use of visual symbols, representing language, on a
surface which is read by receivers.
iv) Non verbal communication: this is the use of visual or oral auditory signals that do not
primarily rely on language or verbalized message for communication to take place. This
form of communication is also known as paralinguistic communication and would
include forms such as gestures, posture, distance, facial expression, rate of speech, pause,
voice quality, and so on.
1.6.1 Categories of Non-verbal Communication

Nonverbal communication can be divided into 5 categories:
1. Paralanguage
This includes non-verbal communication such as tone, pitch, quality, rate of speech, laughing, crying,
belching or even hesitating or sighing. Paralanguage can help reinforce a verbal message, for
example, a father says, “awwww” to his daughter who has just fallen.
2. Kinesics / body language
Body language is the gestures, movements and mannerisms by which a person communicates with
others. Physical attributes such as appearance, facial expressions, eye contact and posture all
contribute to kinesics or body language. For example:
 Physical appearance includes clothes, jewelry and cleaning/grooming. Wearing the appropriate
clothing to specific events demonstrates taste and style.

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 Facial expressions indicate our emotions; happy, sad, confused, angry, etc. Eye contact may convey
confidence, honesty and interest in the conversation.
 Gestures can express many things; a friendly wave to say hello, etc.
 Posture sends a message. Standing or sitting erect denotes that you are paying attention to the matter
at hand, leaning forward conveys increased interest.
3. Environment
Our environment communicates many different messages. For example: A large desk in a corner office
with windows communicates high status within an organization.
Fast food restaurants are designed to move customers through quickly by using plastic seats that is
comfortable for about 10 minutes.
4. Touch/Haptic
Is a primary method for achieving connection with people, indicating intention, or expressing emotion.
The use of touch can be culturally bound. For example:
In a business setting, the most appropriate form of communication is the handshake.
Haptic communication is status-driven. That is, a manager may give an employee an encouraging pat on
the back, but not vice versa.
People in business must avoid touch that could be considered condescending or sexual harassment.
5. Space
-Space, as it relates to non-verbal communication, is the physical distance maintained with others. How
you use space to communicate depends on:
 Cultural norms
 Your relationship with the receivers of your communication
 The activities involved
-Space generally falls into 4 categories:
a) Intimate distance: this distance is reserved for personal expression with those we know well.
b) Personal distance: this distance is used for casual and friendly conversations.
c) Social distance: used in the workplace for business-related conversations, small meetings and social
functions. It is also used for other conversations that are not personal in nature.
d) Public distance: this distance is usually for public speaking. In a personal conversation, this distance
would constitute a huge communication barrier.
1.6.2 Pointers for using Non-verbal Communication

Avoid conflicting signals: messages are made stronger when both the verbal and non-verbal
communications convey the same thing.
Care should be taken not to intimidate people by encroaching on their personal space.
Interpretation of the non-verbal cues and messages we receive is an essential responsibility of any
communicator.
Perception is the cornerstone for interpreting non-verbal signals.
(c) Categorized by Direction of Flow:
Communications creates links between people for different functions or purposes. If several links are
missing, broken or not aligned properly, the communication becomes wobbly and may eventually break.
The following are communication situations that represent a different flow of communication depending
on the purpose:
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i) Upward communication
This is communicating with people who rank above you, such as your boss or instructor.
ii) Lateral or horizontal communication
This is communicating with people who are at the same rank or level as you – your co-workers or
classmates.
iii) Downward communication
This is communicating with people who rank below you, such as the people you might manage at
work.
iv) Internal communication
This is a communication situation that takes place in a company or an organization. Internal
communication is the transmittal of information between and among persons within a business of
organization. It is used to accomplish company goals and objectives. For example, managers
communicating deadline on assignments or employees who are seeking promotions.
v) External communication
This is the transfer of information to and from people outside the company or organization. The goal
is to persuade the recipients to respond favorably to company needs. For example, a job advert tries to
attract qualified personnel to fill a certain position.
vi) Cross cultural communication
This refers to communicating, either in writing, verbally or non-verbally, with people who are from a
culture different from your own. This calls for an understanding and respect of cultural differences
and being adaptable.
vii) Grapevine communication
This refers to informal communication within a company / organization, where information spread
bypasses the formal communication structure. It spreads in random ways, irrespective of the authority
levels.
N/B: The direction your communication flows at any given time will influence how you communicate the
words you use and the method you choose.
1.7 The Objectives of Communication:

Whether we are speaking, writing, persuading, informing, entertaining, explaining, convincing, educating
or any other objective behind the particular communication, we always have four general objectives:
 To be received (heard or read)
 To be understood
 To be accepted
 To get action (change behavior or attitude)
1.8 Specific barriers to Communication

Human communication is fraught with problems and difficulties such as:
o Differences in opinion
Our worldviews are largely determined by our past experiences. As vast as these experiences are, so are
the perceptions and interpretations of the world that people have. Age, nationality, culture, education,
occupation, sex, status, personality, etc. all bring to bear the difference in perception.
o Jumping to conclusions
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We often see what we expect to see, thus hear what we expect to hear, rather than what is actually
intended. This may lead us to unnecessary conclusions.
o Stereotyping
Our experiences could run us the risk of treating different people as if they were the same.
o Lack of knowledge
Communication is adversely affected if it is exchanged between persons whose knowledge of the
particular subject is varied or whose backgrounds regarding the subject are too different.
It requires skill on the part of the communicator to be aware of the discrepancy between the levels of
knowledge, thus communicate accordingly.
o Lack of interest
This is lacking alertness to the message being sent. As an effective communicator, you should avoid
assuming that your interest in the specific subject is everyone’s interest, thus angle your message to
appeal to the interests and needs of the receiver.
o Difficulties with expression
This refers to difficulty expressing or conveying your message as clearly as possible. It includes lack
of vocabulary as well as lack of confidence, both of which can be overcome by improving your
vocabulary and preparing carefully respectively.
o Emotions
Both the receiver and communicator could harbor strongly felt emotions that could prevent almost
anything from being communicated. Such emotions could entirely distort the communication and
should be avoided.
However, any audience knows that a speaker without emotion and enthusiasm is likely to be a dull
speaker. Emotion just needs a clear balance.
o Personality
Our personality traits/behaviors can affect the behavior of others in a communication situation. We
may not be able to change the personalities of others, but at least we should be prepared to consider
our own personality to see if change in behavior may result in more satisfactory relationships. Thus
better communication.
1.9 The 7 Cs of Communication

Effective communication must apply the following 7 essentials, whether you are speaking or writing.
Using these 7Cs will ensure that your communication is coherent and easy to follow.
1. Clarity
This refers to being specific rather than vague while communicating.
You must communicate so clearly that you cannot be misunderstood i.e. it is not enough to communicate
so you can be understood.
Ask the following key questions to test how clear your communication is:
 Have you used familiar words, short sentences?
 Have you presented only one idea in each sentence?
 Have you avoided “business” and technical terms?

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 Have you used the reader’s language?
2. Completeness
Complete communication includes enough details so that the recipient will not need to ask for some
more information. For example – if you receive a message from your lecturer asking you to pick your
graded papers on Wednesday, how do you know which Wednesday it should be?
To be complete, a communication should answer the following questions: Who? What? Where?
When? Why? How? Or How Much?
Ask the following key questions to test how complete your communication is:
 Have you given all the facts?
 Have you covered the essentials?
 Have you answered all his/her questions?
 Did you PLAN what you said?
3. Conciseness
Concise communication avoids unnecessary words that could hamper the same communication. Such
extra words may clutter the message and distort it all together. Conciseness makes the message more
understandable and comprehensible. For conciseness:
 Eliminate wordy expressions
 Include only relevant material
 Avoid unnecessary repetition
Look at the following examples:
WORDY CONCISE
Due to the fact that Because
In due course Soon
At this time Now
Few in number Few
On a weekly basis Weekly
In spite of the fact that Although
Until such time as Until
Meet together Meet
In class exercise
Revise the following statement, which is too wordy and eliminate seven unnecessary words (‘fillers’)
“I am writing this letter to inform you that your airline tickets will be mailed ten days before your
schedule departure”.
4. Consistency
All communication should be consistent in FACT, TREATMENT and SEQUENCE.
Consistency in fact refers to agreement with a source document or an established fact. For example, an
exam scheduled for 31st April should be questioned since April has only 30 days.
Consistency in treatment means treating similar items the same way. For example using the courtesy title
(Mr., Mrs., Miss or Miss) with names of all recipients of a letter or indenting all paragraphs in a report.

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Consistency in sequence refers to the arrangement of listings such as alphabetical, chronological or
numerical order. For example, if an exam is scheduled for 3 days, the dates should be given in
chronological order: June 14, June 15 and June 16.
5. Correctness
This refers to all the information in the message being accurate – the content, the spelling, the
capitalization and the punctuation. The following guidelines can ensure your communication achieves
correctness:
 Use the correct level of language
 Check accuracy of figures, facts and words
 Maintain acceptable writing mechanics
 There should be proper grammar, punctuation, spelling and paragraphing
Ask the following questions to test for correctness:
 Have you checked all facts for correctness?
 Have you spelled the reader’s name correctly?
 Have you verified all numbers and amounts?
 Is the appearance of the letter effective? Is it clean, well-spaced?
 Have you checked your spelling, punctuation, grammar, etc?
6. Consideration
This refers to the use of the “you-attitude” instead of the “I” or “We-attitude”. Consideration applies
sympathy, the human touch and understanding of human nature. It means the message is sent with the
receiver in mind. You should try to visualize your readers, their desires, problems, emotions,
circumstances and possible reaction to your communication.
The following actions can ensure that your communication is considerate:

 Focus on “you-attitude” instead of “I” or “We”
 Show audience benefit or interest in the receiver
 Emphasize positive pleasant facts
Look at the following examples:

NEGATIVE EMOTION / EXPRESSION TRANSFORMS INTO
Anxious A little concerned, expectant
Confused Curious
Destroyed Set back
Disgusted Surprised
Failure Learning
I hate I prefer
Insulted Misunderstood
Lost Searching
Painful Uncomfortable
Stressed Busy

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GOOD WORD GREAT WORD
Attractive Gorgeous
Confident Unstoppable
Curious Fascinated
Fast Ballistic
Fortunate Blessed
Interesting Captivating
Like Relish
Nice Fantastic
Quick Explosive
Smart Gifted
Ask the following questions to test your communication for consideration:

 Have you put the client first?
 Have you floodlighted his/her interests?
 Have you walked in his/her moccasins?
 Have you talked his/her language?
7. Courtesy;
This refers to the building of goodwill at all times.
 Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful and appreciative
 Use expressions that show respect
 Choose non-discriminatory expressions
Ask the following questions to test your communication for courtesy:
 Will it win good will?
 Have you used positive, “pleasant-toned” words?
 Have you used “I appreciate,” “please” and “thank you” somewhere in your message?
 Would you enjoy reading what you have said?
NOTE: Correctness: (sometimes used in the place of consistency – either one of them is ok)
This refers to when communication is specific definite unambiguous and vivid rather than vague and
general. The following guidelines lead to correctness.
1. Use specific facts and figures
2. Put action in your verb
3. Choose vivid image building words
Ask the following questions to test your communication for concreteness:
 Have you given the crisp details the client needs?
 Have you made the details razor and needle-sharp?
 Have you flashed word pictures, made facts vivid?
The chief art in communication is to know:

1. How much to put in
2. What to leave out
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3. When to quit
7Cs; they are clarity, completeness, correctness, consistence, conciseness, courtesy and consideration.
2 LISTENING AND CRITICAL THINKING
2.1 Introduction
In this section, we are interested in discussing listening as an invaluable skill in the communication
process. We shall also endeavor to show how listening is connected to critical thinking.
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
a) Distinguish between hearing and listening
b) Outline the importance of listening in our lives
c) Explain the essential aspects in the listening process
d) Discuss the various types of listening
e) Demonstrate knowledge of effective listing strategies
2.3 Definition of Listening

Hearing is the act of receiving sound. Listening is the act of receiving sound, constructing meaning and
responding to the spoken message. Listening also involves the ability to retain information as well as
react emphatically to the spoken message.
2.4 Importance of Listening in our lives
a) Listening is an essential task for effective communicators. We actually do spend the largest part of
our time listening, for instance it has been observed that college students spend up to 50% of their
time listening.
b) Listening helps us build and maintain relationship. Part of our ability to build and retain relationships
involves our ability to understand and respond empathetically to messages from others.
c) Listening can help us determine whether people we are communicating with are honest or deceitful.
d) Listening is an essential skill for success in academics and business world.
e) Listening is directly linked to our ability to remember information.
2.5 The Listening Process

The listening process involves receiving oral stimuli (music, words or sounds) in the ear (hearing). The
ear translates the vibration from oral stimuli into sensation that is registered by the brain (listening). The
brain, using attention and working memory, interprets the sensation and gives it meaning
(interpretation). The interpreted message is then stored in short term memory for immediate use
(retaining) or long term memory for future recall (recalling).

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2.5.1 The Listening Process
a) Attention – At any one time there are many oral-auditory stimuli such that our mind has to focus
on specific stimuli and block others. This process is called attention. Attention is selective or
automatic.
i) Selective attention – This is sustained focus we give to information we deem important.
Selective attention can be obstructed by our mind’s instinct to pay automatic attention to
certain stimuli.
ii) Automatic attention – This is instinctive focus we give to stimuli signaling a change in our
surrounding. We give automatic attention to stimuli that we deem important or that which we
perceive to signal danger. Automatic attention, therefore, competes with selective attention.
b) Working memory – This is the part of our consciousness that interprets and assigns meaning to
stimuli we pay attention to. We may use it without ‘thinking’ about it. It looks for shortcuts when
processing information e.g. patterns of letters or words in assigning meanings. The working
memory works in conjunction with the long term memory.
c) Short term memory – Once information is interpreted in working memory it is either sent to the
short term or the long term memory. The short term memory is part of the memory that cats as a
temporary storage place for information. The information stored in short term memory is that
which we want to use immediately but not necessarily in future. It is the least efficient of our
memory resources because information stored here is easily forgotten unless some strategy like
rehearsal is used. Unfortunately, most people, students included, rely on short term memory for
information that deserves to be recalled in the long term.
d) Long term memory – This is the permanent storage place of information including past
experiences, language, values, knowledge, images of people, memories of sights, sounds, smells
and even fantasies. Unlike short term memory, long term memory has no known limitation on the
quantity or duration of stored information. Long term memory is organized in schema, which is
organizational filing systems for thoughts held in long term memory. We access such information
through stimulus cues that constitute words, sights, smells or tastes that serves as triggers, which
signal the mind to activate information held in schema. If we encounter information for first time,
which is not in the long term memory, a new schema will be created and this information stored.
The long term memory plays a key role in the listening process because it is instrumental in
recalling stored information and helps in creating meaning between what we hear and our
background knowledge.
2.6 Types of Listening

There are various types of listening, which can be used for various purposes either independently or in
combination. These are: -
a) Active listening – It involves listening with a purpose and comprises:
i) Listening carefully using all our available senses
ii) Paraphrasing what we hear both mentally and verbally
iii) Checking our understanding to ensure accuracy
iv) Providing feedback positively or negatively

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b) Empathetic listening – It is a form of active listening where we attempt to understand the other
person by perceiving their world view as if it is our own. It is putting us in the shoes of another
person in order to feel and understand what the person is going through. This kind is very useful in
sustaining relationships, counseling process, resolving disputes, as well as dealing with traumatic
situations.
c) Critical listening – This is listening that analyses, evaluates, critiques or challenges a speaker’s
message by evaluating its accuracy, meaningfulness and utility. This goes hand in hand with
critical thinking and it involves asking questions such as:
i) Is the speaker’s message possible? Is it realistic?
ii) Does the speaker back up his or her claims? Are these claims reliable?
iii) Is the speaker credible or an authority?
iv) Is the message free of contradiction and inconsistencies?
Critical listening is very useful when we are confronted with persuasive messages such as
advertisements, political communications, propaganda and the like.
d) Listening for enjoyment – This type of listening helps us to relax like when we enjoy listening to
for instance music.
e) Reflective listening – This refers to attentively listening to the speaker’s actual words as well as
tone of voice and observing the body language and emotions displayed. Reflective listening is
particularly an important tool in one-on-one situations. It is not practical in a speaker-audience
situation.
f) Passive listening
This means concentrating at a low level and absorbing just enough of the speaker’s words to stay
involved in a conversation or speech. Such listening is characterized by:
- Listeners remembering little of what is said
- Listeners let the speaker’s inflection or tone of voice signal when they should react by
nodding, smiling or saying, “I see”.
- Listeners may suggest that the speaker has the listener’s attention, even though that may not
be the case
- It is appropriate when you listen for pleasure and when it doesn’t matter whether or not you
retain what you hear
2.7 Effective Listening Strategies

Effective listening is a life-long skill that is of paramount importance in academic life. There are various
ways of improving listening skills that can make your life in academics and beyond very fruitful.
Strategies that improve your listening skills include:
a) Listen and think critically – This involves analyzing the speaker, the situation and the message in
order to make critical judgment about messages being presented.
b) Identifying and understanding barriers to the listening process and genuinely working towards
eliminating them. Such barriers may include noise of various types, which should be eliminated in
the listening process.

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c) Identifying patterns in what we are listening to – Understanding the overall message, its main
points and the supporting points is essential in having a graphical impression of messages and is an
important aid in the recall process.
d) Applying memory retention skills such as:
i) Rehearsing and rephrasing what we listen to
ii) Using mnemonic devices (using a series of letters forming a meaningful or pronounceable
word where each letter stands for a particular concept, idea or point for easy recall)
2.8 Improving Listening Skills

Listening behavior also varies from culture to culture. For instance, African listeners may look away from
you instead of maintaining eye contact, while Japanese listeners often close their eyes when they are
concentrating.
However, even such cultural orientations are not an excuse to effective listening.
You can use these five strategies to enhance, reinforce and develop your listening skills.
 Read to gain background information
 Repeat a person’s name when you are introduced to someone
 Ask questions to clarify information
 Take good notes
 Use a tape recorder, when permitted, to record a lecture or a meeting
Good listening skills enable you:
 To absorb an instructor’s lectures, explanations and directions for assignments
 Understand what the speaker is saying
 Combined with note-taking, listening skills enable you record information and review it at a later
time
2.8.1 Overcoming listening barriers

Becoming an effective listener requires conscious effort and practice.
Listening barriers are any distractions that interfere with listening for example:
 Not concentrating on what is being said
 Being distracted by noise
 Talking instead of listening
 Having pre-conceived thoughts and opinions
 Not being interested in what is being said
These can be overcome through:
 Concentrate on the speaker’s message – it is your responsibility to stay focused
 Use filters to manage and control noise – control the two basic kind of noise; 1) External noise,
which includes sounds and conversations, radio, television, CD players, machinery, etc. and 2)
Internal noise, which includes distractions such as pain, fatigue, preoccupation with other
thoughts, hunger, worry or a personality conflict with the speaker. To this end, you can turn down
the volume of unnecessary sounds, take a pain reliever or get enough sleep.
 Resist talking instead of listening – it is impossible to be both sender and receiver of information
at the same time. You can even become your own distraction.

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 Focus on the message – make sure that your own ideas do not interfere with listening to the ideas
of another.
 Listen with a positive attitude – you do not have to agree with the speaker, but good listening
requires you to keep an open mind and believe that the speaker might have something useful to
offer.
2.8.2 Improving Listening skills

1. Paraphrasing: this is summarizing the speaker’s message in your own words and allowing the
speaker to correct any discrepancies from the intended message. That is, the listener crystalizes
his/her own understanding of the content presented.
2. Evaluate your skills: everyone has listening weakness; you must therefore identify your
weakness.
3. Prepare yourself physically and mentally: listening is a combination of physical and mental
activities.
4. Set listening priorities: because you are bombarded with several messages at once, decide which
ones deserve your focus.
5. Make efficient use of available time: do not rush through your conservation as you may lack full
understanding of the message.
6. Listen attentively: be attentive and show interest in the speaker’s message.
7. Listen for ideas and feelings: look out for factual information as well as the speaker’s tone of
voice.
8. Establish eye contact: do not stare at the speaker, instead, glance away periodically to reflect on
the topic.
9. Use body language to show you are listening: body language can convey your level of interest.
Employ appropriate non-verbal cues.
10. Overlook personal characteristics of the speaker: do not prejudge a speaker on the basis of
distracting personal characteristics such as mannerism, voice, speech patterns or appearance.
11. Choose strategic seating: posture can affect listening; therefore choose a physical location that is
conducive, comfortable and practical.
12. Ask questions if permitted: this helps clarify the speaker’s information.
13. Take notes: jot down key ideas or concepts for further referencing.
One method to help you retain the content of a speaker’s message is to think of the strategies represented
by the letters in the sentence “IS FACT”:
Identify – identify the speaker’s ideas and connections among the ideas
Summarize – summarize the main points of the message
Assess – assess the correctness or validity of the message
Formulate –formulate appropriate questions
Associate – associate the speaker’s ideas with other known concepts
Consider – consider specific ways the information might be used
Take notes – take notes to assist in better recall (to bring to mind)

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CHAPTER ; 3 READING SKILLS
3.1 Introduction
In this section, we shall examine reading as an important communication skill that you as a university
student will be constantly engaged in as you research, conduct routine study as well as during revision for
examinations. We shall therefore be concerned with how you can develop effective reading skills that you
can use in your university studies and life after college.

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
a) Define readings
b) Outline how you develop a purpose for your reading
c) Explain what the various types of reading entail
d) Expound on the effective reading and comprehension techniques
e) Discuss the skill of note taking
3.3 What is reading?

Reading is the process of interpreting, analyzing and understanding written messages. Reading for study
at university level is an active integration of the text involving interpretation and thinking as you read.
Reading is, therefore, a dynamic process involving the following properties:
a) Decoding or interpreting written symbols
b) It is a physical and mental activity
c) It requires attention and thought
d) It is an interaction of the language of the text and background knowledge of the reader ,
such that, the written message focuses the reader on what background knowledge (in long term
memory), the reader should bring to the interpretation of written message being read.
3.4 Developing a Purpose for Reading

Before we engage in reading we need to establish the purpose for which we seek to read. Generally
speaking, we engage in reading for the following purposes:
a) We read for entertainment or leisure.
b) To acquire information and knowledge.
c) As a means of preparing for successful life i.e. as means of acquiring useful life skills
d) To improve quality of life.
At the university level reading is particularly more focused and hard and would normally entail the
following purposes:
a) To gain an overall understanding of main ideas presented in some reading
b) To find specific information such as name, date or a definition of a concept
c) To gain understanding of material so as to recall it as presented in the text
d) To evaluate, critique or analyze some material
The purpose of our reading will, to a large extent, determine the type of reading of style we adopt as the
discussion below will indicate:
3.5 Types of Reading

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Types of reading refer to styles we may adopt in our reading as determined by the purpose for which we
are reading. Types of reading include:
a) Scanning – This style or technique is used when you are looking for a name, definition or any
other specific piece of information in a text like a house in classified ads, addresses or phone in a
directory, an important concept, information for a research essay in a library catalogue, table of
content, index page, etc. In using the technique you move your eye quickly over the page to find
particular words or phrases that are relevant to specific information you are looking for.
While scanning, a good reader should first:
 Ensure that the text he/she is scanning is the correct text and that he/she knows precisely
what he is looking for.
 Try to determine the text structure or its style of arrangement i.e. clues or signals which
can assist in understanding the text pattern.
 Scan with speed without reading extraneous or irrelevant material.
b) Skimming – In this technique you read quickly through a text in order to get a grip of the main
ideas or general information about the text. In using this technique you intend to get a general
grasp of ideas presented by the author. This technique is useful when:
 Trying to decide if a book in library is useful or right for your studies
 Previewing books or texts before detailed reading
 Refreshing your understanding or a text after you read in detail
You can skim:
 Introductory paragraphs – to give the general theme
 Concluding paragraph
 Transitional paragraphs
 Subheadings
 Italicized, underlined and boldfaced items.
As an efficient reading strategy, skimming is very useful skill both for recreational and study
reading. In study reading, it is useful for the following reasons:
 It can be used at the preliminary stages of selecting texts for research or selecting
reserved and supplementary literature. It helps determine which texts merit more careful
and thorough reading and which specific parts of those texts are worth spending time on.
 It can be used as an exercise for improving speed and therefore performance and for
coping with high quantity work. It can enable a reader cover a lot of material in a short
time, therefore saving time.
 It is one of those skills used in the reading for the main idea only when the supporting
details or other extraneous materials are not important.
c) Active / detailed reading – This technique is used in serious study. It calls for an active
involvement in the reading process. In this type of reading you need to interrogate or think over
what you read so as to both evaluate what you have read and facilitate recall of read material.
This is the kind of reading that is most extensively used at university during study. As you use
this type of reading the following tips are important
i) Always make notes
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ii) Pick out what you think are the important points of what you are reading by highlighting
these points
iii) Record main headings as you read, this helps you to see the flow of your reading and notes.
iv) As you prepare for active reading note down questions you want the material to answer.
v) After you have read a section of text and have made a summary of what you have read in
your notes, skim through the text and check how accurate your summary is. As you do this,
fill in gaps that you may notice in your notes.
d) Extensive reading is purposeful, organized, wide reading of long texts such as journals, novels
magazines, periodicals, etc. especially those that relate to one’s area of study, to enrich one’s
vocabulary, which is basic to all good reading.
e) Intensive reading is a concentrated, thorough and comprehensive reading style. It is applied
when one wants to understand the contents of the reading deeply. It is an intellectually involving
affair in that the reader will be trying to evaluate how the ideas involved could be applied or
adapted to different situations. It is also analytical, critical and interpretive. It could involve a
paragraph, a whole passage or even a whole book, like in the case of a literature book.
f) Light reading – this is the type of reading that we apply when reading papers and novels for
leisure. This does not involve any critical assessment or appraisal of the material one is reading. It
is fast and superficial.
g) Word by word reading – this is the style used by beginners when they are reading for the first
time and in an attempt to understand each word or phrase at a time. It is also applicable when one
is reading scientific or mathematics process or formula.
3.6 EFFECTIVE AND EFFICIENIT READING STRATEGIES

To read effectively means to be able to comprehend, evaluate and utilize that which one has read, while
reading efficiently means reading effectively with the least amount of physical (psycho-motor) effort and
time. To attain efficiency, one has to:
1. Reduce certain poor reading habits
2. Utilize better psycho-motor reading strategies
3.6.1 Common poor reading habits

a) Vocalization (sounding out)
This is reading aloud (the tendency to register the sound of the words as you read), which wastes time
and creates a sub-process follows:
According to Pearson (1981), the reading process involves:
a) Visual perception
b) Response to visual stimuli
c) Transmission to brain
d) Decoding (giving meaning)
e) Vocalizing
f) Response to mental stimuli (understanding or not)

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As a result, vocalization slows down this reading process. Henry Pearson 91981) observed that
reading aloud takes at least twice as long as reading silently and yet it is not any more effective.
b) Sub vocalization;
This is where the reader makes a conscious effort not to move his/her lips when reading but his/her
internal speech organs; larynx or vocal cords are mechanically working. That is, the tendency to
internally acknowledge or pronounce the sound of the words in your head.
c) Finger reading, pointing at words and head movement

These habits not only affect the rate of reading but also affect the comprehension, since they prevent
the reader from grasping full phrases and clauses, therefore hindering him/her from understanding the
ideas express fully.
d) Narrow recognition span and poor rhythmic eye movement

Recognition span is the number of words a reader can recognize while eyes are fixed at one point.
Fixations are the stops a reader takes to take in a word or phrase and then move on to the next.
A narrow recognition span wastes time and energy and therefore affects one’s comprehension.
Efficient readers take in several words per fixation, which should be at least a phrase. Thus,
rhythmically eyes should move systematically from the middle of one phrase to another.
e) Regression (backtracking while reading)

This is glancing back and re-reading words, phrases, sentences that have already been read. It is a
characteristic of lacking concentration and poor reading. It affects comprehension because it
interrupts the reading process (though process). An efficient reader should move forward at all times.
NB: Regression is different from review, which is done after, for clarification.
3.6.2 Effective Reading and Comprehension skills

One important technique that has been developed for effective reading and comprehension is summed up
as SQ3R, which stand for:
S – Survey
Q – Question
R – Read
R – Recall
R – Review
a) Survey – stands for a rapid preview of material in order to get an overview of a topic, chapter or
book. The idea here is to look for main points of the text, its content and approach. In doing this:
i) Read the title to help give you an idea of the subject
ii) Read the introduction or summary to see what the structure of the text is
iii) Notice boldface headings to see what the structure of the text is
iv) Notice any maps, charts or graphs which give a summation of ideas in the text
v) Notice reading aids and any questions at the end of chapter because they are meant to help
you understand and remember.

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b) Question – When reading you should develop a questioning attitude. Questions help your mind
to engage and concentrate. This is because your mind is actively engaged when it is looking for
answers to question. In using questions as you read, keep in mind the following:
i) Try to turn bold face headings into questions you think the section should answer
ii) Ask yourself:
 What is the main point being made here?
 What is author trying to explain here?
 Have I understood the argument and conclusion?
c) Read – After formulating questions you can start reading the material carefully in detail. The
approach you take in reading may depend on subject. If the subject is complex your reading may
be slower and if the subject is familiar, you might adopt a faster pace. How you read may also be
determined by your personal approach. As you read:
i) Remember to take notes
ii) Engage actively with your material
iii) Look for answers to questions you have set for yourself and make up new questions if
necessary.
d) Recall – After each section, stop and think back to your questions. See if you can answer them
from memory. If not take a look back at the text. Do this as often as you need to. As you do this
you may highlight important points of your notes.
e) Review – Once you have finished reading, for instance, a whole chapter or section, go back over
all questions in all headings to see if you can still answer them. If not, look back and refresh your
memory. Do this as an important part of your revision for exams.
3.6.3 The Importance of SQ3R

 It makes reading a conscious active effort
 It enables a reader think constructively along similar lines as the writer
 The prediction or question formulation stage is both a sign and an aid to understanding
 The stages improve one’s concentration and retention ability
 Reading is organized into stages, therefore it takes less time and effort and it is more effective
3.6.4 Other important tips to effective reading and comprehension

a) Do not treat all books in same way, skim before you read a book to establish the type, for
instance, whether it is complex or elementary.
b) Do not start reading a book unless you have decided it is suitable.
c) Determine the purpose for reading a book.
d) You can switch from one way of reading to another, this is suitable particularly so when selecting
books or doing research
e) Extract important reference information during your reading. This includes:
i) Name of Author
ii) Title and sub-title
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iii) Date of publication
iv) Publisher and city of publication
3.7 Note Taking
Notes are a shortened version of information. Note taking is an integral part of reading listening as well as
during revision or study.
3.7.1 Advantages of Notes
1) Taking notes helps you to learn and understand by translating what you are studying into your
own words and thereby helping you to understand and remember what you are studying.
2) Taking notes helps you concentrate while you are studying because the note taking process
helps you process and digest the information.
3) Making notes helps you assess information because you are selecting the most important parts
of what you are reading or hearing. Through making notes, you are also spotting the key issues
and ideas of the materials.
4) Note taking also helps you think about the subject. Writing down ideas often produces ideas
about other ideas you already know. This makes you think and connect what you are noting down
with what you already know. This process, therefore, makes remembering of information more
likely.
3.7.2 How to Take Notes
 You should only choose the main points of what you are reading or listening to. Do not record all
the materials from your source.
 Show the difference between main points, supporting points and examples. This can be done by
use of highlighting through the use of colours, underlining, or using various types of font or
bolding for the different aspects of your notes.
 Listen, read or watch closely the source of notes while carefully thinking about the subject and
decide brevity by adopting mathematical or scientific symbols or device your own personal code
of symbols and signs.
 Brevity is important in taking notes. Use abbreviations wherever possible. You could also achieve
brevity by adopting mathematical or scientific symbols or device your own personal code of
symbols and signs.
 Use note cards and list each new idea on a new line.
 Use phrases, not complete sentences to save time.
 Use abbreviations when possible.
 Never take verbatim notes, unless you need a direct quote
 Use pen rather than pencil
 Use underlining and asterisks to indicate important points
 Number items, put information in bulleted lists, or use an outline to make it easier to review notes
 Leave space in the margins for additional notes
 Write on only one side of the paper or note card
 Watch for clues, repetition of words or topics, handouts with key phrases or terms
 Create networks, just in case you miss out important points during a lecture
 Use a second note page for listing questions and their answers
 Begin each day’s notes with a heading that includes the name or number of the course.
Instructor’s / speaker’s name, date and topic of the day.
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4. WRITING SKILLS
Introduction
In this section, we are going to look at writing as an important skill in the communication process.
Principally, we shall define writing and its importance in communication, discuss the paragraph as a key
component in writing, then how to plan your essay and finally discuss the various types of essays that you
will need to use in your writing.

a) Define writing and explain its importance in communication
b) Discuss the characteristics of a paragraph as an important component of writing
c) Plan an academic essay
d) Identify and explain the various types of essays
e) Demonstrate understanding of referencing and documentation techniques in academic writing
4.3 Definition and importance of writing

Writing is expression of language in form of symbols (letters, words and sentences) on a surface. The
primary purpose of writing is communication. Writing is a life-long skill that when used clearly can help
you express ideas convincingly to others and can determine your success at the university and
professional life. Writing takes different forms; it may be in the form of a single paragraph, an essay, a
short paper, a report, a letter, a memo, etc.
Whatever the form of writing, effective writing involves the proper use of words, sentences, punctuations
and paragraphs to pass across messages. In most of the writing you will engage in at the university, the
paragraph constitutes a very important building block. It is in this regard that we shall turn to this unit of
writing in the next section.
4.3.1 Paragraph writing
Paragraphs are important building blocks in the writing of essays. A paragraph usually contains one main
idea captured in a sentence, with about four to eight supporting sentences which expand the main idea by
giving explanation, details and/or examples to support the main idea of the paragraph. The length of a
paragraph may vary from one form of writing to another or by the idea one is expounding on. A
paragraph can be part of a longer piece of writing, as it is in an essay, or it can stand alone as in an exam
answer.
Writing a paragraph is not a natural skill, but learned skill. A paragraph is unified by a single main idea.
There is no correct structure of writing a paragraph, however, a useful structure to have in mind is that it
should have three main components, namely;
a) Topic / thesis Sentence: this is the first sentence and it expresses the main idea that unifies the
paragraph.

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b) Supporting Sentences: these sentences present details, facts and examples that expand on or
illustrate the main idea.
c) Concluding Sentence: this sum up the paragraph’s main idea or what has been said.
Alternatively, it draws a logical conclusion from the main idea.
A good paragraph therefore must reveal its main idea in a prominent statement called topic / thesis
sentence. The prominent idea is usually presented at the beginning of the paragraph such that other
statements that follow support the main idea.
A paragraph must convey thoughts that are connected together by logical associations and signal words,
that is, there must be a clear connection between the sentences which constitute a paragraph. Signal words
or transitional phrases that indicate connection between sentences include connectors of various kinds,
such as:
a) Connectors of sequence: afterward, as soon as, before, first, second….., finally, later, next, etc. as
well as, firstly, next, then, finally, so thus, as a result, because, therefore, for example, for
instance, in contrast, on the other hand, etc.
b) Connectors of addition; also, and, another, besides, furthermore, moreover, likewise, etc..
c) Connectors of contrast; but, even if, even so, however, despite, instead, nevertheless, one the
contrary, on the other hand, etc.
d) Connectors of illustration; for example, for instance, for this reason, that is, etc.
A good paragraph must match real division of your ideas, that is, a paragraph must be about one idea
such that the start of new paragraph should signal a shift to a new idea.
Essay writing constitutes an important writing skill at the university level, where most of the research
and term papers, as well as exam questions are written in essay form.
4.3.2 Essay Writing

An essay is a piece of writing on a single subject, issue or event with more than one paragraph, which is,
meant to communicate something. The length of an essay varies, where short ones may be 300 to 600
words long, constituting of four or five paragraphs. The paragraphs of an essay should be logically
connected using transitional words and phrases as those connecting sentences within the paragraph as
outlined above.
An essay has three necessary parts: an introduction, a body and a conclusion.
a) The introduction states the main point of thesis of the essay and may be a single or just a few
paragraphs.
b) The body supports by showing, explaining, proving the main point or advancing an argument. It
generally has at least three paragraphs, each containing facts and details that develop the main
point.
c) The conclusion reminds the reader of the main point by summarizing and reinforcing the support
in the body paragraphs, or it may make an observation based on that support and present the
writer’s last thoughts on the subject.
4.3.3 Planning the essay
The following six methods / stages can help you order your material in readiness for essay writing:
Stage 1: Write down your purpose

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It is a good idea to write down (in a sentence or two) exactly what you are trying to achieve through your
essay. This helps you organize your material around this purpose without straying away from the point.
Stage 2: Assemble the information

Using notes on paper, index cards or notes on your PC, jot down all the ideas or points you may want to
make.
At this stage, you need to select only the essential, relevant information. Ask questions like, is this really
relevant to my message? Does my audience really need to have this information in order to understand
my message? Will this information help me achieve my purpose?
Stage 3: Group the information

At this stage, you should consider your list and look for links between the bits of information. Rewrite
your notes in clear notes, preferably under clear headings. These could become the paragraphs or sections
of your completed message. Remember all paragraphs should carry one main idea. All other material in
the paragraph will be supporting evidence – examples, elaboration, illustrations, etc.
Stage 4: Put the information into logical sequence

This stage requires you to put the groups of information (still only in note-form) into some sort of
sensible order.
You can employ any of the following methods to order your material:
a) Chronological order – it is sometimes called historical order and is perhaps the most common
method. It presents the material in the order in which it occurred or occurs in time.
b) Spatial (or place) order – facts are presented on a geographical basis – from place to place: from
north to south, top to bottom, left to right, high to low, in and out, up and down or near too far.
This method is effective for describing machinery, buildings, furniture, or geographical location.
c) Order of importance – this presents material either in descending order of importance (deductive
order): starting with the most important point to gain the reader’s attention; or in ascending order
(inductive order); starting with the least important point.
d) Ascending order of complexity – simpler ideas first, followed by increasingly difficult or
complex material.
e) Descending order of familiarity – moving ‘from the known to the unknown’
f) Cause and effect – put simply it means, “because of this, then that”. That is, “because this
happened, that happened”.
g) Topical – this requires that you deal with the material on a topic-by-topic basis. This is especially
useful when there appears to be no real link between the chunks of material you have.
Stage 5: Produce a skeleton outline

This involves the production of a clear plan, which becomes increasingly easier by working through
the previous four stages carefully. An outline makes the job of writing and presenting your work
easier.
Stage 6: Write the first draft

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Now you are ready to start writing. At this stage, do not worry about style and words through the
different chunks on information in their place; introduction, the main body and the conclusion.
Stage 7: Edit the rough draft and write the final draft
This stage requires you to put yourself in the shoes of your receiver. Read the rough draft through
their eyes, checking for ambiguities, errors, awkward expressions, lack of signpost words (first,
second, finally, in addition, on the other hand etc.), which are essential to guide your reader along the
route of your ideas. Above all, aim for a concise, easily understood style.
4.3.4 Editing checklist

i) Vary the length of the sentences but keep them on the shorter side: 18-22 words should be the
average.
ii) Paragraphs should have only one main idea.
iii) Use words that the reader will understand – avoid unnecessary jargon.
iv) Avoid unbusiness-like colloquialisms such as “to cut the long story short”
v) Omit unnecessary words for example, “serious” in “serious crisis”.
vi) Use the shorter rather than the longer word or phrase, for example, “start” rather than “commence”
vii) Avoid hackneyed expressions (clichés such as “please find enclosed”, “if I can be of further
assistance”, “please do not hesitate to contact me”)
viii) Avoid needless repetitions of words and phrases – find alternatives wherever possible
ix) Use sincere words – do not overstate or exaggerate
x) Use positive words rather than negative words if possible
xi) Use the active rather than the passive voice
5 WRITING EFFECTIVE ESSAY EXAMS
5.1 Introduction
In this section we shall examine the various strategies that can be used in taking and writing exam
answers. You should find the tips on how to tackle exams provided here invaluable to your success in
your academic life at the university, because passing exams constitute a core requirement in the university
progress and graduation.

a) Apply tips that are invaluable in writing exams.
b) Demonstrate understanding of what writing strategies key verbs used in essay questions require
of a student
5.3 Tips for writing essay answers

1. Preview the exam and choose the questions to answer
2. Plan your time according to the worth of the questions
3. Start with the easiest question because you get a psychological boost if you are able to successfully
accomplish a task and therefore you would be motivated to tackle more difficult questions
4. When stalled for an answer, move on to another question or take a quick break

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5. Keep your exam time until the last possible moment.
5.4 Writing complete essay exam answers
Before writing an exam answer, read the entire question. To answer essay questions completely, you need
to follow directions, organize and provide adequate support. You usually need to supply a definition or
explanation, to compare or contrast, classify, formulate a persuasive argument, or apply other writing
strategies. You are expected to cite significant points and explain connections clearly. Quality and clarity
are more valued than quantity.
In answering essay questions effectively, you need to know the precise meanings of certain verbs
commonly used in exams. They provide clues to the writing strategy that will best organize an essay
answer.
5.5 Definition of Common Verbs in Essay Questions

Account for: to explain, as a cause and its effect; to justify
Analyse: to examine the parts of and determine their connections
Clarify: to explain; to present details, reasons or examples
Defend, justify or support: to give reasons for, to offer evidence
Define: to give the meaning, to describe basic characteristics
Discuss: to examine and consider; to present details and reasons
Evaluate: to examine advantages and disadvantages, rate or judge
Identify: to define; to give the characteristic of
Trace: to track or explain in chronological order
5.6 Essay Writing strategies suggested by key phrases

Key Phrases Writing Strategies
 Trace, give the history of  Narration
 Provide details, describe  Description
 Explain, list, provide examples  Illustration
 Discuss or analyze the parts of  Division-classification
 Analyse, explain how, show how  Process analysis
 Discuss advantages / disadvantages  Comparison-contrast
 Show similarities / differences  Comparison-contrast
 Account for, analyze the results of  Cause-effect
 Discuss or explain reasons for  Cause-effect
 Identify, clarify, explain the term  Definition
 Defend, evaluate, justify, support  Argument-persuasion
5.7 Types of Essays

There are various types of essays, which can be classified according to the purpose for which they are
written as discussed below.

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5.7.1 Descriptive Essays
Effective descriptive essays create word pictures of objects, persons, scenes, events or situations. In
creating images it is important to create sensory impression. Sensory impressions are created by use of
words that appeal to our senses of sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. Descriptive writing in general,
can appear on its own or as part of some other form of writing, for instance, in writing history, biography,
fiction, poetry, journalistic cases, advertisement, etc.
5.7.1.1 Characteristics of effective description

a) They employ precise sensory impression, which capture the features that they describe, with
appropriate words by likening the objects they describe with images and things that the reader can
easily recognize.
b) Effective descriptions take a vantage point, that is, they do not present every detail observed, but
select what details to include or exclude. They also describe objects starting from one point to the
other e.g. from bottom up, left to right or vice versa, front to back, general to specific, inside out,
and so on.
5.7.2 Narrative essays

Narration is a process of relating events that occurred where they occurred, when they occurred and who
was involved, and probably why. It involves the answering of the 5 wh- and how reporters’ questions,
namely, what happened, who was involved, where, when, why and how.
5.7.2.1 Characteristics of effective narration

a) Effective narration selects and relates significant events of what happened. The significant events
are determined by purpose of narrative. The purpose of your narrative may lead to the decision as
to which of the questions above would be major and which will be minor in your narration.
b) Do not bring up unrelated events because narration is discriminative.
c) Follow logical and understandable time sequence. Basically there are three sequences that you
can follow:
i) Chronological sequence: which starts at the beginning of events and follow the events as
they progress to end?
ii) Starting from the end and then flashback to the first event, then proceed chronologically.
iii) Start in the middle of the story then go to the beginning and then proceed chronologically
to the end.
d) Good narration usually has a point that can be drawn from the story. The point might be sharing
experience in order to tell a moral or just to amuse.
e) Conversation can be important in advancement of narrative by adding impact to it. You therefore
need to know how to punctuate conversation. Avoid using vague speech tags such as: he said, or
she asked, in the statement of who spoke unless these words are the logical choices instead be
more precise to increase vitality for instance, she purred, he burst out. The conversation should
be realistic.

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5.7.3 Persuasive Essays
Persuasive essays are intended to encourage others to adopt a view or take a particular action. Persuasion
as a skill is used in a variety of ways e.g. when seeking employment, in advertisement, when you want to
make change in group, in law courts, in debates, when appealing for help and so on.
Persuasion is concerned with action and motivation, for instance, when we encourage people to buy
specific products, we are motivating them to take certain actions. The details used in persuasion are
determined by views and knowledge of the audiences. It involves asking the questions:
a) Who am I talking to?
b) Who disagrees with me on these issues?
c) Who might I influence?
d) How might I influence them?
Persuasive details should be arranged carefully so as to achieve the desired effect. One way of doing this
is to arrange points in the order of forcefulness. Persuasive essays may incorporate narration, description,
illustration, comparison and contrast, definition and explanation. Persuasive writers can speculate about
what would happen if their views were or were nor adopted. Objections to a point of view in a persuasive
essay should be raised and countered.
5.7.4 Expository Essays

Expository essays are those that set out to explain something. What is explained is the subject of the essay
the purpose of exposition is to enable readers to understand something, for instance, what something is,
how something works, a relationship between one thing and another, how different parts of something are
related, why something happened the way it did, etc. There are various types of exposition some of the
common ones are:
a) Definitions: In these types of exposition the writer intends to make readers understand concepts,
ideas, a theory, object and so on. It entails saying what something is, its characteristics and
probably how it is distinct as an entity.
b) Illustrations: these are also called exemplifications. This type of writing helps the reader to
concretize an idea. You can use comparison and contrast to illustrate an idea or use a more
familiar object to illustrate a more complex or abstract idea.
c) Analytic expositions: these expositions analyze or reveal certain properties that are not
accessible to a casual observer. They entail breaking material into constituent parts in order to
show the hidden nature and how the parts relate to each other. They may also show how each of
these parts contribute to the total shape of a whole thing.
d) Comparison contrast expositions: These show the similarities and differences of an idea, object
or thing.
e) Cause effect expositions: These expositions show the relationship between cause and effect of
something or vice versa. Many things can be explained by identifying what causes them or
alternatively explaining the effect, for instance diseases. In these types of expositions you must
convince the reader that the cause will be capable of producing the effect in the manner that you
are suggesting. Cause-effect expositions must be presented clearly and systematically in order to
be convincing.

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5.7.5 Argumentative Essays

Argumentative involves convincing others of the correctness of a given view. The product of
argumentation is an argument either for or against a certain idea. Argumentative essays involve debates
and discussions about a view or idea that has opposing views. Most arguments for which essays are
written tend to be matters of policy, theory, interpretation, the best way to do something and other issues
whose working and interpretation are not settled.
5.7.5.1 Important properties of arguments:

a) Reasonableness: arguments have to appeal to reason, that is, the grounds used to support a given
position should be relevant and adequate.
b) The weighing evidence for or against an argument should not be biased. Matters of fact should
not be distorted or ignored.
c) No irrelevant or inconsequential issues should be brought to the argument.
d) Arguments should appeal to logic. A good argument should be logical where the conclusion
put forward should have been logically derived from the premises which are sound. The argument
put forward should not suffer fallacies (faulty argument)
e) Arguments should be consistent and clear: that is, key concepts of an argument should be
clearly defined and the argument should not have internal contradictions. Your position in the
argument should be clearly stated and the evidence that supports your argument should be clearly
presented. Evidence presented in argument could be:
i) Testimony, which is a story or statement given by someone who has experienced
something relevant to subject of debate.
ii) Evidence from authority or expert, which is statement or position by somebody who by
training or experience is believed to be capable of giving reliable opinion, for instance, a
doctor in a medical argument or a professor in a given subject.
iii) Statistical evidence, which are figures that support a position. Statistics should be from a
reliable source and must be current.
5.8 Documentation and Referencing in Academic writing

This section will deal with referencing techniques, which are established conventions used in citation and
documentation of sources of information. Most disciplines / subjects or institutions prefer certain
documentation and referencing techniques.
In academic writing, it is a standard practice to make reference to what other scholars have said about
various subjects of your interest or as part of your research work as you write your assignments and term
papers. You will therefore need to show what authors’ / scholars’ work you have read and how these
works have influenced your thinking / writing. You do this by citing and making reference to the authors
and their works in an orderly manner for three reasons:
a) To let the reader know whose ideas you are using
b) To enable your reader to check your information
c) To provide information for your reader

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5.8.1 Important Terminologies in Referencing and Documentation
a) Citation is a reference to a document. It should include all the bibliographic details needed to trace
the document. Citation is done within the text.
b) Footnotes are listed at the bottom of the page on which a reference or citation occurs in the text. “A
number is placed in the text to indicate the cited work and again at the bottom of the page in front of
the footnote. Footnotes are used when only a small number of references need to be made.
c) Reference list is the list of citations (material cited) in a written work. It shows the authority on
which you base statements in the text, show how well acquainted (how widely read) you are with the
subject, and is a starting point for anyone else wanting to find out the subject. Reference writing is
currently the preferred mode of documentation.
d) Bibliography is a list of documents (books, articles and papers) read for a specific essay or
assignment. All these references are not necessarily included in the list of references.
5.8.2 Techniques of Documentation and Referencing
There are various referencing techniques. They include: Harvard reference system, APA (American
Psychology Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), Chicago style of documentation, among
others. KEMU favors the use of Harvard reference system, which we shall look at below.
5.8.2.1 The Harvard Reference System

a) Citing works within the text
The system requires you to cite the author’s surname, the year of publication, and the page
reference immediately after the quoted material, e.g.: ‘Alongside this normative perspective that
emphasizes the centrality of the West in the formation of modernity, there are alternative
approaches to modernity’ (Kane 2003:5).
No comma is needed after author’s name (not ‘Kane, 2003’). Be consistent with punctuations.
For example, where a colon is used after year of publication, either put a space before the page
numbers (‘Amin 2002: 65’) or not (‘Amin 2002:65). Separate publications by different authors by
semicolons (‘Amin 2002; Diaw 1994’) and the same author’s by a comma (‘Mkandawire 1999,
2002’).
b) Writing references / bibliography

With this system it is essential that the bibliography or references list every work cited by you in
the text. Where there are two or more works by one author in the same year, distinguish them as
by use of letters of the alphabet (e.g. Olukoshi 1998a, 1998b, etc). Type the bibliography or
reference list in the order: author initials, date, title, place of publication, publisher.
c) Example of Bibliography using Harvard System

Ake, C., 2001, The Feasibility of Democracy in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Amadiume, I., 1987, Male Daughters, Female Husbands, London: Zed Books.
Ibrahim, J., ed., 1997, Expanding Democratic Space in Nigeria, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Mamdani, M., 1996, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and Legacy of Late Colonialism,
London, James Currey.

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Senghor, J. C., 1979. ‘Politics and the Functional Strategy to International Integration: Gambia in
the Senegambian Integration’, unpublished PhD. Thesis, Yale University.
d) Citing online works

In addition to information necessary for printed works, include full URL location and the date
work was last accessed, if applicable.
Adeya, N., 2001, Information and Communication Technologies in Africa: A Review and
Selective Annotated Bibliography. (http://www.inasp.org.uk/pubs/ict/index.html). 30 May 2003.
If a publication is available in both print and online cite full publishing information and include:
‘Available online at (url}. For example:
Moudileno, L., 2003, Litteratures africanes francophones des annees 1980 et 1990, Dakar:
CODERSIA. Available online at
http://www.codersia.org/Links/Publications/monographs/Moudileno.pdf
6 LIBRARY USER SKILLS

6.1 Introduction
This section is concerned with guiding you to become an effective library user. Effective library usage is
important because it is an essential part of life in education, particularly at university level, where you are
required to find and acquire materials on your own, either for research or for study.

a) Discuss the characteristics of the various types of libraries
b) Discuss the various information sources
c) Discuss the organization of information sources in the library
d) Explain the criteria for evaluating reading materials in the library
6.3 Types of libraries

Libraries can be divided into five main categories:
a) National libraries
b) Public libraries
c) Special libraries
d) Private libraries
e) Academic libraries
a) National libraries are also referred to as reference libraries because they are used for
references. Their main function is to collect and preserve for posterity the books, periodicals and
newspapers published in the country. They are formed through a law and these laws require
publishers to deposit copies of all publications they produce. National libraries also purchase
books published in other countries.

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b) Public libraries are types of libraries that are funded by the public through local authorities or
government and the use of these libraries is open to all members of public. The function of these
libraries is to promote a reading culture in a country’s citizens. They provide a wide range of loan
services, where you can borrow reading material. They endeavor to provide reading material to
the entire country, communities and they do this by providing travelling and mobile libraries even
in remote areas. They also provide special facilities for the old and disabled and also organize
provision of library services for hospital, jails, etc.
Public libraries therefore build up their collection to relate to local community interests. The ideal
public library should provide access to knowledge for all people in the country besides providing
books. Many public libraries also provide meeting rooms for use by community groups. They
should also sponsor lecturers as well as participate in adult education programmes.
c) Special libraries contain a collection of books and other materials dealing with a limited field of
knowledge for a particular society, research organization, government department, or educational
institution department. A special library may also be a special branch of a public library serving
certain interest or occupation groups. A special library is intended to serve needs of specific users
requiring detailed materials in a limited area. A library may be special in a variety of ways:
i) By nature of subject it deals with. This type of library store resources on particular subject
e.g. Central Bank library, Kenya Agriculture Research Institute (KARI) library.
ii) In terms of type of user. This type of library serves a special category of people i.e. prisoners,
children, pastoral communities, etc.
iii) By nature of material or resources found here. These libraries have special format of
resources for instance video libraries, Braille, internet library, KBC, KTN and NTV as
broadcast libraries.
d) Private Libraries are libraries owned by individuals, clubs and societies to which members of
the public have no right of access. They may contain a variety of materials or specialized
materials depending on the interests of the individuals or group.
e) Academic libraries are libraries associated with educational institutions and are established to
serve the needs of those in the institutions. Such libraries include university, college, polytechnics
and so on. University libraries, for instance, are meant to serve academic needs of students and
members of the academic staff.
6.4 Types of Information Sources

Information sources are materials used as resources of information in the library, which are selected to
meet the needs of users of specific libraries.
6.4.1 Information Sources

Information sources can be grouped into print or non print information sources.

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Print information sources are devised into four categories:
a) Reference sources
b) Periodicals
c) Textbooks
d) Recreational books
1) Reference sources are designed to be consulted for definite information and are meant to be
referred to rather than being read as texts. Usually they are not allowed to be taken away from the
library building. Reference sources include: encyclopedias, dictionaries, bibliographies, indexes
and atlases. Reference sources are divided into two, that is, general reference books and quick
references.
2) General reference books include research reports, including theses and dissertations, official
publications such as government publications including Kenya Gazette, parliamentary reports,
statistics reports, development plans and government budget estimates, bibliographies, indexes
and abstracts.
3) Quick references are books that will provide you with material or direct and factual information.
They provide basic and background information to a topic and are designed for consultation when
you are in urgent need of a piece of information or fact. The information provided is usually in
shortened form for quick reference. They are written by specialists in specified fields. Some quick
reference books include:
i) Dictionaries, which may be general language dictionaries that give meaning,
pronunciation, spelling, usage of meaning, trace history of words, synonyms. They may
also be subject dictionaries, which provide meanings of words as used in that particular
field.
ii) Encyclopedias, which are like dictionaries. Most are in a number of volumes covering all
types of subjects and cover a wide range of knowledge. Others are specialized and cover
specific fields of knowledge.
iii) Other quick references include yearbooks covering major events that occurred in the
year of publication; and atlases, providing varied geographical information.
4) Periodicals
These are publications that have a distinct title and published at stated intervals. They contain
articles or other writings by several contributors. The intervals in which they are published could
be fortnightly, monthly, quarterly, or once a year. Periodicals include:
i) Journals, which are publications by a society, institution or professional body containing
news, proceedings, transactions and reports of work contained in a particular field of
study e.g. communication, linguistics, philosophy, political science, etc.
ii) Magazines, which contain varied information written by various writers. They deal with
general topic and are non-professional and non-technical. Examples include Parents,
Adams, Time and Newsweek magazines.
iii) Newspaper, which contain recent news and may be published daily or weekly. The news
items generally include politics, business and advertisements among others.

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5) Textbooks
A textbook is book written specifically for use by those studying for examination in a particular
system. Textbooks discuss subject areas in details and are the main material found in academic
libraries. They include most of course texts used in the university.
6) Recreational books
These are books read for leisure or entertainment and may not be meant for serious study. This
includes mainly fictional works.
7) Non-printed information sources

These sources of information are those that are not books or periodicals or journals. These
information sources are audio-visual or visual and they include such as films, video tapes, slides
and internet material which is in soft form. Most of these materials require special handling and
are an important source of varied information
6.4.2 Organization of Information sources in the library

Libraries do have a wide and enormous variety of information, which must be organized to make it easy
to access by library users. As a library user you need to need to understand how the sources are organized
in order to benefit from information they contain. Library information sources are organized in two ways:
classification and cataloguing.
a) Classification
Classification is arrangement of documents in a logical order according to their degree of likeness by
either subject or form. Classification enables librarians to place documents in a particular order and
the user to be able to locate these documents in particular places in the library. There are various
classification schemes used in libraries. The common ones in Kenyan libraries are:
i) Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC), which was invented by Melvi Dewey. This classification
uses numbers to create division between subject areas and the topics. In this system, the main
subject area is indicated numerals from number 1-999. The sub-division within the subject areas
are further denoted by numerals 1-999 and those are separated from main subject area by a
decimal i.e. 1.35, 685.7, 23.867.
ii) Library of Congress Classification (LCC) was created by library of congress in America. Most
libraries in Kenya, including KEMU, use this system. The system uses alphabetical letters from A
to Z which are used to classify the main subject areas. For instance:
A – General works
B – Philosophy and psychology
BL – BX – Religion
H – Sociology
L – Education
P – Languages
All subject areas are covered by alphabetical letters. Numerals are used to show sub-division in
subjects and other details. The symbol assigned to every book during classification make up a call

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number. The call number enables librarians to store books in particular specified pattern for you
to locate the books in the library. For instance, in the following call number the details are as
follows:
P
106
.Y8
1996
C3
P is the main subject (Language text)
106 is the sub-division of subject
Y is the first letter of the author and 8 is the eight book by the author
1996 is the year of publication of that book
C3 represents copy number 3 of the same book in the library.
b) Cataloguing
Cataloguing is a process in which all materials in the library are listed. These materials are listed in a
particular order. A catalogue list of information about materials will include the author, subject, title
of the material, as well as year of publication, number of copies. In computerized catalogue, it may
also indicate whether the material is borrowed.
6.4.3 Types of Catalogues

There are different types of catalogues and different libraries choose to use different types of catalogues
depending on convenience and personnel they have in libraries. The common types of catalogue are:
a) Author catalogue, where a library lists material in library alphabetically according to the
surname of the author.
b) Title catalogue, where a library lists material in library alphabetically according to the title of the
materials. Articles that precedes titles e.g. a, an and the are, not included in the title. They are
ignored.
c) Subject catalogue, which lists materials in the library in alphabetical order according to subject
heading.
6.4.3.1 Catalogue format

There are two types of catalogue formats:
i) Card catalogue, in which catalogues are done on cards where each card contains only one entry and
the card entries are arranged alphabetically either using author system, subject system or title system.
The cards are placed in drawers where they can be accessed by library user. Most libraries are
phasing out this system in favour of computer catalogue.
ii) Computer catalogue format uses computers which have catalogue information of various entries of
materials found in a library. The system is very efficient and can be used to store more varied
information than card catalogue. It can also be accessed very fast, at the click of a button. This is the
format used in the KEMU library.

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6.4.4 Evaluating information sources

In a library there are numerous information sources and you need to be able to select information sources
that would be most helpful for study or research. In the case of a book its various parts may guide you
into evaluating this information source. The various parts of a book that might be relevant include:
i) Book cover, which contain the author’s name and the title of the book. At the back cover, it
contains a brief history of author and may indicate his/her credibility and also a brief summary
of the contents of the book.
ii) Title page, which shows the title of the book, full name or all names of authors, edition,
volume, publisher, place of publication, the translator, etc.
iii) Preface / forward, which is the section that reveals the purpose of materials contained in the
book as well as its relevance. The forward is usually written by someone else other than author
who is an authority or has a great understanding of materials contained in the book.
iv) Table of content, which shows the title of topics, chapters and pages the information is found.
v) The introduction, usually provides general survey of material contained in the book. It also
offers advice on how the book is arranged and should be read e.g. whether it should be read
progressively or whether each section may be read independently.
vi) The glossary is a list of technical or special terms used in the text and their definitions.
vii) Appendix comes towards the end of the book and it may contain notes about things that might
not have been fully explained in the text. It also includes tables, statistics and so on, for which
there is no room to be included in text.
viii) The index is a systematically arranged list of items which show information for each item and
how it can be traced by means of page number.
6.4.5 Choosing the right book

Using the parts of the book described above, you can now assess the quality of books in the library before
reading them. Coupled with the information above, there are other criteria that you can use in selecting
the right book as illustrated below:
i) Relevance of the book, which is determined by the purpose you have established for your
reading which can be achieved by looking at various sections of books described above.
ii) Up-to-datedness, which is the publication date of the book and the edition. This is important
because information keeps changing over time or new developments emerge in a field of study.
Therefore more current books contain new developments that old books may not have.
iii) The credibility of author and publisher. You need to select materials that are written by
credible authors and well known publishing firms. In so doing you will be reading material that
is reliable and reputable. This is more so because a lot of materials circulating which may pass
off as facts may actually be coming from unreliable sources.
iv) Book’s popularity. A popular book will have certain characteristics. It is in high demand as
reflected in sales and it has several reprints.
v) Presentation of material. This refers to how the author presents material, which is very
important in assessing the suitability of the material. Presentation involves how the material is
produced, how it is organized, the usefulness of illustration used and the level of language used.

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7 COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY

7.1 Ways Technology affects Communication
Technological advances are causing constant changes in the new way we work; for example:
 Software that allows us to be more productive
 Hand held computers that allow us to stay organized and connected
 Cellular phones that connect us to the internet
Most companies / organizations have adopted Remote Technology, which is technology that allows
people to work away from the office using such channels as notebook computers, digital pagers, personal
digital assistants (PDAs) and cellular phones among others.
Productivity enhancements with technology.

Companies, organizations and businesses have relied on technology to enhance productivity of both
products and services, in order to compete globally. There are FOUR main areas where technology
enhances productivity:
1. Time
Technology reduces time to compete tasks and projects. It increases efficiency, thus yields results
in lower costs and higher profits.
Technology can also reduce time required to complete a task by enabling you to reuse or recycle
information, which eliminates the need to re-create and rekey data.
2. Convenience
Technology makes the way we work more convenient. With technology, correspondence can be
distributed via methods such as email, fax machines, pagers, voice messaging, documents and
telephones among others.
Technology offers workers convenience. For example, correcting errors in electronic documents
can be done instantly by deleting a character, word, phrase or entire document, then typing the
new information.
3. Quality
Technology enhances quality of communications. For example, telephone voice mail enables a
caller to leave detailed and accurate messages about projects, meetings, contact information, etc.
Another example is in the case of correcting electronic documents, where such electronic tools as
spelling checkers, grammar checkers and electronic thesauruses can help produce high quality
documents.
4. Environment

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Technology makes our work environment more pleasant. Technology has improved our
environment by streamlining tasks. For example, voice mail has eliminated the need to take
written telephone messages. Technology has also helped reduce a lot of the waste found in
offices. For example, sending an electronic version of a letter reduces the need for large numbers
of paper copies.
8 BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
8.1 Writing Emails and Memos
8.1.1 Emails
Electronic mail, more commonly referred to as E-mail, is written communication just like memos and
letters. The primary difference is the method of transmission. E-mail messages are sent instantly through
the internet via the modem on your computer and the modem in the recipient’s computer.
The use of e-nail today is so quick, easy and inexpensive that its use is increasing at a phenomenal rate. In
order to ensure that communication via e-mail is appropriate, follow the following guidelines:
1) Use the correct address: one typographical error in the address means that your e-mail will not be
delivered; therefore, always check the accuracy of an e-mail address.
2) Use a greeting: use a greeting to personalize the email message.
3) Use a subject line: subject lines identify the main content of the email. They should be concise
phrases that clearly identify the content of the message.
4) Limit the length, topics and recipients: limit your email message to one topic, which makes writing a
subject line much easier. Email messages are supposed to be brief and should be a maximum of about
25 lines of text. Send the email only to those who need the information. Information overload and
email overload have a negative effect on productivity.
5) Watch the tone of your email: email recipients could have trouble capturing the emotions in your
email. Therefore, avoid sarcasm in any form of written communication since it can be misinterpreted.
Do not use all capital letters in your email as it is considered as shouting to your reader.
6) Use a closing: sign out appropriately at the end of your email message.
7) Check spelling and grammar: always read and proof read your email before sending it. If your
message contains error, people may assume that you are uneducated. After all, misspelled words are a
turnoff and do not convey a professional image.
8) Do not send confidential information: email is not always private or confidential. A good rule to
follow is: Do not send anything by email that you would not be willing to have published in the Daily
Nation newspaper.
9) Know your company policy: find out what your company’s policy on email is and follow it. This is
critical in a professional environment since your company owns the email system.
10) Spamming: this is sending unsolicited email, particularly advertisements, to others. It is the electronic
version of junk mail. Such mail is a turnoff.
11) Reply to emails: responding or not responding to emails is a form of communication tool. It is
common courtesy to, and unprofessional to ignore, an email that asks for a response.
12) Attachments: it is best to inform your recipient that you are attaching a file to an email and disclose
what the attachment is, especially with the increase in computer viruses.
13) Viruses: this is a self-replicating code planted illegally in a computer program for the purpose of
damaging or shutting down a system or network. Unfortunately, it is through attachments to emails

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that many computer viruses are spread to other computers. If you do not know the sender or you are
not expecting an attachment, be cautious opening it.
8.1.2 Memos
Originally the word ‘memorandum’ came from the Latin memorare – to remember – and meant literally
‘a thing to be remembered’. However, memos now have a rather wider use in business that simply a
memory aid as, together with the telephone, they have become the main method of internal
communication within organizations. Their use provides written record.
Memos are also a logical way to coordinate the efforts of many people within an organization – especially
large and diverse organizations and for those who do not have access to email.
There can be no fixed rules about the style of language which is appropriate for an internal memorandum.
It will depend on several factors such as:
a) Nature of the message – information, enquiry, request, reprimand, congratulations and so on.
b) Context of the message – potential reaction of the reader, what has gone before, how much the
recipient knows already, urgency of the situation and priority of any action required – routine,
emergency, crisis, follow-up instructions to all staff and so on.
c) Status of personality of the recipient – position in the organization, known tastes and attitudes on
written style and methods of working, technical / practical background, educational level and so
on.
d) Relationship between sender and recipient – friendly, distant, informal, formal and so on. (A
neutral tone may be necessary where there will be several recipients).
8.1.2.1 The following are the advantages of Memos

1) Memos are quick: using technology can reduce the time needed to write and send memos. Many
software programs include memo templates that make it easy to compose a memo. By using email
and fax machines, a writer can quickly transmit memos to recipients.
2) Memos are inexpensive: compared with telephone calls and meetings, memos are a cost-effective
way to transmit messages within an organization because all recipients receive the same information.
3) Memos are convenient: memos offer access to people who are not seen on regular basis. Memos also
minimize interruptions for the receiver. In addition, reading a memo requires less time than a phone
call or a personal visit.
4) Memos are a written record: memos serve as a written record for both the reader and the writer. They
can clarify instructions or information given orally and can help prevent misunderstandings.
8.1.2.1 Sample of a Memo

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[email protected]
MEMO
TO: MANAGING DIRECTPR

FROM: MERCY BURIA-MIRINDI – TRAINING MANAGER
SUBJECT: INDUCTION TRAINING PROGRAMME
DATE: 15TH SEPTT. 2010
CC: PROGRAMME TUTORS; CENTRE OFFICERS
Introduction Following your secretary’s telephone call, I am enclosing a draft programme for the
induction course we are proposing to hold from 15th to 20th September 2010.
Body You will see that following your arrangement to speak to the new staff, I have
provisionally arranged for your session to start at 2.00 p.m. on 17th September 2010.
Conclusion I would like to be able to finalise the arrangements fairly soon and would therefore be
grateful if you could confirm that 17th September is still convenient for your, and let me
have your comments on the programme by the end of this week if possible.
Yours faithfully,
(Sing here)
Mercy Buria-Mirindi
Training Manager
8.2 Purposes of emails and memos

Memos and emails are used for a variety of purposes. The main purposes are to request, to inform, to
report, to remind, to transmit and to promote goodwill.
1. To request
Use of memos or emails to ask for information, action or reaction. Messages written for this
purpose take the direct approach as in the following examples:
 We need a list of your new products, in order to advice our clients
 Please make arrangements for a one-day seminar for all trainees
 Please review this proposal and give me your comments about it.
2. To inform
Use memos to communicate procedures, policies and instructions. If the message contains good
news, use the direct approach, if the message contains bad news, use the indirect approach. For
example:
 Our fire safety procedure requires immediate assembly by all people at a designated fire
assembly point.
 Company policy does not permit the removal of company property outside its premise.
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 You will need your national ID card to access the building.
3. To report
Use memos or emails to convey organized data such as schedules, sales figures, names of clients.
For example:
 Below is our schedule for the completion of the renovation of the KEMU Towers
 Here is a list of the students who will attend the inter-university athletic competition
4. To remind
Use memos or emails as reminders about deadline, important meetings, etc. such reminders
should be both brief and use the direct approach. For example:
 The new students’ orientation will take place on 20th August 2010
 Our appointment with the insurance sales person should be on your calendar for Monday
April 3, 2010 at 2 p.m. in the board room.
5. To transmit
Use memos or emails to tell readers about an accompanying message. The message should
describe, explain or simply identify the attachment or enclosure. For example:
 Attached are the handouts for the previous class discussions
 Enclosed, please find my resume for your perusal
6. To promote goodwill
Use memos or emails to establish, improve and maintain goodwill. These messages can
congratulate, welcome or convey appreciation. For example:
 Congratulations on your promotion!
 Welcome to KEMU, where the future is!
 Thank you for a job well done!
9 COMMUNICATION WITHIN AN INTERVIEW SETTING

An interview is any controlled and planned conversation between two (or more) people, which has a
purpose for at least one of the participants and during which both participants speak and listen from time
to time.

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An employment interview is a formal conversation to evaluate the qualifications of a prospective
employee.
9.2 The Purpose of the Interview

The purpose of an interview may be very specific – selecting someone for a job; hearing about someone’s
complaint; reprimanding or disciplining someone for misdemeanor, or determining how someone is
progressing – and there are many more. But all interviews are concerned with:
 Obtaining information
 Passing on information
 Clarifying information
9.3 Types of Interview Information

They are classified according to the number of people involved and the place.
There are six common types of interview information:

1) Statements of description – the interviewee is required to provide information concerning something
he has observed or experienced and may be questioned much as a witness is by a lawyer.
2) Statements of factual knowledge – the interviewee is required to pass on an explanation of
information he possesses, for example an interview with an expert or specialist
3) Statements of behavior – the interviewee defines the previous, present and future behaviour of the
interviewee.
4) Statements of attitude and belief – here, information is of a more subjective nature revealing attitudes,
personality, ambition and motivation; these statements represent the interviewee’s evaluations
(good/bad) and opinions of the truth and falseness about things.
5) Statements of feelings – here, information reveals physical and/or emotional levels which reflect the
state of the individual.
6) Statement of value – these statements convey long-standing belief systems that are highly treasured
by the respondent, for example, “the essential quality in anyone is commitment – a willingness to see
things through and stick at the job despite difficulties.”
9.4 Types of Interviews

The questions you are asked during a job interview will be determined by the type of interview that you
are given.
1) Screening interview
This is conducted to determine if you have the skills and qualifications for the job. It may be
conducted over the telephone and may also serve as a preliminary screening of your communication
and interpersonal skills. Keep your responses concise, giving too much information in a screening
interview can hurt you.
2) One-on-one interview

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As the label implies, in a one-on-one interview, you will be interviewed by one person only. The
interviewer wants to see if you will fit in with the company and determine how your skills will benefit
the company.
3) Panel or committee interview

This type of interview is fairly common today as companies look for ways to make better hiring
decisions. The interview team members usually take turn asking interview questions. When
answering questions, focus your attention on the person who asked the question rather than the whole
group.
4) Group interview
In a group interview, several applicants meet with one or two interviewers. This type of interview is
designed to uncover leadership potential among the applicants and to see how you interact with
others.
5) Stress interview
A stress interview is a deliberate attempt to put you under stress to test how you react or behave under
pressure. Some techniques used in stress interviewing are:
 Rapidly firing questions at you
 Placing you on the defensive with irritating questions and sarcastic comments
 Long periods of silence after you answer a question
Remain calm during this type of interview
6) Unstructured interview
An unstructured interview usually consists of one or two broad questions such as, “why don’t you tell
me about yourself?” The purpose is to find out if the applicant is wise enough to focus on his/her
qualifications for the job and to find out how good his/her communication skills are.
7) Behavioral interview
In a behavioral interview, the idea is to see how a candidate handled a situation in the past/handles a
particular situation. The theory is that past behavior is a good predictor of future behavior. The
interviewer uses questions and statements to get applicants to relate specific examples of how they
have successfully used the skills required in the job. An example of a behavioral interview question
is, “Tell me about a conflict you had with a co-worker and how you handled it”.
8) Situational interview
This interview is similar to a behavioral interview instead of asking candidates to relate past
experiences, the applicant is given a situation, then asked, “How would you handle this?” they test the
call of duty in such situation.
9) Disciplinary interview
A disciplinary interview is a formal discussion between the supervisor and the employee, typically
behind closed doors, usually in the supervisor’s office or in a conference room. At this point, the

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employee is alerted to the fact that future infractions / misconduct will not be tolerated, resulting in
further disciplinary action based on the severity of the offense.
10) Appraisal interview

This interview comprises an evaluation of the interviewee’s performance over a period of time, and a
review of the tasks and objectives for the year ahead. The appraisal interview is used as a
management tool for the Personnel Department and for managers when planning future training
programs.
9.5 Types of Business Interviews

1) Employment-ask questions to determine whether one can be employed.
2) Performance appraisal
3) Counseling
4) Discipline
5) Termination
6) Induction
7) Consulting
8) Sales
9) Data gathering
10) Order giving
9.6 Types of Interview Questions

1) Standard interview questions
2) Surprise interview questions
3) Behavioral interview questions
4) Direct / close-ended questions
5) Bipolar / yes / no questions
6) Leading or standard-revealing questions
7) Loaded questions
8) Open-ended questions
9) Prompting questions
10) Mirror questions
11) Probing questions
12) Hypothetical questions
9.7 Preparing mentally for an Interview

1) Remember the goal of the interview.
2) Research the prospective employer; find the background of the place.
3) Prepare questions to ask the interviewer, i.e. how much money is paid, sort of remuneration.
4) Know your strengths and weaknesses, i.e. I am strict on how things are done.
5) Anticipate questions.
6) Become knowledgeable about industry trends and current events

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9.8 Preparing physically for an Interview
1) Confirm your appointment.
2) Get directions to the interview site.
3) Identify items to take i.e. a pen, a paper.
4) Get a good night’s sleep. This helps you to minimize psychological noise.
5) Dress well
9.9 What to avoid during an Interview

1) Monotonous delivery
A loud domineering voice will make the interviewer feel threatened; a quiet, low monotonous voice
will bore them. They may lose interest in you, worse still; they may even think you are bored and
uninterested. So, concentrate on projecting your voice in a dynamic, enthusiastic tone. Above all, aim
at variety – variety of pitch, volume and speed.
2) Unresponsiveness
When people are nervous they are often also less responsive than normal. The interviewer wants to
hear about you, so if they should ask a question which appears to require only a ‘yes’ or ‘no’, try to
expand your answers beyond a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
3) Deliberate unresponsiveness
You may of course be asked a question which you really cannot or do not answer. Women, for
example, may be asked questions which they consider embarrassing, or even illegal, like, “Won’t you
leave to have a baby before long?” always try to answer honestly if you can – this might be an
opportunity to offer your opinion about women working – but always avoid a direct refusal to answer
or an argumentative answer. It is far better to adopt the ‘political response’.
4) Inappropriate language
You should also try to avoid using slang or excessively casual language – ok, no way, I mean, like,
you know…, like I said, yeah. Other words are colloquial such as buddy. Such expressions are not
typical of a business professional.
5) Unnatural posture
Slumping or sitting like a stiff tin soldier are both frequent symptoms of nerves. The best impression
is created by sitting up straight with legs crossed. This position looks good and allows you to lead
forward a little towards the interviewer to make special points or to show special attention.
6) A negative start
Watch the opening of an interview. Avoid making remarks that create a ‘negative set’ for the rest of
the interview such as, “I’m not really sure that my background is suitable for this job,” or “I’m afraid
I haven’t had any experience”. Talk without blinking.

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[email protected]
LEARNERS &STUDENTS ARE

HEREBY ADVISED TO WHATSAPP
0705525657 TO OBTAIN REVISION
EXAMS FOR THEIR CLASSES

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

COMMUNITY BASED LEARNING

1.1 Objectives of the topic

1.2 What is Communication?

a) Communication is a process: It is an activity which is an exchange of meaning that is dynamic.

1.3 Importance of Studying Communication

1.4 Elements of Communication

FOR KASNEB, PRIMARY &HIGH SCHOOL SOFTCOPY

1.5 Principles of Communication

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1.6 Types of Communication

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b) Communication Categorized by Channel or Medium

1.6.1 Categories of Non-verbal Communication

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1.6.2 Pointers for using Non-verbal Communication

1.7 The Objectives of Communication:

1.8 Specific barriers to Communication

1.9 The 7 Cs of Communication

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FOR KASNEB, PRIMARY &HIGH SCHOOL SOFTCOPY

The following actions can ensure that your communication is considerate:

Look at the following examples:

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Ask the following questions to test your communication for consideration:

The chief art in communication is to know:

2 LISTENING AND CRITICAL THINKING

2.3 Definition of Listening

2.5 The Listening Process

FOR KASNEB, PRIMARY &HIGH SCHOOL SOFTCOPY

2.6 Types of Listening

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2.7 Effective Listening Strategies

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2.8 Improving Listening Skills

2.8.1 Overcoming listening barriers

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2.8.2 Improving Listening skills

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3.2 Objectives of the topic

3.3 What is reading?

3.4 Developing a Purpose for Reading

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3.6 EFFECTIVE AND EFFICIENIT READING STRATEGIES

3.6.1 Common poor reading habits

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c) Finger reading, pointing at words and head movement

d) Narrow recognition span and poor rhythmic eye movement

e) Regression (backtracking while reading)

3.6.2 Effective Reading and Comprehension skills

FOR KASNEB, PRIMARY &HIGH SCHOOL SOFTCOPY

3.6.3 The Importance of SQ3R

3.6.4 Other important tips to effective reading and comprehension

4.2 Objectives of the topic

4.3 Definition and importance of writing

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4.3.2 Essay Writing

Stage 1: Write down your purpose

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