THE BACKYARD

ASTRONOMER'S
GUIDE

TERENCE DICKINSON & ALAN DYER

i r
THE BACKYARD
ASTRONOMER'S
GUIDE
.
CAMDEN HOUSE

THE BACKYARD
ASTRONOMER'S
GUIDE All
REVISED & UPDATED
Astronomical Photographs by Amateur Astronomers

TERENCE DICKINSON & ALAN DYER

E3
PLIBLiSIUNC

® Copyright 1991 by Terence Dickinson and Alan Dyer

All rights resetved. The use of any part of this

publication, reproduced, transmittedin any form or by

any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

recording or otherwise, or stored in a retrieval system,
without the prior consent of the Publisher, is an
infringement of the copyright law and is forbidden.

Second printing 1992

Third printing 1993 (revised and updated)

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data

Dickinson, Terence
The backyard astronomer's guide

Includes index.
ISBN 0-921820-1 1-9

1 . Astronomy Amateurs' manuals. 1. Dyer,

Alan, 1953- . II. Title.

Q864.D53 1991 522 C91-094361-3

Front Cover: The brightest sector of the Milky Way,

near the constellation Sagittarius. Two-photograph
composite by Terence Dickinson; both with 50mm
f/1.7lens.

Title Page: The Andromeda Galaxy. Photograph by

Rajiv Gupta, using a 5-inch f/6 refractor.

Back Cover: Star-rich region of the constellation

Scorpius by Michael Watson; 8-inch f/1 .5 Schmidt
camera. Foreground of backyard astronomers by
Terence Dickinson.

Printed and bound in Canada by

D.W. Friesen & Sons Ltd.

Altona, Manitoba

Published by Camden House Publishing

(a division of Telemedia Communications Inc.)

Camden House Publishing

7 Queen Victoria Road
Camden East, Ontario
KOK 1J0
Camden House Publishing
Box 766
Buffalo, New York 14240-0766
Design by
Trade distribution by Linda J.
Menyes
Firefly Books
Technical illustrations by
250 Sparks Avenue
Margo Stahl
Willowdale, Ontario
Canada M2H 2S4 Colour separations by
Hadwen Graphics
Box 1325
Ottawa, Ontario
Ellicott Station

Buffalo, New York 14205 Printed on acid-free paper

 PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION
Two years after the initial publication of The Sacfc- Chapter 6, which deals with myths about tele-

yard Astronomer's Guide in 1 991 here we are up-

, scopes and observing, was singled out for praise in
dating it. Why so soon? Anyone active in amateur practically every review of the first edition. To keep
astronomy knows that the hobby is constantly this sectionon the cutting edge of myth busting, we
evolving, particularly the equipment used by astron- have attacked some new misconceptions that seem
omy enthusiasts. Accordingly, most of the changes to be infecting backyard astronomy as we enter the
—which involve substantial revisions to almost mid-1990s.
10 percent of the book — have centred on new To round out the main changes, we updated and
equipment that has become available to the ama- expanded the "Astronomy Product Sources" glos-
teur astronomer. sary, and Peter Ceravolo kindly revised his useful
We have tried to include commentary on every "Glossary of Optical Jargon." Readers' comments or
important new telescope model that has appeared suggestions for future revised editions are welcome.
in two years, while deleting most references
the past They can be addressed to us c/o Camden House
to discontinued lines. We concentrated on this as- Publishing, 7 Queen Victoria Road, Camden East,
pect because reader feedback from the fi rst edition Ontario KOK 1J0 Canada. We will respond to every
confirmed our suspicions that this would prove to letter.

be the most popular feature of the book. Terence Dickinson and Alan Dyer, March 7993

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many friends, and many more strangers, contrib- timistic expectations. Equally hardworking was our
uted to this book through their questions, comments production manager, Susan Dickinson, whose at-

and opinions about backyard astronomy. In fact, the tention to detailamazes all who know her— includ-
content was largely dictated by the concerns ex- ing her husband, who wrote many of the words she
pressed by fellow amateur astronomers during con- so carefully copyedited. Editors Tracy C. Read and
versations by telephone and at meetings, conven- Barry Estabrook made many useful suggestions.
tions and star parties. We became convinced that Thanks also to copy editor Laura Elston; proof-
the primary focus of The Backyard Astronomer's readers Catherine DeLury, Christine Kulyk, Mary
Cu/'de should be the topics being actively discussed Patton, Lois Casselman and Charlotte DuChene;
by today's backyard astronomers. typesetters Patricia Denard-Hinch, Eileen Whitney
But just having an idea for a book means little un- and Johanna Troyer. Richard Talcott, Russ Samp-
less it can be nurtured and brought to fruition by a son, Seth DuChene, Kathryn MacDonald and
team of competent professionals. Topping the list Laurel Aziz read the entire manuscript and made
is designer Linda Menyes, who worked an extraor- helpful comments. We also appreciate contribu-
dinary number of extra hours to produce a beauti- tions by Roy Bishop, Perry Remaklus and Ralph
ful yet functional book that exceeds our most op- Lindenblatt.

To Susan, who helps in so many ways.

-T.D.

For all the friends I've met under the stars.

-A.D.
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION A New Stargazer^s Guidebook 8

CHAPTER ON E Amateur Astronomy Comes of Age 1

D Naturalists of the Night; Amateur Astronomy

Today; Sharing the Universe; Introductory
Star Charts

PART I ^^^^^^^^HBi^^ EQUIPMENT FOR BACKYARD ASTRONOMY!

CHAPTER TWO Binoculars for the Beginner and the Serious Observer 24

D Selecting Binoculars; Exit Pupil; The Ideal

Binoculars for Astronomy; Field of View;
Eyeglasses and Binoculars; Binocular Tests;
Giant Binoculars

CHAPTER THREE Telescopes for Recreational Astronomy 40

n Telescope Evolution; Choosing a Telescope;
Decoding Telescope Specs; Avoiding Aperture
Fever; Comparing Telescopes; Reviewing the
Telescope Market; Where and How to Buy a
Telescope

chapter FOURB Eyepieces and Filters 66

n Eyepieces; Eye Relief; Basic Eyepiece Designs;
Nagler-Type Eyepieces; Barlow Lens;
Planetary Filters; Nebula Filters

CHAPTER FIVE Accessories and Observing Aids 82

D Finderscopes; Anti-Dew Devices; Polar-
Alignment Aids; Telescope Storage

CHAPTER SIX Ten Myths About Telescopes and Observing 90

PART II ^^^^^^B OBSERVING THE CELESTIAL PANORAMAS

CHAPTER SEVEN The Sky Without a Telescope 96
D Phenomena of the Day Sky; Phenomena of the
Setting Sun; Meteors; Auroras; Recording Your
Observations, by Russ Sampson

CHAPTER EIGHT Observing Conditions: Your Site and Light Pollution 110
D The Eroding Sky; Rating Your Observing Site;
Conventions at Dark-Sky Sites; Limiting-
Magnitude Factors

CHAPTER NJNE^ Observing the Moon, Sun and Comets 122

n Lunar Observing; Solar Observing; Observing
and Photographing the Sun in Hydrogen
Alpha, by John Hicks; Bright Comets: 1940-
90; Observing Comets, by David H. Levy
 CHAPTER TEN Observing the Planets 1 40

D Mercury; Observing Mercury by Day; Venus;

Conjunction; Mars; Mars Rotation
Inferior
Photographs; Jupiter; Tracking the Four
Moons; Saturn; Saturn's Satellite Family;
Uranus; Neptune; Pluto

CHAPTER ELEVEN How to Find Your Way Around the Sky 160

DAn Observing Philosophy; Star Atlases;

Setting Circles; Whafs in the Sky Tonight?

CHAPTER TWELVE Exploring the Deep Sky 1 70

DThe Messier Catalogue; The NGC; Beyond the

NGC; Within the Milky Way; Beyond the
Milky Way; Sketching at the Eyepiece, by
Gregg Thompson; Deep-Sky Strategies; Deep-
Sky Observingat the Limit, by Alister Ling

PART 1 1 1 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^m ASTROPHOTOG RAPH Y

CHAPTER THIRTEEN Capturing the Sky on Film 202

D Selecting the Right Equipment; Selecting the

Right Film; Selecting the Right Telescope;
Selecting the Right Accessories; Photographic
Limiting Magnitude

CHAPTER FOURTEEN The Essential Techniques 216

D Tripod and Camera; Shooting the Moon;

Lunar and Solar Close-Ups; Planetary Portraits;
Deep-Sky Piggyback Photography; Prime-
Focus Deep-Sky Photography

CHAPTER FIFTEENS Eclipses, Gremlins and Advanced Techniques 232

D Lunar Eclipses; Solar Eclipses; Keeping the

Gremlins at Bay; Advanced Techniques;
Deep-Sky Photography From Urban Settings,
by Klaus R. Brasch

EPILOGUES The Universe Awaits 246

PART IV ^^^m^mm^^^^^^^^^^mma^^m^mm^i^m appendixes

n Recommended Books and Magazines 250
D North American Organizations 253
n Astronomy Product Sources 254
D Polar Alignment , 259
DMaintaining Telescope Performance 262
DA Glossary of Optical Jargon, by Peter Ceravolo 266
D How to Test Your Telescope's Optics 270
O Charts of Selected Sky Regions 274
Index 290
 INTRODUCTION

A Ne\A^ Stargazer's
Guidebook

There is something deeply compelling about the atlases, an annual astronomical almanac and a sub-
night sky. Those fragile, flickering points of scription to Astronomy or Sky & Telescope maga-
light in the blackness beckon to the inquisitive zines. But most enthusiasts yearn to graduate to a
mind. So it was in antiquity, and so it remains today. telescope. Our main task in the following pages is
But only in the past decade have large numbers of to act as your gu ides as you select and use the proper
people decided to delve into stargazing— recre- equipment and accessories for many enjoyable
ational astronomy— as a leisure activity. Today, nights under the stars— in essence, this is a detailed
more than people in North America
half a million practical guide to getting the most out of the expe-
call themselves amateur astronomers. rience of night-sky watching.
Not surprisingly, manufacturers have kept pace In many respects, this book is a sequel to coauthor
with the growth of the hobby, and there is now a be- Dickinson's NightWatch: An Equinox Guide to
wildering array of telescopes and accessories to Viewing the Universe, which emphasizes prelimi-
meet the needs of the hundreds of thousands of nary material for the absolute beginner. NightWatch
backyard astronomers. This development has pro- assumed no previous experience on the part of the
duced a gap in the reference material available to reader. Here, we provide extensive reference ma-
stargazers. a gap that this book attempts to bridge. terial for enthusiasts who have decided that amateur

astronomy is an activity worth pursuing, even

WHAT THIS BOOK IS ABOUT though they may not yet own a telescope.
In our work as astronomy authors and communica-
tors, we have encountered thousands of enthusiasts
FOCUS ON
seeking tips on how to be backyard astronomers—
PRACTICAL INFORMATION
specifically, how to select the appropriate equip- The best plan with any leisure activity is to become
ment, how to use how to avoid buying unnec-
it, knowledgeable about the equipment before buying
essary gadgets and, most important, how to feel it. We provide that information with specific refer-
comfortable that they are using the equipment ences to brands and items available on today's
they have as well as they can. market. It is easy to be romanced by the technology
The truth is, one can become a competent ama- and by glitzy high-tech advertising; we flag the
teur astronomer with hardware no more sophisti- unnecessary and the frivolous.
cated than binoculars combined with the appropri- No single book, obviously, can do it all, and this
ate reference material: this book, one or two star one is no exception. However, before we started to

8
 The backbone of the night,
the MilkyWay marks the
centreline of the vast wheel-
shaped system of stars in
which our sun resides. We are
viewing the galaxy from the
inside; the centre is the bright
bulge near the lower edge.
Photograph by jerry Lodriguss.
Like all the other astronomical
photographs in this book,
this picture was taken by an
amateur astronomer capturing
the splendour of a memorable
night under the stars.
 tended to serve as rough guides only. Prices in Ca-
nadian dollars are ^5 to 40 percent higher, depend-
ingon current exchange rates and sales taxes.
With this book, we also wanted to dispel the
misperception that one must be a computer whiz
with a degree in astrophysics to use a telescope
properly or to appreciate fully the wonders of the
universe. Physics and computers are unnecessary
baggage for personal exploration of the cosmos,
and we have deliberately avoided extensive dis-
cussions of any such subjects. However, we do
offer suggestions and Appendixes for anyone in-
terested in topics that we chose not to include,
such as telescope making.
Finally, afew words about the illustrations. All the
celestial photographs reproduced in this book were
taken by amateur astronomers. Most of the images
have never been published before. Some of the pho-
tographs rival those taken with much larger tele-
scopes at professional observatories, attesting to the
skilland dedication of modern amateur astrophotog-
raphers. But beyond the technical achievements is
the astonishing beauty that modern cameras, films
and telescopes can capture. Many readers undoubt-
edly will be stirred by these pictures to attempt
celestial photography for themselves. We devote
three chapters to astrophotography, the major sub-
hobby within recreational astronomy. We specifi-
cally attempted to display new pictures of familiar
objects as wel as state-of-the-art astrophotography.
I

Other illustrations are intended to complement the

main text. In most instances, the caption material is
not contained within the main text and should be
considered supplementary information.

THE LURE OF ASTRONOMY

M Above: Once considered to work on this project, we took a close look at the For many enthusiasts, the canopy of stars is almost
be an extremely difficult target amateur-astronomy guidebooks already available. Onememberofahusband-and-wife
tranquillizing.
for telescope viewing, the Veil We saw certain subjects covered over and over team described it thus: "Astronomy is one of the few
Nebula, in the constellation again (the same constellation-by-constellation ob- hobbies that lets you get completely away from it
Cygnus, is now routinely serving lists, for example), while some aspects of the all.It opens your mind, everyday problems fade,

observed in detail with small hobby were consistently overlooked. With this in and you don't even notice the time— or the cold.
telescopes using special filters mind, we have concentrated on the areas we feel One night, we tape-recorded our viewing session,
—one of many recent advances have been traditionally negleaed or have only lately then replayed it the next day and heard ourselves
in amateur-astronomy equip- emerged as topics of interest. saying over and over, 'Oh, wow! Look at that,' as we
ment. Photograph by Jim Riffle. In recent years, for instance, the Schmidt- took turns at the telescope. It was really beautiful."
Right: Emerging unexpect- Cassegrain telescope has become the most popu- Whatever their passion, amateur astronomers
all

edly, the dancing curtains of lar type of instrument for amateur astronomy, yet agree that a major threshold in the hobby is the mag-
an aurora (northern lights) can many references offer only one or two pages on the ical night when the sky ceases to be a trackless maze

light up a dark night sky with a subject. In this book, we devote half of one chap- of glittering points and begins to transform itself in
unique pulsating radiance. ter and parts of others to the Schmidt-Cassegrain. the mind of the observer into the real universe of
This exceptionally intense We detected a need for candour in discussions of and nebulas with names, dis-
planets, stars, galaxies
display, seen on the night of commercial astronomy equipment, so we have tried tances, dimensions and a powerful aura of mystery.
March 12-13, 1989, was visible to be as specific as possible about brand names, Once that happens, there is no turning back. The
as far south as Guatemala. reporting what we do and don't like and why. night sky becomes an infinite wonderland waiting
Photograph by Terence Prices of telescopes and other equipment quoted to be explored.
Dickinson. throughout are in 1993 U.S. dollars and are in- Terence Dickinson and Alan Dyer

10
11
 CHAPTER ONE

Amateur Astronomy
Comes of Age

American poet and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson the night, captivated by the mystique of the vast uni-
once wrote: 'The man on the street does not know verse that is accessible only under a dark sky.
a star in the sky." His observation stood the test of In recent decades, the darkness that astronomy
a century and a half. But in recent years, and dur- enthusiasts seek has been beaten back by the ever-
ing the past decade in particular, a growing number growing domes of artificial light over cities and
of people want to become acquainted with the stars. towns and by the increased use of security lighting
More astronomy books were published and sold in everywhere, in many places, the lustre of the Milky
the 1 980s than in any previous decade. More tele- Way arching across a star-studded sky has been
scopes were manufactured and sold in the 1980s obliterated forever. Yet amateur astronomy flour-
than in any previous decade. More people enrolled ishes as never before. Why? Perhaps it is an exam-
in the astronomy courses of colleges, universities ple of that well-known human tendency to ignore
and planetariums than in any previous decade. historic or acclaimed sites in one's own neighbour-
The 1980s also saw the emergence of astrono- hood while attempting to see everything when trav-
mers and astrophysicists as media and publishing elling to distant lands. Most people now perceive
superstars— Carl Sagan and Stephen Hawking, for a starry sky as foreign and enchanti ng rather than as
example. There is no mistaking the signals: As- something that can be seen from any sidewalk, as
tronomy has come of age as a mainstream interest it was when our grandparents were young.

and a recreational activity. That is certainly part of the equation, but consider
how amateur astronomy has changed in two gen-
NATURALISTS OF THE NIGHT
erations. The typical 1 950s amateur astronomer was
Not coincidentally, the growth of interest in as- usually male and a loner, with strong interests in
tronomy during recentyears has parallelled the rise physics, mathematics and optics. In high school, he
in our awareness of the environment. The realiza- spent his weekends grinding a 6-inch f/8 Newtonian
tion that we live on a planet with finite resources and telescope mirror from a kit sold by Edmund Scien-

dwindling access to wilderness areas corresponds tific, inaccordance with the instructions presented
with a sharp increase in activities which involve ob- in Scientific American telescope-making books. The

serving and appreciating nature-birding, nature four-foot-long telescope was mounted on what was
walks, hiking, scenic drives, camping and nature affectionately called a "plumber's nightmare"-an
photography. Recreational astronomy is in this cat- equatorial mount made of pipe fittings. In some
egory too. Amateur astronomers are naturalists of cases, it was necessary to keep the telescope out of

12
 MA wedge of aurora briefly
paints the night sky below the
Big Dipper on June 10, 7997. Of
all the sky's stellar configu-
rations, none is more familiar
or more useful as a guidepost.
Photograph by Terence
Dickinson.

13
 Above: Awaiting the onset of
darkness, a solitary amateur
astronomer readies his equip-
ment for a night of celestial
exploration. Using a telescope
smallenough to carry under
one arm, he can examine
changes in the cloud belts of
Jupiter, 45 light-minutes from
Earth, or peer across millions of
light-years of space to see a
galaxy of 100 billion stars. The
lure of astronomy as a leisure
pursuit is in the satisfaction
of personally exploring the
cosmos— knowing where to
look and how to select and use
the proper equipment. Photo-
graph by Terence Dickinson.
Top right: An early-morning
twilight scene decorated by
the crescent moon and Venus,
the two brightest objects in the
night sky. Photograph by Garry
Woodcock.
Right: The Earth's rotation
twirls the starsalong concen-
five-hour time
tric trails in this

exposure. Polaris, the North

Star, is the stubby trail at

centre. During the exposure, a

bright meteor left its signature
on the sky just left of Polaris.
Photograph by Jerry Lodriguss.

14
 Above: One of the best lunar
eclipses of the 20th century for
North American observers
occurred the night of August
76, 1989. The dimensions of

the Earth's shadow, almost

three times the size of the
moon, are apparent in this
composite of three photo-
graphs taken over a period of
2'A hours by James Rouse.
/.eft; This dazzling red

auroral display lit up the sky

over Canada and the northern
United States on the night of
Septembers, 1989. Photograph
by Rolf Meier.

15
M Above: If you are lucky, like
the observers pictured here,
you may have an opportunity
to see a brilliant comet. From
March 7 to 12, 1976, Comet
West was at its best, adorning
the eastern morning sky like a
giant ghostly feather. Many
backyard astronomers missed sight to be used only under cover of darkness to tronomer is through knowledge and experience.
Comet West at its best because avoid derisive commentary from neighbours. But be forewarned: once you gain that knowledge
of cloudy weather over much Practical reference material was almost nonexis- and experience, astronomy can be addictive.
of North America. Photograph tentduringthe 1950s. Most of what there was came
by Richard Keen. from England, and virtually all of that was written
AMATEUR ASTRONOMY TODAY
Right: Stargazing is an by one man, Patrick Moore. Amateur astronomy Amateur astronomy has become incredibly diversi-
appreciation of nature on the was like a secret religion — so secret that it was fied— no individual can master the field entirely. It
grandest scale. From our almost unknown. is simply too large; it has too many activities and too

observing platform here on Thankfully, that is all history. Current astronomy many specialties, and there are too many types of
Earth, we receive starlight from hobbyists represent a complete cross section of so- instrumentation available. In general, though, am-
the Milky Way that began its encompassing men and women of all ages,
ciety, ateur astronomers divide fairly easily into three
journey when glaciers still occupations and levels of education. Amateur as- groups: the observers, the telescope makers and the
covered the ground that now tronomy has finally come into its own as a legitimate armchair astronomers. The last category refers to
supports a century-old pine. mainstream recreational activity, not the pastime of people who pursue the hobby mainly vicariously
Backyard astronomers soar perceived misfits and oddballs. But more than that, —through books, through lectures or computer
through galactic corridors with it has recently emerged as a leisure activity with a networks or through discussions with other afi-
eye and mind in the silence of certain prestige, because, unlike some other hob- cionados. Armchair astronomers can be experts
the night. Photograph by bies, it is not possible to buy your way into as- on nonobservational aspects of the subject, such as
Terence Dickinson. tronomy. The on ly road to success as an amateur as- cosmology or astronomical history.

16
 The telescope makers' category includes all do-
and technological innovations
it-yourself activities
related to amateur equipment. It involves crafting
optics and telescope components and adapting
electronics and computers to astronomy and is an
important sector of amateur activity. With the vast
array of commercial equipment available today,
however, it is smaller than it once was.
With these loose definitions out of the way, we
can say that this book is written primarily for the
observer— one whose dominant interest in as-
tronomy is to explore the visible universe with eye
and telescope. We are not in any way apologetic
about this. Observing, we believe, is what it is all
about. The exhilaration of exploring the sky, of see-
ing for yourself the remote stars, planets, galaxies,
clusters and nebulas— real objects of enormous
dimensions at immense distances— is the essence
of backyard astronomy.

GETTING IN DEEPER
Amateur astronomy can range from an occasional
pleasant diversion to a full-time obsession. Some
amateur astronomers spend more time and inten- 7x35 binoculars. 'There it was," he recalls, "with
sity on the hobby than do al but the most dedicated
I a nice tail, just waiting for me."
research astronomers at mountaintop observatories. In North America, where the competition from
Such "professional amateurs" are the rare exception, amateur and professional astronomers is much
but they are indeed the true amateur astronomers— stiffer, David Levy of Tucson, Arizona, has seven vi-

that is, they have selected an area which profes- sual discoveries (as of early 1 993) and is the conti-
sional astronomers, either by choice or through lack nent's comet champion among active visual search-
of human resources, have neglected. They are, in ers. Levy uses 8- and 16-inch reflector telescopes
the purest sense, amateurs: unpaid astronomers. and observes from his backyard. His prowess at the
In the past, such dedicated individuals were of- eyepiece resulted in a part-time assignment to assist
ten independently wealthy and able to devote much in asteroid and comet searches at Palomar Obser-

time and effort to a single-minded pursuit. This is al- vatory, a rare instance of an amateur engaging in

most never the case anymore. For instance, Aus- both amateur and professional astronomy.
tralian Robert Evans is a pastor of three churches, has Dedicated individuals such as Levy, Bradfield and
a family with four daughters and is by no means a Evans represent a tiny fraction of those who call
man of wealth or leisure. Yet he has spent almost ev- themselves amateur astronomers. The rest are more
ery clear night since 1 980 searching for supernovas accurately described as recreational or backyard as-
in galaxies up to 100 million light-years away. tronomers. Although neither term has gained wide
He discovered 18 within a decade— more than usage, both more precisely describe what most am-
were found during the same period by a team of ateur astronomers do. They are out there enjoying
university researchers using equipment designed themselves under the stars, engaging in personal ex-
exclusively for that purpose. ploration that, 99.9 percent of the time, has no
Similarly, most bright comets are found by com- scientific benefit. But so what? It is challenging and
mitted amateur astronomers. The world leader in fun. Backyard astronomy was summed up neatly a
v/sua/ discoveries is William Bradfield, another Aus- few years ago n Astro Notes, the newsletter of the
i

tralian, who was an aerospace engineer by day un- Ottawa Centre of the Royal Astronomical Society
til his retirement in 1 987. But by night, two decades of Canada: 'The objective is to explore strange new Only a true naturalist of the
of tireless searching with a 6-inch refractortelescope phenomena, to seek out new celestial objects and night knows the special feeling
he constructed from an old large-format portrait- new nebulosities, to boldly look where no human of anticipation that builds as
camera lens resulted in the discovery of 14 comets. has looked before . . . and mainly to have fun." dusk ushers in the pristine
Bradfield made one exceptional find on the morn- darkness. Then, under starry'

ing of December 1 7, 1 980. With dawn approach-

IT'S ONLY A HOBBY black-velvet skies, the explo-
ing, he had already packed up his telescope but Tom Williams, a chemist and astronomy hobbyist ration begins. Photograph by
decided to take one last look at the sky with his from Houston, Texas, has been researching the his- Alan Dyer.

17
 tory of amateur astronomy. He has taken an interest wasting their time. This notion, which is pure
The distinction between in the distinction between the vast majority of rubbish, is fortunately on the wane. Backyard as-
amateur astronomers and casual stargazers and the handful of scientific tronomy is a pastime, a recreational activity, its use-
people who say they are "just amateurs. Williams points out some parallels with fulness is measured by the enjoyment and inspira-
interested in astronomy" is ornithology: tion it brings to its devotees.
somewhat fuzzy, but it seems 'There are 11 million bird watchers in North That is not to say there is no place for systematic
to be directly related to their America, but they call themselves birders, notam- and potentially scientifically valuable observing, but
ability to identify celestial ateuromithologists. The real amateurornithologists it is not every backyard astronomer's duty. Some

objects. Enthusiasts who can are the few thousand people involved in nesting choose to take a more rigorous approach to the
locate the Andromeda Galaxy studies, migration analyses, and so on." Similarly, hobby; most do not. Our book is dedicated to
and who know that the notes Williams, "of the 500,000 astronomy hob- the latter group.
Pleiades star cluster is not the byists, the same small percentage are real amateur
Dipper would likely
Little astronomers who contribute to science. The rest are
REACHING FOR THE STARS
regard themselves as amateur recreational astronomers. The majority are in these Some of the activities of astronomy buffs totally
astronomers. Perhaps natural- pure enjoyment, nothing more."
activities for baffle those not afflicted with the bug. Take the
ists of the night is the most Somewhere n the h story of amateu r astronomy,
i i arrival of Comet West, for instance, the brightest
appropriate of all the terms there emerged an unwritten understanding that en- comet visible from midnorthern latitudes in the past
used to describe those who thusiasts who do not spend their nights engaged in 30 years. Comet West was at its best n early Marchi

savour the splendours of the such active scientific pursuits as estimating the 1 976, but the weather over much of North Amer-

night sky. Photograph by brightness of variable stars or doing central merid- ica was terrible. Astronomy addicts were having se-
Terence Dickinson. ian timings of markings in Jupiter's atmosphere are vere withdrawal symptoms as they stared at the

18
clouds each night, knowing that the comet was out
there, beyond reach. In Vancouver, a group of
young enthusiasts decided that they had had
enough. 'The comet was peaking in brightness. We
had to do something," recalls Ken Hewitt-White,
former programme di rector of Vancouver's MacMi I-

lan Planetarium and the mastermind of the Great

Comet Chase.
They rented a van and began driving inland over
the mountains, which the forecast predicted would
be clear of cloud cover by 4:30 a.m., the time when
the comet was to be in view. The outlook for Van-
couver was continued rain. 'There were five of us
with our telescopes, cameras and binoculars all
packed in the van," says Hewitt-White. "A sixth
member of our group had to get up early for work
and reluctantly stayed behind.
"It was a nightmare from the start— a blinding

snowstorm. 'It's got to clear up,' we told each other.

Wedrove200 miles, and itwas still snowing. After
a few close calls on the treacherous road, we final ly
turned back. Then, as we crossed the high point in
the Coast Mountains, the sky miraculously began to
clear. It was exactly 4:30. We pulled over and im-
mediately got stuck. But we had not gone far
enough: a mountain peak blocked the view.
"Five comet<razed guys in running shoes started
scrambling up the snowdrifts on the nearest cliff to
gain altitude. By the time we reached a point where
the comet should have been in view, twilight was
too bright for us to see it. Half frozen and dripping
wet with snow, we pushed the van out and headed
back to Vancouver. Within minutes, we drove out
of the storm area and saw cloudless blue sky over
the city. When we got home, we heard the worst:
the guy who stayed behind had seen the comet from
a park bench one block from his home." that for him, eclipse chasing has added a new
The eclipse chasers, another subgroup of amateur dimension and a real purpose to foreign travel.
astronomers, spend countless evenings planning Some astronomy enthusiasts never feel the need
everydetailofaneclipseexpedition— atrip, some- for a varied observing programme or a large tele- What is unusual in this
times to remote regions of the globe, for the express scope and are satisfied to remain casual skywatchers scene? Only a backyard
purpose of stand ng n the moon's shadow to watch
i i for decades. Alex Saunders, who lives in a suburb astronomer would know that
a total eclipse of the sun. Given the vagaries of the of Toronto, has used the same 60mm refractor for the pale smudge near top
weather and the inevitable glitches in foreign coun- more than 40 years. "I bought it secondhand for $25 centre does not belong. In May
tries, probably half of these pilgrimages are partial in 1 950," he says proudly. He vividly recalls his first 1983, Comet IRAS-lraki-Alcock
or complete failures. Ventures have been foiled by views with the small telescope: "Never will forget I swept through the Earth's
dust storms, lost luggage, broken-down rental cars my f rst look at the moon and how amazed was at
i I vicinity. At 17 times the
and balky camera equipment. the sharpness and clarity of the craters and moun- distance to the moon, this
Regardless of the outcome, as soon as they get tain ranges. Saturn was magnificent, truly breathtak- comet came closer to Earth
home, the eclipse stalkers whip out maps and start ing, its golden rings starkly visible. watched it for
I than any comet since 1770.
planning next year's expedition. For anyone who most of the evening, almost hypnotized." Typically, a naked-eye comet is

has not seen a total solar eclipse, the behaviour may Saunders, now in his seventies, has used that 5 to 50 times more remote.
seem somewhat inexplicable. But for veteran little telescope summer and winter for decades. Comets are named for their
eclipse hunter Robert May of Scarborough, Ontario, Countless times, he says, he has stood entranced at discoverers— in this case, a
it is "the greatest of all natural spectacles, a truly awe- the eyepiece and on each occasion has enjoyed a and two
scientific satellite
some phenomenon. want I to see every one Ican renewed experience with the moon, Saturn or some amateur astronomers. Photo-
while I am still physically able to do so." May says other celestial sight. For him, astronomy has been graph by Terence Dickinson.

19
20
 The Andromeda Galaxy, 2.3
million light-years away, is the
remotest object visible to the
unaided eye. On dark autumn
nights, it appears as a dim
oval smudge near overhead
for northern-hemisphere
observers. Yet that smudge is

the combined light of 500

billion starsheld together by
their mutual gravity in a
colossal wheel-shaped star city
similar to our own Milky Way.
Some of the brightest stars of
the Andromeda Calaxy are
resolved in this remarkable
photograph— one of the finest
ever taken by amateur astron-
omers. Foreground stars in our
own galaxy (most less than
3,000 light-years away) are also
scattered across the scene.
Photograph by Tony Hallas
and Daphne Mount, using a 5-
mch f/8 Astro-Physics refractor.

21
 that could be seen through the city glow, heads
Spica would swing in synchrony, everyone listening in-
Regulus (

tently. Those nights were impromptu stargazing par-

ties that Kemp enjoyed as much as did the guests

who never knew his name.

Among the many backyard astronomers willing
to share their infatuation with the cosmos, Martyn
McConnel and a few fel low enthusiasts set up their
I

telescopes each summer in a provincial park near

the Thousand Islands in Ontario. "As many as 500
people have lined up to look through the tele-
scopes," he reports. "We show them Saturn, the Her-
cules cluster, the Ring Nebula. The sky conditions
are excellent. Some people stay until midnight, af-

ter the lines are gone, waiting to see whether we will

look at One person drove 50 miles
something else. 1

to cam p i knew we wou Id

n the park ust because he
j

be there." McConnell says that he gets as much en-

joyment displaying the cosmos and talking about
the hobby as he does observing on his own.
Similar telescope-viewing opportunities are avail-
able across North America, many of them coordi-
nated with International Astronomy Day, the Satur-
day in April nearest the first quarter moon. When
Halle/s Comet was visible during the winter of
1 985-86, thousands of people turned out for pub-

licly announced viewing sessions. In several cities,

the police had to untangle traffic jams created by

• CASSIOPEIA cars converging on parks and schoolyards where
telescopes were set up. In Toronto, more than
1 0,000 residents braved the bitter January cold for
a telescopic peek at the famous celestial visitor.
As anyone who saw Hal ley's Comet knows, much
• Deneb of the attentionwas media-generated. The comet it-
selfwas interesting, butvisually, it was only moder-
ately impressive. Itwas the familiar name thatdrew
a lifelong interest sustainedby the little telescope the crowds, al of whom wanted to see a renowned
I

and by the avid reading of astronomy books and comet. The Halley affair, more than anything else,
magazines. He has never joined a club and seldom vividly demonstrated the crucial psychological as-
attends lectures or planetarium shows, but he quite pect of a first look through a telescope: the view
rightly regards himself as an amateur astronomer. means little if the person at the eyepiece knows
The Big Dipper is the night And so he is. nothing about the object under observation. Getting
sky's premier guidepost. a peek at Halle/s Comet was, for many people, like
throughout the year
SHARING THE UNIVERSE was
Visible seeing a famous movie star. This true for as-
from midnorthern latitudes, it A telescope always draws a crowd. The late James tronomy buffs as well. The pervasive difference—
points the way to key stars and Kemp, an astronomy enthusiast, spent mild summer and it is an important one — is that through con-
constellations. To gauge the evenings with his Questar telescope in a city park tinued observation of the night sky, backyard astron-
distances indicated in degrees, near his apartment in downtown Toronto. We omers become familiar with hundreds of other ob-
keep in mind that the Big often wondered whether some night he would jects, many of which reach at least the status of
Dipper is 25 degrees long- emerge from the park without his telescope, its hav- Halle/s Comet as fascinating subjects of scrutiny.
about the distance from the tip ing been scooped up by someone nasty. It never
of the thumb to the end of the happened. Instead, a small crowd inevitably joined
ARE YOU READY?
little finger of an outstretched him, each person waiting patiently for a look. As we said previously, astronomy is not an instant-
hand at arm's length. Of all the An articulate man with a gift for exposition, Kemp gratification hobby. It takes time and effort to be-
diagrams available to backyard would entrance the crowd with constellation my- come good at it and to realize the rush of satisfac-
astronomers, none is more thology, explanations of black holes and spacecraft- tion that comes from discovering for yourself, bit by
useful to memorize than this. exploration results. As he pointed to the few stars bit, the wonders of the night sky. Any backyard as-

22
 ICapella

Pleiades

• Pollux

Aldebaran ' Hyades

Procyon
tronomer knows how enjoyable it is to hear the
"oohs" and "aahs" from people who are looking
through a telescope for the first time. It is even bet-
ter to be uttering the oohs and aahs yourself. With
this in mind, we offer the backyard astronomet^s Aah Rigel
Factor, a one-to-ten scale of celestial exclamation.
Factor one on the scale is a detectable smile, a
mild ripple of satisfaction or contentment. Factor
ten is speechless rapture, an overwhelming rush of
awe and astonishment. Here are a few examples
to aid in developing your own list.
ISirius

n One: Any routine celestial view through binocu-

lars or a telescope; a faint meteor; a good astronomy
book. yourinitial look at yourfirst successful astrophoto.
n Two: Finding the planet Mercury; sunspots; the D Seven: A first view of the moon through a tele-
moon's surface through a telescope; discovering scope; a first view of the Milky Way with binocu-
how clear things look through binoculars mounted lars; a total eclipse of the moon.
on a cloud belts on Jupiter.
tripod; D Eight: A rare all-sky multicoloured auroral display;
D Three: Saturn or the Orion Nebula through a tele- the moment you begin to realize how immense
scope, even if you have seen them umpteen times the universe is. Orion the hunter, visible
before; the starry dome on a clear, dark night in the D Nine: Abright comet; afirstview of Saturn's rings throughout the world in the
country; Jupiter's Red Spot; a coloured double star. through a telescope; a bolide or a fireball. evening sky from late
n Four: A beautiful sunset or sunrise; seeing a bright DTen: A perfect view of a total eclipseof the sun; November to early April, is the
Earth satellite for the first time; a partial eclipse of the discovering a comet or a nova. most easily recognized of all
moon; a close conjunction of two planets or of the It is nice to log a two or a three on the scale each the traditional constellations.
moon and Venus; Earthshine in binoculars; finding night. Soon, you will beclimbingthe scale of celes- It is also the most important
the Andromeda Galaxy for the first time. tial aahs. It is captivating and addictive. One rabid guide to the night sky after the
n Five: Identifying Jupiter's moons through binocu- enthusiast made himself ill while attending a con- Big Dipper. Orion's three-star
lars for the first time; a moderately bright comet in cert with his wife and friends because he had no- belt is the constellation's
binoculars; telescopic detail on Mars. ticed a spectacular aurora brewing when they were distinctive feature. From top to
n Six: Recognizing your first constellation; a bright parking the car. He felt tortured by not seeing it but bottom (Betelgeuse to Rigel),
meteor; a good telescopic view of a galaxy or a d id not want to spoi the evening for the others. Such
I Orion spans almost 20
globular cluster; the shadow of one of Jupitei's is the power of the night sky. How far you are taken degrees— twice the width of
moons slowly crawling across the planefs face; by its spell depends on you. your fist held at arm's length.

23
 PART I

CHAPTER TWO

Binoculars for
the Beginner and the
Serious Observer

On the evening of April 29, 1 986, the 26 members otic as a telescope. Binocularscan be found in al-
of the evening astronomy class at St. Lawrence Col- most any home. But many people ignore them
lege, Kingston, Ontario, set out in a car convoy for when they think of celestial observing. They pur-
a prearranged observing session in the country. This chase a telescope without ever turning their binocu-
was no ordinary outing. It was the last good chance lars to the night sky, thinking that only a telescope
to view Halley's Comet, and conditions were per- can truly reveal the universe. But veteran backyard
fect. The site selected — the instructor's backyard- astronomers always have binoculars within easy
was in deep twilight when the group arrived. reach. Why? Binoculars are midway between un-
Soon, darkness enfolded the gathering and re- aided eyes and telescopes in power, field of view
vealed the comet as a dim naked-eye smudge near and convenience. Consider this listof afewof the
the constellation Corvus. But with binoculars, it was celestial objects that binoculars will show:
a different story. The famous celestial visitor was a D In a dark, moonless sky, standard 7 x 50 binocu-
delicate veil of cosmic mist, thetail extending at lars can pick up more than 1 50,000 stars, compared
least five degrees to thefrom the oval cometary
left with the 3,000 or so visible to the unaided eye. The
head. An anonymous gasp of delight drifted through hazy band of the Mi Iky Way breaks up into count-
the night air, followed by another and another less thousands of stars— one of the great treats in
until the whole group was chattering excitedly. amateur astronomy.
That night provided the happy troop with an un- DStar colours are more evident with binoculars
forgettable experience. The backyard telescopes than without and range from blue to yellow to
gave nice views of the comef s head but not of the rusty orange.
whole comet at once. Only binoculars could do the n Two to four of the large moons of Jupiter can be
job, to the surprise of everyone there. seen close beside the brilliant planet.
The planets Uranus and Neptune, which are dif-
THE BINOCULAR ADVANTAGE
ficult to impossible to see with unaided eyes, are
Of all the equipment that an amateur astronomer easy targets when you know where to look.
uses, binoculars are the most versati le and the most n The Andromeda Galaxy, a huge city of stars larger
essential.Yet the attributes of good binoculars than ourentireMilky Way Galaxy, is plainly visible
are often underrated by backyard astronomers, as an oval smudge near overhead in autumn and
especially beginners. early winter for northern-hemisphere observers.
No doubt about it, binoculars are not nearly as ex- DStar clusters of exquisite beauty, such as the

24
EQUIPMENT FOR BACKYARD ASTRONOMY

Binoculars transform the

Milky Way from the misty glow
seen by the naked eye into a
glittering tapestry of thou-
sands of individual stars. No
instrument is better suited to
panoramic exploration of our
own galaxy than humble
binoculars. This view of the
constellation Cygnus simulates
a binocular view under ideal
conditions. The North Amenca
Nebula is at top centre near
the bright star Deneb; star
cluster NGC 6940 is at left
centre. Photograph by
Alfred Lilge.

25
 Pleiades and Hyades, are seen in their entirety in with humble binoculars is astonishing: for 30 mil-
binoculars, whereas most telescopes (because of lion years, the galaxy's light has been on its way to
their smaller fields of view) can show only portions Earth, ending its journey by entering the eyes of a
of them. curious observer. Not bad for binoculars.
D On the moon, at least 00 craters and mountain
1 Easier quarry for beginners are star clusters in the
ranges, as well as subtle shadings on the flat plains Milky Way. These range from naked-eye collections
that 1 7th-century astronomers thought were seas, of stars like the Pleiades to such glittering jewels as
are all evident. the Double Cluster, in Perseus, orM7, in Scorpius.
The utility beyond this list.
of binoculars goes far Hundreds of celestial sights are available to ob-
Planetshidden in twilight glow are often most eas- servers with binoculars, enough to keep a backyard
ily detected by sweeping with binoculars. Earth- astronomer busy for years. Far from being a substi-
shine on the moon (the faint illumination of the tute for a small telescope, binoculars are indispens-
moon's nightside) is greatly enhanced by binocu- able partners in the exploration of the universe.
lars. There is no better instrument for watching a One further advantage: Using two eyes for celes-
lunar eclipse, for monitoring a planefs motion tialviewing allows you to see a greater amount.
through a constellation over weeks or months or for Your body is more comfortable, and the brain is at
observing a bright comet. In short, nearly every ease receiving messages from both eyes. If observed
celestial object visible to the eyes alone will be with two eyes, objects at the threshold of vision reg-
improved by binoculars. whereas one-eyed detection produces
ister as real,

Moreover, binoculars can reveal a multitude of fleeting and uncertain cerebral messages. How
objects completely invisible to the naked eye: neb- much more can be seen? Most experts estimate 40
ulas (star-forming regions), wispy remnants of an- percent above single-eye viewing.
cient supernovas and star clusters ranging from
SELECTING BINOCULARS
bright stellar splashes to dim patches of starlight.
Most challenging are the galaxies, great islands of Binoculars are, in essence, miniature telescopes
stars like our Milky Way Galaxy that dot the void of —a pair of prismatic spotting scopes reduced in size

deep space. With practice, you can detect several and linked together for viewing with two eyes. The
dozen galaxies up to 30 million light-years from prism system has a threefold purpose: reducing the
Earth. They are not easy to find,butjust seeing them length of the optical system by folding the light path;

Top: The exit-pupil diameter I THE CELESTIAL SHOWCASE I

isan important cliaracteristic

of binoculars. The calculation Naked Eye Binoculars Telescope
is simple: divide the aperture
in millimetres by the mag- constellations* star clouds of Milky Way* hundreds of double and multiple stars*
nification. These 10 x 70 meteors* planetary motion* hundreds of variable stars*
binoculars offer a 7mm exit auroras* bright comets* hundreds of galaxies*
pupil, which is the maximum Earth satellites* lunar eclipses* hundreds of star clusters*

size of the eye's pupil. solar and lunar haloes* details of constellations* dozens of nebulas*
Binoculars that yield exit a few double stars moons of Jupiter planetary detail*
pupils from 5mm to 7mm are five planets dozens of lunar craters planetary satellites*
ideal for astronomy because planetary motion dozens of variable stars thousands of lunar features*
they combine low power, wide bright comets dozens of double stars sunspots and solar detail*
field of view and maximum a few star clusters dozens of star clusters solar eclipses
light delivery. three galaxies several galaxies comets
U Above: Comparison of 7 x 50 a few nebulas several nebulas lunar eclipses
binoculars (top) yielding a a few variable stars seven planets planetary motion
7mm exit pupil and 10 x 42s solar eclipses solar eclipses lunar occultations
with a comparatively small lunar eclipses sunspots asteroids
4mm exit pupil. For daytime sunspots bright asteroids
viewing, both are effective Milky Way
instruments, but at night,
when the eye's pupil dilates to A telescope is not necessary for examining many inventory shows the versatility of humble equipment
6mm or 7mm, binoculars and sometimes, binoculars or even
celestial objects, —or no equipment at all. *Asterlsked items in each
should offer a 5mm-to-7mm the unaided eyes can provide a better view. This column indicate the viewing targets most easily seen.
exit pupil for optimum views
of dim celestial objects.

26
reducing the overall weight; and finally, producing
a right-side-up image for convenient terrestrial view-
ing. Binoculars come in a bewildering array of sizes,
magnifications, models and prices. Virtually useless

toy binoculars with plastic lenses can be had for a

few dollars; at the other end ofthe scale, the colos-
sal Fujinon 6-inch refractor binoculars (25 x 150)
cost as much as a new Honda Civic. In between,
there is something for everybody.
The vast majority of quality binoculars are
manufactured by a handful of factories in Germany
and Japan. These countries have monopolized the
binocular market for decades. A small number of
binoculars (the very inexpensive and the very ex-
pensive specialized instruments) are manufactured
in other countries.
There is a lot to be considered when selecting
binoculars for astronomy. The chief factors are
optical quality, weight, price, magnification and
objective-lens size. Any size and type of binoculars
will get you started, but the precise optics in higher-
quality models show faint stars and nebulas better
than less expensive models ofthe same size. There
is usually a good reason why one binocular is three pair of binoculars, you should know how they stack
times the price of another, even though they look up against what is available as well as where they
the same on the outside. stand in the spectrum of binocular applications to
Reasonable-quality binoculars can be purchased astronomy. First, some binocular facts.
for about $ 1 00. First-class glasses are $300 and up. There are two basic types of prism binoculars:
Price is a major guide in this competitive market. Fa- porro prism and roof prism. Roof prism binoculars
miliar brand names mean little except at the very have straight tubes and are generally smaller and
high end. We have tested superb binoculars mar- more expensive than porro prism models. They are
keted with labels like Adierblick and Optolyth that available with main objectives up to 63mm in di-
we had never heard of before. Also, we found no ameter, but one of the advantages ofthe design —
zoom binoculars of acceptable quality. compactness— is defeated in sizes above 42mm.
Overall weight is important too. Binoculars in the Roof prism binoculars have been raised to a high art
popular 7 X 50 size can range from 1 Vi to 3 pounds. by the German firms of Zeiss and Leitz. Porro prism
In astronomy, binoculars are held above horizon- binoculars have the familiar humped, N-shaped
tal, a more tiring position than horizontal or lower, light-path design and are available in all sizes.
as in most terrestrial viewing. Every ounce counts; Binoculars have two numbers engraved near the
in general, we recommend forgoing ruggedness eyepieceend, suchas7 x 50. The first number is the
for lightweight. magnification, and the second number is the di-
ameter of the front lenses in millimetres. Thus
FOCUS AND FUNCTION
7 X 50 means 7 power and 50mm objectives (main
Most binoculars focus with a knob on the central bar lenses). There are dozens of combinations, from
ofthe instrument. Turning the knob focuses both 6 X 1 6 to 25 X 1 50. There are, of course, advocates
lenses by the same amount. However, each of your of virtually every combination of size and magnifi- Binoculars are the best
eyes has a slightly different focus. To accommodate cation. The optimum magnification for astronomi- optical aid to use for celestial
this, the right eyepiece usually has a separate focus- cal binoculars is determined by the exit pupil — an objects or phenomena that
ing capabi lity with a scale and a zero point. The zero important principle that also applies to telescopes. encompass two to five degrees
point is a rough guide to the point of equal focus. of the sky. The crescent moon
EXIT PUPIL
So-called perma-focus binoculars are just agimmick passing over the Pleiades star
and are especially unsuited to astronomy. You need For maximum efficiency under typical low-light as- cluster on April 8, 1989, was
the precise focus offered by conventional models. tronomical conditions, the light cone exiting the just such an event. Both the
Certain binoculars are better performers on astro- binocular (or telescope) eyepiece should be no and Earthshine on the
cluster
nomical targets. Binoculars that are ideal for some largerthanthedilated pupil of the eye. All the light moon were enhanced by
terrestrial purposes may show flaws when turned to from the instrument should enter the pupil rather binoculars. Photograph by
the sky. Since you probably already own at least one than some light falling uselessly on the surrounding Terence Dickinson.

27
 In telescopes, exit pupils down to 0.5mm are nor-
Porro Prism System mal. For example, a.1 25mm telescope at1 75 power

(1 75x) has a 0.7mm Higher magnifica-

exit pupil.
tion means a smaller exit pupi whether we are refer-
I

ring to telescopes or binoculars. Small exit pupils are

fine when you are seeking high-resolution detail
with an instrument that is large enough to provide
the necessary resolving power, like a telescope. But
with small fixed-magnification instruments like
binoculars, the optimum power for the application
must be selected. In any case, the optical quality of
the instrument at higher powers must be proportion-
ately better to produce good imagery. For instance,
if 1 x 50 binoculars are to provide images as sharp
as 7 X 50s, the optical tolerances must be twice as
strict. Stated another way, it is easier to make good-

quality 7 X 50s than 10 x 50s. But suppose we

Roof Prism System could get superbly crafted and optically perfect
1 6 X 50 or 20 X 60 binoculars. Why not go for the

power? They are too difficult to hold steady, for one

r thing, and the field of view in 20 x 60s is restricted.

THE IDEAL BINOCULARS

FOR ASTRONOMY
At the front end of the binoculars, the objective
lenses should be as large as possible for astronomi-
I cal viewing: collecting the
light produces a brighter image. However, there is
maximum amount of

a practical limit, which is determined by the weight

of the instrument. Fifty-millimetre binoculars tend
to be the largest size that is convenient to hold
iris (the coloured part of the eye). When the eye is for any length of time.
fully dark-adapted, the pupil's diameter is five to To place what we have discussed so far in con-
seven millimetres. Binoculars such as 7 x 42s pro- cise form, here is a checklist of some of the key fac-
duce an ideal eyepiece-exiting light cone, or exit pu- tors involved in selecting binoculars.
pil, of six millimetres. The exit-pupil calculation is n Larger objective lenses mean brighter images,
simple: diameter in millimetres divided by magnifi- but a 50mm lens is a practical limit for hand-held
cation. For 7 x 42s, it is 42 4- 7 = 6. binoculars. Go larger only a tripod will be used if

Most people under the age of 30 have pupil di- regularly.

ameters of seven to eight millimetres in dark con- D A 7mm exit pupil provides the maximum input
ditions. After 30, everyone generally loses one mil- of I i ght that the eye can accept. However, for most
limetre every 10 to 15 years throughout life as the people, 5mm is just under the maximum diameter
eye muscles become less flexible. In addition, the of the dark-adapted eye and provides optimum use
outer edges of the eye's cornea and lens have some of the incoming light. Therefore, binoculars with a
aberrations of the! r own, so an exit pupi about one I magnification one-fifth the objective diameter in
millimetre smaller than the eye's entrance pupil is millimetres are often preferred.
preferred for astronomy. D Higher magnification means better resolution,
Binoculars come in two An exit pupil larger than the eye's pupil means that but it also means more stringent optical-quality stan-
designs based on the arrange- some of the instrument's light-collecting power is dards to produce good images.
ment of prisms that fold the wasted. At night, this should be avoided. You need D Higher magnification results inamplified jiggling
light path. Roof prism binoc- as much light as you can get. In daytime situations, during hand-held operation. This factor alone limits
ulars are the more compact it is concern because there is plenty of light
of little binocular magnification to lOx.
of the two, but porro prism anyway. Moreover, the eye's entrance pupil shrinks When we put all of this together, it is clear that
models generally cost less and to two or three millimetres in daylight. But five to there are certain favoured sizes of binoculars for am-
offer equivalent performance seven millimetres of exit pupil works to advantage ateur astronomers, and they are relatively limited.
in the sizes best suited to in such situations because it is easier to get the eye's The most popular are 7 x 50 and 10 x 50. Also
astronomy. pupil inside a larger exit pupil. good are 7 x 42 and 8 x 40 for those who prefer

28
 Top left: Star clusters that
hover on the threshold of
naked-eye visibility are won-
derful targets for binocular
users. One of the best is the
Double Cluster, in Perseus,
which resolves into two nests
of stellar jewels. For a guide
map showing the cluster's
location, see theSky Region
Appendix. Photograph by
Terence Dickinson.
Top right: The total eclipse
of the moon on the night of
August was almost
76, 7989,

certainly witnessed by more

people in North America
than any previous celestial
phenomenon. Binoculars
provided exquisite views as
the full moon plunged into
the Earth's deep rusty-hued
shadow and dropped to
normal
1/100,000 of its
brightness. Photograph by
Terence Dickinson.
Left: The southern sector of
the Milky Way Galaxy rides
high in the sky over Australia
and other southern latitudes
but never well seen from the
is

northern hemisphere. Yet here

lie some of the night sky's
finest binocular treasures. The
dark blob at centre is the Coal
Sack, the most obvious of
many dark nebulas along the
Milky Way. Immediately to the
Coal Sack's upper left is the
Southern Cross. Below it,
above the trees, are Alpha and
Beta Centauri. The spectacular
Eta Carinae Nebula, flanked
by three clusters, is at top.
Photograph by Terence
Dickinson.

29
 Comet West, one of the
great comets of the 20th
century, decorated the early-
morning sky in March 7976.
Binocular observers had the
best view of the comet's
sweeping W-degree-long dust
tail and pale blue gas tail. The

combination of low power and

wide field makes binoculars
the instrument of choice
for examining the delicate
structure of brighter comets.
Photograph by Dennis
di Cicco.

30
 Above: The sector of the
Milky Way running through
Sagittarius and Scorpius is the
night sky's richest hunting
ground for a backyard astron-
omer armed with binoculars
or a telescope.
Far left: Silhouetted against
the dome of light over San
Diego, 65 kilometres away, a
sky observer turns binoculars
to the darkness overhead.
Left: Sirius, the brightest star
provides an
in the night sky,
unmistakable guiding light to
M41, a pretty star cluster
visible in binoculars. All
photographs on this page by
Terence Dickinson.

31
 Scenes like this are
becoming rare as light
pollution creeps ever farther
over the countryside. Dark
night skies may not be
essential for backyard
astronomy, but they offer
conditions that make veteran
observers smile. The con-
stellation Orion rides high
above the house, and Sirius,
the brightest star, is unmis-
below Sirius is
takable. Just
M41, pictured on the previous
page. Photograph by Terence
Dickinson.

32
 JUL
HMMk
somewhat smaller and lighter glasses. We recom- found 7 X 50s give the best results on Milky Way
mend 50 or 1 x 50, although there is a
either 7 x fields, the Andromeda Galaxy, the North America
significant difference between the two. Typically, Nebula and a few other extended objects. For all
7 X 50s havea seven- or eight-degree field of view, other targets,
1 x 50s have the edge. Overall, we
one to two degrees wider than 10 x 50s. This is feel that 10 x 50s are the binoculars of choice. How-
good. But bright star and planet images often look ever, you already own 7 x 50s, the difference is
if

spiked or flared in 7x 50s, even at the centre of the not significant enough to replace them (unless the
field, because of aberrations in the outer edge of 7 X 50s are of poor quality).
the eye. This is a disadvantage, although only a Nowhere in our discussion have we referred
minorone. The chief difference is thata top-quality to Twilight Factor, Relative Brightness Index or
10 x 50 glass will yield fainter stars and more reso- some of the other specifications often included in
lution than 7 x 50s. Moremakes sense be-
detail the manufacturers' binocular brochures. These fac-
cause of the higher power, but why are dimmer stars tors are all derived from magnification, exit pupil
apparent if the aperture is the same 50mm? The rea- and aperture, and for astronomy, they provide no
son is that the smaller exit pupil partly avoids the additional information about performance beyond
edge-of-eye aberrations (producing sharper stars) what we have outlined.
and the higher magnification makes the sky back-
ground darker. This occurs because in 10 x 50s,
FIELD OF VIEW
there is less sky per unit area viewed. With the sky The diameter of the circle that can be seen through
background more spread out, contrast is enhanced binoculars is called the field of view. This is often
and fainter objects are visible. expressed in the number of feet that span the field
Compare 7 x 50 and 10 x 50 binoculars of simi- when viewed from a distance of 1,000 yards (or Binoculars on parade. Except
lar quality. The difference should be obvious on any metres at 1 ,000 metres), although many binoculars for the smallest model, all are
night, regardless of the sky conditions. A lot comes now use the more convenient angular diameter in porro prism. From right to left:
down to personal preference. Given equivalent degrees. One degree is equivalent to 52.5 feet at 8x20 roof prism, 7 x 35, 8 x 40,
quality, higher magnification reveals greater detail 1 ,000 yards or 1 7 metres at 1 ,000 metres. Most 7x50 (Carton Adierblick),
on the moon, makes Jupiter^s moons easier to spot, 7 X 50 binoculars have 7- or 8-degree fields; 20x60, 10x70, n X 80 (with
shows individual stars in clusters more readily and 10 X 50s show 5 to 6'/2 degrees. Some models of- tripod adapter). Note the
resolves closer double stars. There is less obvious fer a wider field of view, which is nice, but it often substantial leap in bulk from
difference in faint, extended objects such as nebulas comes at the expense of optical quality. Binoculars 50mm to 60mm and larger
and in larger galaxies like M3 1 and M33, where the that are designated wide-angle or ultrawide-angle binoculars. That is why 50mm

objective is to see the extent of the target rather than can have 8-to-12-degree fields of view. Invariably, binoculars offer the optimum
detail in the object. though, these models have severe optical distortions size-weight-performance
In our tests with dozens of binoculars, we have around the edge of the field. While not objection- compromise.

33
 oversize rubber eyecups that, when folded down,
provide the extra distance for eyeglass users. When
up, they act as a guide for placing the eyes in cor-
rect position when the user is not wearing glasses.
Achieving the high eyepoint requires sophisticated
eyepieces with more glass in them, so these binocu-
lars are usually expensive, although we have seen

acceptable 10 x 50s for slightly more than $100.

BINOCULAR TESTS
As a quick check for both viewing comfort and op-
tical quality, follow points one through six outlined
below. Point seven is a more rigorous test.
D 1. Weight: How heavy are the binoculars? Elim-

inate all glasses built to withstand jungle warfare.

You should notneed Arnold Schwarzenegger arms
and shoulders to hold them up for a reasonable
length of time. For hand-held glasses, lightweight-
less than 32 ounces (907 grams) — is essential.
n2. Prisms: In full daylight or indoors, hold the
binoculars a few inches in front of your eyes, and
look in the eyepieces. Aim the glasses at the sky or

a window to provide bright illumination. The opti-

cal path should be completely round and evenly il-

luminated. Most inexpensive binoculars, and some-

times more expensive but poorly designed glasses,
will have a squarish rather than a circular appear-
ance inside at the prisms. This is because of im-
properly positioned prisms or, more likely, inexpen-
sive, undersize prisms that impinge on the light
path. BAK-4 prisms are regarded as the best quality,
but it is often impossible to determine what type of
prism is in a specific binocular.
DS. Craftsmanship: Check all the moving parts.

Moderate but even pressure should be required

to adjust focus and interpupillary distance. There
should be no evidence of grease or lubricants seep-
Top: In May 1991, backyard ing out at any point. Look for smudges on the op-
astronomers watched Jupiter tics. No respectable firm will allow blemished op-
cruise through the edge of the tics to leave the factory.
Beehive star cluster, in the n 4. Optics Check: Examine the in-focus image of
constellation Cancer. The view the binoculars very carefully, both in daylight and
was perfectly framed in binoc- able in everyday terrestrial use, in astronomy, when The central area of the field of view should
at night.
ulars and low-power tele- all the stars in the outer field resemble comets or sea be pin-sharp with no evidence of fuzziness, false
scopes. Photograph by gulls, there is no advantage. colour or double imaging. This test can be con-
Terence Dickinson. ducted in a store if you can look at something that
Bottom: Differences are
EYEGLASSES AND BINOCULARS provides a high level of light-to-dark contrast and
immediately obvious in this Binocular users who must wear glasses for correc- fine detail. Many glasses with perfectly acceptable
comparison of a generic tion of astigmatism or who prefer to keep their image sharpness in the central region of the field
77 X 80 pair of binoculars and glasses on while observing will benefit from so- quickly lose their definition toward the edge. We
high-eyepoint binoculars such called high-eyepoint binoculars, designed to push generally rate binoculars unacceptable if the image
as Fujinon 10 x 70s. High- the exit pupil 20mm to 28mm from the surface of grows fuzzy less than 50 percent of the way from the
eyepoint binoculars allow the eyepiece lens, compared with 1 0mm to 5mm
1 centre to the edge. This capabi lity can be tested dur-
full-field viewing by eyeglass for normal binoculars. This allows room for the lens ing the daytime by looking at sharp detail, such as
wearers when the rubber of the glasses to fit between the exit-pupil point the leaves or branches of a distant tree or the distinct
eyecups are folded down; and the eyepiece. features of a building against the bright sky. Such
normal binoculars do not. High-eyepoint binoculars usually come with testingwill also reveal other potential problems. In

34
high-contrast situations, a blue or green colour
fringe— called a chromatic aberration — may appear
around the edge of objects, which is a sign of poor-
quality optics. One problem you do not have to
worry about is distortion, the bending of straight
lines as they are moved through the field. In astro-
nomical viewing, distortion is hardly noticeable.
D 5. Coatings Check: Light transmission is in-
creased and flare and ghosting from internal reflec-
tions are reduced by coatings. The best binoculars
are multicoated on all optical surfaces, including the
prisms. It may be printed on the binoculars them-
selves or in the literature provided with them that
the glasses are coated or multicoated. Multicoated
lenses usually give off a deep green or purple sheen
when held under bright light. Coated lenses (mean-
ing single-layer coatings) are generally pale blue.
Coating increases light transmission at each optical
surface to about 97 percent, compared with 93 per-
cent for no coating. Multicoating lets about 99
percent of the light through. The problem is deter-
mining whether all of the optical surfaces are
coated — often, they are not. To find out, shine a
bright light into the binoculars from the objective will begin to grow wings, usually parallel to the edge
(large lens) end. Looking down into the glasses, tilt of the field. This indicates astigmatism in the eye-
them slowly back and forth, and watch for the mul- pieces, which is nearly always present to some de-
tiple reflections from the coated-lens surfaces. All gree because it is a very difficult defect to eliminate
should be subdued blue, green or purple, depend- in short-focal-length systems such as those of
ing on the coatings used. Noticeably brighter white binoculars. Compare carefully, because there are
reflections are a sign of uncoated elements. great differences among binoculars in the amount
D 6. Collimation: If, after using the binoculars for a of astigmatism present.
few minutes, you eye strain and for some rea-
feel
son have to "force" the images to merge, the binocu-
WHICH IS BEST?
lars are probably out of collimation, which means We have tested dozens of binoculars from several
that the two optical systems are not precisely par- manufacturers. Some models are superb performers
allel. This is the main item to watch for in the pur- but cost as much as a telescope. Most backyard as-
chase of used binoculars. All it takes is one acciden- tronomers will not spend more than $400 for 50mm
taldropping of the binoculars from about eye height or smaller binoculars. We have examined many
to the ground, and collimation can be knocked out. nice glasses in the $200 to $400 range. We partic- Top: Binocular lens-coating
It requires professional attention to repair. ularly like both the 7 x 50 and 1
50 Adlerblick
x comparison shows how
D 7. Astronomical Testing: Optical perfection is a binoculars from Carton Optics of Japan. They are magnesium-fluoride coating
never-ending quest among amateur astronomers, extremely ightwei ght, wel l-made glasses of excel-
I
on the left lens reduces
and all but the very finest binoculars will usually lent optical quality. The 1 x 50s weigh only 1 V2 reflections, while multicoating
yield evidence of some optical imperfections when pounds; the 7 x 50s are just three ounces heavier on the right lenscomes close
used to observe the Viewing brilliant point
stars. and are high-eyepoint models. The Celestron to eliminating them com-
sources on a black background is the most rigorous Ultima binoculars are similar in design and also pletely. By reducing the
test of optics. In the centre of the field, a bright star provide very good performance. reflection of light, more light
should show near-pointlike imagery with small, ir- Several models of the Celestron Pro series and passes through the lens.
regular spikes emerging from the bright central Swift Instruments' Dolphin line in the $1 00 to $200 Binoculars with multicoatings
point. The fewer spikes seen the better, but the im- price range are good values. Other recommenda- on all air-to-glass surfaces have
portant thing is that they must be symmetrically ar- tions in this price range are the Bausch & Lomb 97 percent throughput;
rayed around the point with no obvious flaring in Legacy, Orion Explorer and Minolta Standard, all magnesium fluoride on all
any direction. If you find there is flaring and you nor- 7 X 50s. We found that many models of the best- surfaces, 85 percent; no
mally wear glasses, put them on and see whether known brand names were not as impressive as simi- coatings, 55 percent.
the asymmetry disappears. If it is still there, the larly priced models by less familiar manufacturers. Above: Well-made binoc-
binoculars are likely at fault and should be rejected. For this reason, we urge anyone in the market for ularshave prisms that do not
Move the bright star toward the edge of the field. It new binoculars to compare as many brands and reduce the system's light path.

35
M Scenes which show star-

crowded sectors of the Milky

Way create the impression that
the stars are almost on top of
one another— a feeling you will

get with binocular views as

well. This illusion arises
because of the depth of the
scene, rather than the density
of the stars. You are peering
through thousands of light-
years of almost empty space at
stars typically many light-years
apart. Sometimes, a dark cloud
of gas and cosmic dust—
nebula— intervenes, blocking
starlight from behind, as does
the Caterpillar Nebula (Barnard
168) here as it reaches out from
the small, bright Cocoon Neb-
ula. The Caterpillar Nebula is

visible in binoculars as a two-

degree-long dark finger in the
Milky Way 10 degrees east of
the star Deneb. Photograph
by Tony Hallas and Daphne
Mount, using a 5-inch f/8 Astro-
Physics refractor.

36

L
37
 defects. The purchase price of the inexpensive
binoculars can then be written off to experience,
and you will be much better prepared to make a de-
cision about the binoculars that will be used for a
lifetime of observing.
For the purist, the Nikon 7 x 50 SP-HP Prostar
(about $600) has the best optics we have seen in any
binoculars at any price by any manufacturer. The
images are astonishingly crisp and bright. But the
Nikons are heavy brutes, almost twice the weight
of the average 7 x 50 binoculars, and too heavy to
hold for a reasonable lengthoftime. They score an
A+ for optics but an F for weight and really must
be tripod-mounted for proper viewing, which sub-
stantially reduces their attractiveness.
in the same price range but a bit lighter and opti-

cally a very close contender is the Fujinon FMT-SX

7 X 50. Other superb glasses in the high-price class
are the Leitz Ultra, Zeiss Dilalytand Optolyth 7 x 42
roof prism binoculars. At 1 Yi pounds, these top per-
formers are in the preferred weight category for
hand-held astronomical viewing.

GIANT BINOCULARS
In the past decade, a class of giant-aperture binocu-
lars has become popular for recreational astronomy.
When tripod-mounted, these instruments are awe-
some performers. Sizes widely used in backyard as-
tronomy are 10 x 70, 14 x 70, 11 x 80, 15 x 80
and 14 x 100. Binoculars in these sizes range from
$400 to $8,000. Models with magnifications higher
than 6x are less versatile because of their compara-
1

tively narrow fields of view. Finding celestial objects

with tripod-mounted binoculars is tougher when
the field of view gets down to around three degrees.
Furthermore, many telescopes offer similarly wide
fields at their lowest magnification.
A few giant binoculars have 45- or 90-degree eye-
pieces that make viewing close to the zenith much
Above: Large 80mm binoc- easieron the neck. Also available are counter-
ulars are too heavy to hold weighted holders for cantilevering the binoculars
for an extended period. A away from the tripod head so that the observer can
standard camera tripod is the get underneath them.
usual ansv^^er, but there are Giant binoculars are ideally suited to examination
more versatile possibilities. A of the largest galaxies, such as Andromeda, M33,
counterweighted cantilever, NGC 253 and the Magellanic Clouds. Their rela-
shown here, allows the tively wide fields are perfect for framing star clusters
binoculars to be positioned and large nebulas against the starry backdrop. A
at any angle or height above large-binocular view deep Milky Way
into the
the ground. models as possible. Check out at least five manufac- clouds in Cygnus, Sagittarius or Carina offers un-
Right: a pivoting car seat and expect to spend a minimum of $100.
turers, parallelled vistas of the star-spangled galaxy we in-
covered with waterproof A perfectly acceptable alternative is to buy an in- habit. From a dark location, several hours spent
material is augmented with a expensive pair of 8 X 40s or 7 X 50s for about $60 touring the Milky Way with giant binoculars can
counterweighted holder for and use them as "training wheels," fully expecting pass by in what seems like minutes. It is one of the
the binoculars. There are many tobuy better binoculars in a year or two after you great treats in astronomy. Another giant-binocular
other possible homemade have become used to astronomical observing and specialty is that rare bright comet which reaches fifth
solutions. have discovered all of the less expensive model's magn itude or brighter and sports a tail two degrees

38
or longer. The wide field, and com-
great light grasp
fortable binocular vision afforded by large glasses Clockwise from far left
make the comet seem to float in the abyss. bottom: Sailing the celestial
Are giant binoculars an essential step up from seas is best done in a boat-
regular binoculars? Standard binoculars are man- on land. Try using a small
datory equipment for any backyard astronomer, inflatable child's boat (about
whether beginner or veteran. Their extreme porta- $20) to scan the overhead sky
bility and wider field of view compared with those in complete comfort. Head,
of telescopes putthem in a class of their own. legsand shoulders are
Regardless of what other equipment you have, supported more effectively
40mm-to-50mm binoculars are indispensable in as- than in the standard lawn
tronomy. We do not rank giant binoculars in the shown for comparison.
chair,
same category. They are the obvious step up from Head can be raised or lowered
standard-sized binoculars, and they fit nicely be- binoculars by far are the 1 1 x 80s marketed by vir- by varying leg pressure. (Boat
tween regular binoculars and a telescope. Our ex- tually every optics company: Meade, Celestron, idea suggested by Jim Zeleny
perience, though, is that the big binoculars are nice Swift, Unitron, Bushnell, University, Orion and of Thunder Bay, Ontario.)
to have around, but you can do without them. Your many others. There is very little difference in price Tripod-mounted binoculars
order of priorities should be standard-sized binocu- or performance among the on the market.
1 1 x 80s offer jiggle- free viewing and
lars first, telescope second and the giant binoculars They represent good value in astronomy equipment pointing. But one drawback
third, if you feel the need for an intermediate piece in their price range ($300 to $500), and their AVi- with most tripod-mounted
ofhardware. An exception is if you live someplace degree fields make them versatile performers. arrangements is the neck
with a scenic daytime vista where regular binocu- Less popular but worth considering are 1 5 x 80s. wrenching required for
lars are inadequate to bring in distant detail. Such Their higher power and 5mm exit pupil offer a overhead gazing. Supergiant
a dual terrestrial-celestial application would make nice combination. 25 X 705 binoculars, used by
the big glasses a top priority. Avoid the 20 x 80 giant binoculars for astronom- England's comet and nova
Our specific recommendations for big glasses ical applications -they have too much power and discoverer George Alcock,
start with the Fujinon FMT-SX 10 x 70s (about too little exit pupil to reveal galaxies and nebulas at have 45-degree eyepiece
$700). They are instruments of outstanding quality their best. Most spotting scopes are similarly over- prisms to prevent waking up
with high-eyepoint eyepieces, excellent optics, a powered for optimum observation of faintertargets, the next morning with
5 V4 -degree field and superb multicoatings on every and they are usually equipped for only straight- "astronomer's neck. " Photo-
optical surface. However, the most popular giant through viewing. graph courtesy George Alcock.

39
 CHAPTER THREE

Telescopes
for Recreational
Astronomy

A generation ago, many backyard astronomers built Why are there so many types of telescopes? The
tlieir telescopes from scratch. Today, 90 percent reason, in part, is because there are so many kinds
of amateur astronomers purchase commercially of celestial objects. The telescope which provides
manufactured equipment. With the increasing superb images of the planets is not necessarily the
popularity of the hobby, telescope companies have same one that offers stunning deep-sky views. There
evolved from basement operations to major con- have always been specialized telescopes for special-
cerns with annual sales in the millions of dollars. ized purposes. However, in the past, one type of
Competition in the field is intense, and the leading telescope, indeed one particular brand, has usually
manufacturers conduct lavish advertising cam- predominated, making the choice of which instru-
paigns in the key astronomy magazines. All too of- ment to buy a relatively simple task— each customer
ten, such advertisements are the only information bought what everyone else was buying. Observing
a potential customer has to evaluate what is on the tastes tended to fol low the same pattern. Whatever
market. We therefore have included not only gen- type of observing the telescope in vogue excelled
eral information on telescope designs but also our at, that is what most people concentrated on.

personal opinions on many of the telescopes and ac- By contrast, today's backyard astronomers are in-
cessories on the market at the publication date of terested in a wide range of celestial targets, from the
this book. Asa result, we hope that it will be easier moon to the most distant clusters of galaxies. Cou-
to make a choice among the many options in a very ple the size of the current market with the eclectic
complicated marketplace. In fact, a backyard as- tastes of modern amateur astronomers, and the re-

tronomer now has an unprecedented number of sult is that for the first time in the history of amateur
telescope models from which to select— as of 1 993, astronomy, the three main classes of telescopes
there were about 270 models available in North — refractor, Newtonian and catadioptric — are
America from more than two dozen companies. equally popular.

TELESCOPE EVOLUTION
The factthat there are now three main types of tele- endless debate. If you listen to the conversation of

scopes vying for market preeminence leads to the any group of recreational astronomers, you will hear
perennial question: Which telescope is best? It is an the merits of this, that or the other telescope.

40
 A telescope sits ready for
use, silhouetted by a modest
aurora that brightens the
northern horizon. In classic
backyard-astronomy fashion,
this 4-inch refractor is kept
fully assembled in a ground-
level room, where it can simply
be carried outside to the
favourite observing spot.
When the instrument is taken
to a remote such porta-
site,

bility allows it to be quickly

loaded and unloaded from the
car Photograph by Terence
Dickinson.

41
 'I

42
 Telescopes in action. The
essence of backyard astron-
omy is observing— personal
exploration of the cosmos. The
attraction (some say addiction)
is that the more you know

about what you are seeing, the

more beautiful and meaningful
it becomes. Centre photograph

by Terence Dickinson; above

and left by Alan Dyer.
Far left: The Horsehead
Nebula, in Orion, is a chal-
lenge for both visual obser-
vation and astrophotography.
lust seeing it is the visual
challenge; capturing the subtle
details in a painstaking time
exposure is the astrophotogra-
pher's task. Photograph by Tony
Hallas and Daphne Mount.

43
 Top: Aperture fever, 19th-
century style, reached its
climax in 1845 with the com-
pletion of the 72-inch reflector
built by William Parsons, a
wealthy Ihsh aristocrat. With it.
Parsons (also known as Lord
Rosse) discovered the spiral
nature of galaxies and made a
number of other important
finds, although not as many as
he might have because the
telescope's cumbersome
mount required several
operators at all times. Nor is
the weather in Ireland known
tobe kind to astronomers.
Parsons was the last amateur
astronomer to build and
operate the world's largest
telescope.
Right: A modern backyard
astronomer surrounded by his
instruments. Australian Gregg
Thompson, an expert deep-sky
observer, uses an 18-inch Sky
Designs Dobsonian-style
Newtonian (to his right) and
a 16-inchNewtonian on a
German equatorial mount. The
two telescopes are housed in a
spacious observatory on the
roof of his house.
Facing page: Lunar and plan-
etary observingby backyard
astronomers reached its zenith
in the 1950s and early 1960s,
partlybecause these bodies
had been largely ignored
for decades by research
astronomers. Another factor
was that long-focus refractors
and Newtonians, instruments
well-suited to moon and
planet watching, were in
vogue at the time. Saturn by
Charles Giffen, using a 15.5-
inch refractor; other drawings
by Alika Herring, using a 12.5-
inch Newtonian.

44
 But even clearer today than it was in the past
it is

that there is no such thing as a perfect telescope. ,•

/
Perfection will always be an elusive dream. Even so,
there have been long intervals in which one type of
telescope was the most popular and set the agenda 1^
forthe prevailing style of observing. This fundamen-
tal concept— how equipment drives observing in-

terests—is seldom discussed in amateur astronomy.

But it is our opinion that the history of amateur as-
tronomy can be largely divided into periods during
which a single type of telescope held dominion over
the backyard obseni'er^s universe.

BEFORE 1950:
THE SMALL-REFRACTOR ERA
Until the 1 950s, a typical backyard telescope was
a 2.5- or 3-inch brass-fitted refractor that looked
good in a study beside an oak bookcase. Larger tele-
scopes were available, but at a very high price.
Commercial telescopes were expensive relative to
the wages of the average working person. They
were made for the upper class, the genteel astron-
omers of wealth and leisure. The observing activi-
of such amateur astronomers consisted of casual
ties

views of the planets, scanning a handful of clusters

and nebulas and measuringthepositionsand bright-
nesses of hundreds of double and variable stars-
tasks well suited to a small refractor.

1950 TO 1970:
THE NEWTONIAN ERA
The post-World War II period saw the introduction
of reasonably priced binoculars and telescopes of
decent quality and design. Commercial telescope
companies began to offer equatorial ly mounted
Newtonian reflectors with relatively large apertures
of 6 to 1 2 inches. The Newtonian quickly became
the most popular instrument of the day.
Other such as Cassegrains and
reflector types,
tilted-mirror designs, were as uncommon then as
they are today. The second most popular telescope
was a commercial 3- or 4-inch refractor, usually
f/15. Refractors that were more than 4 inches in

aperture were relatively rare for amateur astrono-

mers. They were simply too expensive for the aver-
age backyard observer. The somewhat outdated
statement sti made in many astronomy gu idebooks
1 1

thaf'the best beginner's telescope is either a 3-inch

refractor or a 6-inch reflector" dates from this era.
The Newtonians of the 1950s and 1960s were
medium- or long-focal-length telescopes (f/7 to
f/1 0). They were big and awkward; however, long-

focus Newtonians were, and remain today, excel-

lent for high-resolution planetary observing. As
a result, we entered the golden era of planetary
study by amateurs. It was a time when the journal
of the Association of Lunar and Planetary Observ-
 ers was filled with wonderful drawings of Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn and Venus.
The larger Newtonians sparked an initial interest

in observing deep-sky objects such as nebulas and

galaxies, but it remained a minor sideline for most
observers. The books of the day bear this out: Nor-
ton's Star /At/as, the observer's bible of the 1 950s and
1 960s, lists only 75 deep-sky objects in the descrip-
tive tables of the1959 edition, yet thousands of
deep-sky objects are and were within reach of a
good 6-inch telescope. j.B. Sidgwick's classic Ob-
servational Astronomy for Amateurs, first published
in 1957, devoted 270 of the 310 pages to solar

system objects; the deep-sky realm of nebulas

and galaxies was all but ignored.
Although telescopes were becoming larger and
better able to reveal faint deep-sky objects, some-
thing else occurred to change the observer's focus.
In 1 965, near the end of the Newtonian era. Mari-
ner 4 became the first interplanetary probe to return
close-up images of Mars, revealing a cratered sur-
face unlike anything telescopic observers had
imagined. It was the start of two decades of intense
TELESCOPE Pi'PES exploration of the planets by space probes.
The images from the planetary probes deeply in-

fluenced amateur astronomy. Their first effect was

Refractor to swing the emphasis of "serious" backyard as-
tronomy away from the now-explored planets. The
space probe voyages and manned moon landings
effectively removed the moon and the planets as
targets of opportunity for amateur astronomers.
Planetary observing plummeted.
On the other hand, the unprecedented media ex-
posure of the continuing string of space missions be-
ginning in the late 1960s— Apollo, Mariner, Vi-
king, Pioneer, Venera and Voyager— heightened
public interest in astronomy and space. The hobby
turned from a fringe pursuit into a mainstream
pastime, setting the stage for the next era.

1970 TO 980: THE SCHMIDT-

1

CASSEGRAIN BREAKTHROUGH
The many converts to astronomy during the late
1960s and 1970s increased telescope sales
into the
to the extent that companies could introduce mass-
production techniques for serious amateur tele-
scopes. The real breakthrough was Celestron's 8-
inch Schmidt-Cassegrain, a type of catadioptric
telescope. It combined lenses and mirrors in an in-

novative design with a wide array of photographic

accessories, easy portability and attractive pricing,
and it was effectively marketed by the first modern
advertising in the field. In many ways, the hobby as
we know it today began with this instrument.
at their best when used
Schmidt-Cassegrains are
for deep-sky observing and astrophotography.
Their portability enabled amateur astronomers,
 Facing page, top: The good,
the bad and the ugly— a gallery
of telescopes, mostly used,
lines a wall in a telescope
store. All types are represented
here. Some would be excellent
beginners' instruments; others
should be avoided. Fundamen-
tally, all telescopes perform the

same function: they gather

light and focus it to a point. At
an eyepiece
this focal point,
magnifies the image and
projects it into the human eye.
Compared with binoculars, a
telescope collects more light
(revealing fainter objects),
resolves finer detail (showing
more features) and increases
magnification (making it easier
to see small targets).
Facing page, bottom: Optical
many for the first time, to transport tiie instruments in the 970s and telescopes had to be transported
1 design of the three main types
to dark-sky sites, and observing and photographing to dark-sky areas, colossal mounts would not suffice. of telescopes used by amateur
deep-sky objects began to soar in popularity. The compact Schmidt-Cassegrains of the 1970s astronomers in the 1990s. The
The peak of the Schmidt-Cassegrain era marked partly solved the problem but still had a portability refractor contains lenses to
the virtual disappearance of the refractor as serious limit. Schmidt-Cassegrains that were 1 inches or refract, or bend, light to bring
amateur equipment and a reduction in the number more in aperture were hefty instruments. How it A Newtonian uses
to a focus.
ofcumbersome Newtonian reflectors that had so could amateurs move to even bigger telescopes yet mirrors— one curved and one
dominated the hobby only a decade earlier. retain portability? flat— to collect and focus light.
This era also precipitated a decline in home tele- The solution: sacrifice automatic tracking by us- The Schmidt-Cassegrain also
scope making because of the increasing affordabil- ing simple, squat altazimuth mounts supporting has two mirrors, both curved,
ity of equipment during the 1 970s (through lower Newtonians with thin, lightweight primary mirrors. as well as a thin corrector lens
costs and higher levels of disposable income). The Popularized by California amateur astronomer John at the front of the telescope
trend has largely continued, and today, only a few Dobson, these telescopes are now universally that compensates for aberra-
amateurs grind their own mirrors or lenses— thus the called Dobsonians. Beginning in 1 980, companies tions inherent in the steeply
absence of such topics here. Telescope making has such as Coulter Optical offered thin-mirror Dobso- curved primary mirror. The
enjoyed a resurgence over the past few years, but nians for as little as $500 for a 13-inch model. Schmidt-Cassegrain is a type of
just to the extent of the home manufacture of sim- Aperture fever swept the land. catadioptric telescope.
ple tube assemblies and plywood mounts to house Once again, the instrumentation had led ob- Catadioptric is a general term
commercially produced optics. The design that servers into new territory. The big "light buckets," as used for telescopes that
inspired the latest homemade models— the Dob- large Newtonians are irreverently called, are unsur- combine mirrors and lenses.
sonian — emerged during the early 1980s. passed at revealing faint deep-sky targets. Objects Above: Examples of the
that are barely perceptible smudges in an 8-inch three main types of telescope
1980TO 1985: Newtonian or Schmidt-Cassegrain become impres- optical systems used by
THE NEWTONIAN IS REBORN sive spectacles in a 20-inch Dobsonian. Armed with modern backyard astronomers.
There was a major swing back to Newtonians dur- giant Dobsonians, observers can pursue deep-sky From left to right: 10-inch
ing the 1 that, the Newtonian was usu-
980s. Prior to targets previously thought impossible. Meade Schmidt-Cassegrain,
ally carriedon a massive German equatorial mount, However, low<ost aperture still comes at a price. 5-inch Astro-Physics refractor
which allowed the telescope to track the sky auto- What Dobsonian fans often sacrifice for economi- and 13-inch Coulter Optical
matically—at a price. Equatorial mounts for large cal big mirrors is To provide the
optical quality. Newtonian (all mid-1980s
telescopes are huge and very heavy. A mount for a sharpest images, large optics should be just as good models). The three dominant
1 0-inch instrument could easily weigh 75 pounds, in qualityassmalleroptics. The optician's labour for types of mounts are repre-
making the typical Newtonian an unwieldy be- an excellent 20-inch mirror costs at least $2,000 to sented here too; left to nght:
hemoth move to a distant observing site. When
to $3,000. Add the cost of materials and labour for the fork equatorial, German
light pollution started to become a serious problem rest of the telescope, and the result is a huge expense equatorial and Dobsonian.

47
 ;^^H

3
Xlfflt DECLINATION
I^AXIS .QUICK
lAR
ALIGNMENT,
AIM FORK
TINES AT
POLARIS
(OR SIGMA
OCTANTIS IN
SOUTHERN
-AiQPHERE)

^^^^^^^^^^^^^BL_i^:_^^l^^^^^^l

for a big, truly first-class instrument. Toward the element mid-1980s, the buzzword
lenses. In the
end of the 1 980s, such premium Dobsonians began became apochromatic, which means "completely
to appear on the market. free ofextraneous colours" or, more precisely, that
the colour reduced below the eye's threshold of
is
1985 TO 1990:
detection. The latter is the level of performance
THE REFRACTOR RETURNS achieved by two-element fluorites and new three-
Refractors were all but extinct by the 1 980s. People and four-element refractors.
considered them to be too small in aperture, and Modern fluorite lenses work and, contrary to pop-
those models which did have sufficient aperture ular opinion, do not deteriorate. We have yet to see
were plagued by colour fringes around bright ob- evidence that fluorites degrade over time, but the
jects (chromatic aberration) and were too massive idea persists, perpetuated by the manufacturers of
and too expensive. nonfluorite telescopes. Fluorites are just as moisture-
UEquatorial mounts are avail- If the situation had remained constant, the refrac- and shock-resistant as conventional glass lenses.
able on commercial telescopes tor story would have ended here and we would be However, full-aperture lenses of this type are costly.
in two basic designs: German, noting that "the 3-inch refractor is suitable for begin- Optical wizards asked whether there might be other
left, and fork. Their advantage ners, but for most backyard-astronomy applications, ways of making apochromatic refractors in large
over simpler mounts, such as the other types of telescopes are preferred." How- apertures at less-than-astronomical prices. In the
that pictured on facing page, is ever, in the mid-1980s, things changed. 1 980s, two telescope designers, working indepen-
that they will track a celestial The first development was the introduction of a dently and approaching the traditional refractoi^s
object with a single-axis new type ofglass (actually an artificially grown crys- quirks from different directions, revolutionized the
motion as Earth rotates. To tal known as calcium fluorite) to replace one of the equipment for recreational astronomy.
function properly, the polar glass elements in the standard two-element front Al Nagler, a military optics expert and amateur
axis must be pointed toward lens of the refractor. The new combination effec- astronomer, began developing ways to reduce the
the celestial pole. (Except for tively eliminated chromatic aberration, even in fast- focal ratio without increasing chromatic aberra-
astrophotography work, a focal-ratio telescopes, whose colour fringing is the His Tele Vue Renaissance and Genesis 4-inch
tion.
quick visual alignment toward most difficult to eliminate. A 4-inch f/8 fluorite models (both four-element systems) were instru-
the pole is fine.) As the sky refractor is less than three feet long and outperforms mental in reestablishing the refractor as a serious
rotates, the telescope will any achromatic 4-inch f/1 5 refractor. tool for astronomy.
follow the stars either by itself, The term achromatic can be defined as "nearly Aerospace engineer and amateur astronomer
has a clock drive, or with
if it it is what can be ex-
free of extraneous colours." Roland Christen also attacked chromatic aberration.
the turn of a single knob. pected from small refractors with standard two- In the mid-1980s, Christen's firm, Astro-Physics,

48
marketed the first triplet apociiromatic refractors
priced for amateur astronomers. Christen's tele-
scopes have a three-element objective lens— each
element is made from a different type of glass, and
together, they produce virtually colour-free images.
His design breakthrough allowed reasonably priced
4-, 5-, 6- and even 7-inch apochromatic refractors.

The introduction of affordable apochromatic re-

fractors in the 1 980s coincided with increasingdis-
enchantment with the bright but fuzzy views offered
bythe low-quality optics in many Dobsoniansand
in a spate of poorly made Schmidt-Cassegrains. The
race for bigger telescopes that had driven amateur
astronomy since the 1 950s gave way to the desire
for better telescopes. Planetary observing, which
requires first<lass optics, saw a resurgence with
the return of the refractor.

THE 1990s: QUALITY FIRST

In the 1 990s, the doors are wide open to every type
of observing interest and choice of equipment. The
only common factor that today's backyard observers
seem to be demanding is quality. Regardless of the
size and design of a telescope, amateurs are look-
ing fortop-grade optics on solid mounts; manufac-
turers are being forced to deliver that quality.
The equal popularity of the refractor, reflector and of telescope that happens to be in vogue. The avail-
Schmidt-Cassegrain means that for the first time, in- ability of three classes of fine telescopes, each with
struments suitable for every category of observa- formidable strengths, has ushered in a new era, per-
tional activity — solar, lunar, planetary, deep-sky, haps a new maturity, in amateur astronomy. The
comet hunting and astrophotography — are avail- swinging pendulum of fashion that has character-
able in a wide range of sizes. Backyard observing ized the hobby since World War II has apparently
in the 1 990s is not driven by any single brand or type come to rest— at least for a while.

CHOOSING A TELESCOPE
The authors recommend an
Since no single telescope dominates the market any- more than one telescope. That is the real answer 80mm or 90mm refractor, like
more, the choices facing the prospective buyer can to finding telescope paradise. this Celestron Firstscope 80, as
be daunting. Time and again, we are asked: What a minimum beginner's tele-
is the best telescope? or Which telescope would you
THE MAGNIFICATION SCAM scope. (Meade's Model 390 is
buy? The answer is frustrating to many first-time Some amateur astronomers and telescope dealers similar.) The mount is a simple
buyers: There is no best telescope. Furthermore, insist that the most important characteristic of an altazimuth design with left-

a telescope we would choose may not be the one instrument is its aperture. They are right, up to right and up-down axes. Once
best suited to your needs. a point. Larger telescopes do generally provide a celestial object is centred, it

Some enthusiasts hop from one telescope model brighter, sharper images. immediately begins moving
to another, enticed by glossy advertisements and But what about magnification? We have ignored out of the field because of the
convincing salespeople. A few years ago, telescope it, and so should you. The magnification of a tele- Earth's rotation, but the slow-
hopping was a rarity. A backyard astronomer scope is a meaningless specification. With the right motion controls on flexible
bought one telescope and liked it. Now, the profu- eyepiece, any telescope can magnify hundreds of cables make continuous
sion of models sets some amateurs on a quest for the times. The question is. How does the image look at, recentring easy at low powers
Holy Grail of astronomy: the perfect telescope. say, 450x? Probably either very faint or blurry. Why? and not too difficult up to
Thousands of dollars and several telescopes later, There are two reasons: 120x. Nevertheless, many
they realize there is no telescope that will do every- D Not Enough Light: The telescope simply is not observers favour the tracking
thing well. Refractor, reflector, catadioptric-each collecting enough light to allow the image to be convenience of equatorial
has its Many veter-
advantages and disadvantages. magnified to that extent. When an image is en- mounts despite the higher cost
ans who recognize the strengths of each type own larged, it is spread out over a greater area and be- and greater weight.

49
 DECODING TELESCOPE SPECS
When shopping for a telescope, you will eyepiece) is called the focal length. Many
encounter the following terms. They represent telescopes have the focal length marked
the most important specifications of any somewhere on the tube. For most instruments,
telescope. the lengths range from 500mm to 3,000mm. The
optical focal length of refractors and Newtonians
APERTURE AND often approximates the length of the tube, since
LIGHT-GATHERING POWER the lens or mirror is one end of the tube and
at

Telescopes are rated by their aperture. A 4-inch the eyepiece is at the other. With Maksutovs and
instrument has a lens or mirror four inches in Schmidt-Cassegrains, the optical path is folded
diameter. The larger the telescope's lens or back upon itself, making the tube much shorter
mirror, the more light it collects. Large-aperture than the focal length. On such telescopes, the
telescopes present brighter images and reveal focal length sometimes marked on the tube as
is

fainter stars than do small telescopes. The light- E.F.L. = 2,000mm, meaning that the effective
gathering power of a telescope is proportional to focal length is 2,000mm. The longer the focal
the surface area of the lens or mirror, not to its length, the higher the power the telescope will
diameter. Thus an 8-inch telescope has four produce with any given eyepiece.
times the light-gathering power of a 4-inch
model, making its images four times brighter. In
FOCAL RATIO
the world of amateur astronomy, small Like camera lenses, telescopes are given a speed
telescopes have apertures of 2.4 to 5 inches; rating, the focal ratio, which is the focal length
moderate-sized instruments have 6-to-1 2-inch divided by the aperture. For example, a 6-inch
apertures; and large models have 14-to-25-inch 50mm) telescope with a focal length of
(1

apertures. 1,200mm has a speed rating of 1,200 -^ 150 =

8, orf/8. A 6-inch telescope with a focal length
RESOLUTION of 750mm is an f/5 system (750 ^ 50 = 5). 1

How well a telescope resolves fine detail and The formula can also be turned around. If the
close double stars depends on the aperture and aperture and focal ratio are known, they can be
on the quality of the optics. In theory, an 8-inch multiplied to give the focal length.
telescope has twice the resolving power of a 4- With any given eyepiece, faster f/4 to f/6
inch instrument, and so on. The resolving power systems offer lower powers and wider fields of
of a telescope can be estimated with a simple view than slow f/8 to f/1 5 systems. For
formula: Resolving Power (in arc seconds) - photography, faster systems yield shorter
4.56 Apertureof Telescope (inches); or
H- exposure times. But faster systems do not, by
116 ^ Apertureof Telescope (mm). This is themselves, produce brighter images. The
Dawes' limit. Nineteenth-century amateur brightness of any image seen in the eyepiece is

astronomer William Dawes devised the dependent solely upon the aperture.
calculation to estimate how
two stars of
far apart
approximately equal brightness must be before
MAGNIFICATION
they could be resolved as two separate stars. The magnification that a telescope provides can
Dawes used a small refractor to establish the be varied merely by changing the eyepiece. To
relationship. The formula does not necessarily determine how much power a particular
translate to other kinds and sizes of telescopes, eyepiece provides on a telescope, divide the
and it has inappropriately come to be used as a focal length of the instrument by the focal length
definitive test of telescope optics. Quality of the eyepiece (using the same units of
instruments can sometimes outperform the measurement for both).
resultant figures. However, because of the The focal length of most eyepieces is marked
atmosphere, it is not possible to reach Dawes' on the top or side. All but vintage types have
limiton most nights. Often, a resolution of one focal lengths measured in millimetres. They
arc second is the best any telescope can do. range from 55mm (low power) to 4mm (high
power). For example, a 25mm eyepiece on a
FOCAL LENGTH
2,000mm telescope yields a magnification of
The length of the light path from the main mirror 2,000 ^ 25 = 80x. A 2mm on the same 1

or lens to the focal point (the location of the telescope produces 2,000 h- 2 = 66x. 1 1

50
 comes too faint to be useful. The telescope has been
pushed beyond its limits. The only recourse is to
How much can a telescope magnify? The move to a bigger telescope. The brighter images in
general magnification limit is 50 times the larger telescopes will allow higher powers, theoret-
aperture in inches, or 2 times the aperture in ically. Because of the following, however, it does
millimetres. For example, the maximum usable not always work that way in practice.

power for a 60mm telescope is only 1 20x. n Blurry Atmosphere: The Earth's atmosphere is al-

Claims that such a telescope can magnify 400x ways in motion, distorting the view through the tele-
are misleading. At more than the 50-power-per- scope. Some nights are worse than others. At low
inch limit, the image in any instrument will be power, the effect is usually not noticeable. But at
too fuzzy for useful observing. high power, itcan blurthe image badly. Increasing
Any telescope advertising that trumpets high the magnification only makes things worse; it be-
magnification — especially on inexpensive comes impossible to see any more detail. Instead,
instruments —should be regarded as a "buyer the image becomes fuzzier and fainter. Since big
beware" signal. This type of emphasis is telescopes have to look through a larger column of
aimed strictly at the uninformed consumer. air than do small telescopes, they are often more

Magnification limits are imposed by the nature affected by atmospheric turbulence (astronomers
of light and optics — perfect optics. call the condition "poor seeing").
Can a big telescope, say, a 1 6-inch, magnify Most amateur astronomers find that about 300x
50 times per inch to its theoretical maximum is the practical upper limit for any size telescope, de-
of 800x? Almost never. Because of the ever spite advertising claims to the contrary, in fact, a tele-
turbulent atmosphere, the maximum worthwhile scope touted solely on the basis of its magnification
power even for larger instruments is about 300x. is surely a lemon advertised by a company that does

Only on rare occasions when the atmosphere is not know what constitutes a good instrument.
very steady can a large telescope be profitably
pushed further. People do not build or buy giant
AVOIDING APERTURE FEVER
instruments in order to obtain highly magnified Now that the magnification myth is dispelled, you
images but, rather, to get brighter, sharper know you need as much aperture as you can afford.
images and to see fainter objects. Or do you? If you are not careful, you may catch
aperture fever. The first signs of it are longer and
WAVEFRONT ERROR longer perusals of the telescope advertisements in

Telescope optics are often advertised as 1/8 Sky & Telescope and Astronomy magazines, ac-
wave or 1/20 wave. This is a measure, in companied by imagining the spectacular views to
wavelengths of green light, of how far the actual be had with the Colossal SuperScope.
optical surface deviates from an ideal surface. However, be warned. Big telescopes do not al-
However, the important characteristic is not how ways foster contentment among astronomers. Quite
good the individual optics are but how small the a few of our colleagues observe happily with their
error is in the final wavefront of light emerging 14-to-25-inch instruments, and so might you. But
from the complete telescope. The light reflected without a convenient, dark, permanent site to house
off a mirror with a surface accuracy of 1/16 wave such a brute, think very carefully about what you Top: Although a large
has a wavefront error of 1/8 wave. A telescope want. The biggest telescope is not always the best. telescope like this 16-inch
made with two mirrors, each of which produces A 1 2-inch-apertu re telescope wi 1 1 outperform a 6- Newtonian can provide won-
a wavefront error of 1/8 wave, has an accumu- inch one, all else being equal. That is the catch. All derful views of deep-sky
lated final error of 1/4 wave, usually considered things are rarely equal. Price, for instance. Big tele- targets, there are certain
the minimum for perfect star images. This scopes can be expensive. If you lose interest in the disadvantages with an instru-
calculation is called the Rayleigh criterion, or hobby, you have a sizable investment tied up
will ment that requires three
diffraction-limited optics. in a telescope that may be tough to sell. Lose in- people to set it up. Photograph
However, manufacturers almost never specify terest? Never, you say. Well, lotsof people do. The by Steve Dodson.
system wavefront error, and to complicate reasons can often be traced right back to big tele- Above: In the 1950s, when
matters further, there is no agreed-upon standard scopes, which can be awkward to set up and require astronomy was virtually
for measuring optical-surface accuracy (one effort to carry to the backyard or out into the coun- unknown as a leisure activity,
compan/s 1/20 wave is another's 1/10 wave). try. For the sin of being too heavy, big telescopes just a few relatively costly
The telescope industry is working toward end up collecting dust in closets and basements. commercial instruments were
uniform standards, so perhaps the picture will Another problem is the shakes. A large-aperture available. Backyard astrono-
change, but for now, seeing is believing. telescope needs, without exception, a heavy-duty mers usually built their own-
mount. A lightly mounted large-aperture telescope typically, a 6-inch Newtonian
might be more portable, but the images will dance on a simple pipe-fitting stand.

51

L^
 about with every puff of wind and every touch of telescopes in the4-to-8-inch range can outperform
a hand. An instrument with a flimsy stand is soon mediocre instruments of much larger aperture. This
banished to the basement. is partly because the big telescopes are more sensi-

Big telescopes, especially the less expensive tive to poor seeing, which degrades image detail,

models— those most likely to lure the enthusiast particularly on the moon and planets.
with aperture fever— are often saddled with poor or Finally, one simple and often-overlooked fact
second-rate optics that prevent them from realizing is that large telescopes do not fit into small cars.
their full potential. In our experience, well-crafted It is surprising how many amateur astronomers

I COMPARING TELESCOPES!

Refractors Reflectors Catadioptrics

Optical n Because of the unobstructed D Optical system is completely free D Excellent suppression of chromatic
Advantages design, refractors have,
theoretically, the least aberrations
of chromatic aberration.
n Easier to make large apertures.
in
aberration and other optical
aberrations. If well made, they
^
can™
of any optical system. D Good light-gathering power in be excellent performers.
D It is easier to manufacture a high- 6-inch and larger models. n Good light-gathering power in

quality surface on a lens than it is D Wide field of view in fast (f/4 to f/6) 6-inch and larger models.
on a mirror. Therefore, the intrinsic models. n Most models focus very close for i

optical quality is usually superior use as telephoto lenses and

to that of the other designs. spotting scopes.
Optical n All retractors have a certain degree n In fast focal ratios (f/5 or faster), n More system light loss than other
Disadvantages of chromatic aberration, producing images toward the edge of the field types due to multiple reflections

a blue or purple aura around appear out of focus (like tiny comets) and corrector-lens absorption and
brighter objects. New apochro- because of coma, an optical reflection. Enhanced coatings
matic designs have reduced this aberration inherent in reflectors. reduce this light loss.

aberration to insignificant levels. D Light loss from multiple reflections D Largest central obstruction of all

D Narrow field of view in slow (f/1 is worse than light loss in refractors. types of telescopes— usually one-
to f/1 5) models. D Obstruction from secondary mirror third the aperture's diameter-
n Limited light-gathering power in and supports creates diffraction and causes loss of contrast.
small apertures. loss of contrast.

**%lechanical n Eyepiece location at fear of D Eyepiece location at ffie'upper enc n Eyepiec^ocaRor^l^a^ )f

Advantages telescope facilitates attachment of the tubemeans the mounts can telescope facilitates attach ment

of cameras. be supported by compact tripods of cameras.

or can be inexpensive Dobsonian D Wide range of focus accom
designs. modates many accessories.r I
Mechanical n Counterweights on German D Counterweights on German n Fork mounts can be difficult to
Disadvantages equatorial mounts add weight equatorial mounts add weight balance with heavy accessories.
and bulk. and bulk.
D Long tubes of large models sway D Long tubes sway in the wind if

in the wind if mounts are poor. mounts are poor.

Ease-of-Use D Extremely portable in new 4-inch n The eyepiece is at a comfortable n Compact fork hiounts, three-toot
Advantages apochromatic designs. observing level in the 6-to-1 2-inch- tripods and short tubes result in

D Easy to aim. aperture categories most often the greatest portability per inch
used by amateur astronomers. of aperture.
Ease-of-Use n Since the eyepiece is at the bottom D With larger apertures, a stool or D None.
Disadvantages of the tube, a four-to-six-foot tripod stepladder is needed to reach the
is necessary for observing at a eyepiece when the telescope
comfortable level with 5-inch or points overhead.
larger refractors. Smaller models DOn equatorially mounted
can operate on stubbier, generally Newtonians with nonrotating
less massive tripods, but the tubes, the eyepiece can achieve
eyepiece can be very low and extremely awkward positions.
awkward to reach. n Difficult to aim.

52
buy or make a huge instrument without consider- factor, but even more important is ease of operation.
ing how to transport it. A well-made instrument that is convenient to use
Our advice is that the beginner should resist the will provide a lifetime of enjoyment.
temptation to buy a first telescope larger than 8
inches in aperture. Performance is rnuch more than
MATCHING THE TELESCOPE
simply getting the brightest image affordable. The
TO THE SITE
best telescope for you is the telescope that you will An important consideration when picking the best
usemostoften. Of course, affordability is a limiting telescope is the observing site. Can observing be

Refractors Reflectors Catadioptrics

Maintenance D The closed tube prevents dust. D Since they are shielded by the D Closed tube prevents dust, ^|
Advantages moisture and foreign objects from tube, the mirror surfaces are less moisture and foreign objects from
— entering the tube. susceptible to being coated by entering the tube.
K. ^

D Lenses are capable of withstanding dew or frost.

^^^^ft more hard use than other types.

^^^^H Very rarely, if ever, require
^^^^^ collimation.
Maintenance n Exposed main lens attracts dew. n The primary and/or diagonal mirror D Secondary mirror in Schmidt-
Disadvantages often requires collimation. Cassegrains sometimes requires
n Open-ended tube (or completely collimation adjustment.
open tube in some designs) means n Exposed corrector plate readily
dust and foreign objects can enter attracts dew.
the optical system.
n Mirror surfaces deteriorate over
time and require re-aluminizing
every few years,
D None. n Lowest price of all types per inch n Intense competition and popularity™
Advantage of aperture; the most aperture for of these models often result in

dollar invested. bargains, sales and low<ost used

instruments.
^g
Price D Most expensive per inch of n None. n More expensive than Newtonians
Disadvantage aperture (with the exception of of equal aperture but less
the Questar-brand Maksutov- expensive per inch of aperture
Cassegrain). than refractors.
Other n Smaller models (4 inches and less) n Longer focal ratios (f/6 or longer) 1 ^
D Best range of accessories, ^l^^l
Advantages are less susceptible to thermal can be superb high-resolution especially for astrophotography.

t currents and other cool-down instruments if optics are high

t effects. quality.

n The elegance and simplicity of the

design allows very large-aperture
instruments (up to 30 inches) for
amateur use. _
Other D Long focal ratio of achromatic D Newtonians f/5 or faster must be D In f/10 to f/1 4 versions, even the
Disadvantages refractors makes them unwieldy in very precisely collimated to lowest power may not provide an
apertures over 4 inches, function up to their potential - adequate field of view for some
n Massive lenses in largest models especially inconvenient as travel to types of observing.
can require long cool-down time. dark sites becomes more necessary. n Closed tube often requires long
D Optics In large models often cool-down time.
require long cool-down time.
D Optical path is most vulnerable to
thermal effects from the ground,
the observer and internal currents.

53
 For dark-sky views, it will likely be necessary to
drive far from the city. Some of our colleagues ar-

gue that if they have to drive for an hour or more to

a dark site, they want equi pment that will show the
smallest, faintest deep-sky objects possible— a 10-
inch or larger telescope. Such rationalization works
for some people, but we have found that telescopes
requiring more than 10 or 15 minutes to load into
a vehicle or to set up suffer a steady decline in use
after the first year of ownership. You soon find your-
self saying, "I'll go observing some other time— it
looks as if going to cloud up," or "It's too windy
if s

tonight," or any number of other excuses, all of them

cover-ups for the real reason: it is too much trouble
to set up the telescope. Instead of enjoying it, you
feel guilty for not using it. And a year or two later,

you will probably sell it.

On the other hand, your backyard is protected

if

from you almost certainly

streetlights or yard lights,
can do some profitable observing, even if you can-
not see the Mi Iky Way. If it is visible, even a hint of
it, then consider doing the majority of your observ-

ing from home. Some of the advantages of the pris-

done from your home? If so, are the skies dark, or tine skies of the countryside are lost, but the con-
are they heavily light-polluted? Are views restricted venience of being in your own yard for routine
by trees, houses and streetlights? How far will the observing or just for quick peeks is wonderful. Trav-
telescope have to be carried? elling to an observing site with your equipment in-

Avoid fast f/4 and f/5 telescopes of any size if you evitably becomes a tedious affair which is soon
are plagued by bright skies. They perform optimally restricted to free weekend nights that look as if

under dark rural skies for wide-field sweeps along they may be perfect— a rare combination.
the Milky Way. From light-polluted sites, f/6 to f/1 We may be belabouring our point about portabil-
systems are best— in general, they have better opti- ity and convenience. But we feel that instead of

cal quality than ultrafast telescopes have and yield choosing among refractor, reflector and catadiop-
higher powers with a given set of eyepieces. Both tric telescopes and then deciding on additional ac-

characteristics will provide more pleasing images cessories and electronic gadgetry, you should base
of the moon and the planets. your decision on the specific observing situation.
If there is little possibility that yourtelescope will The best telescope in the world will not be any good
be used at home, then focus your decision on por- if it sits unused because it is too awkward to set up

tability and ease of transportation. A 4-to-8-inch or is not suited to the local sky conditions. Do not
Schmidt-Cassegrain, a 6-inch Newtonian ora 3-to- delude yourself by thinking, "Oh, that won't happen
A view down the tube of a 5-inch refractor on an equatorial mount will prob- to me. want the biggest telescope
I I can possibly
Schmidt-Cassegrain reveals the ably be used far more than bulkier instruments. get." That is aperture fever.
primary mirror at the bottom
with a tubular baffle surround-
ing a central hole. A small REVIEWING THE TELESCOPE MARKET
secondary mirror is attached to
the inside of the corrector Among the hundreds of telescopes
on the market You see this instrument in every department and
plate at the front. The Schmidt- today, a few dozen models stand out for their wide camera store at Christmas, as well as in many repu-
Cassegrain is the most com- avai labi ity and popularity. No one can offer a com-
I
table telescope shops. While some excellent 60mm
pact of all telescope designs pletely objective review of equipment, and our bias refractors have been available in the past, such as
offered commercially. The toward portable, high-quality telescopes may show, the legendary instruments from Unitron, there have
Maksutov-Cassegrain is a but we have tried to be fair to all models. been, in recent years, few 60mm refractors, espe-
similar design. Both are catadi- ciallyunder $300, that we could recommend.
ACHROMATIC REFRACTORS
optrics, the general term for The flaw of most 60mm refractors is not so much
telescopes that use a combina-
(60mm to 4-inch)
the main lens; it iseverythingelse: poor eyepieces,
tion of mirrors and lenses in A 60mm refractor (about $1 50 to $750) has long dim finderscope, lack of slow-motion controls,
the main optical system. been considered the standard beginner's telescope. flimsy mount and shaky tripod. In particular, avoid

54
any model with a built-in finderscope that peers out The Meade and Celestron
priced at about $500.
through the main tube. The separate 5 x 24 finder- models are each come with a good
f/1 1 units that
scope supplied with a low-cost instrument is often altazimuth mount and one high-grade eyepiece,
bad enough, but the through-the-lens variety is even rather than several of dubious optical quality,
worse. as is the case with some telescopes. The Orion
Our answer to people who enquire about buying model has an equatorial mount and features a
a low-cost 60mm telescope is: Spend more to ac- 6x30 finderscope and two 1.25-inch-diameter
quire an 80mm-to-90mm refractor or a 4-inch re- Kellner eyepieces.
flector, or save money by purchasing binoculars. With the Meade and Celestron refractors, the alta-
With the jump to an 80mm or 90mm refractor, zimuth mounts make the package price approxi-
the quality of the telescope improves greatly. Most mately $ 1 00 to $200 lower than that of the equato-
f/1 1 to f/1 5 refractors in this aperture class are wor- rially mounted versions of the same telescopes.
thy beginnet^s telescopes. our opinion, they rep-
In Altazimuth mounts are economical and easy to set
resent the very minimum to be considered. Colour up, but there are attendant sacrifices. Chief among
correction of the crown/flint doublet lens is excel- them is that the telescope cannot be pointed straight
lent, and the telescope is portable, durable and vir- overhead, because the mount gets in the way. Also,
tually maintenance-free for decades. both slow-motion controls must be used constantly
Three models stand out in the 80mm-to-90mm to keep the target object in view.
class: the Celestron Firstscope 80, the 90mm Meade For about $600 to $700, the Meade and Celestron
390 and Orion Telescope Center's 80mm Sky Ex- refractors are also available with equatorial mounts.
plorer II. All are Japanese or Taiwanese imports This allows for much easier tracking and adaptabil-

SELECTING A TELESCOPE I

The choice of which telescope to buy depends not only on the quality portability is, local sky conditions, observing interest, budget, storage
of the telescope but also on personal factors such as how important space and aptitude for handling and maintaining complex hardware.

Ach. Refractor Apo. Refractor Eq. Newtonian Dobsonian Schmidt-Cass.

60mm to 4-inch 4-inch to 7-inch 4-inch to 18-inch 8-inch to 25-inch 4-inch to 11 -inch
FACTORS f/10tof/15 f/5 to f/9 f/5 to f/8 f/4 to f/5 f/6tof/10

Sky Conditions
urban (poor) excertenT "
good" fgooc poor excellent
suburban (fair) excellent excellent excellent fair excellen
rural (good) good excellent excellent excellent excellent
Observing Interest
lunar and planetary excellent
^ good to excellent poor to fair

faint deep-sky poor to fair good excellent good

wide-field deep-sky good to excellent good good to excellent fair to gocxJ
general observing good excellent fair excellent
astrophotography good to excellent good poor excellent
daytime nature study excellent (4-inch) poor poor good
Other
optical quality fair to good 'excellent good to excellent fair to gc fair to good ^^|
mechanical quality poor to good excellent fair to good fair to good good
light-gathering power poor fair good to excellent excellent ^K fair to good |
portability excellent good poor to good fair good to excellent

ease of assembly fair to good fair to good poor to good ^^ good to excellent excellent
ease of use good good fair good excellent
ease of maintenance excellent excellent fair fair good
storage space required small av(>r.ige to large average to large large a\er.ige
delivery time excellent poor to good good poor to fair excellent
Cost
$$ perTncR'oraJDerfiufe average f'average avera j
resale value fair excellent good good

55
 I SKY MEASURE which use ED (extra-low dispersion) glass. Both
types permit far superior correction of chromatic
The unit of measure for finding your way around aberration than does standard optical glass.
the sky is the degree. A complete circle is 360 Fluorite refractors were introduced by Takahashi
degrees. overhead— one-quarter of
From horizon to in 1 974. Although of outstanding quality, the Taka-
a circle— is 90 degrees. Apparent distances between hashi instruments command a premium price.
stars can be measured in degrees. For example, the The FC-100 4-inch f/8 doublet fluorite with fully
Big Dipper's pointer stars (to Polaris) are five degrees equipped equatorial mount, for example, is about
apart. Each degree (abbreviated °) is divided into $5,000.
60 minutes (
' ) of arc; one minute of arc contains Even loftier on the price scale are the apochro-
60 seconds (
" ) of arc. matic refractors from Zeiss Jena, the former East Ger-
man optics company now merged with what was
Celestial Objects Apparent Size West German Zeiss. The Zeiss APQ series incorpo-
rates a three-element objective, with the centre lens
Andromeda Galaxy W^M being fluorite. Available in 80mm to
apertures from
sun and full moon 0.5° or 30' of arc APQ refractors offer unsurpassed perfor-
6-inch, the
typical galaxies Tto20'ofarc mance, but at a price to match - the 4-inch f/6 APQ
large sunspot 1
' of arc sells for about $5,000 for the tube assembly alone,

Jupiter's disc ^| ^jy'to4V'ofa"rc' while the Zeiss 6-inch f/8 APQ is the price of a mid-
width of Saturn's sized car.
rings 35" to 45" of arc Much more affordable is the Celestron SP-Cl 02F,
many planetary a 4-inch f/8. 8 doublet fluorite made by Vixen of

10" to 100" of arc It comes with the Super Polaris equatorial

1
nebulas Japan.
separation of close mount and dual-axis drives for $2,600. Considering
double stars 0.5" to 2" of arc its price, solid mount, crisp, colour-free images and
quick settle-down time, even in subfreezing temper-
The field of view of most 6x-to-9x finderscopes is atures, the SP-Cl 02F is one of the best buys in a
about 5°. The field of view of most telescopes at their fluorite refractor.
lowest power is 1 ° to 2°. The smallest angle that theTakahashi and Vixen doublets, thefluorite
In

typical backyard telescopes can resolve is about 0.5" lens is the rear element of the front lens pair. In
to 1" of arc. Binoculars can reveal double stars more 1993, Tele Vue introduced a new version of its
than about 20" apart. Without optical aid, people with popular Genesis refractor that uses a different ap-
excellent vision can resolve doubles 3' apart. proach. The Genesis SDF is a 4-inch f/5.4 instru-
ment that has a doublet lens at the front made of spe-
cial dispersion glasses and a small doublet lens near

the focuser with one fluorite element. This rear lens

ity toa motor drive for added convenience and for pair serves as a field flattener and focal reducer. The
photography. A popular choice is the equatorial ver- result is extremely low chromatic aberration, a
sion of the Celestron Firstscope, called the SP-C80 wide, flat field and the astrophotographic advan-
($700). comes with the Super Polaris mount by
It tages of an f/5.4 focal ratio— in all, a superb all-round
Vixen of Japan, one of the best low-priced equato- telescope. The tube assembly is available for about
rial mounts on the market today. With or without $2,100. Tele Vue offers several solid altazimuth and
the optional battery-powered pulse-motor drive equatorial mounts as options.
($300), an ideal portable equatorial mount for
it is Although fluorite apochromatic refractors provide
small telescopes. For example, Celestron uses the superb contrast and colour correction, they are ex-
same mount with its excellent 4-inch f/9.8 achro- pensive to manufacture in apertures larger than
matic refractor ($1 ,200 without drives), one of the 4 inches. Fortunately, there is an alternative. ED
few 4-inch achromatic refractors on the market. glass, although more expensive n its raw form than i

We think two-element achromatic refractors of fluorite, is less costly to manufacture into a lens and
more than 4-inch aperture suffer unacceptably from mount properly in a lens cell. Apochromatic refrac-
chromatic aberration. For large refractors, we pre- tors using a doublet lens with the rear element made
fer apochromatic designs. of ED glass yield image quality similar to that of
fluorites, but at a lower price.
APOCHROMATIC REFRACTORS A prominent line of ED doublet apochromatic
(4-inch to 7-inch)
refractors is the Meade Advanced Products series.
Two types of apochromatic refractors are now read- Available and 7-inch sizes, all are f/9 sys-
in 4-, 5-, 6-
ily available: those which use fluorite and those tems that come with Meade-manufactured German

56
equatorial mounts. The mounts can be purchased veiled a line of competitively priced Dobsonians,
with either conventional dual-axis DC drives or a including a 6-inch for $200, an attractive choice for
sophisticated computerized-drive system that will beginners and young astronomers. We hope the
automatically slew the telescope across the sky to added competition will make telescopes in this

find any of hundreds of objects computer

in the price range more readily available.
database. Prices with the optional $700 computer A growing class of telescope is the premium Dob-
drive and required packing/shipping charges range sonian, a reflector finished with a high level of crafts-
from $2,800 for the 4-inch to $5,900 for the mas- manship and first-rate optics. Companies offering
sive 7-inch. premium Dobsonians from 12-to-30-inch apertures
Astro-Physics makes competitively priced dou- include MAGI Instruments, Obsession Telescopes,
bletapochromatic refractors that employ a premium Safari Telescopes, Sky Designs, Starsplitter Tele-
grade of ED glass called Super ED. The Star 1 30 (a scopes, Starstorm Optical, Tectron and Torus
5.1-inch f/8) sells for $3,700 with mount and dual- Optical Works. All are small companies run by
axis drives, while the Star 155 (a6.1-inchf/9)goes dedicated amateur telescope makers turned entre-
for $5,800 equipped.
fully preneurs.
In 1992, Astro-Physics introduced an ED triplet The new-generation Dobsonians feature truss-
design that uses a three-element objective with tube designs that break apart into transportable com-
Super ED in the middle. Called the Starfire EDT ponents yet snap together in five minutes. In this The Astro-Physics Traveler,
series, the new telescopes eliminate the final traces league of telescope, prices vary but typically range a 1-inch f/5.8 apochromatic
4.

of chromatic aberration still present in other refrac- from about $1 ,500 to $2,200 for a 1 2.5-inch tele- refractor introduced in 1992, is
tor designs. The Astrophysics 4.1-inch f/5.8— the scope to $3,000 to $4,500 for 18- and 20-inch one of a new generation of
105 Traveler EDT— is exquisitely portable and sells models. For $8,000 to $ 1 0,000, it is even possible compact, high-performance
for $3,400 with mount and drives. Other EDT to buy a giant 25- or 30-inch Dobsonian. instruments that have returned
models are the 5.1-inch f/8 ($4,400), 6.1-inch f/9 If the thought of a 25-inch telescope in your back- the refractor to prominence as
($6,400) and 7.1 -inch f/9 ($8,300). yard is more than
appealing, think again— the tube is a serious backyard-astronomy
feet long. Observing over most of the sky means tool. Seen here on the light-
THE DOBSONIAN REFLECTOR 1

balancing on a tall ladder. Although the tube may weight Celestron/Vixen Super
(8-inch to 25-inch)
break down
into small components, the ladder Polaris equatorial mount,
The name Coulter is synonymous with Dobsonian needed go with the telescope does not. It is fun
to this telescope has exquisite
telescopes. Since 1 980, Coulter Optical has special- to look through a giant Dobsonian at a star party, but portability. Able to sweep the
ized in Dobsonians that offer the observer the most do you really want to own one? A 12-to-l 5-inch deep sky with a four-degree
aperture for the dollar ($300 for the 8-inch, $350 for Dobsonian is, in ouropinion, a comfortable size for field or to zero in at high
the 10.1 -inch, $600 for the 13-inch and $1,200 for personal use. It avoids ladders and the need to trans- power for planetary viewing,
the 1 7.5-inch). The telescopes are of bare-bones port heavy pieces ofequipment but is large enough this telescope comes as close
Dobsonian simplicity, with f/4.5 thin-mirror New- to propel you deep into the galaxies. as any to an all-purpose
tonian optics, chipboard mount, no finderscope, instrument. Equally versatile in
a simple plumbing-fixture focuser and one low-
EQUATORIAL NEWTONIANS all respects is Tele Vue's
(4-inch to 18-inch)
cost eyepiece. Genesis SDF, a 4-inch f/5.4
We would describe the Coulter Dobsonians' op- The standard instruments 1960s— 6-inch f/8
of the apochromatic refractor intro-
tics as fair to good. But realistically, precision optics or 8-inch f/7 equatorially mounted Newtonians- duced in 1993. Celestron's SP-
are out of the question at these prices. You get what looked for a endangered species. At-
while like C102F, a 4-inch f/8.8 fluorite

you pay for— in this case, lots of telescope for little tracted to the more compact Schmidt-Cassegrain or apochromatic refractor, is
money. We have enjoyed outstanding views of gal- lured by aperture fever to the Dobsonian, most peo- another outstanding performer
axies, nebulas and star clusters in Coulter 1 3- and ple overlooked the mid-sized Newtonian. Yet these in this class. A fourth worthy
1 7.5-inch telescopes, yet the same objects were in- forgotten telescopes can be excellent all-round per- entry in this popular category
significant fuzzballs in 3- and 4-inch refractors of formers. A good 6-inch Newtonian is a highly por- is Meade's 4-inch f/9 ED apo-

comparable cost. These are brute-force telescopes table instrument that can reveal the universe at a bar- chromatic refractor. Equipped
intended to be used at low power, typically 5x to gain price. It can bring in a wide range of deep-sky with equatorial mounts, these
lOx per inch of aperture. In this range, they perform objects as well as provide crisp planetary views. telescopes are priced from
admirably as gateways to the deep sky for a back- Celestron, Meade, Parks Optical and Pirate Instru- $2,000 to $3,000. Both authors
yard astronomer on a budget. However, there is a ments offer Newtonians in the $600 to $ ,200 price 1 own and regularly use new-
catch: Coulter telescopes are in such demand that range. Particularly attractive are the Meade Star- generation 4-inch apochromatic
buyers routinely must wait several weeks or months finder series of 6-inch and 10-inch
f/8, 8-inch f/6 refractors and highly recom-
for the low-cost telescopes. f/4.5 reflectors on German equatorial mounts with mend them either as prime
Coulter had the bargain-basement Dobsonian AC motor drives. For example, the 6-inch Starfinder equipment or as a portable
market to itself for several years, but in 1 993, a new is a solid, easy-to-use instrument and, at $600, one second instrument for the
company in California called Pirate Instruments un- of the best deals going for an entry-level telescope. large-telescope owner.

57
 tracking capabilities of a conventional equatorial
Erect View mount at a relatively low cost for such large tele-
scopes.
Another fine big-aperture Newtonian is an un-
usual design by Jim's Mobile Industries. Its NGT
(next-generation telescope) is a transportable 18-
inch reflector ($10,000) on a wonderfully engi-
neered split-ring mount that is surprisingly compact
considering the size of telescope it is carrying.
At the other end of the price spectrum, tens of
thousands ofamateur astronomers started their as-
tronomical activities with a Tasco 4.5-inch Newto-
nian, Model 1 1 TR ($500). Tasco
the McDonald's is

of optics— telescopes, binocularsand microscopes

— specializing in volume-selling at low prices, its
Inverted View 4.5-inch f/8 Newtonian is one of the company's
most ubiquitous telescopes. The same model is
available from Jason Empire and Swift Instruments
and as a house-brand item from many telescope and
camera stores. In its most widespread form, it has
several deficiencies: a small finderscope, poor
The nonerect orientation of 0.965-inch eyepieces, a spherical rather than par-
a telescope's field of view is abolic mirror and a somewhat shaky mount. We
usually a rude surprise for suggest bypassing this instrument.
novice telescope users. Most Instead, Orion Telescope Center offers a version
telescopes either invert the of the Tasco 4.5 called the SpaceProbe with three
view, centre, or flop it left to significant improvements: a 6 x 30 finderscope
right (called mirror-reverse), instead of the inadequate 5 x 24 that is usually
bottom. Even after years of standard, a 1 .25-inch focuser and two decent Kell-
experience, many observers ner eyepieces, all for under $400. Meade's Model
Mirror Reverse View
regard inverted and flopped 4500 reflector ($400) has a similar combination
views as an annoying barrier to of features.
enjoying the hobby. Others A step up in quality is the Celestron C4.5 ($500).
adjust toit without difficulty. Although its tube assembly is nearly identical to that
Some sky charts are printed of the Meade 4500 and the Orion SpaceProbe, the
with south up for telescop- mounting— a Vixen Polaris unit— is far more solid.
icallyinverted images, as seen TheC4.5alsohasa DC pulse motordrive available
in Newtonians. In any case, a as an option, making it a good choice for occasional
chart can simply be turned astrophotography.
upside down. But for mirror- Another popular beginner's instrument is the Ed-
reversed views produced by mund Astroscan (about$350),a4. 1-inch f/4. 3 New-
refractors and catadioptric tonian in a teardrop-shaped housing that forms the
telescopes when used in the ball for an ingenious ball-and-socket mount arrange-
standard fashion with a star ment. Introduced in 1977, the telescope is rugged,
diagonal, sky charts must be highly portable and easy to use and has launched
read from the back— or you thousands of budding astronomers.
must mentally flip the image Parks Optical also markets 1 0-, 1 2.5- and 1 6-inch
left to right. Clearly, Newto- Newtonians on massive German equatorial mounts.
THEMAKSUTOV
(3.5-inch to 8-inch)
nians have an edge in this Often called research-grade or observatory mounts,
regard. Most observers find these monsters are what gave Newtonians a bad The Maksutov telescope has been in and out of style
flipped or inverted fields name, but for use at a permanent site, they can be several times during the history of amateur astron-
especially annoying with a solid choice. omy. Currently, it is enjoying a renaissance in inter-

finderscopes, but there is a Unique on the market are the handcrafted Juno est because of the demand for high-performance op-
solution if the finderscope's 1 5 ($4,000) and Juno 1 8 ($5,500) equatorial reflec- tics in a compact package.
star diagonal is interchange- tors from the Jupiter Telescope Company. Although The Maksutov is similar to the Schmidt-Casse-
able: replace it with an Amici Dobsonians at heart, they are packaged with an in- grain in that it employs a front-element corrector
prism for erect images. tegrated motorized base that gives them most of the lens to eliminate the aberrations introduced by the

58
 exactly as would be expected for three excellent op-
tical systems. There are no magic telescopes.
Nonetheless, the Questar is a superb 3.5-inch in-

strument. Complete with mount, drive, leather case

and tabletop tripod, it costs more than $3,500. Is it
worth it? Judging by the thousands of owners and
its nearly 40 years on the market, it is the right tele-

scope for a segment of the buying public. Questar

also makes a 7-inch model ($1 5,000), a scaled-up
3.5-inch that lacks the unmatched portability of the
smaller telescope.
In 1 992, a line of Maksutovs carrying the INTES
brand name appeared on the North American mar-
ket, imported from Russia. The telescopes are bun-
dled with a long list of features for a bargain price
($2,000 for the 6-inch f/10). However, the fittings

are of nonstandard size, and the first units to reach

buyers' hands received mixed reviews.
Joining the Maksutov revival are the new High-
Definition series of Newtonian-style Maksutovs
from Ceravolo Optical Systems. We have to dis-
close some bias here, as the designer of these tele-
scopes is a contributor to this book, but we think the
views through the first models we have seen would
impress even the most critical eye. The HD145 is
a 5.7-inch f/6 Maksutov-Newtonian designed to
provide the high-contrast images of an apochro-
matic refractor in a package that is lighter, shorter
and, at $ 1 ,800 for the tube assembly, much less ex-
pensive than a 6-inch apochromatic. As of early
1 993, larger and faster Maksutov-Newtonians suit- MAt less than two feet long, all

able for astrophotography were also in the works. these instruments are ideal for
We have seen prototypes of other Maksutov-style recreational astronomers who
instruments that, if brought to production, will add need a decent telescope in the
more choices to an already wide selection. In a vol- smallest possible package.
atile market, our best advice is to watch Astronomy Above, Questar 3.5-inch f/14

and Sky & Telescope each month for advertisements Maksutov-Cassegrain, a

and reviews of the latest models. beautifully crafted instrument;
$3,500 with fitted leather
primary mirror. Traditionally, most Maksutovs have
THE REMARKABLE 8-INCH carrying case. Bottom left,
SCHMIDT-CASSEGRAIN
been f/10tof/15 Cassegrain systems, in which the Meade Model 2045D 4-inch
light is directed out the back of the telescope through Since 1970, the 8-inch Schmidt-Cassegrain has fno Schmidt-Cassegrain,
a hole in the primary. been the top-selling recreational telescope. Its com- shown in fork-equatorial
The legendary Maksutov of this style is the 3.5-inch bination of generous aperture, portability, adapt- version with carrying case;
Questar. An f/14 Cassegrain system, the Questar ability to astrophotography and all-round good per- $600. (Alongside is the spot-
was introduced in 1 954 as a topof-the-line compact formance has made it the telescope of choice for ting-scope version.) Celestrons
telescope. Nearly four decades later, it still is. Every- backyard astronomers. C5, a 5-inch Schmidt-Casse-
thing viewed through a Questar is wonderfully crisp Today's commercial Schmidt-Cassegrains made grain priced closer to $1,000, is

and any aberrations. It has been ru-

totally free of by the two largest telescope companies, Celestron equally portable. Top left, the
moured that the Questar can do things no normal International and Meade Instruments, have their Astroscan, Edmund Scientific's
3.5-inch telescope can do, such as separating close roots in the amateur-telescope-making heyday of 4-inch f/4.3 Newtonian, housed
double stars, revealingastoundingdetail on Jupiter the 1960s. At that time, Californian Tom Johnson in a distinctive ball-and-socket
and other feats far beyond the theoretical limit for was one of the pioneering telescope makers. Lured mount; $350. Photographs,
its aperture. One night, we set up a 3.5-inch Questar by the theoretically near-perfect star images that a in the order described, are
beside a Carton 3-inch f/1 2 refractorand an Astro- Schmidt-Cassegrain could produce across a wide courtesy Questar, Astronomy
Physics 4-inch f/6.5 refractor. The results: The 4-inch field, Johnson built a 1 9-inch unit for himself. This magazine and Edmund
outperformed the 3.5, and the 3.5 beat the 3-inch — prototype was the forerunner of all Celestrons. In Scientific.

59
 1964, Johnson renamed his electronics company the early 1 980s, both companies now have a wide
Top: A Dobsonian mount is Celestron Pacific and began making optics. range of Schmidt-Cassegrains, from no-frills entry-

a type of altazimuth mount. In 1970, after concentrating on large telescopes, level instruments to mind-boggling computerized
The two axes for up-down Celestron introduced a compact 8-inch f/1 Schmidt- telescopes. Here is what each company offers as of
and left-right motion glide Cassegrain, the C8. The retail price for the basic tele- early 1993:
smoothly on Teflon surfaces. scope, without tripod, was $795. Considering that
CELESTRON'S CURRENT
The observer must gently push top-grade 8-inch Newtonians cost $600 at the time,
SCHMIDT-CASSEGRAINS
the telescope every few the C8 was expensive. But because of its compact
moments to keep an object size and ease of use, many amateurs flocked to the D Super Polaris C8
centred, but it is an inconve- new instrument. First introduced 984 as a low-cost ($800 at that
in 1

nience that observers are Celestron first saw serious competition in 1980 time) telescope, itsame tube assembly as
has the
willing to tolerate to gain the when Meade brought out its Model 2040 4-inch other C8s, but the mount is the Super Polaris Ger-
aperture and economy of a f/1 and Model 2080 8-inch f/10 Schmidt-Casse- man equatorial unit shared by some of Celestron's
Dobsonian. Simple to build, grains. Meade had started out in the early 1 970s sell- refractors and Newtonians. Although designed as
the Dobsonian has inspired ing telescope accessories and good-quality Newto- an entry-level telescope, the Super Polaris C8 is the
many backyard astronomers to nians, but it soon realized that the future belonged same price ($ 1 ,600) as the mid-priced models by the
own
construct their to house to the Schmidt-Cassegrain. The two companies be- time you add the DC motor drives and optional
commercially made optics. gan offering nearly identical products, and compe- coatings. Nevertheless, it has the advantage of

M Right: John Dobson, shown tition for the market was fierce. Throughout the allowing owners to use the mount with a variety
here reflected in a 36-inch 1 980s, Meade and Celestron battled with advertis- of tube assemblies.
telescope mirror, popularized ing wars, price cutting and then feature wars. D Classic 8
the idea ofmounting a big 983, came Celestron's Super C8, an im-
First, in 1 on the Super Polaris C8 for its
After concentrating
telescope on a simple stand: proved model with a worm-gear drive and an 8 X 50 low-end model, Celestron decided that the best
the Dobsonian. He also pio- finderscope. One month later, Meade countered entry-level telescope was the one it started with. So
neered the use of thin mirrors. with its LX (long-exposure) model, also with a the old C8 was brought back in 988 and cal led the
1

Conventional wisdom prior to worm-gear drive to aid guided deep-sky photog- Classic 8. It has the same basic features as the origi-
the 1980s dictated that a mirror raphy. After that, the competitors' gloves came nal 1 970s model at essentially the late-1 970s price
must be one-sixth as thick as it off. seemed that models changed by the month.
It ($1 ,500 with optional tripod). It is a good telescope
is wide to keep from bending Whatever one company did, the other soon copied for someone who expects never to get into deep-sky
under its own weight. Dobson or bettered. photography— its spur-gear drive lacks the accuracy
and colleagues ground and As a result, in contrast to the limited selection of of the drives in more expensive units. Operating this
polished mirrors less than half
that thickness— and half the
weight—and found they worked.
Photograph by Alan Dyer.
Bottom: Premium large-
aperture Dobsonians are
offered by several companies
(such as the models from
Obsession Telescopes shown
here). Construction quality is

high, production numbers are

^.'
^r4
low, and prices ($2,000 to
$9,000) are consequently much
higher than those of Coulter
Optical, manufacturer of the
most economical Dobsonians.
The mirrors for most of the
telescopes in this league are
made by Galaxy Optics of
Buena Colorado. We
Vista,

have tested several and rate

them good to very good. One
of the instruments sports a
fabric tube cover to block stray
light that enters open tubes
and reduces image contrast.

60
telescope's AC motor in the field also requires the LXlOO's DC motor-drive electronics offer speeds for
use of an extra power invertor or drive corrector, an fine guiding and centring objects, as well as track-
item not required with the DC motors of the fancier ing speeds at sidereal, solar and lunar rates. The
models. drive also comes with Meade's version of periodic
D Powerstar PE08 error correction, called Smart Drive. (Don't confuse
Celestron's mid-range model uses a DC pulse motor Smart Drive with the motor that turns the telescope
powered by a convenient built-in 9-volt battery that to track the stars— Smart Drive is a microchip that
minimizes tangled cords. It also features PEC, Celes- makes the motordrive run more accurately.) Unlike
tron's periodic-error-correction circuit. This micro- Celestron's PEC, however, Meade's Smart Drive cir-
chip can record manually entered speed corrections cuit requiresprogramming only once, not every
and automatically play them back, reducing track- time the power is turned on. As feature-laden as the
ingerrorfrom variations in thedrive-gear speeds that LXIOOis, it has, by and large, taken a backseat to the
repeatwith each turn of the worm gear. Itworkswell very popular LX200.
but is of value only for astrophotography. The Pow- 01X200
erstar is a good buy
$1,700 but is largely over-
at The LX200 ($2,200 without wedge) created a minor
shadowed by the next model, the Ultima 8. sensation when it was introduced in early 992. It 1

D Ultima 8 has all the bells and whistles of lesser models and
In answerto suggestions from astrophotographers, boasts a sophisticated computerized drive that auto-
Celestron introduced the Ultima 8 in 1988. It shares matically slews to celestial objects on command.
the Powerstar's built-in power supply and PEC cir- This is not new— the Compustar has offered this fea-
cuit but features a beefed-up forkmount, drive base ture for years. But what seemed to excite telescope
and wedge assembly to reduce shake and vibration. fans the most was the instrument does
fact that the

It is an ideal telescope for someone keen on pursu- not have to be polar-aligned; does not even have
it

ing photography and reasonably priced at $2,200. to be on an equatorial wedge (the wedge is an op-
DCompustar tion necessary only for photography). The LX200
First introduced in 1 987, this marvel comes with a can be set up as an altazimuth telescope, an arrange-
computerized data base of thousands of celestial ob- ment that has the benefit of making the telescope ex-
jects and has fast slewing motors that al low it to zip tremely solid. The computer pulses the motors on
around the sky from target to target automatically. the two axes by the right amount to keep objects
Although the Compustar originally sold for $3,500, centred. The telescope does require an initial pro-
stiff competition from Meade's LX200 telescopes gramming with the longitude, latitude and time (this
has brought the price down to $2,500. The Compu- is done once) and must be accurately levelled and

star lacks the LX200's ability to track objects in alta- aimed at a known alignment star. The telescope will
zimuth mode, and it requires a heavy-duty battery then slew to objects called up from its data base,
to power it. We will be surprised if the ageing placing them within the field of a low-power eye-
Compustar is not replaced by something even more piece. It is an impressive unit that is fun to use. The NGT (next-generation
sophisticated in the near future. D SSC-8 telescope) from Jim 's Mobile
A similar array of computer features is aval lable with Industries features a low-
MEADE'S CURRENT
the SSC series, priced in the $2, 1 00 range with op- profile split-ring equatorial
SCHMIDT-CASSEGRAINS tional computer drives. These Schmidt-Cassegrains mount that, considering the
n2080 Standard are offered on the same German equatorial mounts 18-inch telescope it is carrying,
In 1988, Meade countered Celestron's Classic by included with Meade's apochromatic refractors. is very portable. The entire
reintroducing the original fork-mounted Model The advantage is that owners can use the mount for instrument disassembles into
2080 with LX worm-gear drive. With AC motor different tube assemblies. several pieces that fit into the
drive, tripod and coatings, the Standard, at $1 ,200, deck of a compact
a bargain in the modern telescope world. Our ad-
WHICH IS BETTER, F/10 OR F/6.3?
rear storage
is
car. The NCT is a top-of-the-
vice is to opt for the special coatings; they are worth Most of Meade's Schmidt-Cassegrains are aval lable line instrument ($9,000) that
the extra price. in either of two focal ratios, f/10 or f/6.3. The f/6.3 combines the aperture of
DLXIOO optics exhibit increased curvature of field. The faster Dobsonians with the tracking
The LX line of Schmidt-Cassegrains introduced in optics also come at the expense of a slightly larger ability of traditional equatorial
1992 includes the LX100 model ($1,800), essen- secondary mirror (43 percent by diameter for the Newtonians and is great for
an updated version of 1 980s units such as the
tially 8-inch models), which in any reflector system de- astrophotography fans. Other
Premier series, LX6, LX5 and LX3 models. How- grades image contrast to a small degree. For plan- breakdown telescopes at
ever, compared with earlier Meade instruments, the etary observing, we recommend telescopes with as various levels of sophistication
LX100 features a welcome upgrade to much stur- small a secondary obstruction as possible. For pho- and price are now offered by
dier fork arms, providing a solid package compara- tography, however, such degradation is insignifi- several companies. Photograph
ble to Celestron's Ultima 8. Like the Ultima, the cant and is outweighed by the shorter exposure courtesy Astronomy magazine.

61
 times that the f/6.3 optics provide. Nevertheless, we TheC5-i- ($1,100) is a particularly attractive pack-
prefer the f/1 Schmidt-Cassegrains. you need ex-
If age for mobile astrophotography. Meade makes a
tra speed for photography, we suggest adding Celes- 4-inch model, the 2045D, a compact unit that fea-
tron's f/6.3 reducer/corrector lens accessory. tures a battery-powered DC motordrive to enhance
its go-anywhere functionality.
What telescope is best for
WHICH IS BETTER, At the other end of the scale, Meade has 10-inch
you? To avoid buying the
MEADE OR CELESTRON? f/10 and f/6.3 instruments for about $2,500, only
wrong telescope for your A constant question in the minds of buyers is whether $300 to $400 more than the 8-inch models. The
situation, consider the Meade or Celestron is better. We have examined small price difference lures many buyers to the
following: How far will you images dozens of Meades and Celestrons, in cur-
in larger telescope. But don't forget portability and
have to transport the telescope rent versions and in telescopes that date back to their convenience. The 10-inch instrument weighs 60
to your observing site or to first years of production, and have seen good and pounds, about 60 percent heavier than the 8-inch
your car? Will you have to carry bad instruments from both companies. In the late telescope. Our advice to most people is to stay with
the equipment up and down 1 980s, in particular, the marketplace was flooded the smaller version.
stairs? How big an instru- with hundreds of telescopes that were unable Celestron's Ultima 1 1 isan 1 1-inch f/10 Schmidt-
ment can you carry in one to form clean star images. The reputation of the Cassegrain available as a fork-mounted model
piece? Will the packed-up Schmidt-Cassegrain took a beating, as did telescope German equato-
($3,700) or on a superbly crafted
telescope fit into your car? Do sales. As a result, Celestron and Meade attempted mount made by Scott Losmandy of Hollywood
rial

you prefer owning precision- a merger in 1 990. Since the products of these two General Machining. The latter version, CG-1
made equipment, or can you companies represent about three-quarters of the ($3,500), one of the sturdiest large Schmidt-Casse-
is

be happy with equipment that sales of serious amateur telescopes in North Amer- grains wehave seen; we recommend it over the
is just "good enough?" Realis- ica, the merger application was turned down by the fork-mounted Ultima 1 1.
tically, how adept are you at U.S. Federal Trade Commission. Takahashi's 9-inch f/1 2 Schmidt-Cassegrain
handling and maintaining In the end, both companies instituted sweeping ($6,500) is a beauty. Great optics and a well-engi-
complex equipment? (Tele- quality-control standards. The result for the 1990s neered mount produce a first-class instrument.
scopes can be simple or very should be markedly improved telescopes showing The Celestron CI 4 is an observatory instrument
complicated.) What are the little consistent difference in optical or mechanical ($10,000) for the advanced amateur. It has gener-
skies like at your main site? quality between companies. The optical perfor- ous aperture but a poor drive; many astrophotog-
What are your observing mance of well-made Schmidt-Cassegrains can be raphers have had to replace the drive with a custom-
interests: Planets? Deep-sky impressive. We have both owned Schmidt-Casse- built unit. As of early 1993, the venerable CI 4 is
objects? Everything? Do grains and have derived years of observing pleasure badly in need of an upgrade. In order to compete
you even know? The Celestron from them. with the CI 4, Meade announced plans for 12-, 14-
C4.5, top right, a 4.5-inch and 16-inch Schmidt-Cassegrains, but as of early
Newtonian reflector on a
LARGER AND SMALLER
1993, these instruments had yet to appear.
sturdy equatorial mount, is an
SCHMIDT-CASSEGRAINS
entry-level telescope the While the 8-inch models are the most popular, both
WHICH TELESCOPE IS BEST?
authors consider a good buy Meade and Celestron manufacture other sizes. No telescope design guarantees superb images.
for beginners. Celestron reintroduced its 5-inch model in 1993. Only quality ofcraftsmanship guarantees quality of

62
 Left: Long out of production,
the Criterion RV-6 clock-driven
equatorial 6-inch f/8 Newto-
nian was one of the best
inexpensive telescopes of all
time. Similar classic equatorial
Newtonians are still available
from Celestron (6-inch f/5),

Meade and
(6-inch f/8 8-inch
f/6)and Parks Optical (6-inch
f/6 and f/8; 8-inch f/6), all on

equatorial mounts for $500 to

$1,200. They offer good all-
round performance in an ideal
compromise between smaller-
aperture refractors and larger-
aperture nonequatorial
Dobsonians.
m Centre: Meade's LX200
Schmidt-Cassegrain offers
(TELESCOPE PERFORMANCE LIMITSI complete computer-controlled
operation whether the tele-

Faintest Best* Highest* scope is mounted equatorially

Aperture Aperture Stellar Resolution Usable with the wedge or in altazi-
(inches) (mm) Magnitude (arc sec.) Power muth mode without the
wedge, as shown here. Either
2.00
1.50
^^H p- 120x
160x
way, by using the control
paddle, the observer can
1.20
0.95
^^H P 200x
250x
instruct the telescope to slew,
point and track any celestial
0.80
0.65
0.50
0.40
0.34
§
flHhB,

^^L_
B
300x
400x
SOOx
600x
600x
object selected. To do this, the
telescope must be carefully
levelled and initialized
pointing at a star in the
computer's memory. The
by

0.30 600x equatorial wedge is required

0.27 600x only for astrophotography.
0.24 600x Above: The LX200 controller
has a standard data base of
*Even large telescopes under good atmospheric More typically, 300x and 1 .0 arc second are the 747 objects that may be
conditions will not be able to use magnifications more practical limits. See Chapter 8 for more information chosen for the telescope to

than 600x or resolve better than 0.4 to 0.5 arc second. about observing conditions. pomt to, or the right ascension
and declination of an unlisted
object can be entered.

63
 images. A well-made Newtonian will outperform a pled with portability and convenience. Combine
poorly made refractor and vice versa. Our final ad- those traits, and you will have a great telescope no
vice is, don't be swayed by proponents of various matter what its optical design. The old axiom "you get
designs as "the besf instead, seek out quality cou-
; what you pay for" can be especially applied to optics.

WHERE AND HOW TO BUY A TELESCOPE

Now, the final hurdle. After making a selection, or may be no other option than to order directly from
at least narrowing down the choices, the question the manufacturer. Many smaller producers con-
is. Where do buy I the telescope? struct the telescope only after the order is received,
rather than store instruments in the warehouse for
DIRECT PURCHASEFROM months or years. Such operations usually require a
THE MANUFACTURER payment of one-third of the total cost of the instru-
Direct purchase may or may not be a good idea, de- ment when the order is placed. The balance is due
pending on the manufacturer. Large companies when the equipment is ready to be shipped.
with extensive dealer networks, such as Celestron Ninety-nine percent of the time, there is no risk
and Meade, discourage direct sales by charging procedure. But as in any field of manufactur-
in this

higher prices at the factory than those offered by companies can go out of business. If this hap-
ing,
dealers. Conversely, some small manufacturers pre- pens while a company has your money, you may
fer to sell directly to the public and thus avoid a be out of luck. To guard against such a contingency,
dealer markup. Other telescopes are avai lable at the seek recommendations about companies from
same and manufacturers.
price from both dealers knowledgeable amateur astronomers.
If there no dealer network or if no local dealer
is One indication that a business is in trouble is if its

sells the equipment you are interested in, there delivery time is far beyond the time quoted when

I ABERRANT BEHAVIOUR I

Every optica! system exhibits aberrations-distortions Coma: Stars at the edge of the field distort Into

that blur the Image to some extent. Each telescope cometlike blobs pointed away from the centre of the
design is a compromise; reducing one aberration often field. Stars In the centre, however, are sharp. Worse in

increases another. Toda/s telescope designs are a fast optical systems.

balance of these five main optical aberrations. Curvature of Field: Stars at the edge of the field do not
Chromatic: All colours do not focus at the same point, focus at the same point as stars in the centre. The
producing coloured haloes around bright objects. plane of best focus is not flat but curved, a particular
Worse in fast refractor telescopes. Once the bane of problem in astrophotography.
refractors, this defect has been largely overcome In Astigmatism: Occurs when mirrors or lenses are not
MA 1950s teenager demon- modern apochromatic refractors. made or mounted symmetrically around the central
strates a 60mm refractor, a Spherical: Light rays from the edge of the mirror or axis. As a result, stars appear as elongated ellipses;
classic junk telescope similar lens do not focus at the same point as light rays from especially noticeable in out-of-focus star images, as
to the ones sold today that the centre, producing star Images that never snap into the direction of elongation flips 90 degrees when you
usually have bold lettering on sharp focus and hazy planet images. rack from Inside of focus to outside of focus.
the box that blares: "250-power
Astronomical Telescope. " But Optical Achromatic Apochromatic Newtonian Schmidt-
it sells. These trashy telescopes Aberration Refractors Reflectors Cassegrains
Refractors
are bought by the thou-
still

sands by novices or by well-

intentioned parents and spherical
spouses. Are these instruments coma
better than nothing? We think curvature of field
the money is more wisely astigmatism
spent on good-quality 7 x 50
or W X 50 binoculars with a *ln well-made optics, spherical aberration and amount is objectionable only in Inexpensive or
camera-tripod adapter. Do astigmatism are reduced to low levels. While many defective optics. Astigmatism Is a common trait of
not be an uninformed con- telescopes exhibit some spherical aberration, the optics with an error In manufacture or mounting.
sumer when purchasing your
first telescope.

64
the order was received. If possible, find out whether
thecompany has shipped one of its products re-
cently.If someone you know has been waiting for

more than six months past the stated delivery date,

then exercise caution. However, if the reports reveal
that three- or six-month delivery dates have been ad-
hered to, it is probably safe to proceed. One of us
waited 20 months for a telescope, but it arrived only
a few weeks past the originally stated dead line. Long
waits are not in themselves cause for alarm, but
repeated broken promises are.

MAIL ORDER FROM A DEALER

The major astronomy magazines have dozens of ad-
vertisements from dealers selling nationally by mail
order. Some, such as Orion Telescope Center and
Astronomies, market only telescopes and accesso-
ries. Other outlets, such as Adorama and Focus

Camera, are deep-discount warehouses that retail

mostly cameras, VCRs and other consumer goods
but also sell telescopes, often at appealing prices.
The mai l-order savings may be attractive, but care-
fully read the fine print about shipping costs, so-
called crating charges and other hidden extra fees.
Before proceeding, evaluate the differences in per-

sonal service and guarantees between local and

mail-order dealers. Think of the difficulties that can
arise when a defective piece of equipment or an
item that needs to be repaired must be shipped back
to the originating mail-order dealer or the manu-
facturer in a distant city.
However, if the price differential makes a mail-
order dealer your choice, telephone to determine
the shipping charges and any extra costs. If it is still

a good do not order immediately. Call your

deal,
credit-card company, explain that you are purchas-
ing something by mail, and request that the funds
not be released until the item is shipped. Most
credit-card companies will honour such a request.
Then order the equipment, and tell the dealer that
the payment will be made only upon shipment. If
this is unacceptable, it is a good indication that you
should take your business elsewhere. Most mail-
order dealers that advertise in the major astronomy
magazines are extremely reputable and are inter-
ested in volume sales. If the item you request is in
stock, it will likely be shipped within 48 hours. your homework beforehand. If you want some-
thing the dealer does not stock, do not accept a
PURCHASE FROM A substitute without being convinced that it is an Rather than let this refractor
LOCAL DEALER equivalent or superior purchase. Exceptions are sit during a midnight
idle
The safest and usually the most convenient method the generic house-brand eyepieces and binoculars coffee break, Terence
of buying a telescope is from a local dealer, be- offered by some dealers, which are often identical Dickinson used a 24mm lens
cause you can see what you are getting before to name brands but are sold at lower prices. at f/2.8 to make a half-hour
you pay and can load the goods into the car and By thoroughly reviewing the information on exposure of the stars wheeling
drive away. If the telescope subsequently does equipment we have compiled for this book, you around the north celestial pole
not perform as advertised, it can be returned to should be well prepared when you walk into near Polaris, a motion caused
the store where it was purchased. However, do any telescope store. by the Earth's rotation.

65
 CHAPTER FOUR

Eyepieces and Filters

During the past two decades, both of us have taught trash where they belong, use the low-power eye-
introductory courses for recreational astronomers. piece and forget the fIters. These items were added
i

We soon learned that one thing was predictable: at simply to give the appearance of fancy accessories
least one class member would come forward after when in facta single higher-quality eyepiece would
the first why he or she was
or second session to ask make the telescope easier to use.
having trouble using a telescope that had been Many things have changed in amateur-astronomy
received as a Christmas or birthday present. The equipment over the years, but the same almost use-
telescope would be brought to the next class. Invari- less eyepieces and filters are still supplied with tele-
ably, the instrument was a standard department- scopes intended for novices or well-intentioned gift

store beginners telescope— the same type we un- buyers. Thankfully, we can report that the situation
wittingly purchased as our first telescopes. is the complete opposite with eyepieces available
Apart from the problems of jiggly mounts and for the more serious telescopes described in the
worthless instruction manuals, these telescopes are previous chapter. One of the
major revolutions in
notorious for their poor-quality eyepieces and filters. amateur-astronomy equipment that took place dur-
Usually only one eyepiece of the two or three in- ing the 1980s was the development of dramatically
cluded— the one offering the lowest magnification improved eyepieces and filters. The good news con-
— is usable. Our suggestion to the disappointed tinues in the 1 990s: eyepieces and filters are much
owner would be to toss the other eyepieces in the better than they were a generation ago.

EYEPIECES
High-quality eyepieces are as essential to observing Only spotting scopes and binoculars
magnification.
as a good primary mirror or objective lens. The tele- have permanently mounted eyepieces. Most com-
scope's main mirror or lens gathers the light and mercially produced telescopes are routinely
forms the image. The eyepiece magnifies the image. equipped with only one or two eyepieces to keep
Poor optics at either end of the telescope result the initial purchase price low. Formerly called
in less-than-optimum performance. oculars, eyepieces are the first accessory a tele-

On every astronomical telescope, the eyepieces scope owner acquires.

are interchangeable in order to vary the instrument's To cut through the jargon, you must understand

66
 Twilight frames an obsen'er
testing a new eyepiece on an
8-inch Schmidt-Cassegrain.
Photograph by Alan Dyer.

67
 4mm) produces high power and a small field. To de-
termine a given eyepiece's magnification, divide the
telescope's focal length in millimetres by the eye-
piece's focal length. For example, a 26mm eyepiece
on 2,000mm telescope yields 77\.
a
How much sky is seen through the eyepiece de-
pends on the magnification and on its apparent field
of view. The apparent field of view depends on the
eyepiece type as well as the specific design of differ-
ent manufacturers. If you hold an eyepiece up to the
light and look through it, you will see a circle of
light. The apparent diameter of that circle (measured

in degrees) s the eyepiece's apparent field of view,

i

which is usually given in the manufacturer's specifi-

cations. Standard eyepieces, such as Orthoscopies
and Plossis, haveapparentfieldsofviewof45to55
degrees. Wide-angle eyepieces, like Erfles and
Konigs, have 60-to-70-degree fields. Extreme wide-
angle eyepieces, such as Naglers and Meade's Ul-
tra Wide (Nagler-type), have 82-to-84-degree fields.
To find the actual field of view in degrees that an
eyepiece gives on your telescope, divide the appar-
entfield by the eyepiece's magnification. Takingthe
example in the previous paragraph, the 26mm eye-
piece is a Plossl with a 50-degree apparent field.
At 77x, its actual field is about two-thirds of a degree
(50 ^ 77 = 0.65).
Wider fields are general ly preferred for deep-sky
observing because a larger area of the sky can be
viewed. However, because of an aberration in the
M Above: A variety of eye- eyepiece optics called astigmatism, the star images
pieces and other accessories. seen toward the edge of wide-angle-lens fields are
Clockwise from right corner: often distorted. Although wide fields can provide
VA-inch star diagonal and exciting close-up views of the are not moon, they
hybrid star diagonal (0.965-inch needed for planetary observing. Good views of the
to VA-lnch); a Barlow and three planets require freedom from ghost images and in-
eyepieces, all 0.965-inch; 0.965- the difference between type and brand of eyepiece. ternal reflections, often present in multi-element
inch eyepiece solar filter; The types are based on the design and arrangement wide-angle eyepieces.
standard and heavy-duty of the lenses that constitute the eyepiece; those com-
EYE RELIEF
binocular tripod adapters; VA- monly encountered are Kellner, Orthoscopic, Plossl,
inch nebula filter; VA-inch Erfle, Konig and Nagler. Major brands include The distance the eye must be from the eyepiece in
Barlow; dual red-and-white- Meade, Tele Vue, Celestron, University, Orion, order to view the whole field is cal led the eyepiece's
light flashlight; eight VA-inch Parks, Tuthill and others. Manufacturers occasion- eye relief, an amount that depends on the eyepiece
eyepieces; 16mm Nagler; ally refer to eyepieces by their own trade names, design. With all eyepieces, the higher the power,
32mm Erfle for 2-inch focuser. such as Super Wide or Ultrascopic, descriptions relief. Most high-
the shorter (or worse) the eye
Right: A complete set of Tele that leave the prospective buyer wondering what power 4mm-to-6mm eyepieces are difficult to look
Vue Plossl eyepieces from type of eyepieces they really are. We will try to through. For comforfs sake, a longer eye relief is

7.5mm to 40mm focal length. clarify as much as possible. usually desirable, although some 30mm-to-55mm
Although each of these top- eyepieces have an eye relief so large that it is diffi-
EYEPIECE SPECIFICATIONS
quality eyepieces has its use, cult to position the eye for a proper view. Long eye
backyard astronomers should Like any lens or mirror, an eyepiece has a focal relief allows the observer to wear glasses when
avoid the impulse to buy a length specification, usually indicated in millimetres viewing; however, only people with significant
whole set, regardless of the and marked on the top or side of the unit. A long fo- astigmatism need to wear glasses while observing.
brand or type. Three or four cal length (55mm 28mm) provides low power
to A quick refocus corrects for other vision variables.
eyepieces and a good Barlow and a wide field of view. A medium focal length Observers who need their glasses, or prefer to
most observing
will satisfy (26mm to 13mm) offers medium power and a keep them on, should select eyepieces with at least
requirements for years. medium-sized field. A short focal length (1 2mm to 1 5mm of eye relief, which will permit all or most of

68
 Widest field possible
with 2-inch focuser using
any 40mm wide-field design
with 65° to 70° apparent field
-0.37°

9mm Nagler82°
8.8mm Ultra Wide 84°
15mm PlossI 50°
17mm Orthoscopic 45'

.20mm Nagler82'
(2-inch focuser)
13mm Nagler82°
-21mm PlossI 50°
25mm Kellner 40'

Widest field possible

with IVi-inch focuser
40mm PlossI 40°
32mm PlossI 50°
40mmKellner40°

the apparent field to be seen. The glasses may oc- adds approximately 50 percent to the magnification
casionally lightly touch the eyepiece housing; such factor with a refractor. A 1 .8x Barlow becomes a
contact unavoidable in the dark and works as
is 2.7x, a 3x becomes a 4.5x, and so on, an arrange-
an aid to gauging proper eye position. ment that is very effective with refractors in the
Eyepieces in the 1 5mm-to-20mm eye-relief range 500mm-to-1, 200mm focal-length range. For exam-
that work well both with and without glasses in- ple, a 1 ,000mm focal-length refractor can be used
clude most 25mm-to-32mm Plossis, the 21 mm Ed- at 40x, 1 0Ox, 1 20x, 1 50x and 1 80x with one 25mm

mund RKE, Tele Vue's 40mm Wide-Field and eyepiece and a 2.5x and 3x Barlow. /4n eyepiece's true field of
22mm and 35mm Panoptics and Meade's 40mm An eye relief greater than 20mm is too large for view depends on its magni-
and 24.5mm Super Wide. For higher power, try the people who do not wear glasses, as they must con- fication with a particular
21mm RKE or a 25mm PlossI and a 2.5x or 3x stantly manoeuvre into the position that offers the telescope and on its apparent
Barlow for the equivalent of 7mm-to-1 1 mm eye- eyepiece's full apparent field of view, about an inch field of view. Examples of
pieces. Eye relief is increased with a Barlow lens that from the eye lens. More than 20mm eye relief is several eyepieces true fields
'

amplifies the magnification by 1 .8x to 3x, making found in the 28mm RKE, most Orthoscopies larger are compared with the moon's
many eyepieces more comfortable for use with than 24mm, Kellners of more than 30mm and diameter (about half a degree)
glasses. One veteran observer who must use glasses Plossis greater than 35mm. However, the distance as seen through a telescope of
at the eyepiece employs a 26mm PlossI and one of is measured from the eyepiece's lens surface and 2,000mm focal length. Note
three Barlows (1.8x, 2.5x and 3x) with an 8-inch can be reduced by extending the eyepiece housing that with eyepieces of the
Schmidt-Cassegrain (2,000mm focal length) to or by adding a rubber eyecup. The latter solution is same focal length, the wider
achieve 17x, 1 92x and 230x.
38x, 1 applied to Tele Vue and Meade eyepieces, the the apparent field, the wider
Placing a Barlow ahead of a 1 Vi-inch diagonal Vixen LV series and Edmund's 28mm RKE. the true field.

69
 Top left: Telescope eye-
pieces are available in three
standard sizes rated by the
diameter of the part that fits in
the telescope focuser: 2-inch,
1V4-inch and 0.965-inch. The
0. 965-inch size should be
avoided because of the limited
selection and availability of
good-quality eyepieces.
Bottom left: A star diagonal
in either a VA-inch or 2-inch
format is a mandatory acces-
sory for refractors and catadi- Eye-relief information is seldom supplied by the The hybrid star diagonal method will not work for
optrics. On some telescopes, manufacturer, but should be, because it is an im-
it a Newtonian with a 0.965-inch focuser. Also, an
the focuser will accept only the portant viewer-comfort index. In general, eyepieces adapter tube may not be effective, since the eye-
VA-inch format. numerous
In of all types in the 12mm-to-26mm focal-length piece will be so far removed from the tube that it will
tests, the authors found that a range have excellent eye relief, in shorter focal not focus. Instead, the whole eyepiece holder and
VA-inch prism diagonal is just lengths, the Tele Vue 9mm Nagler and the Meade focuser on the side of the tube must be replaced with
as good optically as a 2-inch 8.8mm Ultra Wide have superb eye relief that one that accepts 1 '/4-inch eyepieces. Check with lo-

mirror diagonal. The advantage no other designs can match. cal telescope dealers for the appropriate adapters
of the 2-inch is the potential of and advice, or preferably, avoid buying an instru-
a wider field of view.
THREE BARREL DIAMETERS
ment with a 0.965-inch eyepiece in the first place,
M Right: Two formats, 1A-inch The lenses that constitute an eyepiece are mounted since it is definitely a liability.
and 2-inch, for eyepieces with in a barrel which slips into the focuser or into the star The other barrel diameter that is becoming stan-
the same 40mm focal length diagonal of the telescope. There are currently three dard is does not replace the 1 '/4-inch size
2 inches. It

are shown in side view, top, standard eyepiece barrel diameters: 0.965 inch, 1 !4 because both can still be used. Two-inch eyepieces
and from below, bottom. inch and 2 inch. The 1 y4-inchsizeisbyfarthemost offer extremely wide fields and low power. Many
These two eyepieces are common. All American-made telescopes, as well as top-of-the-line telescopes are routinely equipped
designed to give the widest an increasing number of imported models, have with focusers for 2-inch eyepieces.
field of view possible in each standard 1 %-inch focusers and eyepieces. Low-cost
format. The limiting factor is Japanese-import telescopes use the 0.965-inch stan-
EYEPIECE COATINGS
not the eyepiece focal length dard. The selection and quality of eyepieces avail- Like camera lenses, all modern eyepiece lenses are
but the size of the tube wall able in this smaller diameter are very poor. Anyone coated to improve light transmission and to reduce
where the light from the with such a telescope should consider switching to flare and ghost images. The minimum coating is a
telescope enters the eyepiece. the larger 1 V4-inch standard. For a refractor, this can single layer ofmagnesium fluoride that is applied
The 40mm eyepiece in the be done in A step-up adapter tube that ac-
two ways. to the eyepiece's two air-to-glass surfaces, giving
2-inch format offers a field of cepts 1 eyepieces can be inserted into the
'/4-inch them a bluish tint. Top-quality eyepieces are now
view (both apparent and true) eyepiece holder, or attach a hybrid star diagonal multicoated, a complex process in which several
1.6 times wider than the 40mm prism that fits a 0.965-inch eyepiece holder at one layers of coating material are applied to the lenses
lA-inch version. end and accepts a 1 y4-inch eyepiece at the other. to improve light transmission and contrast still fur-

70
ther. Multicoated lenses, critical for eyepieces with recommend the RKE line for its combination of
five or more elements, appear greenish, although quality and low price ($45).
some have a purple hue. Each air-to-glass surface n Orthoscopic ($40 to $1 00)
should be treated. Check the advertisement to see In 1880, Ernst Abbe, a Zeiss optical designer, in-

whether multicoating is specified. If it is not, ask vented a four-element eyepiece with a 45-degree
the dealer or distributor. apparent field and less chromatic aberration and
ghost imaging than a Kellner. The Orthoscopic is
MECHANICAL FEATURES still considered by many amateur astronomers to be

Eyepiece barrels should be internally threaded for the best eyepiece for planetary observing. Most
filters. Most 1 14- and 2-inch eyepieces have a stan- manufacturers carry a line of Orthoscopies.
dard thread that allows many kinds of filters to be D PlossI ($50 to $100)
screwed into the barrel. A few older eyepiece This design has been around for decades and is now
brands still secondhand have no threads.
available enjoying a resurgence as the result of intensive ad-
Vernonscope uses a nonstandard thread on its Bran- vertising by several manufacturers stressing the ad-
don eyepieces; they are good eyepieces and have vantages of the PlossI. A true PlossI is a four-element
an extensive line of custom filters, but Brandons design consisting of two nearly identical pairs of
cannot be used with any standard-thread filters. lenses (the internal lens elements are slightly altered)
Some eyepiece brands are parfocal, which means and is sometimes called a Symmetrical. The PlossI
that every eyepiece in the series focuses at the same has a slightly wider field than the Orthoscopic,
point. Switching eyepieces does not require re- about 50 degrees, and a shorter eye relief. The best
focusing. The feature is handy but not essential. are excellent for all observing tasks, particularly
Most eyepiece manufacturers use chrome-plated planetary viewing, although eye relief is poor in
aluminum for the barrel material. Some eyepieces 10mm and shorter versions. Some manufacturers
have chrome-plated brass barrels, making them feel are marketing eyepieces called five-element Plossls
more solid but providing no major advantage over (such as the Meade Super PlossI), which are closer
aluminum. Ideally, the inside fittings should be in optical configuration to Erfles but which perform

black-anodized as a precaution against lens flares much like the traditional Plossls. The PlossI design
from bright objects outside the field. produces superb results in focal lengths between
A few eyepieces have rubber eyecups, which are 30mm and 15mm with perfecteye relief and aber-
good for blocking stray light and for keeping the eye rations at a minimum.
centred properly. In addition, all eyepieces should nErfle($45 to $160)
come with dust caps for both ends. Invented during World War II, the Erfle is a five-
element wide-angle design with 60 degrees of ap-
BASIC EYEPIECE DESIGNS
parent field. Common in longer focal lengths, it is

An eyepiece design combina-

utilizes a particular an excellent low-power, deep-sky eyepiece. Ghost
The design deter-
tion of lenses of a specific shape. images from internal reflections make most models
mines the field of view and eye relief. With a few unsuitable for critical planetary observing. All vari-
exceptions, manufacturers do not have exclusive li- ations on the design suffer more from astigmatism
cence to a design (for example, PlossI eyepieces are (the aberration that makes stars near the edge of the
sold by several manufacturers). Most eyepiece de- field look like lines or arcs) than do other types.
signs are named for the 1 9th- or early-20th-century Some manufacturers have introduced upgraded
optical experts who invented them. variations on the original design, generally called
DKellner ($30 to $55) Wide-Fields.
This has been the workhorse eyepiece design for DNagler ($160 to $350)
decades. The eyepiece that comes as standard This is an amazing eyepiece design that boasts an
equipment on most telescopes is a Kel Iner or a vari- enormous 82-degree field of view. Unlike in wide-
ation of one. It is an economical three-element type angle designs such as the Erfle, the star images in
that produces average images in a fairly narrow field Naglers are nearly pinpoint at the extreme edge of
of view by today's standards— typically, 40 degrees. the field. Once you have looked through a Nagler,
It works best on long-focal-length (f/10 or longer) you will not want anything else, which is unfor-
telescopes and suffers from some chromatic aber- tunate because these eyepieces are very expensive.
ration. Meade has a variation called the Modified D Designs to Avoid
Achromat, or MA. Edmund Scientific has a version Older amateur-astronomy handbooks regale the
called the RKE, in which the lens elements are reader with references to many other eyepiece vari-
reversed from the standard arrangement, giving it ations. Some, such as the Hastings, Monocentric
a wider 45-degree field. The RKE is not a true Kell- and Tolles, are praised by planetary observers but
ner but is an improvement on the old design. We are so rare that few amateurs will ever encounter

71
 I TELESCOPE EYEPIECES I

Type Remarks Optical Arrangement

Huygenian A centuries-old design with no

redeeming features. Often
supplied with so-called
beginnei's telescopes sold in
cannera and department stores.

Ramsden Another primitive design of

little value. A third lens element
is added in a design called
Achromatic Ramsden, which is

somewhat better.

Kellner An inexpensive basic eyepiece

that works well with f/10 or
slower telescopes. Edmund RKE
eyepiece is an improvement on
the Kellner design.

PIbssI The most popular modern

eyepiece design. Excellent
performance, especially in focal

lengths from 1 5mm to 30mm.

Erfle ueveloped during World War II

to give a wider field of view

than other eyepieces, it later

became popular among

amateur astronomers.

Orthoscopic Once regarded as the best

eyepiece available, the
Orthoscopic is an optically
excellent design but has a
narrower field than other
modern designs.

Modern Wide-Field A modern upgrade of the Erfle

design that has less edge-of-

fieid aberrations; excellent low-

power eyepiece.

Nagler Introduced in the 1980s, this

design offers a wider field of

view than all other types with

excellent suppression of
aberrations; Meade Ultra Wide
is very similar in design and
performance.

72
them. Others, like the Huygenian and Ramsden, are
so poor, they deserve mention so that they can be
avoided.
The Huygenian is familiar to many novices be-
cause it is the type fitted to department-store refrac-
torsand small reflectors. Marked with an "H," it is
a two-element design and one of the first to be in-
vented in the 17th century. Its poor performance
(plus the inferior lenses) makes it one of the worst
drawbacks of imported beginner's telescopes. Re-
place it with a set of 0.965-inch Kellners or Or-
thoscopies at the very least, and use the Huygenians
for dust caps or for solar projection.
The Ramsden is another primitive two-element Another eyepiece design si m i lar to the Tele Vue
design of little value. A variation adds a third ele- Wide-Field and the Meade Super Wide is the Uni-
ment to produce an Achromatic Ramsden. These versity Optics Konig— from $75 to $235. (Konig is
are purported to be the same design as Kel ner eye-
I a design, not a brand.) The eyepiece is available
pieces (a an improved Ramsden), but for
Kel ner I is in 40mm, 32mm, 24mm, 1 6mm, 2mm and 8mm 1

a decent, inexpensive eyepiece, stick with name- focal lengths. The 40mm has a 2-inch barrel, the
brand Kellners and the Edmund RKE line. 32mm either a 2-inch or a 1 14-inch barrel. In the
nZoom Eyepieces 1 970s, these eyepieces were considered to be the
Why buy three or four eyepieces if one zoom eye- best. Today, they represent outstanding value.
piece will do it all? That is the temptation. Unfor- The 1 6mm, 32mm and a new seven-element ver-
tunately, even the most costly zoom eyepiece will sion of the 40mm are stellar performers.
not replace a good set of individual eyepieces. In The 40mm Tele Vue Wide-Field, Meade Super
ourtests, no zoom eyepiece could match the qual- Wide and University Optics Konig all offer the max-
ity of a fixed-focal-length eyepiece, and all are imum possible field of view for the 2-inch format.
haunted with ghost images. Advertising claims to the contrary, eyepieces with
D War-Surplus Eyepieces greater focal length do not provide wider fields of
Some discount houses sell Erfle eyepieces that have view than these three 40mm designs. An eyepiece's
been salvaged from military equipment. They can field of view is determined by the aperture that

also be picked up at swap meets and conventions receives the telescope light cone, not by the focal
for very low prices. Their major disadvantage is that length. If the field aperture is as wide as the inside
they do not have standard barrel sizes and will need of the 2-inch barrel, as it is with these 40mm eye-
to be custom-machined. Often, the coatings are pieces, the apparent field will be maximum as well.
pooror nonexistent. Another problem is that some
NAGLER-TYPE EYEPIECES
of the old coatings are mildly radioactive. Left: A 2-inch focuser accom-
Al Nagler of Tele Vue caused a sensation when he modates a 2-inch diagonal that
MODERN WIDE-FIELD DESIGNS
introduced the 13mm Nagler in 1982. The eye- in turn can hold either a VA-
In yet another innovation during the 1980s, Tele pieces were an instant hit despite costing two to four inch eyepiece (shown here) or
Vue introduced its Wide-Field line in 40mm, times as much as high-quality traditional eyepieces a 2-inch eyepiece. This is the
32mm, 24mm, 19mm and 15mm focal lengths ofsimilarfocal length. The Naglers' success can be most versatile combination.
(from $1 35 to $300). The six-element design of the attributed to two important innovations: an ex- Above: The colossal Nagler
eyepieces bears a family resemblance to the Erfle. tremely wide apparent field of 82 degrees with out- 20mm, the world's most
Both Erfles and Tele Vue Wide-Fields have 65- standing sharpness and exceptionally comfortable massive eyepiece, is a wonder-
degree apparent fields, but the Tele Vue design eye relief for eyepieces of very short focal length. ful performer, but its weight
produces less ghosting and better imagery across What Nagler did to produce his revolutionary de- can unbalance some telescope
the entire field. sign was to take an exotic, extremely wide-angle tubes. It is compared here with
After Tele Vue's success with its Wide-Field, eyepiece design and place a Barlow lens in front of a typical 1 'A -inch eyepiece.
Meade came out with the Super Wide and tried to it, something that is more difficult than it sounds. Almost all of the eyepieces
outmanoeuvre Tele Vue by claiming a 67-degree Anybody can combine a 2x Barlow with a 6mm 1 sold on today's market, even
apparent field. We have tested both brands and find eyepiece to get an 8mm eyepiece with comfortable the most expensive, are made
virtually no difference between them in any cate- eye relief, but the result is not a Nagler. He designed in Japan or Taiwan. Eyepieces
gory, except that some of the Meade eyepieces, his melding of eyepiece and Barlow to operate as may be designed in the United
especially the 40mm, are a bit lighter. Focal lengths a single unit; that is, the aberrations of one cancel States, but they are manu-
still

offered by Meade are 40mm, 32mm, 24.5mm, out the aberrations of the other, producing exqui- factured offshore, sometimes
18mm and 13.8mm (from $120 to $300). sitely sharp images edge to edge over an un- to outstanding levels of quality.

73
 The kidney-bean aberration is not apparent in other
Naglers. In 1 987,.Tele Vue brought out a series of
eight-element Type 2 Naglers that eliminate the
kidney-bean effect, making it possible to use them
in the daytime. However, Nagler 2s (available in

20mm, 16mm and 12mm focal lengths) have less

eye relief than the original Nagler series (13mm,
1 1 mm, 9mm, 7mm and 4.8mm focal lengths).
Although Nagler 2s are relatively comfortable to
use, they do not match the superb characteristics of
the original 9mm, 1 1 mm (discontinued) and 1 3mm
Naglers or the Meade 8.8mm and 14mm Ultra
Wides. Experienced observers will notice that
Nagler 2s are not as sharp at the edge of the field
as the original Naglers. The 20mm Nagler 2 has two
distinctions that may deter backyard astronomers:
it is the heaviest (two pounds) and the most expen-
sive ($350) commercially available eyepiece ever
produced. (Referringto its mass, one observer calls
it "the grenade.") However, in its focal length, it

is in a class by itself.

THE WORLD OF 2-INCH EYEPIECES

To achieve both long focal length and wide field in

an eyepiece, the barrel diameter must be expanded,

hence the 2-inch eyepiece. The jumbo size is gener-
ally reserved for 32mm-to-55mm eyepieces, al-

though a few premium types, like Naglers, also use

2-inch barrels for shorter focal lengths. For example,
precedentedly wide field of view. Nagler's back- a 2-inch eyepiece, such as a 55mm PlossI or a
ground of optical-systems design for visual flight 40mm Wide-Field, on an 8-inch Schmidt-Casse-
The authors consider a high- simulators and his interest in amateur astronomy grain would yield an actual field of view of slightly
quality Barlow a top-priority created the perfect match for this breakthrough. less than 1 .4 degrees. With 1 !4-inch eyepieces, the
accessory for any backyard (Although the Nagler is a specific eyepiece design, widest would be about 0.8 degree.
field possible
astronomer's telescope. A the name is used exclusively by Tele Vue.) When buying a telescope, if you have the option
Barlow is simply a concave Other manufacturers were as impressed as the of equipping it with a 2-inch focuser, do so. To move
bottom of a tube.
lens at the amateur astronomers using Nagler's new oculars. By up to the 2-inch world on your present instrument,
Depending on its specifica- 1985, Meade had introduced its competitive line, you must replace the focuser. This is difficult to do
tions, the Barlow amplifies the the eight-element Ultra Wide series in 14mm, with most refractors, and it can be a chore with
magnification of an eyepiece 8.8mm, 6.7mm and 4.7mm sizes. With equally Newtonian reflectors, but it is easy with Schmidt-
two to three times. The high price tags, they are virtual clones of the Tele Cassegrains. A Schmidt-Cassegrain needs only a 2-
eyepiece fits in the top of Vue Naglers. Performancecharacteristicsof the Ul- inch star diagonal equipped with a lock ring that
the Barlow, and the combi- tra Wides and the Naglers are very similar. The screws onto the back of the instrument in place of
nation then slips into the Meades generally have slightly less eye relief but are the standard 1 These accesso-
!4-inch visual back.
telescope's 1%-inch foe user. lighter because they have aluminum barrels rather ries are manufactured by both Meade and Celes-
Many amateur astronomers are than brass. Meade advertises an 84-degree appar- tron, and they are also avai lable from suppi iers such
unaware that two Barlows can ent field, compared with the Nagler^s 82-degree as University Optics. A 1 '/i-inch adapter allows
be stacked for higher-power field, but such small differences are meaningless in additional use of smaller eyepieces.
applications if no other arrange- practical observing situations. The disadvantage of A 2-inch focuser for a Newtonian reflector can
ment can achieve the desired this class of eyepiece, besides price, is the weight. be purchased from Meade and from many spe-
magnification. Also little At about 1 Vi pounds each, the 1 3mm Nagler and cialty suppliers of Newtonian telescope parts (Ken-
known is the fact that a Barlow the 14mm Ultra Wide are heavy. neth F. Novak, for example, offers a variety of
positioned at the forward end The original 1 3mm Nagler also has an unusual focusers). Since most 2-inch eyepieces are fairly
of a star diagonal, rather than idiosyncrasy called the "kidney-bean effect." If the long, they need to be racked out farther to reach
the eyepiece end, will yield eye is not properly centred over the eyepiece and focus. To accommodate this, many 2-inch focusers
approximately 50 percent more if the sky is not dark, an elliptical shadow appears are tall, often too tall for 1 !4-inch eyepieces to rack
magnification. at the edge of the field and moves as the eye moves. in far enough to focus. Because every Newtonian

74
 I EYEPIECES: A Summary Comparison
Apparent
Type Field Advantages Disadvantages Price

Kellner 35° to 45' Low cost. Good for long- Narrow field. Chromatic $30 to $55
focal-length telescopes. aberration.
Orthoscopic 40° to 50° Good eye relief. Free of Narrow field for deep-sky $40 to $100
most aberrations. viewing.
PlossP 45° to 55° Excellent contrast and Less eye relief and more $60 to $150
sharpness. Best Plossis costly than Orthoscopies.
are better-made than Slight astigmatism at

most Orthoscopies, with edge of field.

wider field.

Erfle& 60° to 70° Wide field of view. Ghost images in less $50 to $300
Konig^ expensive models.
Astigmatism at edge of
field in all models.
Panoptic 68° Excellent edge sharpness Very expensive. *" $275 to $350
Nagler^ 82° to 84° Extreme field of view Very expensive. Some $160 to $350 In 1991, Tele Vue introduced
with minor edge models are heavy and the Panoptic eyepiece, an
aberrations. very large. important new development in
backyard-astronomy optics.
Available in 35mm and 22mm
'Also Meade's Super Plossis, Orion's Ultrascopics and Celestron's Ultima. focal lengths, the Panoptic is a
^Also Tele Vue's Wide-Fields, Meade's Super Wide and Orion's MegaVista. low-power, wide-field design
^Also Meade's Ultra Wide. —the best yet, in our opinion.
The 35mm ($350) is for 2-inch
focusers; the 22mm ($275)
works with either 2-inch or
is different, it is difficult to recommend any one The advantage of Barlows is that they produce VA-inch; apparent field of both
model of focuser. high power with longer-focal-length eyepieces, is 68 degrees. What distin-
Incidentally, the focus poinfs distance from the which are easier to look through because they pro- guishes the Panoptic is Its

side of the tube of a Newtonian can be measured. vide better eye relief compared with eye-straining superior correction of aberra-
Aim the telescope at the moon, remove the eye- 6mm or 4mm eyepieces. For owners of fast tele- tions over the entire field.
piece, and hold a white card up to the focuser. scopes such as f/4and f/5 reflectors. Barlows are the Seagull- and comet-shaped
When a sharp image of the moon is projected onto only way to achieve high powers. Their disadvan- stars seenat the periphery
the card, the card is at the focus point. Now, figure tage is more optics into the light path
that they put of all other eyepieces over
out whether an eyepiece in the new focuser would and potentially more aberrations and ghost images. 20mm focal length are greatly
be significantly closer from the mea-
to or farther Some people swear by them; purists swear at them. reduced. Tele Vue also offers a
sured focus point. When an eyepiece is in focus, Our tests show that the best multicoated Barlows in- special lens to permit use of
its "field stop" aligns with the focus point. On Or- troduce no detectable aberrations. the Panoptics with Tele Vue's
thoscopies, Plossis and Erfles, the field stop is the Barlows have a wide price range. The most inex- 2-inch Barlow. We do not
metal ring just inside the bottom of the eyepiece pensive are better doorstops than they are lenses. recommend this. There is no
in front of the first lens. On Naglers, the field stop The Barlows included with the less expensive im- need for all this extra glass. For
is inside the first lens near the bottom. port telescopes fall into this category. We recom- equivalent performance at
mend Meade, Tele
the top-end Barlows offered by higher power, use a shorter-
BARLOW LENS
Vue, Celestron, Edmund and Vernonscope, which focal-length highly corrected
Barlow lenses are "negative" lenses that increase the all sell for $75 to $100. Avoid those with variable eyepiece, such as a Nagler or
effective focal length of a telescope and double or magnification, which is accomplished by a lens that Meade Ultra Wide. But before
triple the power of any eyepiece. (Meade Instru- slides up and down the barrel; all Barlow lenses are you spend hundreds of dollars
ments calls Barlows Telenegative Amplifiers.) They designed to work best at one specific amplification. on any eyepiece, remember
are available in 1 .8x, 2x, 2.5x, 2.8x or 3x magnifi- In the past few years, some manufacturers have that the more economical
cations.Combined with a 2x Barlow, a 20mm eye- introduced 2-inch Barlows that double the power Plossis, Orthoscopies, RKEs
piece effectively becomes a 10mm one. Barlows of 2-inch eyepieces, such as a 40mm Wide-Field or and others are just as sharp at
can double your eyepiece set if you plan carefully a 55mm However, since 2-inch eyepieces
Plossl. the centre of the field as the
to avoid duplication of powers. are designed to yield low power, they are the ones more exotic designs.

75
 to design an eyepiece to suppress aberrations. Atf/4,
it is impossible. Even at f/5, the best eyepieces still

display astigmatism in the field's periphery. It is here

that a good Barlow can improve eyepiece perfor-
mance. The negative lens increases the effective fo-
cal ratio by reducing the steepness of the light cone
entering the eyepiece. A
2x Barlow reduces the
cone's angle by f/5 telescope becomes,
half, so an
in effect, an f/1 0— a situation in which any eyepiece

would show much improved performance.

RECOMMENDED EYEPIECE SETS

Eyepieces are easy to collect. Once you buy one of
a series, you may want to own the whole set. In
truth, five, six or seven eyepieces are not needed.
A set of four will do well, as will two or three to be-
you are least likelytowanttoamplify. Giant Barlows gin with. Brand loyalties sell a lot of eyepieces, but
are thus of limited visual utility, although they are good eyepieces, no matter who makes them, will
excellent photographic accessories. enhance the performance of any telescope. Here
are a few recommendations.
EYEPIECE AND For telescopes that accept only T4-inch eye-
BARLOW PERFORMANCE pieces, the ideal low-power eyepiece
1

is a 30mm-
The purpose of a telescope is to collect light from to-35mm PlossI. Maximum possible field of view
Far right: Schmidt-Cas- a celestial object and bring it into focus at the eye- (for a 1 14-inch system) combined with excellent
segrains can be equipped with piece or camera lens, depending on the application. performance make this eyepiece a standout. Our
IH-inch visual backs, shown In effect, the parallel rays from the celestial source second choice is the 28mm Edmund RKE or a
A VA-inch
here, or 2-inch. are forced into a converging cone by the main lens 25mm PlossI or Orthoscopic.
system and eyepieces are or mirror of the telescope. The greater the focal ra- For the lowest-power eyepiece on a 2-inch sys-
less costly. tio, the longer and skinnier the cone. An f/1 5 system tem, we like the Meade 40mm Super Wide or the
Top and bottom: The 9mm has a long, narrow cone; the rays at the edge are an- University Optics 40mm seven-element Konig. a If

Nagler, one of the finest and gled two degrees from those at the centre. In an f/1 40mm eyepiece yields more than a 7mm exit pu-
most versatile eyepieces you system, the edge rays are angled three degrees from pil on your telescope, then opt for a 32mm such as

can own, can be used in either the central rays, and in an f/5 system, they are an- the University Konig or the Tele Vue Wide-Field.
1%- or 2-inch-format diagonals gled six degrees. It is much easier for an eyepiece In the lower mid-power range (1 5mm to 22mm),
and focusers. A nearly identical to accommodate rays at a two- or three-degree an- one of our favourites is the outstanding Meade
eyepiece of equivalent quality gle from the central axis than at a six-degree angle. 18mm Super Wide. Alternatively, at least five
is the Meade 8.8mm Ultra Try a typical eyepiece, say, a 26mm PlossI, on an manufacturers offer 15mm-to-22mm Plossls, any
Wide. These eyepieces offer f/1 5 refractor. The star field is perfectly sharp from one of which makes an excellent addition to an
sharp imagery over an incred- edge to edge. Now, use the same eyepiece on an eyepiece collection. Eyepieces in this class are the
iblywide field with excellent f/5 telescope (regardless of the type); the stars toward ones most often used with a Barlow.
eye relief, far superior to any the edge of the field are no longer perfect pi npoi nts (7mm to 4mm),
For the upper mid-power range 1

other design in a comparable but resemble sea gulls or arcs, depending on the in- theMeade 14mm,8.8mmand6.7mm Ultra Wides
focal length. Of course, all this herent aberrations of the telescope and/or eyepiece. and the Tele Vue 3mm, 9mm and 7mm Naglers
1

comes at a price— about $200. The steeper the light cone, the more difficult it is are highly rated and outclass the competition — but

76
at a price. At $200 to $300 each, they are more than optics. A Nagler eyepiece on a conventional fast

double the cost of less exotic glass in the 7mm-to- Newtonian still shows some edge-of-field aberra-
1 2mm range. Observers on a more constrained bud- tions that make stars resemble tiny comets, the re-
get could select the Edmund 12mm RKE, Celestron's sult of coma inherent in the parabolic primary mir-
12.5mm Ultima (PlossI variation), Tele Vue's 13mm ror itself. Therefore, the next logical step is to
or10.7mm PlossI or Meade's 12.4mm or 9.7mm optimize the eyepiece design to cancel out the flaws
than $85. Another entry in this cat-
PlossI. All are less of the main optics, producing an entire telescope
egory Orion Telescope Center's 1 0.5mm Mega-
is system that is aberration-free. This means a very
Vista ($1 10), a good eye-relief wide-angle design. specialized product "tuned" to a certain telescope
For high power, we always use a good Barlow type and focal ratio. Enter the "coma killers."

rather than a 4mm-to-6mm eyepiece. Eye relief is The Pretoria is such an eyepiece. It cancels out the
much better, and performance is not compromised. coma in f/4 to f/5 Newtonians but is not for use on
Three thoughtful ly selected eyepieces and a Barlow other types of telescopes. The stars are clean nearly
make a versati le col lection that wi offer a magnifi- 1 1 edge of its 50-degree apparent field. A 28mm
to the
cation for every observing situation. model is marketed by University Optics.
Whether your telescope is small or large, refrac- A coma<orrector lens can be inserted into the op-
tor, Newtonian or Schmidt-Cassegrain, these rec- tical path of a Newtonian in the manner of a Barlow,
ommendations are valid. The only guidelines are allowing for the addition of any eyepiece. Intended
the natural limitations of optics which confine the for photography, such devices can be used for vi-

choice to eyepieces that yield a power more than sual astronomy, although only at low power on f/4
four times the telescope's aperture in inches (to keep to f/5 Newtonians. At more than $250, however, a
the exit pupil below 7mm) or less than 60 times the coma corrector is a costly way to eliminate off-axis
aperture (the maximum useful power). In practice, aberrations. Because a corrector must be designed
the most-used eyepieces are in the magnification for a specific Newtonian-eyepiece combination,
range of 7 to 25 times the aperture. there is no guarantee that it will work at its best on
your telescope with your eyepieces. Coma correc-
COMA CORRECTORS tors are offered by Celestron, Lumicon and Tele Vue
While aberrations can be reduced to near zero in (Paracorr). Although these products work, their
modern eyepieces, they are still present in the main main application is in astrophotography.

FILTERS
The best accessory for a telescope s a set of fi rst-class
i panied by ambient light from sky glow and light
eyepieces. The best accessory for the eyepieces is pollution. Deep-sky filters block the unwanted
a set of good filters. The difference they make is wavelengths and admit those from deep-sky ob-
sometimes dramatic but more often subtle, requir- jects, improving the contrast between the "signal"
ing a trained eye to appreciate. (the target object) and the "noise" (the background).
There are three types of filters for amateur as-
FILTER FEATURES
tronomy: solar, planetary and lunar, and deep-sky.
Each is very different in construction, but each has Most fi Iters are mounted in eel Is that screw into the
the same purpose: to reduce the amount of light base of eyepiece barrels. They are available for
reaching the eye. Considering that the goal of every 0.965-, 1 !4- and 2-inch eyepieces. Some filter
telescope owner seems
to be to increase light- models are mounted in cells that allow them to be
gathering power, this may sound strange. inserted into camera adapters, and some are made
It is easy to understand why a filter is required for to be screwed onto the front of camera lenses. All
observing the sun, and because solar filters are in- name-brand filters consist of optical glass with plane-
tegral to that task, they are dealt with separately in parallel surfaces. Unlike photographic applications,
Chapter 9. But the planets? In larger telescopes, there are no gelatin filters for astronomy. Many cur-
planets such as Venus, Jupiter and Mars can some- rent types also have the same anti reflection coatings
times be too bright; a filter cuts down glare without that lenses have. With the exception of the Vernon-
decreasing resolution. A
can also highlight
filter scope Brandon models, all eyepieces use a standard
planetary features by improving the contrast be- thread, so any brand of filter may be used on
filter

tween regions of different colours. any eyepiece. The Brandon eyepieces, however, re-
On the other hand, for deep-sky observing, the quire either Vernonscope or Questar filters. Some
motto is: "Let there be light!" So how does a filter have threads on both sides, allowing them to
filters

help? Light from deef>sky objects is usual ly accom- be "stacked," although combining two filters usually

77
 does not produce a more beneficial colour than that
achieved with a single filter.

PLANETARY FILTERS
Beginners are attracted to planetary filters because
they are inexpensive (about $1 5 each) and come in
every colour of the rainbow. As with eyepieces, the
temptation is to collect the whole set. You do not
need them all. Planetary filters are labelled with the
same Kodak Wratten numbers used in photog-
raphy. A No. 80A blue filter for planetary observing
is the same colour as the photographer^s No. 80A.

Of all the shades available, the most useful are

No. 1 2 yellow. No. 23A light red. No. 58 green and reddish features such as the Great Red Spot and the
No. 80A blue. These constitute a good basic set for dark cloud bands. Observation of the planet Venus
planetary viewing. A No. 8 light yellow can be sub- can be significantly improved with a blue or violet
stituted for the No. 12, and a No. 21 orange or filter, which reduces its dazzling glare.

No. 25 deep red for the No. 23A. However, be warned: the improvement that
Yellow and red filters increase the contrast be- planetary filters provide is subtle. The contrast be-
tween dark and light areas to reveal surface mark- tween light and dark areas is enhanced only slightly.
ings on Mars. Green and blue filters do the oppo- First, it is necessary to ignore the overall tint the fil-

site; they bring out the Martian clouds and haze ter imparts and to become accustomed toconcen-
layers. For Jupiter, a green or blue filter enhances trating on the planetary shadings. If the Great Red

PLANETARY FILTERS: A Summary Comparison

Wratten No. Colour Object Comments

1A slcyFTghT' - Haze penetration; mostly for photography

8 light yellow moon Cancels blue chromatic aberration from refractors;

reduces glare.
'

11 yellow-green moon Same as No. 8 but deeper colour.

f
^^^^^^^^B
12or15 deep yellow moon Increases con
contrast; reduces glare.

21 orange ^H Mars reddish areas and accentuates dark

Lightens redd fl
markings; penetrates atmosphere.
surface marki ^H
Saturn May be helpful for revealing
helpfi cloud bands. ^^HHIIJ
light red Mars Same as No. 21 but deeper colour.
deep red Mars For surface details; a very dark filter.

Venus Reduces glare; may reveal cloud markings.

magenta Mars Transmits both red and violet; blocks green.
blue-green Mars For clouds and haze layers.
deep violet Venus Reduces glare; may help reveal cloud markings;
very deep colour.
light green Jupiter Accentuates reddish bands and Red Spot.
green Mars Accentuates details around polar caps.
Jupiter Same as No. 56 but deeper colour.
80A

82A
light

very
blu^"

light
^"^

blue
Mars
Jupiter
Mars
Jupiter
Accentuates high clouds, particularly near limb.
Accentuates details
For Martian clouds and hazes.
Similar to No. BOA
in belts and white

but a very light tint.

ovals.
1
salmon Mars Similar to orange filter; for surface details,
96 neutral density moon & Reduces glare without adding colour tint.

Planetary filters are available Venus

for both 0.965-inch and VA -inch polarizer moon Darkens sky background in daytime observations
eyepieces. They are threaded of quarter moon. I
to screw into the base of the
eyepiece.

78
Spot is not visible without a filter, it will not snap
into prominence when one is added.

LUNAR FILTERS
The moon can sometimes be too bright as well. A
yellow or a neutral-density fi Iter ($ 1 5) can cut glare
and ease eyestrain. The green "moon filters" sup-
plied with department-store instruments are all right,

but one rarely has to worry about collecting too

much light in a 60mm refractor. It is in larger tele-

scopes (6-inch and bigger) that lunar brilliance can

be annoying. For refractors, a No. 8 lightyellowor
No. 1 1 yellow-green filter is also helpful in cancel-
ling the chromatic aberration— a bluish fringe most
noticeable on the moon, Jupiter and Venus— pres-
ent in all but the finest models.
Polarizing filtersare useful as simple neutral-
density filters for viewing the moon. Their ability to
block waves that vibrate in a particular direc-
light

tion makes them good for sunglasses but has a

limited benefit in astronomy. Their main application
is to observe the first or last quarter moon in daylight
or twilight. Light is most polarized in the region of

the sky 90 degrees from the sun where the quarter NEBULA EMISSION LINES!
moon is found. With a polarizing filter (make sure
it is rotated for the best effect), the sky background Nebulas are bright in these wavelengths.
can be darkened, and the moon wi be easier to see 1 1

in the daytime. Some manufacturers offer double Emission Colour Wavelength

polarizers containing two filters that can be rotated
separately to create a variable neutral-density fi Iter. Nitrogen-ll
**'-r-^sfga-n
|658nm ^^B
Crossed at right angles, the two filters admit only H-alpha red 656nm
5 percent of the light. The variable density means Oxygen-Ill green 501 nm& H
that the moon can be dimmed to a pleasing level I
496nm ^^|
no matter what its phase. H-beta green- blue 486nm
SKYLIGHT FILTERS FOR
SCHMIDT-CASSEGRAINS
A skylight filter cuts through haze by blocking ultra- nar and planetary fi Iters; prices start at around $60. An array of nebula filters
violet and some blue wavelengths. It has an appli- The high-tech filters capitalize on the fact that neb- from various manufacturers.
cation in astrophotography but not in visual as- wavelengths— unlike
ulas emit light only at specific These filters are available in a
tronomy. Both Meade and Celestron have a skylight stars, which emit across a broad spectrum of VA-inch format for $60 to $100
filter that screws onto the back of their Schmidt- colours. Using multiple-layer interference coatings, or 2-inch sizes for twice as
Cassegrains, where it serves to seal the tube and pre- nebula filters selectively cancel unwanted wave- much. Schmidt-Cassegrain
vent dust from collecting on the main optics. Do not lengths of light, effectively blocking them while owners can obtain filters
bother with this accessory; instead, keep the rear letting through the nebular light. mounted in a cell that screws
end of the telescope capped when not in use. Nebular light results mostly from hydrogen and onto the back of the telescope.
oxygen atoms. Single gases have very well defined Filters can be purchased in
DEEP-SKY OR NEBULA FILTERS
emission lines, as do the gases contained in street- paired sets for use on large
Nebula filters, or light-pollution-reduction (LPR) lights. Mercury-vapour and sodium light, which binoculars. All are designed to
filters,have been called the biggest advance in contribute heavily to the light pollution above and block light except for the
amateur-astronomy equipment in the past two dec- around cities, emit only in the yellow and blue ends wavelengths emitted by atoms
ades. Viewed by early skeptics as gimmicks, the sil- of the spectrum. Since nebulas emit mostly in the in certain types of gaseous
very filters were introduced to backyard astronomy red and green parts of the spectrum, one type of light nebulas. The result for the
in the mid-1 970s and are now considered to be an can be blocked without interrupting the other. That viewer is that the sky back-
essential accessory for the avid deep-sky observer. is what nebula filters do. ground is darkened and the
Much more than pieces of coloured glass, nebula Three kinds of deep-sky objects benefit from the nebula appears enhanced
filters are, consequently, more expensive than lu- use of a nebula filter: diffuse-emission nebulas, in contrast.

79
 Two views of the Orion
Nebula with an 80mm refractor
show the difference between
light-polluted suburban skies
(top)and dark country skies. A
similar enhancement occurs
with the application of a
nebula filter. Although no
more stars are seen with a
nebula filter, the sky back-
ground is darkened, which
effectively enhances the planetary' nebulas and supernova remnants. All emit even at the best sites, there is always some sky glow
nebula's detail. The nebula their own type of light. Some nebulas (those seen caused by ever present but very weak auroral and
itself does not become as blue in long-exposure photographs) shine only air-glow activity that the filter can attack.
brighter, but it appears that by reflected starlight and do not benefit from neb-
way to the observer. Nebula
TYPES OF NEBULA FILTERS
ula filters. Nor do nebula filters help when viewing
filters are effective in both galaxies or star clusters. Filters will just make these Nebula filters differ in the wavelengths they trans-
light-polluted city skies objects and the sky dimmer. mit. Some types let through a broad band of light in
and dark rural sites. (Orion Nebula filters transform a poor, light-polluted sky the all-important green portion of the spectrum. (The
Nebula's orientation here is into amoderately good location (at least for observ- human eye is most sensitive to green, and the ma-
different from that seen in ing emission nebulas) and a good observing loca- jority of nebulas have very strong green emission
photographs because a star tion intoagreatone. Contrary to popular belief, the lines.) Another variety has a much narrower band-
diagonal was used.) Illustra- filters are not just for city dwellers. In fact, their pass that blocks unwanted light more effectively at
tions by John Bianchi. effect is most dramatic under dark skies, because the cost of making some objects appear dimmer.

80
 '

There are also filters that use bandpasses adjusted

specifically for certain objects.
Lumicon manufactures the most extensive line of
its products have become a stan-
nebula filters, and
dard by which others are measured. Competitive
models from Celestron, Meade and Parks have
bandpasses whose width falls somewhere between
Lumicon's broadband Deep-Sky filter and its nar-
rowband UHC filter. On the other hand, Orion's
broadband SkyGlow filter is a mild filter similar to
Lumicon's Deep-Sky, while Orion's UltraBlock fil-

teris nearly identical to Lumicon's UHC.

Although some manufacturers emphasize how

much light their filters transmit at the desired
wavelengths, the critical specification is the band-
pass.A narrow bandpass will provide higher con-
trastbetween nebula and sky, producing a more
dramatic improvement than broadband filters.

NEBULA FILTERS: A Summary Comparison

Nebula filters have become virtually essential also have a major transmission area in the red portion
equipment for backyard astronomy because they of the spectrum (around the H-alpha emission line at
improve the view of some of the best deep-sky objects 656nm). Their main difference is their transmission of

regardless of light-pollution conditions. All these filters wavelengths in the green band (around 500nm).

Type Bandpass* Comments

"broadband 90nm: 442nm to 532nm Widest bandwidth and orightest image but least amourit
of blocking of light pollution. Good for photography.
Can be used to some degree on non-nebula deep-sky
objects. Examples: Lumicon Deep-Sky and Orion
SkyGlow. Good for slow- focal-ratio telescopes. j
narrowband 24nm: 482nm to 506nm Narrow bandpass in green visual spectrum. Darkens sky
more dramatic contrast between sky and
further with
nebula. Formore limited range of objects than
broadband filter, but a good general-purpose filter for
emission nebulas. Suitable for urban locations.
Examples: Lumicon LJHC and Orion UltraBlock; many
filters sold by other manufacturers are similar in

transmission characteristics.
1 1 nm including 496nm A line filter: very narrow bandpass centred on green
& 501 nm doubly ionized oxygen emission lines. Highest contrast
and maximum blocking of light pollution. Good for

planetary nebulas and supernova remnants. Best on fast^

focal-ratio telescopes. Sold exclusively by Lumicon.|

H-beta 9nm centred on 486nm A line filter: very narrow bandpass centred on blue-
green H-beta emission line. Useful for some nebulas
like Horsehead and California. Sold exclusively by
Lumicon.
comet 24nm: 494nm to 518nm Bandpass centred around emission lines of cyanogen filters are threaded
Eyepiece
gas peculiar to comets. Helps enhance some comets. toscrew into the base of either
Sold exclusively by Lumicon. 1H- or 2-inch-format eyepieces.
Narrowband nebula filters are
*Measured in nanometres. One nanometre = 10 angstroms = one-millionth of a millimetre. especially useful in the 2-inch
size, where low power and
wide field are often desirable.

81
 CHAPTER FIVE

Accessories and
Observing Aids

In the late 1950s, around the time when the first celestial objects. The better the instrument's finder-
Sputniks were flying and the world was thrust into scope, the easier this will be. With finderscopes,
the space age, a major toy manufacturer introduced better usually means bigger.
a unique "Luminous Star Locater." The product was A finderscope is a low-power telescope attached

a series of clear plastic discs with constellations to the main telescope. It makes aiming the main tele-
etched in them. Each disc could be placed in a scope accurately much easier than simply sighting
holder shaped likea small tennis racquet. Batteries down the tube. Without a finderscope, locating
and a flashlight bulb in the handle provided power even the moon can be a hit-or-miss operation. In-
to illuminatetheconstellation etchings. Outside at ability to target objects due to a poor finderscope is
night, the observer would hold the device up, look one of the chief reasons that many people give up
through the disc at the sky and use the illuminated on their first telescope and eventually lose interest
constellation to identify the real stars. It seemed in observational astronomy. Manufacturers con-

like a good idea. tinue to supply inadequate finderscopes because

In reality, it was useless. Unlike the real sky, the most first-time buyers do not realize why a finder-
illuminated stars were all about the same brightness. scope is necessary until they use the telescope.
Some of the discs showed such a large area of the Low-cost department-store telescopes often have
sky that they had to be held about two inches from atrocious finderscopes. Sometimes, they are no
the observer's nose.The Luminous Star Locater was, more than hollow tubes with cross hairs. In Chap-
like so many other hobby accessory gadgets, a ter 3, we warned about another design that has be-
potentially good idea that was poorly executed. come common in beginner's telescopes: a flip-up
Some more serious accessories for backyard as- mirror system that uses the main lens or mirror
tronomers are in the same category as the Luminous as a finderscope. It sounds good in theory, but in
Star Locater. However, there are many fine prod- practice, the design fails miserably. It is nearly
ucts, such as the Telrad zero-power finderscope that impossible to see anything. Avoid such telescopes,
adds versatility to virtually every telescope. Here is or at least be prepared to add a proper finderscope.
a guide to some of the more useful items. What is a proper finderscope? Inexpensive tele-
scopes often have a 5 x 24 finderscope. Most are
FINDERSCOPES
junk. Many have aperture stops inside the tube, cut-
One of the frustrations (or challenges) of observ- ting the supposed 24mm aperture down to 10mm
ing, for both novices and veterans, is finding or 15mm. The reason for this deceptive design is

82
 The magnificent Whirlpool
Galaxy, M5T, is a favourite
target foramateur astron-
omers' telescopes. The
companion galaxy, seemingly
attached to a spiral arm but
actually a separate object, was
severely disrupted by a close
encounter with the larger
galaxy a few hundred million
years ago. Photograph by jim
Riffle, using a 12-inch
Astromak.

83
 In addition, a right-angle finderscope can be awk-
ward because the observer does not look in the

^^s^3*
1 •

same direction as the telescope. With a straight-

through finderscope, the real sky can be observed
with one eye while the other takes in the finder-

\4m scope view. Even though a straight-through finder-

scope is neck-straining near the zenith, we rec-
ommend that you stick with it when upgrading.
Some finderscopes can switch between either right-
angle or straight-through.
If you find that the eyepiece position of a right-
angle finderscope more convenient to use with

y\
is

^^^^\ ^^^^^^^^"^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^H^H^
r 1 your telescope,

is
then get one with an Amici prism.
This clever bit of optics produces an image that
right side up and correct
the finderscope eyepiece matches
left to right.

the sky and in the star chart. Amici prism finder-

The view
what is seen
in

in

scopes are becoming more common, and it is worth

the effort to track one down.

J" that the finderscope lens is so bad, it cannot be oper-

An 8 X 50 finderscope with good optics is ade-
quate for most purposes, even on large telescopes.
It can show ninth-magnitude stars but still has
a comfortable six-degree field. A 50mm
finderscope costs $75 to $1 75, depending on extras
or 60mm

ated at its full aperture of 24mm. If it were, the im- such as right-angle prisms and illuminated reticles.

ages would be completely fuzzy. Needless to say, An X 80 finderscope costs about $200 to $350.
1 1

with such a small aperture, it is difficult to see any- Too many finderscopes use inexpensive, narrow-
thingdimmer than the moon. field 0.965-inch eyepieces, and better-quality 1 14-

1
^
iHlv
Some of the more expensive telescopes (smaller
and Schmidt-Cassegrains) often have only
reflectors
6 X 30 finderscopes. These are just adequate. They
inch eyepieces cannot be used on them.
the extra cost for a
All finderscopes
1 '/4-inch
come with
model.
eyepieces that have
It is worth

r are sufficient for locating bright targets but are cross hairs. A few have a special reticle that indicates
1 limited
jects.

and 7x
A
to
when you

8x is
are searching for deep-sky ob-
finderscope with a true
a far better choice.
50mm aperture
where the true north celestial pole is in relation to
Polaris. While a polar-alignment reticle does not
hurt, precise polaralignment is not essential unless
If a finderscope is to be of any value, it has to be you are doing astrophotography.
aimed to exactly the same place in the sky as the Some finderscopes have illuminated reticles,
main instrument. This adjustment is done with the using a battery-operated light on the side of the
Top: This 8-inch Meade setscrews that hold the finderscope in its bracket. eyepiece. Most of the models we have seen are not
Schmidt-Cassegrain is outfitted The brackets of inexpensive finderscopes have only dimmable, limiting their usefulness. Moreover, the
with several practical acces- three setscrews midway down the finderscope. Try- tiny camera batteries are expensive, and we have
sories. The 50mm finderscope ing toaim a finderscope mounted like this is an ex- found it too easy to forget to turn off the light at
is augmented with a Telrad ercise in frustration. There should be two sets of ad- the end of the observing session.
zero-power sighting device. justment screws, front and back, and they should An innovative and very popular finderscope is the
Tube counterweights serve to have locknuts to hold the alignment in place. Telrad. It is a no-power finderscope without a lens
balance the instrument when Another "feature" offered with many finderscopes, or eyepiece. Instead, it has a simple but ingenious
accessories are added or even larger ones, is a right-angle prism, it is much optical system that projects a set of illuminated red
removed. The manual focuser easier to look through a right-angle finderscope circles onto the sky. You sight through a smal win- I

has been fitted with a when viewing objects high in the sky, but the im- dow and see a naked-eye view of the sky with red
motorized focuser. ages are mirror images. They do not match the real bull's-eye circles superimposed on it. The telescope
M Above: The largest telescope sky or printed star charts. It can be very confusing can be aimed very precisely with this system. It beats
accessory is an observatory. to look for identifiable star patterns with a right-angle grovelling in the dirt trying to sight along the tele-
This home-built rotating dome finderscope, since all the constellation patterns ap- scope tube. The Telrad is manufactured by Steve
observatory housed a 4-inch pear flipped left to right. To match a star chart, the Kufeld of California and is sold for about $50 by vir-
f/15 refractor in the 1960s. chart must be turned over and viewed from the back tually every telescope dealer. Because so little bat-
Photograph courtesy Ray by shining a flashlight through the paper- not the tery power is required for the bull's-eye, the two AA
Thompson. height of convenience. batteries last for many observing sessions.

84
 The Telrad is excellent for Dobsonians and is a
finecomplement to a good 8 x 50 or larger finder-
scope. Made of plastic, the Telrad is lightweight and
does not create much of a balance problem on most
telescopes. For locating just the planets and the
brightest deep-sky objects, it may be all you need.

ANTI-DEW DEVICES
Countless observing sessions are forced to a prema- Top left: The authors highly
ture conclusion by dew. It is the vampire of as- recommend the Telrad finder-
tronomy, si lently sucki ng the ife out of a telescope
I scope, a simple but elegant
late at night. Every backyard astronomer has cursed device that makes any tele-
the plague of dew-glazed optics that terminated scope easier to use. It projects
a planet watch during an evening of excellent see- a red bull's-eye onto the
ing or fogged an astrophoto. angled glass The
plate.
Even at the driest desert locations, dew is occa- observer looks through the
sionally encountered. As the temperature falls dur- glass at the sky and moves the
ing the night, moisture condenses out of the air onto telescope to align the bull's-
the optics. A wet lens can cut short an otherwise eye v/ith the target object.
ideal observing session. Owners of standard New- Top right: A good basic
tonians usually do not worry about dew, since the finderscope has a minimum
optics are at the bottom of a long tube that keeps aperture of 30mm and six fine-
dew from forming, except on the most dewy nights. adjustment screws to allow a
But for Schmidt-Cassegrains, Schmidt-Newtonians, firm alignment in parallel with
Maksutovs and refractors, dew can be a drawback the main telescope. Three
the salesperson never mentioned. screws and a pressure-fit
The first line of defence is a dew cap, a tube that The dew cap usually keeps moisture off the lens for arrangement, centre, are ac-
extends beyond the front lens or corrector plate. about an hour longer than would be the case with- ceptable but usually less rigid.

Refractors usually come with a built-in dew cap. out the cap; but if dew is forming elsewhere, it will Centre: A 45-degree erecting
Schmidt-Cassegrain owners can buy one as an ac- cover all exposed optical surfaces sooner or later. prism provides upright images
cessory. Or a simple device can be made out of The first attack of dew can be eradicated with a for daytime land viewing and
cardboard, foam or way, a dew cap
plastic. Either hand-held hair dryer. Warm, not hot, air is blown low-power astronomical observ-
is required for the susceptible telescopes. A dew cap on the affected lens. If the observing site has AC ing. At higher power, the prism
that slides or folds back down the telescope tube for power, a low-wattage hairdryer can be very handy. introduces undesirable split
compact storage is the best. Ideally, the length of the A hairdryer is good for "zapping" finderscope lenses images. Some smaller refrac-
dew cap, when fully extended, should be three and eyepieces as well. Ifyou are running on 12 volts torshave 45-degree erecting
times the diameter of the main mirror or lens, al- DC, use a heater gun sold in automotive stores for prisms, rather than astronom-
though a practical limit is often much less. melting frost off windshields. It plugs into the ical diagonals, as standard
Dew caps function by maintaining a pocket of air cigarette-lighter socket. Some accessory companies, equipment.
in front of the objective or corrector lens that is such as Orion Telescope Center, in California, sell Bottom: Homemade low-
slightly warmer than the outside air. This works as thistype of heater on the astronomy market. voltage heaters keep dew and
long as the temperatureis falling and the telescope Handy as it is, the hair dryer is only a stopgap mea- frost off the finderscope and
above ambient temperature. Once equilib-
itself is sure.The optics always fog up again. On very hu- eyepieces of this Newtonian.
rium is reached, dew soon forms on the telescope. mid nights, this method is just not enough. Every 1 Note internal wiring and plugs.

85
 tance wires that get warm under current. The extra
warmth around the optics keeps dew from forming.
But a telescope properly equipped with heaters
can entangle the observer in cables.

Do heaters affect the telescopic image? We use

heaters regularly on all exposed optical surfaces and
find that the critical surface area is the objective or
Top left: Many observers corrector-plate heater. If there is too much heat, see-
prefer straight-through finder- ing is degraded; too and dew encroaches. But
little,

scopes, such as this 8 x 50 once a happy medium has been achieved, there are
model, because the inverted no ill effects. A $3,000 telescope can be heater-
images of the sky are easier to equipped front to back, including eyepiece, finder-
relate to star charts than the scope and/or Telrad, for about $1 50.
flopped images in finder- Not only is dew a nuisance, but it can damage the
scopes with diagonals. Note coatings on mirrors and lenses. Our industrial civi-
the bar holding the finder- lization has, in many parts of the world, changed
scope— a method that avoids minutes, the procedure must be repeated — then some dew into acid dew, a cousin to acid rain. This
having to drill holes in the every 5 minutes, then 3, then fold up the tripod and stuffattacks coatings on lenses and mirrors and is es-
telescope tube. call it a night. Once the telescope has donated all pecially brutal to enhanced silvered mirrors on
Top right: An illuminated- its heat to the air and the air temperature is stable, Newtonians. Such silver coatings have become
reticle eyepiece uses a small dew forms very quickly and the hair-dryer method common since backyard astronomers have discov-
camera battery to light the ceases to be effective. In any case, heat from a hair ered the advantages of high light throughput. (A
cross hairs. This is a personal- dryer affects the optics and is detrimental to any ob- high-quality enhanced silver surface with proper
preference item. Some observ- serving for which good seeing is important. Further- overcoatings reflects 95 to 98 percent ofthe incom-
ers say the sky background is more, a lens surface seems to accumulate sticky, ing light, compared with 88 percent for aluminum
bright enough to render the hard-to-remove dust more quickly when warm air coatings, the standard for many years.)
cross hairs visible without is forced over it from a dryer. This is probably due Protective overcoatings on mirrors are similar
illumination. to tiny particles ofwet dirt being heat-dried. to coatings on lenses, and all are equally suscepti-
Bottom: A desirable feature But dew does not have to be the curse that most ble to acid dew. The difference with silver is that
of equatorial mounts is fine backyard astronomers think it is. You can observe once the protective coating has been damaged,
adjustments for polar align- all night without being sent packing by moisture. the enhanced silver layer underneath is extremely
ment. Otherwise, the observer The trick: a low-voltage heater. The telescope can vulnerable to tarnishing from acid dew. Lenses
must repeatedly reposition the be dripping with dew, and the optics stay dry. Orion and aluminized mirrors stand up much better. In
tripod, an awkward alternative. Telescope Center offers low-voltage heaters for northeastern North America, where acid rain and
On this German equatorial heating the corrector plate of 8-inch Schmidt- acid dew are common, enhanced silver coatings
mount, horizontal adjustment Cassegrains, but apart from that, there has been no are not recommended for Newtonians, in which the
is made using the two knobs at making this product available for other
interest in optics are exposed to the air. Owners of Schmidt-
lower right. Up-and-down telescopes.The reason may be that most telescope- Cassegrains or Maksutovs with enhanced silver
motion is achieved by moving accessory suppliers are based in California, where coatings should ensure that the tube always is

the small levers attached to dew is a minor nuisance rather than the scourge closed to outside air, either with an eyepiece in
threaded shafts. The adjust- it is in the eastern half of North America. place or a plug to prevent air exchange.
ments are made while the A few companies
sell wraparound low-voltage Heaters on Schmidt-Cassegrain corrector plates,
observer peers through a small coils,both for main optics and for eyepieces, that refractor objectives and eyepieces are the best way
polar-alignment telescope. plug into AC or DC sources. These contain resis- to prevent dew formation n the f rst place and thus
i i

86
avoid the problem altogether. Sometimes, a heavy telescopes (such as the Celestron Powerstar or Su-
dew will unavoidably condense on optical surfaces, per Polaris or the Meade Premier series), you can ig-

but the less this happens, the better. Telescopes nore this section. However, a telescope with an AC
in observatories are far less likely to be plagued synchronous motor drive (like Celestron's Classic 8)
by dew. The threat of acid dew is a major reason presents a problem: Where can it be plugged in out
to consider a shelter for your telescope. in the field? The solution is an invertor.

An invertor converts 1 2 volts DC into 1 1 volts

POLAR-ALIGNMENT AIDS
AC, allowing a telescope's AC clock-drive motor
Equatorial mounts must be polar-aligned. Very pre- to be run with a car battery. Invertors can be pur-
cise alignment is required only for astrophotog- chased at recreational-vehicle sales outlets (they are
raphyorwhen using traditional setting circles— two used to run appliances with vehicle batteries). How-
we do not recommend for beginners. But
things ever, most telescope dealers sell models manufac-
when accurate polar alignment does become nec- tured specifically forthe low-wattage requirements
few accessories help.
essary, a of telescopes. Invertors are also simple drive correc-
No matter what technique is used for polar align- tors in that they include push-button controls to vary
ment, you still need some way of aiming the mount the speed of the motor. The controls are only for
precisely. This means a fine horizontal, orazimuth, photography, though, and are of no use when slew-
motion and a vertical, or altitude, motion. Recent ing the telescope around the sky, since the speed
deluxe-model Schmidt-Cassegrains have these ad- adjustment is very slight.

justments as standard equipment. Many older tele- A low-priced invertor/economy drive corrector
scopes and economy mounts do not— a definite costs about $75. More elaborate drive correctors,
deficiency. Most of the new, better-quality German with quartz-locked control and dual-axis output, are
equatorial mounts have fine-alignment controls as Such sophistication is
overkill for visual observing.
well. (Do not confuse these with the slow-motion needed only for astrophotography. When purchas-
controls for moving the telescope across the sky. ing an invertor, make sure it comes with the cable
The polar-alignment adjustments are located at the necessary to plug it into the cigarette-lighter socket.
base of the mount where it attaches to the tripod.) The cable should be longenough to allow the tele-
For Schmidt-Cassegrains that lack the fine-adjust- scope to be set up at least six metres from the car.
ment feature, might be possible to add an acces-
sory kit to the
it

wedge assembly which wi allow the 1 1

POWER PACKS
wedge to be tilted up and down with the turn of a If the mount is driven by DC motors, it probably

threaded shaft. Or the old nonadjustable wedge can came with a small battery pack that uses several pen-
be replaced with a newer model that has controls light batteries. These are not long-lived. D-cell bat-
for both azimuth and altitude adjustments. Such teries are really the practical minimum for drives.
controls are much better than kicking the tripod or They usually last through several long observing ses-
finding bits of wood to prop up a leg. For older- sions. But the best plan is to get the appropriate ca-
model German equatorial mounts (such as those on ble to plug the drive into the car battery. Or purchase
Newtonians), there are no retrofit accessory kits, so a larger-capacity rechargeable pack that will be
make sure you have lots of bits of wood. good for several nights' use before it needs to be
Some of the newer German-style equatorial recharged. The separate heavy-duty battery pack
mounts imported from japan and sold with U.S.- allows the telescope to be set up anywhere; it
brand telescopes have the option of a small polar- need not be tied to the car.
alignment finderscope, which is located not on the
telescope but right in the mount, aimed up the po-
RED FLASHLIGHT
lar axis. It comes equipped with a reticle (sometimes You don't realize how essential this accessory is un-
illuminated) that makes it easier to find the true north til you forget it one night. There you are, far from

celestial pole. This can be tricky to learn to use, al- home, with no flashlight. How do you read star /4ccessor/es from Roger W.
though once mastered, it does work. For visual ob- charts? If you cannot read star charts, how do you Tuthill, Inc. on an 8-inch
serving, simply getting Polaris close to the centre of find anything? Equipped with thousands of dol- Schmidt-Cassegrain include
the polar finderscope's field of view — within one lars' worth of instruments, you are lost in the stars an 80mm finderscope, Solar
degree of true celestial north — is good enough. for want of a $5 flashlight. Skreen full-aperture solar filter
You can buy an "astronomers flashlight," but any and a binocular viewer. The
INVERTORS/DRIVE CORRECTORS
pocket flashlight will do. Better yet, buy two. Paint latter permits viewing with two
These electronic "black boxes" are becoming a thing the bulb red using nail polish, or cover it with red eyes. It works well on the
of the past. A growing number of telescopes are now cellophane, red paper (or even brown wrapping pa- moon and Jupiter, but deep-
sold with DC stepper motors for clock drives. They per) or a red gel available from art-supply stores. A sky objects seem brighter and
run directly from batteries. If you have one of these red LED light is even better. It should not be bright; more contrasty without it.

87
 Above: Where an observa-
tory might not be practical, a
protective shed may be the
answer for a bulky telescope
such as this Celestron 14-inch
Schmidt-Cassegrain. Backyard
astronomer Don Primi keeps
the telescope ready for action
and rolls out on tracks for a
it

two-minute setup.
Top left: Homemade chart
tables are wonderful observing
aids. Depending on the type ideally, it should be dimmable. Buy a flashlight sorbs vibrations and prevents them from being trans-
of charts you prefer, the table small enough to hold in your mouth so that both mitted up the tripod leg. Tripods and mounts should

can be illuminated from above hands are free. The light should be made of plastic, ideally be massive enough not to require such
or below. because metal flashlights often become too cold to dampening aids, but that is rarely the case. At $60
Top right: A custom-made touch in winter. Flashlights with dual red and white pads are a useful addition
for a set of three, these
eyepiece-and-accessory box lights are handy; a bright white light is good for set- that reduces image shake in portable mounts.
has positions for 10 eyepieces ting up and dismantling equipment.
and Barlows as well as mis-
OBSERVING CHAIRS
cellaneous gear. The box is
MANUAL SLOW MOTIONS Treat yourself to a place to sit while observing. If

internally illuminated and If the telescope has no slow-motion controls, it will possible, lower the telescope so that the eyepiece
wired for low-voltage heaters have to be nudged every few seconds. Try moving is eye height when you are seated. The increase
at
powered by household cur- the telescope a fraction of a degree to centre an ob- in comfort is sheer luxury. The best observing chair
rent. On a chilly evening, it is a ject.It depends on the mount, but chances are, it will is a stool with adjustable height. It should also fold

pleasure to reach in for toasty be difficult. To eliminate the inconvenience, qual- up for easy storage. The stools sold in music stores
eyepieces. ity mounts should include slow-motion controls as for drummers are very comfortable, although not
Bottom left: The most impor- standard features (the exception is a well-made tall enough for some telescopes. Large instruments
tant inexpensive observing Dobsonian mount— it does not need them). A few such as 1 7.5-inch Dobsonians, however, require
accessory is the red flashlight. older German equatorial mounts (the Meade re- an observing ladder. A small kitchen stepladder
You should have several, in- search-grade Newtonians, for example) offered may be just the thing for reaching the eyepiece
cluding a very deep red one for manual slow-motion controls as an option. It is an when aiming at the zenith.
maintaining good dark adapta- option worth having. A local dealer may be able
tion.Although red nail polish to retrofit a telescope with slow-motion controls
CARRYING CASES FOR
or cellophane will work to filter
ACCESSORIES
(at least in the declination axis, the one that moves
the light, red gel and red paper the telescope north and south). When you have collected a number of accessories,
are the preferred materials to you will need a proper case to carry them all. A card-
get the light a deep red.
VIBRATION DAMPENERS
board box will last only so long. For eyepieces,
Bottom right: Many tele- In 1 989, a new telescope accessory appeared on the and other small items, check the local cam-
filters
scopes benefit from vibration market, one that is sure to become a necessity for era stores.They offer all kinds of camera cases.
dampeners that significantly many amateurs: vibration suppression pads. These Avoid those which have several layers of compart-
reduce instrument vibration small pads are placed under the legs of a telescope ments; the briefcase style is the best. Some have
when placed under tripod legs. tripod. A ring of rubber set in high-density metal ab- compartments with movable dividers; others have

88
foam that can be cut out as needed; many have foam
with precut squares that can be removed. (The lat-
ter type tends to fall apart with use.) The foam
interiors provide the best cushioning, although
they make it more difficult to change layouts if

additional accessories are acquired.

OBSERVING TABLE
Many observers have found it convenient to take a
small folding table to the observing site to hold star
charts, books and paraphernalia. Without one, ob-
servers are forced to work off truck tailgates or out
ofcartrunks. Some do-it-yourselfers have designed
ingenious illuminated work stations, with every ob-
serving need at hand. Certainly, anything that
reduces fumbling around in the dark is a welcome
convenience, as long as it does not require an
inordinate effort to set up in the first place.

TOOL KIT
A kit containing all the screwdrivers or wrenches
your telescope may require can bean essential item.
After a jostling road trip, parts come loose, optics
need collimating and bolts require tightening. A
packet of lens-cleaning tissue should also be in ev-
ery camera- and telescope-accessory case. Throw
in some tape as well — it is amazing what a roll of
tape can fix. Don't forget the insect repellent.
Mosquitoes love astronomers. But that insect repel-
lent can be a nuisance, too, when it greases up the
telescope's knobs and buttons. Worse, it can eat into
optical coatings and some of the simulated leather
material on binocular bodies and cases.

OBSERVATORIES AND
Top left: One of the most
TELESCOPE STORAGE
functional and economical
Telescopes are pretty rugged instruments and, if observatories is ttte split-roof
handled with reasonable care, can last a lifetime. roll-off design. It avoids the
However, some telescopes are more maintenance- costly construction of a dome,
free than others. There are three basic storage situ- releases it in dry weather. One precaution is to have yet the roof can be opened
ations for telescopes: portable telescopes usually an enclosure that is as airtight as possible — it will only partially to afford protec-
kept in the home; portable but bulky instruments keep dust, snow and other material from blowing tion from wind and stray light.

stored in a garage; and permanently mounted in. A modest amount of electric heating from time Photograph by James Rouse.
equipment in an unheated observatory. have the inside temperature slightly
to time, just to Above: Wind protection is
The key to effective storage is avoiding moisture. warmer than the outside, can greatly reduce mois- sometimes essential. Equally
Moisture attacks the surfaces of mirrors in reflector ture problems. An alternative to heating the whole important is the observer's
on lenses in refractors and
telescopes, the coatings building is to install permanent low-voltage heaters chair— an observing aid too
eyepieces and the metal parts and fittings of tele- near the optical elements. often ignored.
scope mounts. Iftheobservatory is located in a dry Storage for portable telescopes should be inside Centre: A unique portable
climate, such as the U.S. Southwest, the problem the house, but not in a basement location prone to observatory, designed
by
encountered more often than moisture is dust. moisture problems, condensation or mildew. Be- amateur astronomer Doug
Elsewhere on the continent, prolonged periods cause of space limitations, a garage or shed is often Clapp, fits into a car trunk
of dampness are inevitable. a necessary storage facility. One advantage of un- when disassembled. Once at
Small observatories to be more prone to
seem heated garages and sheds is that the telescope re- the observing site, it can be set
dampness than and wood structures are
larger ones, mains close to outside temperature, reducing the up in minutes, bottom, to
usually less damp than concrete or brick, because wait for the optics to reach the temperature stabil- provide a dry, windproof
the wood itself absorbs moisture on damp days and ity required for optimum performance. protective environment.

89
 CHAPTER SIX

Ten Myths About

Telescopes
and Observing

You hearthem and read them so often thatyou think scope at high power, a star looks like a miniature,
they mi>st be true. But they are not. These are what faintly ringed bull's-eye. Poor optics put more light
we call the "telescope myths"— general statements into the rings and less into the Airy disc. The re-
widely accepted as truths and passed down from ex- sult? The Airy disc decreases in size, and the rings
perienced amateur astronomers to beginners in a brighten. This is not good for overall resolution of
cycle that has been going on for generations. Some detail in extended objects, but it can help split dou-
of the myths are half-truths, some are vaguely based ble stars, especially pairs of equal magnitude. Good
on facts, and others are just bunk. Here they are: optics should certainly be able to split close dou-
bles, but is not a test. The fine details on Mars, Jupi-
TELESCOPE MYTH #1
ter
it

and Saturn are the real test objects.

SPLITTING CLOSE DOUBLES IS A
TEST FOR GOOD OPTICS TELESCOPE MYTH #2:
IMAGES APPEAR BRIGHTER
The first thing many telescope owners do to "tesf
IN FAST TELESCOPES
their latest acquisition is select from a double-star
list a very close pair at the resolving limit of the in- This is a common myth, even among longtime am-
strument, known as Dawes' limit. If the telescope ateur astronomers. Many people mistakenly believe
splits two stars, the optics are proclaimed good.
the that short-focal-ratio, or "fast," telescopes (f/4 to f/6)
Many experienced amateurs do not realize that provide brighter eyepiece images than long-focal-
the double-star test is not conclusive. Just the oppo- ratio (f/8 to f/1 5) telescopes, making the "slow" ones
site is true.Sometimes, inferior optics can split a unsuitable for deep-sky viewing. This myth is rein-
double star that a superb telescope shows as barely forced in advertisements which claim that f/6 tele-
double. The explanation is found in the Airy disc. scopes have "images, both visually and photograph-
At high power, a telescope shows a fairly bright ically, that are two times brighter than with an f/1

star not as a point but as a tiny disc (the Airy disc). system." This is wrong, at least as far as the visual per-
This is due to the physics of optics. We need go no formance is concerned.
further here (for details, see Appendix) except to say To demonstrate, take two 6-inch telescopes of the
that a good telescope puts as much light as possible same type. It does not matter whether they are
into the Airy disc. Perfect optics wi 1 1 put 84 percent refractors, Schmidt-Cassegrains or Newtonians.
of the light into the disc; the other 1 6 percent goes One could be an f/5 short-focal-ratio instrument,
into the surrounding diffraction rings. In a good tele- the other an f/10 long-focal-ratio telescope. Put

90
 Intricate overlays of delicate
tendrils of gas make the Orion
Nebula one of the most
observed and photographed
celestial objects. The nebula is
about 25 light-years wide and
1,500 light-years from Earth.
This remarkably detailed
photograph was taken by Mike
Sisk with a 24.5-inch Astro
Works Schmidt-Cassegrain.

91
 an eyepiece that will give the same magnifi-
in each multicoated Barlows do not degrade optical perfor-
cation, say, 75x.Now, aim both at a faint galaxy. mance. Indeed, they are indispensable for planetary
Does the image look dimmer in the f/1 instmment? observing with modern instruments.
No. The images will be exactly the same brightness Fundamentally, it is optical quality rather than
and size. The reason is They are both 6-inch
simple. telescope type that determines performance, espe-
telescopes, collecting the same quantity of light cially when the goal isdiscerningdetail on the deli-
and magnifying the image by an equal amount. cate faces of our neighbour worlds.
The only real difference in our comparison is that
to achieve 75x with the f/1 telescope, we had to
TELESCOPE MYTH #4:
LONG-FOCAL-RATIO TELESCOPES
use a 20mm eyepiece. In the f/5 telescope, a 1 0mm
YIELD DARKER SKY BACKGROUND
eyepiece was needed.
The confusion arises because the statement "im-
AND HIGHER CONTRAST
ages appear brighter in fast telescopes" is true for as- This myth dates back almost00 years to planetary1

trophotography; fast telescopes do provide brighter astronomers Andrew Douglass and William Pick-
prime-focus images on film, permitting shorter ex- ering, who conducted exhaustive research on fac-
posures. But for visual work, in which the magnifi- tors affecting visual telescope performance. Their re-
cation (and hence the brightness ofthe image) can sults gained wide readership in this century because
be varied by changing the eyepiece, the faster-is- they were reprinted in Amateur Tele-
the influential
brighter statement is meaningless. scope Making books published by Scientific Amer-
Therefore, contrary to popular belief, long-focus ican between 1935 and 1953.
telescopes can be used for deep-sky viewing, espe- Douglass and Pickering found that longer-focal-
cially when equipped with a low-power eyepiece ratio telescopes consistently yield improved con-
(such as one with a 40mm-to-55mm focal length). trast—darker sky backgrounds and better detail in
The drawback is that it is difficult to reach extremely nebulas and galaxies as well as planets. However,
low powers and very wide fields with f/1 to f/1 they were using achromatic refractors, which ben-
telescopes, which hampers views of deep-sky ob- efit from longer focal ratios that suppress chromatic
jects that extend over a large area. This is the real rea- aberration and thereby improve contrast. Douglass,
son that deep-sky fans are advised to stick with fast- Pickering and others were aware of this effect, but
focal-ratio instruments. they had no way of judging how much chromatic
aberration contributes to the equation. They erro-
TELESCOPE MYTH #3:
neously concluded that a longer focal ratio by itself
LONG-FOCAL-RATIO TELESCOPES
improves contrast.
ARE BEST FOR PLANETS
This explanation is still widely repeated, so we
This statement was true when the only telescopes decided to put it to the test by comparing a 5-inch
used by backyard astronomers were Newtonians f/1 2 apochromatic refractor to a 5-inch f/7 of the

and achromatic refractors. Crisp planetary images same type. When used at the same magnification,
require superior optics. Since short-focal-ratio mir- we detected no difference in contrast or resolution
rors and lenses are more difficult to manufacture on nebulas, galaxies or planets.
than long-focal-ratio optics, it follows that long- At a star party a few years ago, we spent a whole
Top: A myth perpetuated focal-ratio telescopes would be the instruments night continuing this comparison by observing a
by erroneous telescope with the best optics and would therefore provide variety of celestial targets with larger telescopes of
advertising in the 1980s the best planetary images. differenttypes. We were particularly impressed by
suggests that short-focal-ratio But today, the situation is more complex. New- the superb high-magnification, high-contrast deep-
telescopes, often called "fast" generation apochromatic refractors equal
f/5 to f/9 sky views through a 14-inch Newtonian reflec-
f/4
telescopes, like this f/5 or exceed the performance of the older f/1 5 models. tor with first-rate well-baffled optics. Of the 20 or so
Newtonian, produce brighter In theory, and usually in practice, an 8-inch f/8 New- similar-sized Newtonians or Schmidt-Cassegrains on
images than equivalent- tonian, because of its smaller central obstruction the field, none outperformed the 1 4-inch f/4 regard-
aperture telescopes of long (the diagonal mirror),
is superior to an 8-inch f/10 less of focal ratio. Yet time and again, we have heard
focal ratio. See Myth #2. Photo- Schmidt-Cassegrain for planetary observation. amateur astronomers describing the "dark sky back-
graph by Alan Dyer. Some purists maintain that a short-focal-ratio ground and higher contrast" achieved with longer-
Above: Many deep-sky telescope — say, a 6-inch f/6 — cannot be used con- focal-ratio instruments. It isourconvictionthatthis
objects, such as the Ring veniently at the highpower required for planets be- myth is sustained because short-focal-ratio tele-
Nebula, have subtle detail that cause eyepieces as short as 4mm are needed to scopes are more difficult to make to high optical
requires not only aperture but reach appropriate magnifications. For some reason, standards and to baffle properly against light scatter.
also good optics for detection, such proponents shun the use of a Barlow lens in Although it is true that Newtonian reflectors and
asnoted in Myth #5. Photo- front of the eyepiece, which would at least double Schmidt-Cassegrains have increased central ob-
graph by Brian Tkachyk. the eyepiece's magnification. But today's top-grade structions with shorter focal ratios, this is a minor

92
factor compared with overall optical quality and op-
timized tube-assembly baffling and design.

TELESCOPE MYTH #5:

GOOD OPTICS ARE NOT NEEDED
FOR DEEP-SKY VIEWING "

"IfI'm only going to be looking at fuzzy objects any-

way, then surely don't need the best and sharpest
I

optics. can getaway with lower-quality [and, there-

I

fore, less expensive] optics."

So goes the reasoning, and that argument is pre-
sented a lot. And, yes, you can use less expensive
optics for deep-sky observing. But a better-quality
lens or mirror always reveals more deep-sky detail.
Those fuzzy objects will be a little less fuzzy. Ele-
ments of structure will become apparent where be-
fore therewas only a grey patch of light.
The difference is contrast. Brute-force brightness
from a large-aperture telescope is not enough. To
see deep-sky objects, you also need contrast-
between the object and the surrounding sky and be-
tween the subtle shadings within the galaxy or neb-
ula. Better-quality optics also improve star images,
so stars are not bloated fuzzballs but pinpoint
specks. Under dark skies with steady seeing, clusters
of stars look like fine dust on black velvet. Fainter
stars are visible as well. Good optics improve views deviate by more than wave. But is this good
1/4
of all kinds of celestial objects, even fuzzy ones. enough to satisfy the needs of backyard astrono-
mers? Some references say yes; others say no.
TELESCOPE MYTH #6:
To try to clarify themuddy waters on this issue,
THE IDEAL TELESCOPE SHOULD
professional optician and amateur astronomer Peter
HAVE 1/20-WAVE OPTICS Ceravolo decided to make test telescopes of pre-
Few myths have had such pervasive influence on cisely known optical quality and put them in the
amateur astronomy as the one about the desirabil- hands of two experienced observers. He built four
ity of 1/20-wave optics in backyard telescopes. It all 6-inch f/8 Newtonians with wavefront errors of
started (we think) in the 1950s, when one manufac- 1,1/2, 1/4 and 1/10 wave. The testers for this experi-
turer of Newtonian reflectors began advertising its ment, coauthor Dickinson and amateur astronomer
mirrors as "1/8 wave." It wasn't long before a com- Doug George, codiscoverer of Comet Skorichenko-
petitor touted its mirrors as 1/10 wave, while an- George, were given the four telescopes identified
other announced 1/16-wave accuracy. Over the only as A, B, C and D.
years, the "wave wars" escalated, with several man- The 1-wave telescope, with its unacceptably
ufacturers claiming 1/20-wave accuracy for their mushy images, revealed itself immediately. The 1/2- Few sights in astronomy
telescopes. Some still do. wave, although much better, was also easy to iden- provide minute-by-minute
Notonly is there a lack of industry standards about tify, because the images were never really sharp. changes, but one night in
what these claims mean (see Wavefront Error sec- George and Dickinson said the 1/2 -wave telescope 1974, Jupiter's moon Gany-
tion, page 5 1 ), but one critical question somehow reminded them of many telescopes— both commer- mede (left dot) crossed in front
got swept under the carpet: How accurate do tele- cial and homemade— they had used over the years. of the planet along with its

scope optics need to be for visual observing? Theothertwotelescopeswere remarkably alike in shadow. For about 20 mmutes,
As mentioned on page 51, the only measure of their performance. The 1/4-wave instrument yielded the shadow fell directlyon
optical accuracy that gives the best reading of the crisp and satisfyingviewsthatwould be acceptable the famous Great Red Spot.
telescope's performance is the final wavefront of to all but the most demanding experienced ob- The rare scene was captured
light emerging at the eyepiece, called system wave- server. In average seeing, it was nearly impossible by James Rouse with an 8-inch
front error, or wavefront error. This specification is to distinguish between it and the 1/10-wave tele- f/7 Newtonian on a hazy night
seldom supplied by the manufacturer. More often, scope. In good to excellent seeing, George and that did not look promising
the telescope is said to be diffraction limited, which Dickinson detected a consistent, though slight, im- until he actually viewed the
means 1/4-wave wavefront error, measured peak- provement in sharpness and contrast with the 1 /1 0- steady image of Jupiter
fo-valley, where no two points in the wavefront wave telescope over the 1/4-wave instrument. (see Myth »10).

93
 The full details of the experiment appeared in Sky they affect more light rays) will not perform as well
& Telescope, March 1 992 (pages 253-57), but the as optics with alhhe deviations near the centre.
bottom line is that a telescope with smooth optics The difference between good optics and great op-
and a peak-to-valley wavefront error around 1 /4 to tics isoften in the smoothness of the surfaces, a far
1/6 wave should satisfy the most discriminating more critical specification than concerning yourself
observer. with 1/1 0-wave versus 1/8-wave differences in PV
figures. As stated in the previous myth, a telescope
TELESCOPE MYTH #7:
providing a PV wavefront error of 1/4 wave to 1/6
ALL 1/4-WAVE TELESCOPES
wave is superb. Amateur telescope optics with
AREALIKE
better figures are rare, but differences in the RMS
If a 1/4-to-1/6-wave figure represents good optics, smoothness are common, producing visual effects
is that wavefront figure the only specification that obvious to critical observers.
discriminating buyers need to know about optics?
No. Properly describing a telescope's performance
TELESCOPE MYTH #8:
A TELESCOPE'S CENTRAL
requires two wavefront numbers, the peak-to-valley
(PV) error and the root-mean-square (RMS) error.
OBSTRUCTION SIGNIFICANTLY
Both figures are routinely generated by the comput-
DEGRADES PERFORMANCE
erized test equipment used by makers of industrial Ninety-nine percent of telescopes used in backyard
optics and becoming increasingly available to astronomy belong to one of four optical configura-
small-telescope companies. However, because tions: Newtonian reflector, Schmidt-Cassegrain,

they lacked such equipment in the past, few tele- Maksutov-Cassegrain and refractor. All but the re-
scope companies have been able to supply both PV fractor have a central obstruction — a mirror strate-
and RMS figures or indeed any documentation to gically positioned in the light path to reflect lightto
specify the quality of their optics. the focuser. Line up these four telescopes at a star
The PV figure is what many amateur telescope party,and the odds are good that the observers wi II

makers mean when they speak of wavefront error, agree the refractor produces the sharpest images.
often adding that it is the only figure of value. But One of the reasons often given to explain this supe-
two telescopes each with a 1/4-wave PV error can riority is that the others have central obstructions.
perform quite differently. This may be one reason, but it is certainly not the
To appreciate why, think of the ideal wavefront main one.
coming from a telescope's optics as being like a flat To proveit to ourselves, we used fine thread to

area of land — the flatter the better. But in that patch suspend discs of different diameters in front of a
of land, there is one small valley that is, say, 500 7-inch Astro-Physics Starfire refractor that, in steady
metresdeepand one small hill 500 metres high. The seeing, gives superbly sharp stellar and planetary
PV error (the departure from the ideal flat surface) views. A 1-inch disc (14 percent obstruction, by
is 1,000 metres. (With optics, the error is given in diameter) produced no noticeable difference in the
fractionsof a wavelength of light.) But the hill and images. We thought the 1 '/2-inch (21 percent) might
valley occupy only a tiny part of the total surface have marginally fuzzed the view, but it was a very
area; the majority of the surface is perfectly smooth. tough call. Even a 2-inch disc (29 percent) hardly
Now, imagine a terrain filled with many 500- marred the refractor^s fine images. By 3 inches (43
metre-tall hills and 500-metre-deep valleys, perhaps percent), which is as large as any central obstruction
with some stretching over a wide surface area. The found in commercial telescopes for amateur astron-
PV difference in elevation still never exceeds 1 ,000 omers, the effects were seen as a reduction in con-
metres, but clearly, there is a difference between our trast, but by no means could the view be described
hilly terrain and our smooth terrain. as anything less than very good. This experiment
So it is with optics. It is possible to have two sets would not demote the refractor from best to worst
of optics both measuring 1/4-wave PV under the on the field — far from it.
most rigorous tests (ones that sample the wavefront Optical theory states that a 30 percent obstruction
accuracy at several hundred points), yet one tele- introduces the same
loss of contrast as a 1/4-wave
scope provides sharper, more contrasty images. The wavefront error an unobstructed system. But as
in

difference is the smoothness of the surface, a charac- we saw in Myth #6, 1 /4-wave wavefront is perfectly
teristic RMS wavefront error, a
measured by the acceptable performance in a moderately obstructed
average of how many peaks and valleys
statistical system. No, the differences between telescopes-
the wavefront contains and how large an area they even telescopes of the same type — are the result of
occupy. Rough "hilly" optics will scatterlight and de- a combination of many more factors. Among them:
crease contrast. In addition, optics where the hilly collimation (Schmidt-Cassegrains and fast Newto-
terrain is near the edge of the lens or mirror (where nians are especially sensitive), stray-light suppres-

94
sion, scattered lightfrom mirror surface roughness, "seeing" means in astronomy. Seeing refers to the

tube currents and, of course, system wavefront steadiness of a telescopic image, not to the clarity
error. In general, refractors are less affected by these of the air. Turbulence is always present in the Earth's
variables than other types. This, we believe, is the atmosphere, but its intensity varies enormously. A
real source of the central-obstruction myth. view of the moon or of Jupiter can be so hopelessly
shimmering and boiling that nothing beyond the
TELESCOPE MYTH #9:
telescope's lowest power will improve iL That is
CLOSED TUBES ARE BETTER poor seeing. It can occur on the clearest nights.
Introductory books on telescopes often list the ad- Conversely, good seeing— a steady image— can,
vantages and disadvantages of each type of instru- and often does, occur on hazy evenings.
0"
ment. We did so in Chapter 3. One advantage of- Seeing can be rated on a scale from to 1 0. A "1
ten attributed to the refractor design is the "closed night, with perfectly sharp, unwavering images, is
tube": the lens at one end and the eyepiece at the rare and long-remembered. Alternatively, the terms
other effectively seal the tube. Schmidt-Cassegrains perfect, excellent, good, moderate, fair, poor and
and Maksutovs also have closed tubes— they have hopeless are sufficient to distinguish the varying
a corrector lens at the front. Newtonians, on the degrees of seeing. The effects of poor seeing are
other hand, have open tubes. Outside ai r can ci rcu- most obvious in views of the planets, but the con-
late down the tube and reach the main mirror. dition degrades all types of observing.
A closed tube sounds like a better idea. Makers As a general rule, the stars twinkle vigorously on
of Schmidt-Cassegrains and Maksutovs usually use nights with fair or worse seeing. Wind is usually ac-
it as a selling point for their models, because a companied by agitated atmospheric currents and
closed tube protects the optics. Unfortunately, it poor seeing, invariably, the seeing is worse toward
also has an unadvertised detrimental effect: a closed the horizon and better near overhead because of the
tube seals in warm air. quantity of the Earth's atmosphere that the celestial
For the sharpest images, the air inside a telescope light must penetrate before reaching the telescope.

must be the same temperature as the outside air. It Different types of turbulence can occur at the same
is important, therefore, that the optics, their mount- time. Most frequently, good seeing pops out period-
ing cells and the tube walls be cool; otherwise, they ically during overall moderate conditions. Some-
will radiate heat into the light path. If the light passes times, there are moments of perfect clarity during
through layers of air of different temperatures, the a night of good seeing, and so forth. The turbulence
image is blurred. The layers act like bad lenses. A that causes the variance comes in two forms: fast
sealed-tube telescope can take a long time to cool and slow. Slow seeing is a gentle undulation or
down — anywhere from 30 minutes to all night— waviness in the image. Fast seeing is rapid waves or
because warm air cannot get out and cool air can- blurring or defocusing.
not get in. On an otherwise wonderful, clear night, the deep-
Large-aperture Schmidt-Cassegrains and Mak- sky observer can be plagued by rotten seeing that
sutovs often suffer the most. When they are first bloats star images and smears galaxies. The effect
taken into cold night air, heat radiating off the sec- is more difficult to detect than the obvious rippling
ondary mirrors and cells can render them useless for or erratic defocusing of a planefs disc, but the result
an hour or more. Refractors have the same problem is a loss of detail and a cutback of as much as a mag-
but, in practice, are not as disturbed by it, since the nitude in the faintest stars visible. The faintest deep-
light in a refractor immediately bends away from the sky objects can be seen only when skies are clear
offending tube walls after passing through the main and seeing is good.
lens. Moreover, light in a refractor has to travel The clarity of the air is called "transparency." It is

down the tube only once; the multiple passes inside classified by the faintest naked-eye star visible in the
a Cassegrain-style reflector increase the opportunity vicinity of Polaris in the northern hemisphere or of
for distortion by waves of heat. Thus it is not the Octans in the southern hemisphere. Outstanding The Pleiades star cluster is

closed tube of the refractor but the nature of its light transparency will yield stars in the range of 6.2 to embedded in a pale veil of
path that gives it the freedom from tube currents 6.8 magnitude. Of course, it depends on the observ- nebulosity that reflects the
which led to this myth. ing site and on the acuity of the observer's eyes. light from the cluster's
From a suburban location, magnitude 4.4 Delta brightest members. The
TELESCOPE MYTH #10:
Ursae Minoris, the star next to Polaris the nebulosity
in Little is a difficult visual
THE CLEAREST NIGHTS ARE THE
Dipper's handle, may be a tough sighting. At any sighting that requires dark
ONES WITH THE BEST "SEEING" particular site, a record of the faintest star visible in skies and good, high-contrast
A common misconception among beginners, rather good compara-
the celestial polar region will give a optics (see Myth #5A Photo-
than a myth perpetuated by veteran observers, tivegauge of conditions at that site and allow fairly graph by Rick Dilsizian, using
stems from a misunderstanding of what the term direct correlation between sites. an 8-inch Schmidt camera.

95
 PART II

CHAPTER SEVEN

The Sky Without

a Telescope

Anyone involved in recreational astronomy soon of the prospects for clear skies that night. Such
becomes keenly aware of sky conditions, both day- habitual sky surveying exposes you to a multitude
time and nighttime. You automatically look up of natural phenomena overhead. Many of them are
whenever you step outside. If the sky is cloudy dur- visible to the unaided eyes or, at most, with binoc-
ing the day, the types of clouds give an indication ulars. The key is knowing what to look for.

PHENOMENA OF THE DAY SKY

It is natural to think of recreational astronomy as a imagine a line extended from the sun through your
nocturnal pursuit. But if you watch the skies care- head toward the ground in front of you.
during the day, you will see some fascinating
fully A rainbow is never seen as a complete circle from
atmospheric effects that are due to the interaction ground level because the anti-solar point is below
of light with ice crystals and water droplets. Some- the horizon; just the top arc of the full rainbow cir-
times, the sky is filled with prisms and mirrors that cle, the part projected onto the sky, is seen. The
transform the atmosphere into a complex set of closer the sun is to the horizon, the more rainbow
optics. The most familiar result is a rainbow. is visible. If the sun is just above the horizon, you

will see a semicircular arc with a diameter of more

RAINBOWS than 80 degrees. From an aircraft or a mountain
A sunbeam shining through a raindrop is usually peak, it is sometimes possible to see rainbows as full
reflected once and heads back in approximately the circles. On the other hand, when the sun is high
same direction it entered. In the process, the beam overhead, you will not see rainbows. In fact, for a
of light is split into its component colours by the rainbow to be visible in the sky, the sun cannot be
prismlike qualities of the raindrop. When this effect more than 42 degrees above the horizon; rainbows
is multiplied by millions of raindrops in the sky, the are usually an afternoon or a morning phenomenon.
result is a curving swath of colour arching around Double rainbows occur when the sunlight is par-
the point in space directly opposite the sun. To be ticularly strong and the sky is saturated with rain-
precise, the rainbow is always at a radius of 42 drops, perhaps when the sun breaks through after
degrees from the anti-solar point. To find the anti- a heavy downpour late in the afternoon. A second
solar point, stand with your back to the sun and rainbow appears as a result of light bouncing

96
through two reflections inside raindrops; the fainter curving away from the sun. It is part of a circle
second bow shows up outside the primary bow at centred on the zenith. It often appears tangent to the
a radius some 51 degrees from the anti-solar point. large 46-degree halo. When the sun is high in the
The colours of the secondary bow are reversed, with can sometimes be seen cross-
sky, a horizontal arc
red on the inside of the arc rather than the outside, ing the sun and running parallel to the horizon all
where it appears in the main rainbow. the way around the sky. A complex halo display
Other rainbow-related watch for are the
effects to contains all these variations and more. Other arcs
brightening of the sky inside the main bow and the can sometimes be seen tangent to the sides, bottoms
occasional appearance of what are known as super- or tops of the nner or outer haloes; bright spots can
i

numerary arcs, purple and green bands on the in- appear on this horizontal arc at 90 degrees to the
side edge of the main bow. They are created by sun, 1 20 degrees to the sun or even directly oppo-
interference effects between the various beams of site the sun. It all depends on the way the light

light entering the raindrops at slightly different refracts through the various combinations of facets
angles. They usually appear only when the main on the six-sided ice crystals. If you see any sort of
rainbow is especially intense. halo, be sure to scan the sky; there may be other rare
A faint rainbow is sometimes created by the full and subtle effects of refraction shimmering nearby.
moon at night. is very rare and generally appears
It Light can also reflect or bounce off flat ice crys-
colourless, because moonlight is not bright enough tals, creating a pillar of light that rises up from the Top left: On June 17, 7997, a
to trigger the colour receptors in your eye. A long- low sun. On very cold, calm nights, light pillars may celestial coincidence com-
e posure photograph would reveal all the colours form above bright streetlights. It looks as if the sky bined an aurora with a rare
a moonbow as if it were a rainbow. is filled with searchlights, a weird effect that is one three-planet conjunction (the
of the few attractions of frigid winter weather. tight triangle over the house).
HALOES The planets, in order of
ianetariums and observatories often receive calls
GLORIES AND CORONAS brightness, are: Venus, Jupiter
from people reporting unusual rings of light around Glories and coronas are coloured rings formed when and Mars. Photograph by
the sun or the moon. Solar and lunar haloes are as light is by water droplets or ice crystals.
diffracted Terence Dickinson (28mm f/2;

common as rainbows but are not nearly as well The corona is a circular glow immediately around 20 seconds with ISO 1600).
known. They are caused by light passing through the sun or the moon, usually with a diameter of no Top right: The zodiacal light
hexagon-shaped ice crystals. Unlike rainbows, most more than 1 degrees. It is often plain white but at is a pyramid-shaped glow that

halo phenomena are centred around the sun or the times can be a series of coloured rings— diffraction can remain in the sky for about
moon, although a few rare examples of ice-crystal rings— much like those found around star images in half an hour after evening
refraction manifest themselves opposite the sun. a telescope. In order for a corona to form, the sun twilight ends. In the northern
Haloes are usual ly a cold-weather phenomenon but or the moon must be embedded in a light haze; hemisphere, it is best seen
can occur anytime the sky covered with high-
is when there are distinct clouds nearby, the clouds in the western sky during
altitude cirrus clouds or icy haze. The most com- are sometimes fringed with iridescent colours— February and March from
mon halo is a ring of light 22 degrees from the sun these are part of the corona. latitudes of less than 40
or the moon. A much larger and fainter circle can The glory, a similar effect, occurs around the point degrees. It can also be seen
sometimes be seen 46 degrees from the sun. opposite the sun. Your best chance of seeing a glory in the predawn eastern sky
Sundogs (formally called parhelia) appear as is from an aircraft. Sit on the side of the plane away during September and Octo-
bright spots, sometimes coloured, on either side of from the sun. As you break through the nearby ber. In this photograph, taken
the sun. (At night, look for the rare moondogs.) shadow on the more dis-
clouds, look for the plane's from southern California in
When the sun is low, sundogs are 22 degrees from tant clouds below. The shadow may be surrounded March 1991, the zodiacal light
the sun and show up as intense areas on the inner by coloured rings. A form of glory known by its Ger- extends from near Venus up
halo. When the sun is higher in the sky, sundogs are man name, Heiligenschein, can sometimes be seen to the Pleiades star cluster.
located just outside the inner halo. as a glow of light around the shadow of your own Photograph by Terence
The next most common halo phenomenon is the head when it is projected onto a dewy lawn or low- Dickinson (28mm f/2; 45
circumzenithal arc, a rainbowlike arc high in the sky lying fog in the morning. seconds driven, ISO 1600).
Bottom: Any unobstructed
eastern horizon the direction
PHENOMENA OF THE SETTING SUN to watch
is

for the Earth's shadow

after sunset. In this photo-
You have driven out to a hilltop site, anxious for beyond the familiar red undersides of clouds that graph, the shadow's edge is

a night under the stars. The sun is going down, everyone notices. the pink horizontal band. The
and you are busy setting up your telescope gear. darkness below the band is the
But wait. Take a moment to watch the sunset. It
THE GREEN FLASH shadow projected onto the
is one of nature's best sky shows, and close inspec- As the sun sets, its disc usually dims and reddens atmosphere. Photograph by
tion will reveal some beautiful atmospheric effects enough that it can be safely observed with binocu- Alan Dyer.

101
 lars or a telescope. Usually. Exercise caution. If sunset or sunrise point and arc across the sky. They
you have to squint when looking atthe sun or your may converge opposite the sun. The diverging and
eyes water, then it is too bright. converging effect is due to perspective.
But on most occasions, as the sun sinks below
the horizon, disc will become very red and very
TWILIGHTS AND THE
EARTH'S SHADOW
its

flattened and distorted. Watch its edge — you will

likely see rimmed with yellow, blue or, most
it Once the sun has watch the changing colour of
set,

commonly, green. In the last moments, just before the sky. If the atmosphere is very clear, you will see

the sun disappears, a vivid green blob of light the western sky painted with the entire spectrum,
may appear at the top of the disc and perhaps break from reds and yellows near the horizon through
off. It will last only a second or two. This is the green-blues a few degrees up to deep blue-purples
green flash. at 1 to 20 degrees. Ifthe atmosphere is filled with
The green flash is caused by a prismlike disper- high-altitude dust or smoke from forest fires or dis-
sion of sunlight by our atmosphere. The bottom of tant volcanic eruptions, the post-sunset sky will be
the setting sun's discbecomes red, while the top be- redder than usual. Now, face the eastern sky. Look
comes yellow-green. The short-wavelength blue for a dark blue arc rising along the horizon. This is
light becomes so scattered, there is little indication the Earth's shadow cast out across the atmosphere
of blue in the setting sun. The same effect can be and into space, the same shadow that intersects the
seen at sunrise just as the sun peeks above the hori- moon's orbit and creates a lunar eclipse when the
zon. To see the green flash, you must have a clear moon passes through it.
view of the true flat, distant horizon, over either land As the sun sets farther below the horizon, the
The Soviet space station or water (a water horizon is best). Earth's shadow climbs higher in the east. It is easi-
Mir produced a briglit streak est to see when the sun is about five degrees below
during a 20-second time
CREPUSCULAR RAYS
the horizon. As the sky darkens, the boundary of the
exposure. Mir often appears as When the sun sets or rises from behind distant hills Earth's shadow becomes invisible, but it is still there,
luminous as the brightest stars or clouds, another effect can appear: crepuscular evidenced by its effect on orbiting satellites.

as it cruises across the sky in rays. The rays are usually seen as shafts of sunlight
about two minutes.
SATELLITES
It has beaming down through holes in a cloud deck. They
become a familiar sight to are especially evident when rays from the setting or Take anyone out under a truly dark sky, and the
around the world.
stargazers risingsun are interrupted by mountains or clouds. thing which impresses that person most, after the
Photograph by Frank Dempsey. They then appear as shafts that spread out from the sheer number of stars, is the fact that things are

102
 1

moving up there. Apart from aircraft— identifiable against the dark night sky. At the time of the sum-
by engine noise, flashing lights, multiple lights or mer solstice, people living at northern latitudes can
lowtrajectory— some si lent, steadily glowing, star- see satellites crisscrossing the sky all night long.
like objects cruise across the sky: satellites. How quickly a satellite crosses the sky depends
There are literally thousands of satellites, spent on its altitude— the higher the altitude, the slower
boosters and chunks of debris circling Earth. (By the it moves. A satellite can often take two minutes or
late 1 980s, the number of orbiting artificial objects more to traverse the sky. Such objects usually travel
biggerthan 10 centimetres exceeded 7,000.) Spend from west to east, but polar-orbiting satellites (or
any ti me looki ng through a telescope, and you wi 1 high-inclination spacecraft like spy satellites) can
see them zipping across the field of view. Even move from north to south or south to north.
through a telescope, resemble stars. That
satellites There are some interesting satellite phenomena
is how they appear to the unaided eye too. to watch for. Objects that are tumbling often pulse
Satellites in low Earth orbit (160 to
1,600 kilo- in brightness. Sometimes, they flash briefly as the

metres up) often appear as bright as first- or second- sunlightflaresoftsome reflective surface. Now and
magnitude stars. The U.S. and Soviet space shuttles, then, two or more objects can be seen travelling
some American reconnaissance satellites and the together. Satellites frequently fade out halfway
Soviet Mir space station are very large and can be- down the sky — this is caused by the object entering
come as bright as magnitude - 1 or - 2. The U.S. the Earth's shadow; it has orbited into the planefs A fireball (brilliant meteor)
shuttle is usually flown in an orbit at an inclination nightside and has just experienced a sunset. Very slashing the sky over Australia
of no more than 30 degrees or so; if you ve at a
I i lati- rarely, you might be the serendipitous witness of was captured during a lengthy
tude of more than 40 degrees North, it will not come a satellite reentering the atmosphere as a blazing time exposure with a wide-
far enough north to pass over your location. A few fireball. This happens somewhere on Earth almost angle lens. Some astrophotog-
types of shuttle missions, such as military or Earth- everyday, but if you see one reentry in your lifetime, raphers who have taken
observation, require a high-inclination orbit that consider yourself lucky. However, most brief night thousands of pictures have
allows the spacecraft to be seen from most of fireworks displays are due to pieces of natural never caught a bright meteor.
the planet. debris burning up in the atmosphere- meteors. Similarly, unlucky obser\'ers
Satellites are best observed between one and two always seem to be looking the
hours after sunset or before sunrise. The sun is then
METEORS wrong way and see their
below the horizon earthbound observers, but at
for Someone once estimated about 1 ,000 tonnes
that shadow instead of the fireball
the satellite's great altitude, the sun is still shining. of d ust and rock enter the Earth's atmosphere every at its best. Photograph by
The satellite reflects the sunlight, making it visible day. A particle about the size of a sand grain will pro- Cordon Carradd.

103
 duce a typical meteor (a falling, or shooting, star to from solar radiation. Dust and debris encased in the
nonastronomers) as it penetrates the atmosphere ice for five billion years since the formation of the
and incinerates. A dazzlingly bright, shadow-cast- solar system are released to drift into space, and
ing meteor slashing across the starry dome might be some eventually plunge into the Earth's atmosphere
as large as a baseball, but these are rare. You will as meteors. A few rare large meteors come from the
be lucky to see more than one or two in a lifetime asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. These are
of recreational astronomy. literally chips off the large rocky objects that orbit
Most meteoric material comes from old comets in thiszone by the thousands.
spreading a trail of dusty debris around the solar sys- During a prolonged watch on any given night,
tem. When a comet approaches the sun to within you will inevitably see a handful of meteors appear
the orbit of Mars, its icy surface begins to vaporize randomly across the sky. Astronomers call them

During the excellent

Ceminid meteor shower on
December 13-14, 1990, more
than 200 meteors were visible
from Terence Dickinson 's
observing site in eastern
Ontario. One
of them was
caught passing near the
Pleiades and Hyades star
clusters. Mars is the bright
object near the Pleiades
(35mm f/2; 2 minutes driven,
ISO 1600).

104
sporadics. The typical meteor, magnitude 1 to 4, is Geminids, it is in Gemini. But constellation buffs
a brief streak of light lasting only asecond or two, might wonder about another shower called the
the classic "falling star." A mag-
bright meteor, at Quadrantids, named for the defunct constellation
nitude - 1 might travel more slowly over a longer
, Quadrans, the Mural, a pattern once located in
path and be visible for two or three seconds. Such the Draco-Bootes area.
a meteor often leaves an ionized trail that glows The converging of meteor trails is due to perspec-
long after the meteor itself has burned up and faded. tive; Earth is actually passing through a parallel

Any meteor brighter than -4, the brightness of stream of meteors, but their paths in the sky can be
Venus, is called a fireball. more than 1 60 ki lometres long. Since a meteoi^s end
point is closer to the Earth's surface than its begin-
METEOR SHOWERS ning point, we
observe the same effect as that
Next and bright comets, the celestial
to eclipses formed by railroad tracks or any other parallel lines
events that receive the most publicity are meteor seen stretching off into the distance. Shower me-
showers. These are predictable annual events dur- teors can appear anywhere in the sky. Meteors seen
ing which, foroneortwo nights, the normal sparse near the radiant are often short and slow; meteors
count of meteors jumps to around 20 to 80 meteors far away from the radiant are faster and leave length-
per hour. There are about 1 major meteor showers ier trai Is. A meteor that appears head-on right at the

each year. The best known by far are the Perseids radiant looks like a brief starlike flash.
(August 11-12) and the Geminids (December 1 3- A common practice of veteran meteor watchers
1 4). They produce the highest number of meteors is to wait until after midnight (1 a.m. daylight sav-
and some of the brightest. ing time). More meteors, both shower and sporadic,
During a meteor shower. Earth is crossing the grace the skies of the post-midnight hours. At that
orbit of a comet, passing through the dust left in time, the side of Earth we are on is turned in the
the wake of the comefs previous trips around the direction of our planet's orbital motion around the
sun. The Perseids are thought to be the flotsam left sun. We face "into the wind." Any meteoric debris
behind by Comet Swift-Tuttle (see caption). The we run into hits the atmosphere with greater speed
Geminids were recently identified as debris strewn and produces a brighter, hotter trail.

along the orbit of the asteroid Phaethon, which is A night spent watching a meteor shower inevita-
more likely a tailless, fizzled-out comet. bly prompts the question: Do these meteors ever
Meteor showers tend to be a disappointment for hit Earth? The answer is a qualified no. No meteor

many first-time viewers, especially if the news me- shower debris has ever been known to strike the
dia publicize one that occurs when the moon isvisi- Earth's surface. Since shower meteors are made of
ble. A good shower like the Perseids or Geminids fine,crumblycometdust, they probably all burn up
will produce only one meteor per minute. Of high in the atmosphere at altitudes of 60 to 120

course, meteors never appear on a precise one-per- kilometres. Of course, everyone has heard of me-
minute schedule. Even at the peak of a shower, sev- teorites, the correct name for objects that do hit

eral minutesmaygoby without any meteor; butall Earth. These rocky chunks have a different origin
of a sudden, there will be a flurry of six or seven than most meteors; they are the fragments of aster-
within a minute or two, then nothing again for 5 or oids that have collided somewhere between the or-
1 minutes. Some showers can try one's patience. bits of Mars and Jupiter.
In the late 1980s, the Perseids put on wonderful If you see a bolide— a meteor that becomes so

shows, but their ntensity varies from year to year de-

i bright it lights up the ground like daylight, lasts sev-
pending on the moon's phase and on whether the eral seconds and seems to break into pieces as it
showeKs peak occurs during dark hours. travels— it is possible that parts of it could survive to
For any shower to be seen at its best, the site must the surface. Report it to your local planetarium, ob-
be dark with no moon in the sky. The observing servatory or college astronomy department. Note Last seen in 1862, Comet
equipment is simple: a lawn chair and perhaps the meteor's direction of travel, height in degrees Swift-Tuttle, the source of
some favourite music. Just sit back and watch the and the directions of the start and end points. the famous August Perseid
skies. If you are with longtime amateurs, you will Bolides, or exploding meteors, are rare, and while meteors, returned to the
hear 'TIME!" yelled out with every meteor spotted; many do not produce meteorites, your report could Earth's vicinity in 1992. Swift-
it becomes an automatic reaction -a useful habit for help pin down an important find. But how do you Tuttle reached fifth magnitude
sessions when someone is recording the time of distinguish a natural bolide from a reentering artifi- m the evening sky and sported
each meteor seen by a team of observers. cial satellite? Experienced observers have found that a two-degree tail visible in
The first thing you will notice about shower satellites burn up more slowly; they last longer (at Photographed on
binoculars.
meteors is that thei r trai Is poi nt back to the same spot least 30 seconds) and traverse a greater angle 1 00 ( November 79, 1992. by Terence
in the sky. For the Perseids, this radiant point is in degrees or more) than do bolides. Even very bright Dickinson using a 300mm f/2.8
the constellation Perseus, hence the name. For the bolides have a quick burnout. lens and Scotch Chrome 400 film.

105
 "counterglov/' in comes from sunlight
German.) It

scattering off meteoric dust beyond the Earth's or-

bit. Late March to early Apri and early October are
I

the best times for detecting it, since it is then pro-

jected onto star-poor regions. Seeing the gegen-
schein is a naked-eye observing challenge. Even
more difficult is the zodiacal band, a stream of light
connecting the eastern and western zodiacal pyra-
mids to the gegenschein. Needless to say, if you can-
not see either, you will not see the zodiacal band.

AURORAS
Northern observers are often treated to (some say
plagued by) the northern lights, or aurora borealis.
Auroras can be the most entertaining of all the
naked-eye celestial phenomena, providing light
shows that rival the best laser-show effects. Auroras
usually appear first as greenish bands of light low
along the northern horizon. During a spectacular
display, the aurora climbs high into the sky, filling
the heavens with ripply curtains and streamers. An
aurora can reach up to the zenith, forming a coronal
burst that looks like the tunnel effect at the end of
Ifmeteor watchi ng appeals to you, then with any the classic science fiction movie 2001: A Space
luck, you will be in for an experience of a lifetime Odyssey. Sometimes, the aurora turns into patches
on November 18, 1999. On that night, a meteor and off over the sky. The predom-
of light pulsing on
storm— one of astronom/s rarest events— may inant green colour, at a wavelength of 557.7
occur. Roughly every 33 years, the normally unex- nanometres, is the result of glowing oxygen atoms;
citing Leonids peak. In 1 833, 1 866 and 1 966, there very energetic auroras exhibit red tints that come
were spectacular super-showers featuring several from a much fainter emission line of atomic oxygen,
dozen meteors per second, if the Leonids perform at 630.0 nanometres. Ionized nitrogen can also
as they did inthoseyears, they will provide a fitting add reds, violets and blues.
celestial show to end the 20th century. Auroras are a common sight in Alaska, in Cana-
da's northern territories and Prairie Provinces and
ZODIACAL LIGHT in northern Ontario and Quebec, where up to 200

A much more subtle effect of interplanetary dust displays a year are visible. In Europe, extreme north-
can be seen in the evening skies of spring and the ern Norway and Sweden record similar numbers.
morning skies of fall in both hemispheres. On a In the northern United States and southern Canada,

moonless night, wait until the bright glow of twilight the skies shimmer with auroras a few dozen times
has the western sky. If your site is dark, look for
left a year. The east and west coasts of North America
a faint pyramid-shaped glow stretching 20 to 30 and the southern United States have auroras 5 to 1
degrees above the horizon. It is fainter than the times a year. A rare super-aurora can extend as far
brightest parts ofthe Mi Iky Way and is often taken south as Mexico and the Caribbean, but this occurs
forthelastvestigesofatmospherictwilight. But the only once every 5 to 1 years.
glow is from sunlight reflecting off interplanetary In the populated parts of Europe, despite the rela-
dust in solar orbit around the inner parts of the so- tively high geographic latitude, auroras are rarely
lar system. It is known as the zodiacal light, so called seen compared with the equivalent latitudes in

because it appears along the zodiac, or the ecliptic. North America. Canada and the northern United
MA bright aurora is a common The closer you are to the equator, the better your States are much closer to the magnetic north pole,
sight in Yellowknife, in the chance of seeing the light pyramids, although on located in the Canadian high-Arctic islands. Auroras
Northwest Territories. In fact, clear nights, sharp-eyed observers as far north as form in an oval-shaped zone with a radius of roughly
shows are so
the celestial light 60 degrees can pick them out. 2,400 kilometres centred on the magnetic north
frequent that Japanese and Much tougher to see are the other zodiacal light pole. Oddly enough, the Earth's true geographic
European tourists are now effects: the zodiacal band and the gegenschein. The North Pole gets no more auroras than do the north-
travelling to Canada specif- latter appears as a very large (about 1 degrees wide) ern Prairie Provinces. The same situation exists in
view them. Photo-
ically to and very subtle brightening of the sky at the point the southern hemisphere, where the aurora australis
graph by Ralph Cross. directly opposite the sun. (Gegenschein means forms around the south magnetic pole, in Antarc-

106
tica. Butthere are few populated landmasses under- tors, beaming intense currents of energy onto the
neath the southern auroral zone, making the south- Earth's rarefiedatmosphere at altitudes of 1 50 to 500
ern lights a celestial event infrequently observed, ex- kilometres. The atmosphere acts as a television
cept by research scientists and penguins. screen, glowing when it is hit by the electron beams.
Auroras are commonly thought to occur most of- Atypical aurora requires an energy input of about
ten in winter. However, statistically, March, April, 1 ,000 billion watts, hundreds of times greater than

September and October host the best auroral dis- the output of the largest hydroelectric power plants.
plays. Brilliant auroras can also appear in the sum- During an intense display, up to one million am-
mer skies. The trigger is a bombardment of the up- peres of current flow along an aurora, enough to set
per reaches of the atmosphere by electrons and up fluctuating magnetic fields on Earth. This in turn The Creat Aurora of March
protons that originate in flares on the sun. When a produces currents flowing along extended electri- 12-13, 1989, was so dazzling
solar flare explodes, it can eject into space streams cal conductors such as Arctic pipelines and power- when it reached its climax that
of charged particles that saturate the complex radi- grid networks, tripping breakers and causing all the camera settings used to
ation belts surrounding our planet. The exact pro- manner of havoc. In March 1989, an intense super- take this picture were visible
cess is only now becoming understood, but it seems aurora knocked out Quebec's entire power grid. without a flashlight. Photo-
that the radiation belts can act as particle accelera- For many years, people have sworn that they have graph by Terence Dickinson.

107
heard auroras. They tell of swishing and crackling ous sky-glow phenomena that extend from the
sounds that change as the aurora moves. No sound Arctic. While auroras can occasionally invade
waves can possibly be generated in the near vac- southern climates, the northern phenomenon of
uum 1 50 kilometres up. Also, no audio device has noctilucent clouds cannot. They are usually con-
ever recorded this mysterious sound. If it exists at all, fined to latitudesbetween 45 and 60 degrees North.
the best explanation seems to be that the surface- As the name suggests, noai lucent clouds are seen
induced magnetic fields are detected as sound by at night. They look like silvery, bluish white bands
natural dipole radio receivers acting like the old across the northern horizon, with an opalescent
crystal radio sets. Even people's tooth fillings have glow unlike any other clouds. The strange appari-
been implicated as possible detectors. tions appear only around summer solstice, when the
sun is a mere 6 to 16 degrees below the horizon,
NOCTILUCENT CLOUDS even at midnight. Noctilucent clouds occur at an al-
Observers living north of 45 degrees latitude have titude of 80 kilometres, five times higher than 99
some major astronomical disadvantages: the rich percent of our planet's weather systems. This amaz-
star fields of the southern Mi Iky Way are low in the ing height puts them well above the stratosphere,
sky, if not out of sight; the summer planets always at the very fringes of the Earth's atmosphere.
skim the southern horizon and are affected by bad These are not normal clouds. They may be made
seeing; and the cold winters, followed all too rapidly of ice crystals precipitated around dust from incom-
by the short, twilight-plagued nights of summer, cut ing meteors or around charged atomic particles in
down the prime observing seasons. But observers the ionosphere itself. But so far, satellite and rocket
in Canada also have a few pluses, notably the vari- data have failed to provide an answer. If you are at

RECORDING YOUR OBSERVATIONS

By Russ Sampson helps when positioning features or objects. Once
On June 3, 1989, was walking in a park near
I outside, record the date, time, observing
my home when happened to glance skyward
I conditions and the instrument used. Write things
and saw an elaborate and peculiar solar halo. down as you see them; try not to rely too much
The sky was full of colourful circles and arcs. I on your memory. Instead of finishing your sketch
made a quick sketch in a small notebook carry I on the spot, draw outlines of features and use a
and later produced a finished drawing. One of numerical scale for brightness. For planetary
the arcs was an extremely rare and mysterious one to five, where five is the
detail, try a scale of
eight-degree halo. Trying to describe, let alone darkest. The same method can be used for deep-
accurately remember, this event from memory sky drawings.
would have been difficult at best. When drawing large-sky phenomena, such as
There are many reasons why amateur a solar halo or an aurora, use an extended fist to
astronomers record sky phenomena, but the estimate angular size or separation. A bare fist,

main one is simply as a personal reminder of viewed at between 8 and 1

arm's length, is

what was seen when. Drawings, data tabulations degrees from little finger to thumb. For some
and written notes have the added benefit of observers, these quick field notes are enough, i

sharpening an observer's skills. Whether am I recopy and finish my drawings onto the pages of
sketching the planet Jupiter or jotting down a a bound artist's sketchbook as soon after the
series of variable-star estimates, I keep my observation as possible.
records in a small coil-bound artisfs sketch pad. For finished planetary sketches, try a soft
The thick paper withstands the effects of dewing pencil, a white drafting eraser (the pencil-shaped
better than ordinary notepaper. A small paper erasers are the best) and a blending stump. As its

clip prevents the pages from flapping in the name suggests, a blending stump is used to
wind. On cold winter nights, a pencil inserted smear or blend graphite onto paper. It costs less
through a piece of one-inch wooden dowelling than a dollar and is sold in art-supply stores.
provides a better grip with gloves on. One of the most difficult aspects of planetary
Preparation before going outside may be sketching is making a realistic outline of the
necessary. If you plan to observe a planet, draw planet. Saturn's complex system of rings, Jupiter's
its outline. For deep-sky observing, draw a circle equatorial bulge and the phases of the inner
to mark your eyepiece's field of view. Dividing planets are very difficult to render in a lifelike
this circle or planetary outline into quadrants manner. A technique used by modern graphic

108
a high northern latitude near the end ofjune or early D Daylight Planets: Venus is easily visible in full
July, be sure to look north at midnight. Amid the lin- daylight if you know exactly where to look. Much
gering glow of twilight, you may see the pearly more difficult, but not impossible, daytime targets
white streamers of noctiiucent clouds. are Mercury and Jupiter.

OTHER NAKED-EYE PHENOMENA D Naked-Eye Sunspots: When the sun is dimmed at

sunset or with the help of a No. 14 welders' filter,
The sky glows and sights described so far can you might be able to pick out the occasional giant
only be seen with the unaided eye. There are many sunspot group. The Chinese did it thousands of
other celestial sights for which binoculars or tele- years ago.
scopes may be used but are not essential. Here is nOccultations: The disappearance of bright planets
a quick checklist: and behind the moon is a rare form of eclipse.
stars
n Planet Positions: Simply following the changing D Novas: One nova flared up to second magnitude
positions of the naked-eye planets can be reward- in 1 975, adding an extra star to Cygnus. Learn the
ing. The crescent moon near Venus or a grouping constellations, and one day, you may observe a star
of bright planets in the twilightis one of the sky's that does not belong.
best nocturnal shows. To this list, we could add eclipses, comets, naked-
D Mercury and Uranus: Seeing Mercury or Uranus eye variable stars such as Algol, the Milky Way it-
without optical aid requires a careful search at the self and a host of clusters and nebulas large and
right placeand at the right time. A surprising num- bright enough to show up to the unaided but obser-
ber of amateur astronomers have never seen either vant eye. Not owning a telescope should not pre-
planet, with or without optical aid. vent anyone from enjoying astronomy.

outline the planet and a wider brush to fill in the

background.
Colour drawings can be done using pencil
crayons, since they are both inexpensive and
easy to use. The best and most widely available
are Prismacolor Crayons by Berol. The choice of
paper is important. Smooth papers, like loose-
leaf, are not abrasive enough to take the pigment
off the crayon.
The shape of the crayon tip is also critical to
keep the colours diffuse and uniform. With a 04 at HBi. A' 2»* ac V\.

sharp knife, sculpt the tip of the crayon into a

broad, slightly rounded stump. For large colour
designers can be adapted to make a planet fields like thebackground sky, use a gentle •a^ Vi^ +
4L... \^^ (S.M

outline. First, find an image of the planet in its circular motion, keeping the broad face of the
proper phase or orientation, such as the line crayon flat on the paper. If you apply only gentle
drawings of planet discs that appear in every pressure, the crayon will produce a soft
issue of the Astronomical Calendar. Then airbrushlike quality. To colour small markings or
photocopy selected images, and cover the back features with sharp edges, angle the crayon tip
side of the photocopy with a thick layer of pencil off its broad face to its edge. For deep-sky
graphite. Carefully tape the photocopy onto your objects, try a white pencil crayon on black
sketchbook, and trace over the image with a pen construction paper.
or pencil. The graphite is transferred onto the Keep your ambitions and plans in perspective.
page in the form of an outline. The photocopies Attempting to draw the entire face of the moon
can be used over and over again. as seen through a telescope is unrealistic. Try
Dark planetary or lunar features are added sketching one interesting lunar feature at a time.
with the pencil and blending stump. Black areas, The satisfaction of having a "hard copy" of your
such as the background sky or shadows on the observation will be a reward in itself.
moon, can be applied using an opaque water- Russ Sampson is an astronomy educator and
colour called gouache. You will need at longtime amateur astronomer living in Edmon-
least two brush sizes — a very fine brush to ton, Alberta.

109
 CHAPTER EIGHT

Observing Conditions
Your Site
and Light Pollution

When our grandparents were children, the splen- from road lighting, as is often the case in other cities.
dour of a dark night sky thronged with stars and Such fixtures are also installed near all major air-
wrapped with the silky ribbon of the Milky Way was ports. Pilots say that roadway and building lights
as close as the back door. From almost any backyard beaming into their eyes are annoying and poten-
anywhere, whether city or country, the majesty of tially hazardous during landings.
the starry night sky was visible.
Not anymore. Giant domes of bilious yellow
MORE THAN ASTRONOMY
light cover every North America. At night,
city in
AT STAKE
major metropolises such as Los Angeles, Chicago, If stargazing were the exclusive casualty of the
Dallas and Toronto are visible 50 kilometres away
1 growth in night lighting, a call for action might be
as glows on the horizon. From 60 kilometres, they considered trivial. Butastronomy isjustpartof it. In

wreck most of the sky. Any closer, and the night is Canada and the United States, poorly designed or
no longer dark. badly installed outdoor lighting wastes electricity
We are not suggesting that night lighting is not worth more than $1 billion annually by producing
needed. Yet waste lighting is all around us. Parking light that streams into the sky, illuminating nothing
lots with no cars them are flood it all night, secu-
in I but airborne dust and water vapour.
rity lights pour into neighbours' windows rather than Municipal authorities, like most bureaucrats,
over the target area, and most streetlights are so in- resist change. Unshielded streetlamps are mass-
efficient that as much as 30 percent of their output produced and cheap, and they do the job. Why
spreads horizontally, reaching only the eyes of dis- change? People are accustomed to glaring street-
tant drivers and the above our heads.
air lights because that is all they have ever seen. "No-
At the request of astronomers and environmen- body's complaining to me about too much light,"
talists, a few cities, notably Tucson, Arizona, and one township engineer told us. "People want more
San Diego, California, have passed special ordi- light, not less." This attitude will change only when

nances that require all outdoor lighting to be effi- people are presented with alternatives and a reason
cient and task-oriented. Light fixtures are designed for change. Shielded lights are more efficient and,
to aim down to bathe the street, sidewalk, parking if used with low-pressure sodium lamps, are far less

stalls or other targets and not the sky. For this pur- expensive to operate in the long run. They are the
pose, every light is shielded. Drivers in Tucson and environmentally friendly alternative.
San Diego see the road instead of interfering glare "Yes, all that may be true," said the township en-

110
 Night lighting over eastern
North America has rendered
huge sectors of the region
unsuitable for many types of
backyard astronomy. This 7979
image from a U.S. Air Force
shows that streetlights
satellite
and other artificial lighting
from towns as small as 1,000
population are visible from an
altitude of 200 kilometres.
(New York City and Washing-
ton, D.C., are at centre right;
Detroit is at left edge.) To be
largely free of a city's light
pollution,you should be three
times fartheraway than the
diameter of the city's image
shown here. In many cases,
there is no easy escape.

Ill
 gineer, "but they cost more, they look dimmer, and vapour lamp dims the starscape for hundreds of
low-pressure sodium is ugly yellow. People don't metres in every direction. One of these lamps eight
like San Diego and Tucson residents readily ac-
it." kilometres away is as bright as Sirius, the brightest
cepted the new lights once they understood the rea- star in the night sky.
sons for the change. They developed a high level of Inefficient and wasteful outdoor lighting— light
awareness of wasteful lighting as the result of an ad- pollution — is an environmental issue whose time
vertising campaign conducted a few years ago by has come. Something must be done soon, primar-
both the city and environmental groups. i ly for energy efficiency but also to restrict light tres-

There are signs of a slow but definite change in pass and to preserve what little dark sky remains in

attitudes toward lighting. Sales of full-cutoff fixtures areas reasonably close to populated centres.
that redirect horizontal or higher beams to road level What can an individual do? Take a good look at
are growing every month. While researching this the outdoor lighting at your home or business, if it

chapter, we
spoke with several major outdoor- involves dusk-to-dawn security lights, calculate their
lighting suppliers.Most are convinced that shielded yearly operating cost. Electricity is not inexpensive
equipmentwill eventually take precedence in road- anymore. Can the job be done with less? Are the fix-
way lighting and assured us that there is a slowly tures shielded? For security, consider floodlights
growing commitment to eliminating the glare pro- with an infrared motion-detector switch. Infrared
duced by the old fixtures. systems use negligible electricity and, compared
Professional astronomers urge municipalities with all-night lighting, pay for themselves in a year
near their observatories to use low-pressure sodium or two. If the lighting is primarily decorative rather
lamps because the light's narrow spectrum can be than functional, put in smaller-wattage lamps. Does
fi Itered out at the telescope more easily than other your outdoor light spill into your neighbours' yards
light sources. However, for what backyard astron- or windows? They may not appreciate it. Does a
omers enjoy doing, filters frequently are not ap- streetlight or other powerful light reduce your qual-
propriate. Containing the overall brightness of the ity of life or prevent you from sleeping? Complain.
sky and eliminating the direct interference from All lights can be shielded. Unwanted light is in
bad
specific lights are the main issues. In that regard, thesame nuisance category as a blaring stereo in the
shielding is more important than the type of light. neighbourhood. Several annoyed citizens have
The inspiration of a dazzling starry night is un- won such cases in small-claims court.
known to most children today and is a dim mem- Above all, share your telescope and the wonders
ory to seniors who saw the spectacle from the front of the universe with as many people as possible. In

porch in their youth. We

cannot go back to the an outdoor situation at night, gently point out the
"good old days," but as with any other aspect of our reality of light pollution. Nearly everyone is open
planet's natural heritage, we should save at least to learning more about environmental issues. Do
some of the night sky for future generations. not preach; simply inform. Most people are recep-
tive.They may even turn off their lights for you.
THE ERODING SKY more information on light pollution, contact
For
There isno way to reveal again the stars over the the International Dark Sky Association, a nonprofit
city as our grandparents once saw them. But now, organization established to advance awareness of
the situation is deteriorating deep in the country too. the problem, at 3545 N. Stewart Avenue, Tucson,
A single dusk-to-dawn pole-mounted mercury- AZ 85716.
I

This typical parking-lot light

YOUR OBSERVING SITE
is a glaring example of light Astronomy can be conducted from just about any- binoculars, he spied a fuzzy patch he knew did not
pollution. At least half of the where. A view of the sky, however restricted or belong. It was a comet, his fifth discovery.
lightoutput never illuminates veiled by lights and haze, still shows something. Oc- Alcock's comet-hunting prowess suggests that
the intended target; instead, it casionally, astonishing results emerge under even ideal weather is not a prerequisite either. The Brit-

floods horizontally and sky- the most adverse conditions. English comet and ish Isles are notorious for cloudy conditions. Per-
ward. Apart from annoying nova hunter George Alcock proved this in 1983 severance lies behind Alcock's success.
the neighbours, this is purely when he took a break during an outdoor observing Ideally, of course, all backyard astronomers

wasted energy that amounts to session to have a cup of tea in his kitchen. Sitting at would like to live on a mountain where the sky is
hundreds or thousands of the table, he picked up his binoculars and began clear more than 200 nights a year. Realistically,
dollars over the of the
life scanning through a closed window a familiar field however, even if the sky were perfectly clear that of-
installation. Photograph by of stars in the constellation Draco. Resting his el- ten, few of us would be able to make full use of it.

Tom Campbell. bows on the back of a chair to steady his 1 5 x 80 The frustration arises when nature's schedule and

112
the observer's do not harmonize. Take a cue from would have given up without
in a similar situation

Alcock: accept the local weather, and make the best even By making the best of what is at hand,
trying.
of it. Think of how the professional astronomer must Molczan has conducted a programme of artificial-
feel when, after advance on
booking time a year in satellite observations that has led to the recovery of
one of the world's largest telescopes and travelling several "lost" satellites as well as to the refinement
thousands of ki lometres to use it, the site is clouded of the orbits of others.
out. It happens to everybody. Some apartment and condominium dwellers may
In any case, the chief drawback is usually not the even be limited to observing through a window. Lights from the city of
number of clearnights; it is local observing condi- This is still better than nothing, although the window Tucson, Arizona, produced a
tions. Most of us live in or near urban areas where glassalways introduces some distortion and/or mul- modest glow in 1959 when the
light intensity grows worse every year. In the centre tipleimaging to binocular and telescopic viewing. top photograph was taken
of a large city, the light pollution can be so intense Observers in suburban situations can position from Kitt Peak National
that only the moon, Venus, Jupiter and a few first- theirtelescopesinapartoftheiryardthatisshielded Observatory, 80 kilometres
magnitude stars poke th rough Yet even heavy light
. from direct interference from surrounding porch away. By 1980, it had become
interference can be circumvented to a degree. and street illumination, where theireyes have an op- a menacing source of light
portunity to adapt to the semidarkness. Typically, pollution, bottom. But
OBSERVING FROM THE CITY fourth-magnitude stars can be seen from the suburbs astronomers were already
Amateur astronomer Ted Molczan lives in a 33- of a large city, and fifth-magnitude stars can be seen working with city and state
storey apartment a few blocks from the heart of from the outer reaches of a smaller metropolis. Of officials. In recent years, strict

Toronto. From the roof of the building, with the course, it depends on local conditions, but once a controls on light pollution
city lights blazing upward, Molczan has seen spot is found that is protected from direct glare or have been successful in
fifth-magnitude stars in the overhead region and action is taken to block such light (by erecting a tem- preventing further deteri-
even a vague hint of the Milky Way in Cygnus at porary or permanent fence or planting a row of oration of the sky. National
the zenith. Using 1 x 80 binoculars, he has no
1 dense evergreen trees), the result may be surprising. Optical Observatories
trouble seeing ninth-magnitude stars. Most people Suppose, for example, that the local observing site photograph.

113
 shows 4.5-magnitucle stars at the zenith, third mag- the same deep-sky targets as a 3-inch telescope
nitude at 40 degrees altitude and nothing much be- under black sixth-magnitude skies. But the resolu-
low 25 degrees. What does this offer? Lots. The tion of the 8-inch instrument is unchanged, so what
moon, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn are bright and is seen can be studied in greater detail. However,

largely unaffected by light pollution. An atmo- such comparisons should not be carried too far.
spheric inversion layer induced by big<ity pollution Much depends on the specific object being ob-
sometimes steadies the air so that seeing is occasion- served. The use of light-pollution filters changes the
ally better than in the country. Metropolitan tele- equation too, but only by a limited amount. Light-
From the San Gabriel scopic views of Jupiter or Mars often show as much pollution filters make nebulas easier to see but can-
Mountains north of Los detai as those at a dark location
I and make wonder- not transform urban skies into rural dark-site skies.
Angeles, the lights of the huge ful showpiece objects for visitors to your telescope.
metropolis throw up a vast Other kinds of observing, such as looking at lu-
EVALUATING THE OBSERVING SITE
light-pollution dome that nar occupations and bright variable stars, examin- When you are considering a telescope purchase,
thwarts thousands of amateur ing the brighter star clusters and tracking the paths the proposed observing site is of paramount impor-
astronomers and wastes of asteroids, are affected by urban conditions to tance. Unless there is absolutely no alternative, do
millions of dollars a year in some extent but are general ly possible from moder- not rely exclusively on an ideal but remote site.

electricity. If the city lights ately light-polluted environments. The toll exacted Carefully evaluate the types of observing that can
were properly shielded, they by urban glow is a brightening of the sky back- be done from a site near home as well as the con-
would not be visible as point ground; the telescope's resolution is not affected. venience of the site. Consider the following:
sources from such a distance. For example, an 8-inch telescope under suburban D Is the local site limited to binoculars, or can a tele-
Photograph by Leo Henzl. fourth-magnitude skies will be limited to roughly scope be used also?

114
D If is useful atthe local site, howfarwill
atelescope
it have be carried?
to
n How many pieces must the instrument be broken
into for setup at the local observing site versus the
remote site?
n Will the telescope or its largest component fit into
the vehicle that will be used?
n How many trips will have to be made back and
forth to the car or house during a typical telescope
setup?
DCan the equipment safely be left unattended

while the telescope is assembled and disassembled?

(If not, can everything be carried at once?)
D Is power available for the clock drive (if ap-
plicable)?
D Considering the above, is one telescope suited to
both the local and the remote site?
A telescope that can be carried outside without
being taken apart will be used more frequently than
one requiring a several-step assembly and disassem-
bly. At first, it might seem like a minor point, but the
process of setting up and breaking down the instru-
ment looms as a bigger factor once the initial eupho-
ria of the new telescope has worn off. The "parapher- serve an aurora, meteor shower or bright comet
nalia effect" makes the pieces seem to grow larger is always a gamble. But sometimes, it is the only
and more awkward each time the telescope is trans- way— especially in the case of a comet near the ho-
ported to the observing site — local or remote. Fre- rizon or some other specialized quarry that needs
quently, the solution is two telescopes: one suited viewing geometry. In general, though, a
specific
for the less-than-ideal local site and another for use predetermined safe and dark site, free of intruders,
at a remote dark site. should be a long-term goal. Begin with enquiries at
the local astronomy club, or if there is no club, ask
THE REMOTE OBSERVING SITE
other amateur astronomers in the area. Find out
Few people live where sixth-magnitude stars are where they go for dark skies. They may have a pri-

from their backyards. Most amateur astron-

visible vate observatory in an ideal location, or they may
omers have to hunt for such a site, and reaching it have found a public park or a campsite that has
can bean expedition if you live in or near a city of an area perfect for stargazing.
more than a million people. Travel ling for two hours What constitutes an ideal observing site? The Top: Despite the lights of
simply to get a reasonable view of the Milky Way Milky Way should be distinctly visible. Under the suburban Brisbane, Australia,
is, unfortunately, a commonplace experience. verybestconditions, the Milky Way has a textured veteran amateur astronomer
Well outside the city, there are still obstacles. appearance, with many levels of intensity and ob- Gregg Thompson built this
More and more homeowners have installed dusk- vious from dark nebulas. Second- and third-
rifts observing deck as an addition
to-dawn security lights that pump light horizontally magnitude stars should be visible less than five to his home to take advantage
into the corner of a sky observer's eye perhaps a degrees from the horizon, and binoculars should re- of thesite's convenience.

kilometre away. But beyond the aggravation of ru- veal stars right down to the true horizon. It is almost Photograph by Terence
ral farm and home lighting is the question of where impossible not to have at least one dome of light Dickinson.
to observe from once you are in the country. somewhere on the horizon from a nearby town or Above: The standard cobra-
Stopping on an infrequently travelled country a more distant city, but if the largest such dome is head streetlight, which use-
road is fine for binocular gazing, but it is far from in the northern sector of the sky (southern in the lessly spills up to 30 percent
ideal for setting up equipment that cannot be southern hemisphere), it will be least annoying. Ob- of its light horizontally, is a
retrieved and put in the car in a matter of seconds. jects in that direction will be visible near overhead product of the 1960s, before
There is a slight but very real danger of being mis- two seasons later. the emergence of environ-
taken for a trespasser or some form of lawbreaker. The specific terrain of the observing can in-
site mental awareness. New, full-

Amateur astronomers tel horror stories about being

I fluence sky conditions as well. Snow cover is the cutoff fixtures that efficiently
routed by suspicious landowners (who can blame worst situation, not just because it is cold but be- direct all of their light to the
them?) or, worse, by a carload of troublemakers. cause it reflects light. Even if there is little light pol- ground around them are
Heading out on your own and driving country lution, the starry sky itself illuminates the ground. available, but few munici-
roads in search of a good dark site from which to ob- When that light is reflected back toward its source, palities buy them.

115
 RATING YOUR OBSERVING SITE

How can you evaluate an observing site? n Local Light Pollution: A crucial factor. Zero
Experience is the best guide, but here is a points if you cannot avoid a local light as bright

you rate your site, if you

checklist that will help as themoon. Score 4 points for a site that
use more than one site, each should be assessed requires moving around to remain protected
separately. from light while observing. For a full 10 points,
D Convenience: If you can observe in comfort the brightest unobscured light should be fainter
from your own yard, take 5 points; 3 points for than Venus.
a short walk; 2 for a short drive; for an hour or D Horizon: A clear, flat horizon to the south
longer drive. earns 5 points. South obstructions higher than 30
n Ground Level:your site is outside a ground-
If degrees rate just 2 points. Similar obstructions in
Even from deep in the level entrance where your equipment is stored, all directions score 0.
country, it is almost impossible take 5 points. Take 3 points if car loading is n Insects: Mosquitoes are the enemy. Subtract
to escape light pollution required but no full flights of stairs are involved. up if they are predictably annoying
to 5 points
entirely. The glow seen here is D Privacy: No possibility of surprise for more than one month each year.
from a town with a population interruptions by people, animals or unwanted D Snow: Snow cover has no redeeming value in
of 5,000, 30 kilometres away. car lights is worth another 5 points. Score if astronomy. Apart from the cold weather that
Most people rarely see this you sometimes feel nervous at the site, accompanies it, snow reflects light and increases
many stars. Our natural n General Light Pollution: Score 10 if, on a good overall light pollution. Subtract 1 point for each
heritage of the dark night sky night,you can see magnitude 6.5 overhead, the month of likely snow cover at the site.
is rapidly being eroded. Most Milky Way is obvious and the dome of light Maximum possible score (for a site next to
children today are born into a from the nearest city bulges less than 10 degrees your home, at a perfectly dark location, with
world where the stars are the above the horizon. Score if you cannot see the little chance of snow or mosquitoes) is 40 points.

lastthing to be noticed at Milky Way at all or a star fainter than magnitude Any score over 20 should be considered
night, rather than the first. 5.0. Estimate values for intermediate conditions. perfectly acceptable for regular use.
Photograph by Terence
Dickinson.

116
it illuminates the dust and moisture particles in the

atmosphere from below. Undera blanket of snow,

observing sites rate at least half a magnitude worse
due to the reflected-skylight effect. Cold, crisp nights
may look good on first inspection, but the overall
brillianceof starry winter nights is partly an illusion
'47 "59
caused by the brightness of Orion and its star-rich
neighbour constellations.
The ideal dark site is an isolated, elevated clear-
ing in an area with fairly heavy vegetation, either
dense grass, scrub shrubbery or trees or a combina-
tion of these. Coniferous vegetation is preferable to
leafy trees because the former releases less moisture
into the atmosphere. A further advantage is the
skylight-absorbing qualities of dark vegetation. A
thick ground cover also acts as an insulating blan-
ket, slowly releasing the ground's heat at night and
protecting it during the day from soaking up as
much heat as would bare ground.
Desertsmay seem to be an ideal place from which •64
to observe, and in some respects, they are (lots of
dry, dew-free, clear nights), but the pale desert soil
has undesirable skylight-reflecting qualities, and the
large day-to-night temperature oscillations in des-
ert areas work against a stable atmosphere. The sky
may be clear, but layers of convection turbulence
can affect the stability of high-resolution planetary
images and the sharpness of stars.

CONVENTIONS AT DARK-SKY SITES

One significant sign that recreational astronomy has
come of age is the explosive growth in observing
conventions at good dark-sky sites. The agenda is
•88
to have fun observing and interacting with fellow 71 ••
'81
amateur astronomers. As recently as the mid-1 970s,
92
there was only one main convention, Stellafane, in 65 • I Polaris
•98
southern Vermont, but now there are four major 20 '91
conventions and a dozen smal ler ones. One of them 96*
should be within driving distance of your home.
63
Stellafane is North America's largest meeting of
amateur astronomers. Each summer, several thou-
sand enthusiasts gather for a weekend atop a gran- • •
ite named Stellafane, shrine to the stars. is
knoll It
• 64
the Mount Olympus of amateur astronomy, impres-
sive enough overwhelm the first-time visitor. It be-
to
gins with the driveup Breezy Hill Road — up and up,
until the pavement ends and the gravel begins; then swarm over the rocks, bulge out of the lecture tent
thegravel gives way to dirt, and it is no longer a road and devour thousands of hamburgers and hot dogs
but a tunnel through the woods. Eventual ly, the vis- while examining the display telescopes with gem
itor emerges from the poplar, pine and birch onto inspectors' eyes and, undoubtedly, a certain amount Using this chart, which
a sloping meadow, the Stellafane campground, of envy. Telescopes are set up
be judged for
to shows stars to 10th magnitude
mobbed with campers, automobiles and tents. The optical and mechanical performance. Other tele- in the vicinity of Polaris, you
focus of the convention is a crowded field of tele- scopes are assembled for viewing purposes alone can rate your local sky con-
scopes around the pink clubhouse. duringa meeting that runs from Friday evening un- ditions with binoculars or
The convention has grown from a tiny gathering til early Sunday morning. At one time, Stellafane unaided eyes. Magnitudes are
of 20 enthusiasts at its first meeting in 1926 to was a magnificent dark site, but as is happening al- given in tenths, with decimal
crowds of up to 4,000 people in recent years, who most everywhere, encroaching urbanization is be- points omitted (thus 54 = 5.4).

117
 THE MAGNITUDE SCALE I
ginning to take on the once pristine skies.
its toll

However, it still rates a B +

The brightness of a star— its magnitude— is rated on a Unlike Stellafane, most annateur-astronomy con-
scale that runs backward to what might be expected ventions at favourable observing sites are of recent
—the brighter the star, the lower its magnitude vintage. Some trace their roots to the tireless efforts
number. Each jump of one on the scale represents a of a single enthusiastic individual, such as Cliff
difference in brightness of 2.5 times; five magnitude Holmes, the driving force behind the Riverside
steps is equal to a brightness difference of 1 00 times. convention held each May near Big Bear Lake,
northeast of Los Angeles. Officially called the River-
Magnitudes Celestial Objects side TelescopeMakers Conference, the meeting fo-
cuses on telescope making, but not exclusively.
-27 """^^H ^sun'^HH^HHIIH Prominent amateur astronomers give talks on ob-
-13 moon serving techniques, astrophotography and the use
-4.2 Venus at its brightest SHU of equipment, as well as nuts-and-bolts telescope-
-2.9 Jupiter at its brightest making presentations.
-1.4
Oto +1
_^^ Sir! us (brightest star)

the 15 brightest stars

^^mH ing
An importantdrawingcard for the Riverside meet-
is the commercial sales area in which all major
-t- 1 to +6 the 8,500 naked-eye stars telescope manufacturers are represented, many
+6 to +8 deep-sky objects for binoculars with discount offerings. (Commercial exhibits are
-(- 6 to -1-11 bright deep-sky objects for prohibited at Stellafane.) Riverside is probably the
I
amateur telescopes best place to see the complete range of astronomi-
-Hl2to -M4 faint deep-sky objects for cal equipment currently available, along with cut-
amateur telescopes ting-edge innovations mounts and acces-
in optics,

m -(-

+ 18
1 5 to

to
4-

+22
1 7 objects visible in large
amateur telescopes
objects visible in large
^^^^H
sories.Crowds for the two-day convention number
in the thousands. The night skies are excellent.

However, since it is always held on the Memorial

professional telescopes Day weekend, the moon interferes some years.
+ 24 to +26 faintest objects imaged by The third big summer astronomy meeting is the
largest ground-based telescopes Texas 1 970s in May
Star Party, held since the late
at the Prude Ranch in southwest Texas near Fort
LIMITING MAGNITUDE! Davis. The longest and most remote meeting, it re-
quires the greatest commitment. It lasts for one week
The larger the aperture, the more light a telescope will and is a 2 Vi-hour drive from Midland or El Paso, the
gather and the fainter the object you can see. Here is nearest good air services, but it is the meeting with
what to expect, given excellent sky conditions and the greatest potential rewards for dark-sky-hungry
good optics. A well-trained eye can sometimes add up backyard astronomers.
to 0.8 magnitude to these values. The southern latitude (3 1 degrees North) and ex-
treme isolation of the site from major urban areas
Faintest provide some of the best skies in North America.
Aperture Aperture Magnitude Accommodation is a combination of campsite,
(inches) (mm) Visible ranch bunkhouses and on-site motel rooms. The
bunkhouses and motel rooms are usually reserved
well in advance of the convention. The Prude Ranch
is, in fact, a dude ranch, but it caters exclusively to
amateur astronomers for thatone week in May each
year. Numerous talks are scheduled for the after-
noons. If the sky is clear, the Texas Star Party is
nirvana for amateur astronomers.
each September in central Illinois,
Astrofest, held
is another major convention at a campsite with good

observing conditions. A weekend meeting that has

become the largest amateur-astronomy convention
in the Midwest, it always has an excellent range

of astronomical equipment displayed by both ama-

teurs and commercial exhibitors.
Other meetings at fine dark sites that are begin-
ning to draw large crowds are the Winter Star Party

118
in the Florida Keys (February); Starfest, near Mount tionon these and other meetings can be found three
Forest, Ontario (August); and the Mount Kobau Star to sixmonths in advance in Sky & Telescope and
Party in south-central British Columbia (August). Astronomy magazines. There is no better place than
Dates, locations and addresses for further informa- a star party for sharing enthusiasm for astronomy.

LIMITING-MAGNITUDE FACTORS
How faint are the dimmest stars visible through a all factors, experience is the most important. Visual
telescope? Itdependson much more than the instru- acuity varies from person to person, but the differ-
ment's aperture. Factors include seeing, the trans- ence seldom amounts to more than half a magnitude.
parency of the atmosphere at the observing site, the Young people generally have slightly more sen-
quality of the telescope's optics, their cleanliness, sitivity to objects at the threshold of vision, but vet-
the type of telescope, its magnification, the ob- eran observers who are in their fifties or older can
server's experience and use of averted vision and usually come within two-tenths of a magnitude of
the type of object being viewed. eyes 30 years younger. The ability of a youthful ob-
Many amateur-astronomy guidebooks deal with server's eyes to dilate to 7mm or 8mm, compared Left: In recent years, more
limiting magnitude in one or two short paragraphs with 6mm or less for more senior eyes, has no bear- than 2,000 people have reg-
and a table. The table lists a telescope aperture and ing on the equation — higher magnification, which ularly attended Stellafane, near
a corresponding limiting magnitude, not taking into reveals fainter objects by darkening the sky back- Springfield, Vermont, the oldest
account many of the factors mentioned above or not ground, is achieved by smaller exit pupils. and largest annual amateur-
clarifying which factors are considered. A table is One of the many long-standing assumptions of astronomy convention.
offered hereas well. The magnitudes listed are de- backyard astronomers is that faint deep-sky objects Right: Some amateur
termined for good-quality optics, transparent dark are best seen at low magnification operating at max- astronomers plan their
skies and a reasonably experienced observer look- imum exit pupil. Whiledoes apply to some
this vacations around travel to a
ing at a stellar object at high magnification, 30x large, diffuse nebulous objects such as the Helix remote observing site, such
to 50x per inch of aperture. If any of the condi- Nebula, it is completely untrue with regard to view- as this 3,000-metre-altitude
tions are not met, expect to see less for the reasons ing faint stars. campsite parking lot in New
mentioned below. Even on the darkest nights, the sky background is Mexico. Intentionally selecting
An experienced observer can generally see a mag- not black but grey. At low power, more sky is in- weeknights in the off-season,
nitude fainter than can a novice. Hundreds of hours cluded in the view, so the overall brightness of the they set up and enjoy several
of observing through a telescope train the eye to de- background sky actually increases as magnification nights of uninterrupted
tect threshold detail, whether it is definition of fea- decreases. Conversely, the sky background can be viewing under optimum
tures on a planet or the subtle wisps of a nebula. Of darkened by increased magnification -up to a conditions.

119
 power, and their light is spread out rather than con-
centrated into as small a point as possible, as it is

with good seeing. Faint stars at the threshold of vi-

sion are significantly easier to detect in perfectly
steady air than under turbulent, poor-seeing condi-

tions. Bad seeing can remove a full magnitude from

the penetration limit on a steady-air night.
Do different types of telescopes have different
magnitude-penetration limits? Yes, butthereisnot
much variation. It depends on quality of optics more
than on the type of telescope. High-quality optics
yield pinpoint star images instead of the tiny puff-
balls that never quite come into focus in mediocre
telescopes. The more a starts light is concentrated
into a point, the easier the point is to see; the starts
per-unit surface-area brightness is higher than when
its light is spread out by poor-quality optical systems
or improperly collimated optics.
Finally, what about the unaided eye? The stan-
dard naked-eye limit for most people is sixth mag-
nitude. In rare instances, people with abnormally
good vision can see to 7.0 and even 7.4 under su-
perb skies. Typically, the limit is 6.5, but it depends

on the specific sky conditions. Binoculars are more

limited than telescopes of the same aperture be-
cause of their fixed low power. It is an achievement,
to reach magnitude 9.8 with 50mm binoculars and
10.8 with 80mm glasses.

i
U^^^^^H
AVERTED VISION
Averted vision allows the observer to pick up fainter
objects than can be seen by looking at them directly.
The technique is simple. Look away from the object

under study while continuing to concentrate on it.

Averted vision is most effective if the observer looks
at a point halfway from the centre to the edge of the
field of view (the object in question is presumably

at the centre). The technique works especially well

for diffuse objects such as comets, nebulas and
point, of course. Magnification beyond 50x per inch galaxies, but it helps reveal fainter stars too.
seldom produces any further advantage. It is a good practice to use the averted-vision tech-
Simply stated, the advantage of high magnifica- nique from a variety ofangles because the highly ef-
tion is that the sky background is darkened while the fective dim-light sensors in the peripheral areas of
apparent size of the star image stays the same or is the eye have different sensitivities. The overall gain
only marginally increased. A point source on a achieved with averted vision can amount to more
blacker background iseasiertodetect. Visual acuity than half a magnitude. However, most backyard as-
is enhanced at higher magnification as well. Above tronomers do not consider a sighting to be definite
25x per inch, the exit pupil is down to 1mm or unless it is seen with direct vision. A notebook may
Conventions at dark-sky sites less, so the light cone, if centred on the eye, is read: "Glimpsed with averted vision but uncertain
have become tlie most pop- passing through the most optically perfect part with direct vision." Such an observation is usually
ular forum for recreational of the human vision system. regarded as "probable." Definite sightings of faint
astronomers, above. Most Everyone who has looked through a telescope is objects need to be at least "apparent with averted
conventions include swap familiar with the effects of poor seeing, manifested vision and glimpsed directly."
tables, right, where enthusiasts as twinkling stars, ripples on the moon or undula- The chiefadvantage of averted vision is to gain ini-
buy and sell used equipment tions distorting the face of a planet. Stars and deep- awareness of the existence of a threshold object.
tial

and homemade gadgets, often sky objects are affected by seeing as well. Tiny stel- Then, once the target is detected, vision can be con-
at very attractive prices. lar point sources are fuzzy and distorted at high centrated on it to attempt a direct confirmation.

120
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Top: The limiting magnitude

of your telescope can be
determined using this chart of
the open M67.
star cluster
Magnitudes are given in
tenths, with the decimal points
omitted. North is up. Photo-
graph by Martin Germano.
Left: Star trails merge with
the glow of big-city light
pollution. Photograph by
Alan Dyer.

121
 CHAPTER NINE

Observing the Moon,

Sun and Comets

The moon and the sun were probably the first ob- optics, he still saw features never before observed —
jects that Gali leo looked at with his telescope nearly craters on the moon and spots on the sun. So it is
four centuries ago. Even in the crude 32x instru- today. Sunspots or lunar craters are usually the first
ment, crippled by nearly every aberration known to details brought to the focus of a new telescope.

LUNAR OBSERVING
The excitement that Galileo must have felt as he by meteorites, comets and asteroids— debris left

gazed at the moon's rumpled face for the first time over from the formation of the solar system. Its cra-
is part of the legacy of the telescope. Anyone's first tered face shows this. On a smaller scale, the pow-
look at the moon through even the simplest of op- dery material kicked up by the Apollo astronauts is
tical instruments is rewarded by a wonder-
instantly the result of micrometeorites that grind down the
fully detailed image of our nearest cosmic neigh- surface into fragments as fine as dust.
bour. The eye and mind are overwhelmed by As recently as the early 1 960s, the lunar surface
detail— wrinkled plains, rugged fields of craters jum- had secrets to divulge to backyard astronomers.
still

bled together, mountain ranges, valleys— all in stark By the late 1930s, much of the Earth-facing side of
relief undistorted by even a wispof haze, fog ormist the moon had been photographed to a resolution
(on the moon, that is). The satellite is so close, its of two kilometres, and a few exceptional pictures
and the detail so abundant
features so easily visible showed features near the shadow line, or termina-
that regardless of the effects of poor seeing, there tor, to few hundred metres. But un-
a resolution of a
is always something to examine. like time exposures of deep-sky objects, which re-
Today, telescopic observation of the moon is veal far more detail than the eye can see through the
limited almost exclusively to introductory observ- same telescope, lunar and planetary photographs
ingand to showing off the wonders of the universe always show less. Exposures of 1 or 2 seconds, typi-
topeople who rarely have an opportunity to look cal of high-resolution lunar photography, are some-
through a telescope. Along with Saturn, the moon what degraded by atmospheric turbulence.
is number-one showpiece object— near, yet
the Even today, lunar photography from Earth can
clearly alien. Without an atmosphere to protect it, never quite equal what the eye can discern through
the moon has been bombarded for billions of years the same telescope. Only under rare instances of

122
 Small telescopes reveal an
overwhelming amount of
detail on the moon, even more
than is visible in this excellent
photograph made with a
6-inch f/6 Newtonian. The
three prominent adjacent
craters just below centre
are, from upper to lower,
Theophilus, Cyrillus and
Cathanna. The stark relief
along the terminator (the
shadow line) makes features
just afew hundred metres high
stand out boldly. Photograph
by Brian Tkachyk.

123
 With the proper attention to
detail, a small telescope can
yield great lunar photographs.
This one was taken with an
80mm refractor. The huge
crater at centre, with several
smaller craters nestled inside,
is Clavius, 230 kilometres
wide. Photograph by Carry
Woodcock, using a 10.5mm
eyepiece for projection and
Tech Pan 2415 film.

124
perfect seeing does photography begin to come since about 1900. Finally, during the mid-1960s,
close. The experienced observer can watch for the the robotic lunar orbiters mapped most of the moon
momentary flashes of perfect seeing that occur dur- in much higher resolution than is achievable from
ing typical observing situations. At such times, reso- Earth. The transition— the result of huge amounts
lution ofbetterthan two kilometres is commonplace of cash being pumped into the Apollo programme
in 6-inch telescopes, and occasionally, amazing — took lunar discoveries largely out of the ama-
amounts of fine detail almost magically emerge. But teurs' domain. The sense of pioneering that had
you have to wait for it. accompanied serious lunar observing for cen-
was finally eliminated.
THE RUSH TO MAP THE MOON turies

IS THERE ANYTHING LEFT

Not until about 1 960 did it become clear that hu-
mans would explore the moon within a generation.
TO DISCOVER?
To select a landing site, scientists needed highly The perception that nothing is left to learn about the
detailed lunar maps. But because of the limitations moon has discouraged nearly all backyard astron-
of earthbound lunar photography, few large profes- omers from observing our satellite. The moon is

sional telescopes were used for such purposes. Also, regarded as a nuisance, since its light spoils views
in 1 960, no professional astronomers in the United of dimmer objects. We are amazed at how seldom
States and few in the world had experience plotting telescopes are turned toward the moon. Too many
the moon's geography — visually or photographi- amateurastronomers have been duped by the silly

cally. The U.S. Air Force was given the project of notion that if there is nothing new to discover, there
making an accurate high-resolution topographic is no point looking. The moon is a wonderland of
map of the moon. Air Force officials recruited the alien landscapes; to see them, the observer needs
Lowell Observatory's 24-inch refractor and several to know how to look more than what to look for.

highly experienced amateur astronomers who were A high-resolution photograph of the moon gives
assigned the task of using their visual skills to in- only an inkling ofthe truly impressive views that are
crease the accuracy of existing lunar maps. possible with even moderate-aperture telescopes.
The resulting moon maps were wonderful to look Indeed, lunar observing is probably the one case in
at, exquisitely detailed and, in general, very ac- which aperture almost works in reverse— less is
curate. At that time, coauthor Dickinson, using a sometimes better than more. The moon's image is
3-inch f/16 refractor, was participating in a lunar- so bright that even small apertures used at very high Above: Matthew Sinacola's
observing programme run by a few members of the powers provide enough light to show the displayed rendering ofthe region around
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. The project the 40-kilometre-wide lunar
involved looking for low-elevation lunar features crater Aristarchus captures
few hours as the terminator passed
visible for only a abundant subtle detail on the
over them. At such times, a very small elevation moon's sunrise terminator.
casts an enormous shadow easily visible from Earth. Sinacola used 175x on his
For example, a 1 0-storey building would throw a 6-inch Criterion Newtonian
shadow several kilometres long. reflector, like the one pictured
In the right grazing lighting, amazingly small de- on page 63. Besides being a
tails stand out. The 3-inch refractor picked up fea- testament to a skilled observer,
tures that were on no existing lunar maps, even the this handsome sketch proves
new Air Force effort. One structure— a wall, or that the often-overlooked
scarp, near the crater Cauchy — was shown on the 6-inchNewtonian is an
map as a rille, a shallow ditchlike feature. Looking eminently suitable tool for
at it through the refractor, Dickinson had no doubt backyard astronomy.
that it was a scarp, not a rille. When the terminator Left: Mare Serenitatis, one of
passed over the region at sunrise, the scarp cast a the lunar "seas," is the lava-
shadow; at sunset, it was brightly illuminated and flooded floor of a giant four-
had no shadow, a phenomenon that could be billion-year-old crater. Me-
caused only by a scarplike drop in elevation. andering across Serenitatis is
Such was the state of lunar cartography in 1961: the Serpentine Ridge, a feature
detail visible from Earth in a 3-inch refractor had just a few hundred metres high
not been portrayed correctly on any lunar map. that is visible only when sun-
Although the cartography was not generally in- light grazes it, as seen here.
accurate, little attention had been paid to the proj- Photograph by jody Metcalfe,
ect of properly recording the moon's features; that using a Celestron 8-inch
task had been left to individuals, mostly amateurs. Schmidt-Cassegrain.

125
 6 "'c/i /S "• tf

I)
'O

Right: The full moon is the

worst phase for observing
lunar detail because of the lack
of shadows and the over-
whelming brightness. Photo-
graph by Brian Tkachyk, using
a Celestron C8. features clearly; when using apertures greater than crawling terminator alters the appearance of the fea-
Top: A traditional test of 6 inches, what can be seen is limited not by the tele- tures in deep shadow within minutes, and in fine

good optics and steady seeing scope but by the steadiness of the atmosphere. Of seeing, it is possible to distinguish every feature
is to examine the floor of the course, at exorbitantly high powers— more than 60x shown in the best pictures taken from Earth.
crater Plato for craterlets when per inch of aperture— the image often becomes What will keep drawing you back to the moon,
the moon is one or two days fuzzy because of the limits of resolution of the though, is the exquisite beauty and the barren alien
past first quarter. Several optical system. As a general rule, however, the nature of the lunar surface that constantly changes
craterlets are clearly shown in moon can be viewed with higher magnifications with the monthly sweep of the terminator.
this 1965 Lunar Orbiter image. than any other celestial object.
The two about three
largest, For instance, we have used a 5-inch apochro-
EQUIPMENT FOR
kilometres wide, have been matic refractor for lunar observation at up to 450x,
LUNAR OBSERVING
detected with a 4-inch although we usually employ less. However, the At first glance, the telescopic image of the moon is

refractor. NASA
photograph. most common lunar-observation magnification often overwhelmingly bright. But the glare is so sim-
Above: Sketching the moon used with that telescope is 220x, and the images are ple to control, amazing that not every observer
it is

was a popular backyard- sharp and detailed— the equivalent of looking out takes steps to The only accessory required is
do so.
astronomy activity prior to the the porthole of a spacecraft orbiting the moon at an a lunar filter (about $1 5) which screws into the base
space age, but few observers altitude of 1,600 kilometres. With such a telescope of a 1 Vi-inch eyepiece in the same way that deep-
today even attempt it. Sketch on a solid, accurately driven equatorial mount, our sky and colour filters do. The neutral-density filter
by Matthew Sinacola. satellite becomes a fascinating world to explore. The absorbs 90 percent of the light passingthroughityet

126
affects the image in no other way. The low-tech ac-
cessory reduces lunar glare to a comfortable level.
Another way to reduce brightness add twin is to
polarized filters (about $30), sold as either two sep-
arate 1 !4-inch filters or, better, two filters in a hous-
ing that fits in front of the eyepiece. An adjusting
lever varies the amount of polarization between the
dual filters, regulatingthequantity of light entering
the eyepiece from 50 percent to less than 1 percent.
Itworkswell for casual scanning, but the critical ob-
server will notice a slight loss in resolution that does
not occur with a single neutral-density filter. How-
ever, for casual lunar observing, the variable po-
larizer is an easy way— sometimes the only way be-
sides extreme magnification— to reduce the moon's
brilliance to a satisfactory level.
A more serious glare-reduction device, advanta-
geous with 10-inch and larger Newtonians and
Schmidt-Cassegrains, is an off-axis diaphragm. It is
a simple cardboard mask placed over the front of the
instrument that has a one-third-aperture hole-
precisely circular and smooth-edged — located
toward the edge where it wi not be obstructed by 1 1

the secondary mirror or its support vanes. tion can be pinned down by using a lunar map, but
Off-axis diaphragms reduce the amount of light the person usually wants to know whether is pos- it

going through a telescope to about 1 3 percent of the sible to see the footprints, lunar lander and other
full-aperture value, similar to the reduction obtained paraphernalia left on the surface. The best way to
when using a standard neutral-density filter. Be- answer such a query is to point out that the smallest
cause the aperture is now unobstructed, contrast is crater visible in a large telescope is about the size
enhanced, a definite bonus for lunar viewing. of the largest sports stadium in the world, whereas
Some lunar observers prefer colour filters; the the biggest piece of hardware left by the Apollo as-
favourites are green, deep yellow and orange. As tronauts is smaller than a two-car garage.
noted Chapter 4, with achromatic refractors, in-
in The likelihood of seeing any changes on the
expensive colour filters have the advantage of dim- moon — for instance, a meteorite hitting the surface
ming the moon while greatly reducing chromatic or possible volcanic activity— is very small. A me-
aberration and thereby sharpening the view. The teorite largeenough to produce a cloud of ejecta
overall colour cast is soon easy to ignore. Colour visiblefrom Earth would strike the moon no more
filters have no advantage over a neutral-density than once or twice per century. There is no unequiv-
filter in other types of telescopes. ocal proof that one has ever been observed. A few
enthusiasts maintain that searches for so-called tran-
PROBING LUNAR VISTAS phenomena, which could arise from the
sient lunar
Anyone who has offered views of the moon to the moon's interior, are vi-
release of gases from the
general public at stargazing events or to friends has able programmes for backyard astronomers. It is
heard the question, "Can we see where the astro- always fun to look, but there are other observing
nauts landed?" The answer is yes and no. The loca- programmes with more immediate results.
The seeing is good when
you can distinguish the rows
SOLAR OBSERVING ofcraterlets beside the mighty
Copernicus crater. Copernicus
Examining the intensely brilliant surface of the sun the retina of the eye, causing complete or partial itself, 100 kilometres across, is

is possible only with proper filtration. Never look blindness. Do not take chances. Astronomy is a be- not the largest lunar crater, but
at the sun through any optical device unless you are nign hobby with few opportunities for personal in- many observers say that it is

sure that it is safely fi Itered and that you know what jury. Read the following carefully. the most impressive. This part
a safe filter is. A very dense filter is necessary. Not Over the years, especially around solar-eclipse of the moon is near the
only must reduce all visible wavelengths to a safe
it events, many materials have been recommended terminator 9 or 10 days after
level, but must also block infrared and ultraviolet
it as solar filters. Most are unsafe. Do not use smoked new moon. Photograph by
light. These invisible wavelengths can damage glass, sunglasses, layers of colour or black-and- Don Parker.

127
 Above: The simplest way to
observe the sun's surface is by
projection, using a small
refractor. Because of internal
heat buildup, catadioptric
telescopes should never be
used for solar projection, and white film (no matter how dense), photographic filters forgazing at the sun with unaided eyes are
any telescope with an aperture neutral-density filters or polarizing filters. People No. 14 welders' filters. They are sold in two-by-
of more than 60mm should be have even been known to look through the bottoms four-inch rectangles for about $2 at well-stocked
stopped down with a 40mm-to- seems laughable, yet many nov-
of beer bottles. This welding-supply outlets. Because the filters are made
60mm mask in front of the ice amateur astronomers use a type of solar fi Iter that to exact specifications for the welding trade, they are
instrument. Photograph by is far more dangerous than anything listed above. reliable and have the right density to be completely
Glenn F. Chaple. The filter in question, which comes with many safe. Only the No. 1 4 grade is appropriate; the more
Right: When you observe the small department-store telescopes, is a piece of dark common No. 1 2 filter is too light.
sun by projecting its image or green glass that screws into the bottom of an eye- To observe the sun with a No. 1 4 welders' filter,
with proper filters for direct piece. Such "sun filters" are unsafe because they sit place the fi Iter in front of your eyes before you gaze
viewing, the surface almost at the focus of the telescope where all the I ight and up at the sun. Individuals with 20/20 vision or bet-
always displays a few sun- heat are concentrated. When the instrument is ter will see sunspots that are Earth-sized or larger.
spots. The spots often appear aimed atthesun, the temperature near the filter can People with exceptional vision, 20/12 or better,
they align
in pairs. Overall, reach hundreds of degrees, cracking it and letting can see spots almost daily with no optical aid other
roughly in two belts 20 to 30 through a blinding wash of sunlight. Eyepiece so- than the welders' filter.

degrees on either side of the lar filters should be banned, but they are still in- A pair of seldom-used binoculars can become a
solar equator. Photograph by cluded as an accessory with many small telescopes permanent sunspot device two welders' f Iters are
if i

Brian Tkachyk, using a given to children for Christmas. securely taped over the front of the main lenses.
Celestron C8. The simplest, safest and most readily available Spots the size of Asia can be seen. However, forde-

128
tail on the spots, a telescope is needed. A 60nnm-to-
80mm refractor is ideal and, if properly filtered or
used for projection, reveals a wealth of fine struc-
tures in and around sunspots.

SOLAR VIEWING BY PROJtCTION

Solar projection is the fi Iterless way of observing the
sun. Aim the telescope at the sun by watching the
instrument's shadow, not by gazing up the tube at

the sun and especially not by peeking into the find-

erscope. Always cover the front of the finderscope
during any solar observing. When the shadow be-
comes circular, the telescope is aimed approxi-
mately sunward. Hold a white card a foot behind
the eyepiece to catch the sun's image. Using an eye-
piece yielding about 30x, focus the projected image.
This method is ideal for group observing and is par-
ticularly effective if the white card is mounted on an
easel or tripod and shaded from direct sunlight to
increase contrast. However, the detail visible in
direct filtered viewing cannot be equalled.
Even so, projection is preferred for making full-
disc drawings of sunspot positions and their relative
sizes. For orientation consistency, determine the
celestial east-west axis for each drawing by watch-
ing the solar disc drift into or out of the und riven field
of view. Thecentrelineof the drift motion is celes-
tial east-west. A few months' worth of drawings re-

veal fluctuations in the numbers of spots. Small

spots may last several days or grow into large spot
groups and stay on the solar face for weeks. Because
of the 3y2-week solar rotation period, the scene
changes a little every day and a great deal in a week.
For projection, the telescope's aperture should
be limited to 60mm or less to avoid damage to the
eyepiece. Small refractors are ideal; larger tele-
scopes must be covered with a diaphragm. A hole
in a piece of cardboard covering the aperture is fine
for refractors orNewtonians, but never practise so-
lar projection with a catadioptric. Heat can quickly

build up inside the instrument and cause damage

before you are aware of a problem.
Sunspots wax and wane in an 1 1 -year cycle. The
last maximum was in late 1 989, and the next is due

in 2000 or 2001 Solar activity continues through-

. Being a gaseous sphere, the
out the cycle, and there are usually a few spots no sun rotates at different rates,
matter when you look. A surprising amount of de- from 25 to 35 days, depending
tail is around a large sunspot and is best seen
visible on surface latitude. In the
by direct viewing with the appropriate filter. zones where sunspots appear
most frequently, the rate is
SOLAR FILTERS FOR TELESCOPES about 27 days. Thus spots
The recommended solar filter fits snugly over the seem to march across the sun's
front of the telescope, where it safely reduces light face in less than two weeks.
and heat before they enter the tube. Known as full- These three photographs were
aperture filters, or prefi Iters, the best and most dura- taken on December 14, 17 and
ble are made with optical plane-parallel glass coated 19, 1990, by Greg Saxon, using
with a nickel<hromium alloy called Inconel. Thou- a Celestron C8.

129
 sand Oaks Optical is a major supplier of Inconel applications by telescope manufacturers and well-
any size telescope. Prices range from $50
filters for known firms such as Tuthill and Thousand Oaks.
for a 60mm refractor to $1 50 for a 1 4-inch Celes- With them, you and your friends and family can
tron Schmidt-Cassegrain. watch sunspots for hours in complete safety.
Metal-coated Mylar, a durable plastic material, is All the solar filters discussed so far show the sun
an alternative to the glass filter. Two layers of My- in white light; that is, they reduce the amount of light
lar in a cell press fit over the front of the telescope. across the entire spectrum. A very specialized type
Roger W. Tuthill, Inc. specializes in the manufac- of solar filter works a little differently. It eliminates
ture of such a filter, called Solar Skreen. Celestron all lightfrom the sun except the single wavelength
uses Solar Skreen material to make optional solar emitted by hydrogen atoms— 656 nanometres. This
f Iters
i for its telescopes. Some observers report that filter has an extremely narrow bandpass of only

Mylar filters equal or exceed the optical quality of 0.1 nanometre, or 1 angstrom.
glass filters; others dispute this. In any case, they cost When the sun is viewed in the light of hydrogen
slightly less than the glass models. The chief differ- atoms, features such as solar prominences, filaments
ence is that the sun appears as an unnatural blue and flares appear. Normally, prominences can be
through Mylar filters, a characteristic correctable seen only during a total solar eclipse. With an
with a No. 23A eyepiece filter, commonly used H-alpha filter, they are visible on any sunny day. H-
for Mars observations. Most metal-on-glass types alpha filters add a new dimension to the hobby of
present a more natural-looking yellow sun. astronomy, but they are expensive, costing between
Another word of caution: not just any Mylar will $700 and $2,500 depending on the bandwidth. The
do. Do not run down to the local hardware or narrower the bandwidth, the more solar-surface de-
automotive-supply store to buy sheets of Mylar for tails you see and the more money you spend. The

homemade filters. Most metallized Mylar sold for most expensive of the filters require AC power to
use on van and camper windows and incorporated heat some of the internal elements. All require a spe-
into materials like "space blankets" is unsafe for so- cial broadband filter over the front of the telescope
lar viewing. It is not dense enough and does not nec- for prefiltering the light before it enters the main H-
essarily block harmful infrared and ultraviolet light. alpha filter mounted at the focus. Solar-observing
Left: A full-aperture Inconel- Use only filters sold specifically for astronomical expert John Hicks gives details at right.

coated glass filter by Thousand

Oaks Optical fits snugly over
the front of the telescope for COMETS
safe direct viewing of solar
features. Mylar filters work in Comets are chunks of ice impregnated with dust. the sun, within the orbit of Mars, are the quarry of
the same way. They are about the size of a smal city and orbit the I thebackyardastronomer.Atthisdistance, sunlight
Right: Solar prominences are sun as the planets do, but in more exaggerated, elon- vaporizes the comef s icy surface, releasing gas and
seen in remarkable detail using gated paths. Most comet orbits are enti rely beyond dust that are swept into a tail by the solar wind and
an H-alpha filter and a the path of Neptune. Some astronomers regard the pressure of sunlight in the vacuum of space.
coronagraph, a specialized Pluto— a tiny, icy world— as the biggest comet rather Apart from a few historical exceptions, comets are
device that blocks the solar than the smallest planet. named Comet Skorichenko-
for their discoverers.
disc to permit more detailed The largest officially recognized comet is Chiron, George, example, was spotted on the same
for
viewing of the prominences. a 250-kilometre-wide body with an elliptical orbit night in December 1989 by amateur astrono-
Photograph by Wolfgang Lille, between the and Uranus. Despite
orbits of Saturn mers Boris Skorichenko of the Soviet Union and
using a 7-inch Astro-Physics its size, Chiron is invisible in amateur-astronomy Douglas George of Canada.
refractor. equipment. Smaller comets that venture closer to Comets that boast tails easily visible to the un-

130
 I OBSERVING AND PHOTOGRAPHING THE SUN IN HYDROGEN ALPHA
D By John Hicks
The surface of the sun viewed in hydrogen light

isan astonishing glimpse of a giant controlled

fusion furnace. Large, black, sinuous filaments
arch against the sun's ruby-red surface, and
intense white flares often burst out of entangled
magnetic fields. The magnetic storm lines are
easily seen writhing around sunspots. About the
limb, silhouetted against the jet-black of deep
space, dramatic prominences are evident in

myriad shapes. The whole image is one of

energy in its most elemental form.
For viewing and photographing the sun, a 0.7-
angstrom filter provides the best disc contrast
and retains reasonably bright prominences.
Narrower filters produce high resolution of
active surface regions but offer dimmer
prominence and their price increases
details,
with decreasing bandwidth. The popular 0.8-
angstrom ATM model by Daystar (about $1 ,800)
is a good all-round choice for the serious

amateur astronomer. It transmits light from the

solar spectrum at 656.3 nanometres through a
series of multiple-deposited parallel lenses that
are heated by a tiny internal oven. Varying the
temperature with a rheostat permits precise
tuning to 656.3. New models can be fine-tuned black-and-white Tech Pan 241 5, which has very

simply by tilting the interference filters. They and extended red sensitivity. It can be
fine grain
eliminate the necessity of a 1 10-volt power push-processed and still retain its fine grain and
source but are for visual observing only. (Tele high level of contrast. The resulting negatives
Vue's Solaris telescope uses this type of filter.) can be made into slides by copying them back
To use H-alpha filters, the telescope must be onto 241 5.
stopped down to a focal ratio of f/30. Most H- For an 8-inch telescope stopped down to f/30,
alpha filters come with an additional energy- Tech Pan 2415 should be exposed 2 seconds for
rejection filter (ERF) that fits over the objective prominence photography and 1/1 5 second for
end of the telescope and reduces it effectively to disc photography. The black-hat method should Top: The sun photographed
f/30. The ERF screens out infrared energy and be used for the 2-second exposures (see Chapter in white light (standard
filter-damaging ultraviolet light, while the 1 5). Use an air-bulb release cable to soften filtration) reveals sunspot
reduced aperture produces the nearly parallel mechanical vibration at higher speeds, or use the detail and faculae— bright
light beams required for optimum filter camera's self-timer release if it has one. I am feather-shaped structures that
performance. My 8-inch Schmidt-Cassegrain has amazed at the extremely narrow latitude are visible around sunspots
a 65mm ERF, which I use with 30mm or longer permitted by disc photography; very slight and at the solar limb (edge).
eyepieces. The image is too dim for higher changes exposure will produce either
in John Hicks ganged a pair ofix
power. The observer should have dark-adapted acceptable or unacceptable negatives. Barlows on his Celestron C8
vision and wear a dark hood. The sun's secrets are so readily unveiled with for this photograph using
Photographing the H-alpha sun presents the H-alpha filter that it is easy to become Tech Pan 2415.
special challenges.The wispy, faint prominences immersed in the challenge of perfecting the Bottom: A photograph taken
around the sun's limb pose no problems for most technique. One never knows when the next in hydrogen alpha shows
colour-transparency films of modest speed giant prominence or flare will make persistent the superior ability of this
because they are silhouetted against the hours eyepiece worthwhile.
at the technique to expose solar
blackness of deep space. However, the solar-disc lohn Hicks is a landscape architect who can be detail, including fine surface
features usuallyescape the grasp of colour films. found many days examining the sun from his granulation and flares.
For disc photography, recommend Kodak I observatory near Keswick, Ontario. Photograph by John Hicks.

131
aided eye are relatively rare, averaging one per dec- During the initial week of August, the comet was
ade. Of course, that is just an average. Two such com- well placed in the evening sky, had an overall mag-
ets were seen six months apart in 1957. Another nitude near 1 and a tail five degrees long. By the
clumping of bright comets occurred in 1910-11. middle of August, the comet was third magnitude
In January 1910, four months before Halley's in darker skies and had a straight 10-degree tail.

Comet reached its greatest 20th-century brilliance, Comet Seki-Lines of 1 962 was a respectable en-
a spectacular comet that could be seen in broad day- try that briefly reached third magnitude in the April
lightappeared and, toward the end of January, evening sky and had a tail more than 10 degrees
moved into the evening sky, where its tail could be long when viewed through binoculars.
detected even in moonlight. When the moon was The brightest comet of the 20th century was
out of the sky, a 30-degree-long tail was visible. Comet Ikeya-Seki of 1 965, a member of a rare class
Halley's Comet made appearance in April
its of "sun grazers" that swoop to within one or two so-
1910, reached first magnitude and was watched by lar diameters of our starts surface. The explosive
millions. Then, in October 1911, Comet Brooks vaporization of the comet's icesduring its rapid hair-
reached second magnitude and was described pin turn around the sun generated a dense coma and
as having a beautiful, feathery tail. a huge tail that made Ikeya-Seki visible to the un-
in the past half-century, eight comets have at- aided eye broad daylight if the sun was blocked
in

tained third magnitude or brighter when positioned from view. When only two degrees from the sun,
in a reasonably dark sky for northern-hemisphere the comet was estimated at an astounding magni-
observers. A brief description of each follows, tude - 10 and had a two-degree tail.
and a few famous— and infamous — pretenders are As Ikeya-Seki swung into the morning sky during
mentioned as well. the last few days of October, an amazing 45-degree
tail extended from a small but brilliant nucleus.
BRIGHT COMETS: 1940-90 However, the comet was poorly seen north of 40
On August 24, 1 940, Leiand Cunningham of Har- degrees latitude because the tai was angled low to- I

vard College Observatory, Cambridge, Massa-

in ward the horizon. It remained a naked-eye object
chusetts, took a routine photograph of the constel- for only a week, rapidly fading as it pulled away
lation Cygnus and picked up a 13th-magnitude from the sun. Nevertheless, most experts regard
comet. During the next three months, the comet it as the finest comet of the 20th century.

brightened rapidly as it approached the sun, sug- Comet Bennett was discovered on December 28,
gesting that it was going to be a spectacular object 1 969, by John C. Bennett of South Africa during a

when it passed closer to the sun toward the end of deliberate comet search. Throughout April 1970,
the year. However, the brightening slowed abruptly Comet Bennett was a conspicuous object in the eve-
in mid-November, and as the comet entered its ning sky in the northern hemisphere, shining sec-
prime observing position in early January 1 941 it , ond magnitude overall with a 20-degree-long tail.
barely reached third magnitude, four magnitudes It was one of the most widely observed comets of

fainter than had been predicted. Comet Cunning- the century and the first to be photographed exten-

ham was a 1 940s version of the Comet Kohoutek sively in colour by backyard astronomers.
fiasco that involved the same media buildup and the Three years Comet Kohoutek arrived. It
later.

same disappointment in the early 1 970s. was not a great comet but is so well known that

The Southern Comet that graced the Earth's skies it deserves to be dealt with in more detail.
in December 1947 was visible throughout the
southern hemisphere near magnitude and had a
THE COMET KOHOUTEK SAGA
20-degree tail stretching from the horizon. When it On March 1 8, 1 973, Lubos Kohoutek of Hamburg

became visible in the northern hemisphere, it was Observatory discovered a tiny 16th-magnitude
seen at about third magnitude and had adistinct tail. smudge on a photograph he had taken two weeks
957, two bright naked-eye comets made an
In 1 earlier during a routine asteroid search. But the
appearance. The first was Comet Arend-Roland, comet discovery was not routine. Orbit calculations
which becameabrilliantfirst-magnitude object with showed that the comet was nearly five times the
a 15-degree tail during the last week of April. It Earth's distance from the sun and would not reach
rapidly faded to sixthmagnitude by the middle of perihelion until December 28, 1973, when it would
May as it receded from both the sun and Earth. The pass within the orbit of Mercury. In early January
comet was notable for its luminous antitail, a dust 1974, Comet Kohoutek would emerge into the eve-
because of perspective, appeared extended
tail that, ning sky near Venus and Jupiter.
from the nucleus toward the sun. How bright would it be? In September 1973,
The second 1 957 comet was Comet Mrkos, a first- NASA published a guide to Comet Kohoutek that
magnitude object discovered in twilight on July 29. was widely circulated to teachers and reporters, it

132
 Although Halley's Comet
vvcis three times farther away in
1986 than it was on its previous
visit in 1910, it still put on a

decent display. This image by

lim Riffle, using a 400mm f/4
telephoto lens, shows the
comet's yellow dust tail and
blue gas tail.

133
 Top left: Painting of the
Great Comet of 1882 gives the
impression that it must have
been awesome. To achieve the
effect, the artist superimposed
a telescopic view over a
pastoral observatory scene. In
the same vein, accounts of
"brilliant" or "dazzling"
comets of previous centuries
are often overblown. The
brightest comet ever seen in a
dark sky in the last 2,000 years
was likely Halley's in the year
837, when its overall brightness
equalled that of Venus.
Top right: Comet West
put on a great show in early
March 1976. Photograph by
Rolf Meier
Right: Comet Brorsen-
Metcalfe, visible for several
months in 1989, was captured
on film by Craig McCaw, using
a 17.5-inch Newtonian.

134
 Top left: Comet Ikeya-Seki
had the longest tail of any
comet in the 20th century.
Richard Keen photographed it
on November 1, 1965, using a
55mm lens.
Above: Comet Levy
delighted observers through-
out the northern hemisphere
in the summer of 1990. It

reached magnitude 3.5 while

remaining conveniently in the
evening sky. Photograph by
Terence Dickinson.
Left: Sometimes, circum-
stancescombine for a
memorable celestial photo-
graph— if you have your
camera with you. While staying
at acampsite in Arizona, Alan
Dyer stepped outside to take a
picture of Halley's Comet. A
nearby streetlight lit up the
foreground, and the comet
completed the scene.
Centre: A composite photo-
graph of the sun, made by
John Hicks using an H-alpha
filter, shows surface detail as

well as prominences.

135
 Above: One of the great
portraits of Halley's Comet was
shot from Australia on March
10, 1986. The central bulge of
our galaxy, the Milky Way,
angles above the comet's
image near the horizon. Photo-
graph by Rob McNaught, using
a 24mm f/1.4 lens and gas-
hypered Fujichrome 400 film.
Right: From Canada and the
northern United States,
Halley's Comet was very close
to the horizon when it was at
its best, just a dim smudge
over this northern Ontario
landscape. Photograph by
Steve Dodson.

136

«b
predicted that the comet would be magnitude - 4 been exposed to solar heating before. Readily va-
in early January — equal to Venus, which would be porized materials such as methane, hydrogen cya-
beside it in Astronomy enthusiasts
deep twilight. nide and methyl cyanide formed a cloud around the
were eager with anticipation, because a comet that frozen comet nucleus at huge distances from the
bright had not appeared since the 1 880s. sun, giving the false impression that the activity
Even the most conservative estimates made in the would continue unabated closer to our star. Once
summer and early fall of 1973 suggested that the these materials were dissipated, however, the
comet would be at least magnitude 0. By Decem- rate of brightening declined sharply.
ber, though, something was clearly wrong. Kohou- Comet Kohoutek still ranks among the top 25
tek at its was fourth magnitude, the same bright-
best comets of the century, but it will always be re-

ness as Halley in 1 985-86, and was a tremendous membered as the comet that fizzled. William Krosney captured
disappointment to the thousands of backyard as- more than Comet West in this
tronomers out in force to greet it in early January.
COMET WEST fine celestial portrait taken on
The public, primed for a "blazing spectacle" or The story of Comet West is the Kohoutek saga in re- March 5, 7976, from Manitoba.
a "cosmic searchlight," saw nothing. verse. It was discovered in November 1975 as a You can feel the stillness and
A major contributor to the inflated predictions small smudge on survey plates taken at the Euro- cold of the night and share in
was the fact that Kohoutek was a comet on its ini- pean Southern Observatory, in Chile, two months the exquisite beauty of a rare
tial visit to the inner solar system from the Oort earlier. However, as it approached the sun, it was phenomenon— a bright comet
cloud, the comet reservoir beyond Neptune. It was dimmer than Kohoutek was at distances beyond passing through our sector of
a pristine chunk of cosmic flotsam that had never Mars, so it attracted comparatively little attention. the solar system.

137
But as fate would have it, in January 1 976, on its way of all time adorned the heavens in every part of the
to perihelion inside the orbit of Mercury, Comet northern hemisphere that had reasonably dark,
West brightened much faster than predicted. Ten cloud less skies. Comet West had a yel low mai n dust

hours past perihelion, the comet was visible to the tail 30 degrees long that hung like a ghostly feather
naked eye 1 minutes before sunset at an estimated above the horizon just before dawn.
magnitude of -3, making it an extremely rare day- By March 1 3, the show was over, unobserved by
light comet. But because this was both unexpected the general population. With the Kohoutek fiasco
and unpredictable, few astronomers — professional still fresh in their minds, news editors ignored

or amateur— witnessed it. Comet West, so few people beyond the amateur-
In cosmic visitor moved into the
early March, the astronomy community knew of it. Others (includ-
morning sky and dimmed only slightly to magnitude ing the authors) missed Comet West because of
- 1 On March 7, one of the most beautiful comets
. bad weather.

I OBSERVING COMETS
DBy David H. Levy magnitude estimate. But unlike variable stars,
The old expression "When you've seen one, comets change in other ways as well. The size,
you've seen them does not apply to comets.
all" structure and concentration of the coma vary, as
More than 20 comets are found or recovered do the shape, length and position of the tail.
every year, and each is observational ly unique. The important first step in observing any
First, a comet's combination of gas and dust comet is to study its ephemeris, or list of
produces different sizes of coma, the bright predicted positions, carefully. Too many
comet head, as well as different strengths of gas- observers look only at the comefs predicted
and-dust tails. Second, the more closely a comet magnitude before deciding whether it is worth
approaches the sun, the more solar wind and watching. Equally important is the comefs
solar radiation affect the gas and dust, causing elongation, which represents its angular distance
longer, brighter tails. Third, because of the sun- from the sun expressed in degrees. Suppose the
Earth-comet geometry, a comet appears to "comet of the year" is predicted to be third
change as it is observed from different angles. magnitude but the elongation is just 14 degrees:
Included in this chance that Earth
aspect is the the comet will be very low in the sky and visible
will cross the orbit plane of the comet and the only in bright twilight. Chances are that the
dust particles which are behind it will then comet will not be seen at all under those
become visible as an antitail. And finally, a conditions.
comefs appearance is especially sensitive to the A quick once-over is the first step in a comet
size of telescope turned toward it: binoculars observation. Become familiar with a comefs
reveal large-scale structures in the tail that an appearance. How large is the coma? Which
observer using an 8-inch telescope might miss. direction is the tail pointing? Such basic
Because comets can change so much in information is essential for what is to follow.
unpredictable ways, they are always interesting. Determining the brightness of the coma is the
Early in 1987, for instance, a new comet called next step. When you have seen as much coma
Terasako was close enough to the sun that had I is, you are ready. Do not estimate a
as there
to find it in evening twilight. With the comet comefs magnitude by comparing it to some
setting rapidly, used a star atlas to locate the
I deep-sky object such as a nebula or a galaxy.
field. The newly discovered comet did not yet Estimate a comefs magnitude by measuring it
have a known orbit, so a search through two or against a star. True, a star is not a comet either,
three degrees was necessary before I finally but it acts as a source of light that can be
distinguished a telltale elongated blob of light. effectively compared with the comefs light.

But something was wrong. Either I was standing Using The AAVSO Variable Star Atlas,
on my head or the comefs tail was pointing establish the magnitude of a few nearby stars
toward the sun. Upon closer examination, I similar in brightness to the comet. Put the stars
realized that was looking at the narrow antitail
I out of focus until they are the same diffuseness
and that the comet also had a fan-shaped normal as the coma. Now, compare the relative
tail pointing away from the sun. brightnesses. The comefs magnitude can be
Like variable stars, comets fluctuate in estimated by comparing it to the two stars
brightness, so a comet observation includes a nearest in brightness. (If you do not have The

138
 comet to become 50 times brighter than
For the the sweeping tail by the pressure of sunlight. Lots
initial predictions (by about the same factor that of dust results in a bright tail.

Kohoutek was dimmer than predictions), something

ei RECENT COMETS
unusual must have occurred. Around the time of
perihelion, three huge chunks broke away from the No great comets have been seen since Comet West.
nucleus— one of them almost as big as the nucleus From the northern hemisphere, Halle/s Comet
itself— releasing far greater amounts of gas and dust of 1985-86 never exceeded third magnitude. Al-
than would be expected of an intact comet. though itwas a nice binocular sight in mid-January,
The key is the dust. Tiny particles like those which mid-March and late April of 1986, it remained
typically float in the air (illuminated in a room by unimpressive to the unaided eye. The publicity sur-
shafts of sunlight) are wonderful reflectors of light. rounding Halle/s return sold many telescopes and
Comet dust is pushed away from the nucleus into astronomy books, but the predictions, for the north-
ern hemisphere at any rate, were quite accurate.
Southern-hemisphere observers were disap-
pointed by the comet's diffuse, stubby tail in early
AAVSO Variable Star Atlas, the magnitudes of April, the time that several astronomers had
all stars 8.0 or brighter are listed in Sky Catalog predicted it would be at its best. In retrospect, this
2000.0, Volume 1.) was a genuine mistake. We were looking at the
Estimates of coma magnitudes are notoriously comet almost head-on, and even if there had been
difficult. You may assume that the coma is a long, bright tail, it would not have been evident.
rather small and estimate its total brightness at A year and a half after Halle/s return. Comet
magnitude 9.6. Another observer with a better Bradfield was well positioned in the evening sky
sky, a larger telescope or a keener eye might and rivalled Halley's northern-hemisphere appear-
see a larger coma and record magnitude 8.7 ance in overall magnitude and length of tail (both
same object.
for the comets had five-degree tails visible in binoculars).
A good way to determine the diameter of the William Bradfield of Adelaide, Australia, the com-
coma is to draw the comet and its surrounding efs discoverer, is the 20th-century world-record
stars. By comparing the drawing with a detailed holder for visual comet finds, with 14.
star atlas like Uranometria 2000.0, the diameter A Comet Kohoutek/Cunningham clone, discov-
of the coma can be measured in arc minutes. ered by Rodney Austin of New Zealand, appeared
Estimate the coma's degree of condensation on in December 1 989. Mindful of the Kohoutek disas-
a scale of to 9, where denotes a completely ter,astronomers were prepared, and estimates of
diffuse coma with absolutely no condensation Austin's potential as a zero-magnitude comet were
near the centre. A 3 means a diffuse coma with laden with disclaimers such as "predictions of the
slight condensation, while a 6 means that the brightness of comets are notoriously uncertain."
coma has a definite peak of intensity at the Sure enough, Austin proved to be a comet on its first

centre. A 9 refers to a starlike point of visit to the inner solar system and made an even
concentration. more lacklustre showing than Comet Kohoutek,
Finally, describe the tail. Is it linear or curved? never exceeding magnitude 4.5.
Is there a straight fainter tail (usually a gas tail) as The sixth discovery of North American comet
well as a more curved dust tail? Determine the sleuth David Levy reached naked-eye level, mag-
angular length in the same manner as you nitude 3.5, in the August 1990 evening sky. Be-

measured the size of the coma. Also indicate the cause it was 1 .3 AU from the sun at the time, its
direction in which the tail is pointing. This tail was never more than a faint fan, but it was

position angle is noted in degrees, where observed and enjoyed by amateur astronomers
points to celestial north (Polaris), 90 is east, throughout the northern hemisphere.
and so on. The great comet of the late 20th century has yet
David Levy is North America's leading visual to appear. It at any time, but the news
could arrive
comet discoverer. From his home near Tucson, media may not announce its coming. Newspapers,
Arizona, he found seven comets between 984 1 television and radio sometimes mention new com-
and 1991 using 8- and 16-inch telescopes. He is ets, but seldom is there sufficient information to aid

also the codiscoverer of five comets found in locating them. Sky & Telescope and Astronomy

photographically. He is the author of several magazines and local astronomy clubs are good
books, including The Sky: A User's Guide and sources for such details. A first-magnitude or
Observing Variable Stars. brighter comet is a once-in-a-lifetime phenomenon,
and third-magnitude or brighter comets are so rare
that every effort should be made to view them.

139
 CHAPTER TEN

Observing the Planets

Tens of thousands of years ago, prehi story's first moon joins the scene, the result is one of nature's
Gali leo noticed tiiat a few of the very brightest stars most alluring spectacles— a silvery sickle adorned
appear to move among the rest of the stellar back- by one or more jewels.
ground. This early planetary astronomer was prob- Regularly check the Observer's Handbook or
ably also the first astrologer, because the natural Guy Ottewell's /\stronom;ca/ Calendar ior interest-
question arises, Why does a small, select group of ing conjunctions or close approaches of planets to
bright stars move while the others remain fixed? each other or to the crescent moon. A simplified di-
Astrological ruminations aside, planet watching agrammatic presentation of this information is the
remainsa major element of today's recreational as- monthly sky calendar published by the Abrams
tronomy. On most nights of the year, at least one of Planetarium. Planet positions are also provided in
the five naked-eye planets is visible. Quite often, it each issue of Sky & Telescope and Astronomy.
is the brightest object in the sky. When two or more Each planet has a characteristic appearance,
planets happen to group together, the sight can be whether it is viewed with the unaided eye, with
so striking that it turns the heads of people who nor- binoculars or with a telescope, and will be dis-
mally do not look skyward. When the crescent cussed individually in the sections that follow.

MERCURY
Ofall the planets. Mercury is the most familiar to as- is plastered with craters. Its surface material has ap-
tronomers. This is not because it has historically proximately the same and colour, and fu-
reflectivity

been easy observe or because it has been stud-

to ture explorers will undoubtedly find the landscapes
ied more than other worlds in the solar system. It of both worlds to be almost identical.
is because Mercury happens to be very similar to Most of our knowledge of Mercury's physical
our next-door world, the moon. characteristics is a result of the Mariner 10 close
Mercury is only 1 .4 times the moon's diameter, flybys of the planet in 1 974, which provided excel-
although it is a denser world that has more than lent high-resolution photographs of one hemi-
four times the mass of our Even so, these
satellite. sphere. It takes an expert to distinguish some of the
differences are minor compared with the similari- close-up images of Mercury from high-resolution
ties. Like the moon. Mercury is virtually airless and Earth-based-telescope photographs of the moon.

140
 Shortly after sunset on
May 15, 1991, the moon and
three planets decorated the
darkening sky. Left of the
crescent moon, near centre, is

Venus, the brightest planet.

Jupiter upper left, and
is at
Mars, much dimmer, is just
above the tree midway
between Venus and Jupiter
These four solar system bodies
strung in a line clearly define
the plane of the solar system,
called the ecliptic. In spring, in
the northern hemisphere, the
ecliptic angled high in the
is

evening sky, as seen here. In

fall, the ecliptic lies much
closer to the horizon. Photo-
graph by Terence Dickinson.

141
 Above: This solar system
montage, showing the
eclipsed sun, Venus, Mars,
Jupiter and Saturn, was com-
piled by backyard astronomer
James Rouse using five of his
own photographs taken with
8-inch and smaller telescopes.
Right: Jupiter, in February
1990, missing its south
equatorial belt. By December
of that same year, far right,
the belt had returned.
Photographs by Don Parker.

142
 Top left: Jupiter and Mars,
both near opposition, were
close to the full moon on
March 1, Photograph by
1980.
Phil Mozel. Left: Venus and
Mercury, May 13, 1988.

Photograph by Michael
Watson. Top right: Telescope
view of Venus at inferior
conjunction. Photograph by
Richard Keen, using a 12-inch
Newtonian. Centre: Extremely
rare passage of Saturn in front
of a bright star, July 3, 1988.
Above: Saturn's white spot in
1990. Saturn photographs by
Don Parker.

143
 Above: The photograph and
drawing ofMars—coinciden-
tally made within minutes of

each other on September 26,

1988— show the dark wedge-
shaped feature Syrtis Major,
the most prominent perma-
nent dark zone on the planet.
Sketch by Michael Maroney,
using a 4-inch Celestron
achromatic refractor. Photo-
graph by Klaus Brasch, using a
Celestron 14-inch Schmidt-
Cassegrain.
Top right: Superb illustration
of Saturn by English amateur
astronomer Paul Doherty is
based on observations with
his l&inch Newtonian in
exceptionally steady seeing.
Right: Saturn is the bright
object at upper left corner
in this September 1990 wide-
angle photograph of the con-
stellation Sagittarius. Uranus
and Neptune appear as tiny
background stars to the right
of Saturn. (Photograph's limit-
ing magnitude is about 9.) Pho-

tograph by Terence Dickinson.

144
 1 0, the finest Mercury observa-
Prior to Mariner
tions were made by Eugene Antoniadi, a Greek-
born French astronomer who became one of the
greatest planetary observers of all time. Antoniadi
did his best work during the 1 920s with refractors
ranging from 1 2 to 33 inches in aperture. He stud-
ied Mercury almost exclusively during the day, not-
ing dusky patches and light regions on the planefs
creamy grey surface. Eventually, he was able to pro-
duce a map showing a rotation period of 88 days —
the same time it takes Mercury to orbit the sun.
Antoniadi concluded that one hemisphere must
constantly face the sun.
Through a quirkofcelestial mechanics, Antoniadi
was partly right. Mercury's rotation is locked to the
nearby star, but not in the way he had thought. The
planet actually makes half a rotation during one or-
bit around the sun, so the same face returns to a sun-
ward position after two orbits. It is a complex bit of
clockwork largely irrelevant to backyard as-
celestial
tronomers, because seeing anything at all on Mer-
cury is one of the toughest assignments in amateur
astronomy. But the problem illustrates how difficult
telescopic observation of Mercury is, regardless
of the equipment used.

IDENTIFYING MERCURY
As the solar system's innermost planet, orbiting the
sun at about one-third of the Earth's distance, Mer-
cury never appears more than 28 degrees from the
sun. From the northern hemisphere. Mercury is only
seen in a dark sky for a few spring evenings and fall at the low altitudes where Mercury is most fre-

mornings each year. Even at such times, it is just a quently sighted, the Earth's atmosphere absorbs and
few degrees above the horizon, mired in the absorp- disperses light from the blue end of the spectrum, U Astronomical jargon can be
tion and distortions induced by the Earth's thick imparting the colour shift. fairly dense when it comes to
layer of atmosphere at low celestial altitudes. Observers with telescofDes who hope to duplicate describing certain relation-
Binoculars are an essential aid, allowing the Antoniadi's feat of drawing planetary features will sliips and positions of tlie
planet to be spotted in a darkening blue sky about surely be disappointed when they look at the tiny, planets as they orbit the sun.
half an hour after sunset, 1 5 to 20 minutes before remote world. All that can be seen is Mercur/s This diagram, based on a
it is visible to the unaided eye. There is usually lit- phase, which, during a typical two-week evening similar illustration in the
tle confusion; Mercury outshines all but the bright- observing window, changes from nearly full to a Observer's Handbook, should
found near the ecliptic— such as Aldebaran,
est stars slender crescent similar to a three-day-old moon. simplify it. The Earth 's orbit is
Betelgeuse, Procyon, Regulus, Spica and Antares- the middle one of the three
OBSERVING MERCURY BY DAY shown. Planets that orbit the
and is magnitude brighter. If a star
occasionally a full

is available for comparison, the change in Mercury's For a good telescopic view of Mercury, we must do sun inside the Earth's orbit
brightness is noticeable over a few days; similarly, what Antoniadi did-observe during the day. (The have four special configura-
its position shifts from one night to the next. same appi ies to Venus, which can also be observed tions known as inferior
using the following technique.) The challenge is conjunction (IC), greatest
OBSERVING MERCURY to find the planet in a bright blue sky. Here is how elongation west (GEW),
Backyard astronomers typically make Mercury to do it. superior conjunction (SO and
identifications in the evening sky. This is fine for The preferred method, and the easier, is dawn ob- greatest elongation east (GEE).
naked-eye or binocular observing, but telescopi- serving. Select a date when Mercury is a morning Planets outside the Earth's
cally, conditions could hardly be worse. Once Mer- "staK' and locate it in twilight with the unaided eye orbit have different special
cury is finally located, it is usually less than 15 or binoculars. In the northern hemisphere, August, configurations: opposition (O),
degrees from the horizon and swimming in hope- September, October and November are the best western quadrature (WQ),
lessly bad seeing. At such times, the planet looks yel- months because of the higher angle of the ecliptic conjunction (C) and eastern
low or ochre. In reality, it is a pale cream colour, but relative to the horizon, which brings Mercury to its quadrature (EQ).

145
 highest altitude. The actual observing window will at least thesunward half of the tube a foot or more
be just two to three weeks once or twice during beyond the normal dew cap's length. This prevents
the four-month span. sunlight from falling on a refractors lens, a Schmidt-
Using a telescope with a polar-aligned, motor- Cassegrain's corrector plate or a Newtonian's sec-
driven equatorial mount, begin observing the ondary mirror. Some observers erect a makeshift
planet, ensuring that the telescope is tracking shade for the entire telescope once they have locked
properly as Mercury climbs from the twilight sky onto Mercury. Windy days are out, because the
minutes after sunrise. Mer-
into full daylight. Ninety makeshift shade can be blown over or the extended
cury wi be 30 or 40 degrees above the eastern ho-
1 1 dew cap ripped off. In any case, seeing is usually
rizon, high enough to allow a sharp view if the see- worsened underwindyconditions. Wind also trans-
ing is good. Daytime-sky seeing is usually best ports dust. One blustery day a few years ago, we set
around sunrise, before the sun has warmed the air up two telescopes, a Schmidt-Cassegrain and a
and the ground and produced the convection cur- refractor, to observe Mercury and Venus. After only

rents that have long plagued solar astronomers. Be- a few hours, the front of the refractot^s objective and
cause the sun heats the telescope as well, convec- the Schmidt-Cassegrain's corrector plate were cov-
tion currents build up both outside and inside the ered with more dust than the instruments had col-
instrument, and seeing inevitably deteriorates to- lected in a yearns worth of evening sessions.
ward noon. Finding Mercury after sunrise is possi- Under the best conditions of daytime or early-
ble only when using telescopes equipped with twilight viewing. Mercury will be a sharply defined
reasonably accurate setting circles. (See Chapter 1 1 ). disc with hints of dark and light splotches just at the
threshold of vision. During conditions of perfect see-
DAYTIME PLANETARY OBSERVING ing, however, the planet takes on a unique guise.
PROTECTION Paler than Venus, its creamy surface has an appear-
An important accessory for daytime planetary ob- ance of being vaguely textured, like fine sandpaper.
serving is an extended dew cap made of black con- It is questionable whether observers are actually

struction paper. The paper is wrapped around the seeing evidence of craters on Mercury, but the
tube to extend the front of the telescope, covering planet is certainly different from Venus.

VENUS
Venus holds a preeminent position among celestial at best, twice as far away from the sun
in our sky. The

objects. It is the brightest luminary in the night sky results are longer viewing cycles and more favour-
after themoon. Venus is so dominant when it is in able sky positions than Mercury ever attains.
the sky that there is no mistaking it. Nothing ap- The thick layer of cloud and haze blanketing Ve-
proaching it in brightness is seen in the west at dusk nus is extremely uniform. Yet sometimes, when the
or in dawn. The planef s bright-
the east just before planet viewed through a telescope, there are
is

ness is due to two factors: Venus comes closer to dusky patches and lighter poles at the limit of visi-
Earth than any other planet and is often the nearest bility. Cloud features and circulation motion do ex-

celestial object in the sky beyond the moon; and the ist but become obvious only in ultraviolet light-
haze at the highest levels in Venus's atmosphere, the wavelengths that are invisible to humans. Nonethe-
"surface" that we see from Earth, is extremely reflec- less, for more than a century, visual observers have

tive. Sixty-five percent of the sunlight that falls on reported these features, and occasionally, their
Venus is reflected back into space, the highest per- drawings have coincided with markings in ultravi-
centage of any planet in the solar system. And be- olet photographs taken with Earth-based telescopes.
cause Venus is closer to the sun than any planet ex- Although elusive, the dark patches were drawn
cept Mercury, it is receiving a high dose of sun light long before they were photographed.
per unit-surface area. Thus the observer is presented
with a dazzling disc.
OBSERVING VENUS
Although unrivalled in splendour when viewed When Venus is examined telescopically against the
Features in Venus's thick, with the unaided eye, Venus is generally a disap- blackness of deep twi I ight, the contrast between the
hazy atmosphere, usually pointment up close. Seen through a telescope, the planet and the sky is so enormous that what I ittle de-
vague smudges, are exceed- planet is as featureless as a cue ball. But it passes might be seen is lost. As well, a number of tele-
tail

ingly difficult to see. Ultra- through phases, as does Mercury, and for the same scope aberrations that are commonly suppressed
violetphotography is more reason. Its orbit is Venus
interior to the Earth's, but below detectable levels loom into view. The slight-
successful. Photographs by is twice Mercur/s distance from the sun. Venus con- est amount of chromaticaberration in a refractorwill
Don Parker. sequently takes longer to orbit the sun and appears. produce a blue or purple halo around Venus. The

146
 ^

secondary-mirror supports in a Newtonian gener-

ate spikes extending from the image. Both of these
effects impair resolution of detail and detract from
the aesthetic appearance of the planefs pure white
.^^
^ —
hue and symmetric phase. y^ —
^
^
r,J
/

However, the worst aberration does not occur in 1 ^ N^MARS ORBIT

the telescope but, rather, in the Earth's atmosphere.
It is dispersion associated with atmospheric refrac-

tion. When celestial objects are within about 20

/f^^0- ^i^^
flv
degrees of the horizon, the planet's atmosphere acts
like a weak lens, causing objects to appear dis-
placed to higher altitudes. (The same phenomenon fJl^J
r
causes the sun to linger in the sky at sunset although
/ ao
a
1^
it is geometrically below the horizon.) Alone, that 1

1 2003
would not be a problem, but
dependent, producing a red fringe on the lower side
it is wavelength- Perihelion*- < »

1
^h T .=
,

^
1980 . ,

-Aphelion

of the planet and a green or blue fringe on the

Li?'-'
• TO
'^ (

upper side. When Venus is within 15 degrees of

the horizon, the effect is often rainbowlike and
totally destructive to the image.
The combination of ultrahigh contrast, annoying ^ EARTH\ / \ f/-. <tt J
optical effects and atmospheric dispersion means ORBIT /•<^ Nov,
Oec- ^ \ X /

that the least desirable condition for observing Ve-

\ ^> •^1
^^f--^
\
/
y
\
1

nus is in a dark sky at low altitudes. As with Mercury,

daytime viewing is the preferred mode, and condi-
f
1
to/
^1 t*£
lo
\
/
tions are optimum during an autumn-morning ap-
pearance, shortly before or after sunrise. However, «

because Venus is much brighter and roams farther

from the sun than its smaller neighbour, conditions
for seeing it reasonably well are less restrictive.
At its brightest, Venus can be located with the un-
aided eye in a clear, deep blue sky any time after Handbook— a phase called dichotomy— it usually
3 p.m. (near eastern elongation) or before 10 a.m. appears less than half illuminated in a telescope.
(near western elongation). Even at hours when the Because Venus passes from full phase toward
planet cannot be found in full daylight with the crescent phase during its seven-month cycle
unaided eye, binoculars will readily reveal it. through the evening sky, visual dichotomy occurs
a few days prior to geometric dichotomy. The re-
TELESCOPIC APPEARANCE
verse happens when Venus is seen in the morning
When observed by telescope in a rich blue daytime sky passing from crescent to full phase. For decades,
sky, Venus is a beautiful suspended pearl,
its phase backyard observers have recorded these variances.
instantly evident and sunward edge dazzling and
its Curiously, the morning-apparition figures do not
distinct. Gone are the overwhelming contrast and match the even ng ones. The d fference between vi-
i i

the optical effects that come into play when it is sual and geometric dichotomy is 4 to 6 days in the Mars' elliptical orbit means
lower in the sky on a dark background. evening sky and 8 to 1 2 days in the morning sky. No that the closestapproach of
The lower<ontrast daytime observation of Venus reasonable explanation has ever been proposed, yet Mars to Earth (opposition) can
reveals the surface's gradation in brightness— the the discrepancy seems to be real. Begin watching range from 0.37 AU to 0.68 AU.
difference between the sunward edge, called the for dichotomy a couple of weeks before the date Mars observers try not to miss
limb, and the day/night line, called the terminator. given in the Observer's Handbook (listed as "Venus an opportunity to examine the
Because the terminator receives only grazing sun- at greatest elongation easf for evening sky or "Ve- red planet during the three
light compared with the direct rays on the areas nus at greatest elongation wesf for morning sky). months centred on opposition.
of the planet turned toward the sun, it is more sub- This illustration shows opposi-
dued than the dazzling limb.
INFERIOR CONJUNCTION tions during the last half of the
The visible terminator is actually inside the geo- The celestial clockwork brings Venus to inferior con- 20th century and the early
metric, or true, terminator, which is 90 degrees from junction (page 145) every 19V2 months. The most years of the 21st. The best
the point on Venus's disc that lies directly beneath interesting time to observe Venus is the two months oppositions occur in August or
the sun. Thus when the planet is half illuminated either side of inferior conjunction, when it is near- September, the least favour-
according to references such as the Observer's est Earth and less than 40 percent illuminated. able in February and March.

147
when Venus is near inferior conjunction, its slen- an observation, but it is far from impossible and
der crescent can reach 60 arc seconds as the planet does not require a large telescope.
glides a few degrees above or below the sun in Perhaps the most elusive Venusian feature is the
the Earth's sky. planet's ashen light, a vague illumination of Venus's
The days leading up to and following inferior con- nighttime side when it is seen as a thin crescent.
junction are the prime observing periods. No other The light is fainter than, but otherwise similar to,

celestial object except the moon is seen at such thin Earthshine on the moon. However, there is no sat-

phase angles. When viewing the thin crescent of Ve- ellite to illuminate Venus's night side, and Earth is

nus, the prime objective is a sighting of an extension too away to do the job. We have never observed
far

of the cusps (the points of the crescent) into the the ashen light, and there is some controversy over
planefs night hemisphere. This is not an illusion but whether it is a physical feature or a contrast effect.
sunlight illuminating Venus's upper atmosphere. If it is a real occurrence, some mechanism for light-
Occasionally, the extension is seen as a complete ing the nighttime side of Venus must be proposed.
ring; the extremely thin crescent and a very tenuous There are several theories— continuous lightning
and ghostlike extension of the cusps make a full and auroras are two favourites— but the phenome-
sphere. Conditions must be exceptional for such non remains unexplained.

MARS
Mars is the only object in the universe, apart from Once Mars has been viewed through a telescope
themoon, whose solid surface is seen in reasonable with fine optics when the planet is fairly close, is it

detail through Earth-based telescopes. Yet it is just impossible not to be impressed by the feeling that
far enough away from Earth that its features are dif- it is a real world, a globe with obvious similarities
ficult to observe with clarity. Mars tantalizes. to Earth: the polar caps, the dark continents in the

148
global oceans of pinkish desert, the occasional permits detection of features below 0.3 arc second
cloud and the dust storms— all have their terrestrial (sometimes stated as 0.3 second of arc, or 0.3"). This
counterparts. What is missing on Mars, of course, is a tiny angle, equal to 80-kilometre resolution on
are the oceans of water that characterize most of the Mars when the planet is at its closest. Nevertheless,
surface of our planet. Nevertheless, nowhere else it can be reached by comparatively small tele-
can so many comparable features be seen, includ- scopes. The normal good-seeing limit is 0.5 arc sec-
ing a 24.6-hour rotation period and an axis tilt only ond, while 1.0 arc second is typical of many nights
two degrees different from the Earth's. All of these of the year at most sites. One arc second is the reso-
together make Mars the most Earth ike planet in the
I lution of a 4-inch telescope; half an arc second is the
solar system. When the atmosphere is steady, the theoretical capability of an 8-inch telescope. There-
seeing is good and the telescope's optics are equal fore, ahuge telescope is not required to see detail
to the task, it is easy to understand why some turn- on Mars. What is needed is superb optics. Any devi-
of-the-century observers were convinced that they ation from top optical quality will degrade the im-
were gazing at a habitable world. age, eliminating that threshold detail.
The pale, pinkish orange desert world suspended
OBSERVING MARS
in the black void of space is an enchanting and

unforgettable sight. But memorable views of Mars Any good-quality telescope with more than a 70mm
are not common. For only two to four months aperture should reveal surface features on Mars dur-
every two years, when the planet is within 0.8 AU ing the weeks around the biennial closest ap-
(one AU, astronomical unit, is the Earth-sun dis- proaches, including changes inthe outlines of Mar-
tance), is the disc large enough to reveal rich de- tian dark zones from one opposition to the next.
Even then. Mars is a supreme challenge for
tail. Once thought to be evidence of tracts of vegetation
both eye and telescope. changing with the seasons, the alterations are due
Large telescopes are limited by turbulence in the to severe winds of up to 400 kilometres per hour that
atmosphere of our own planet, which only rarely transport vast quantities of dark and light dust across

In the fall of 1988, when

Mars made its closest approach
to Earth in a generation, expert
planetary photographer Don
Parker took hundreds of
portraits of our neighbour
world. The eight shown on
these two pages track the
planet over one complete
rotation and serve as a guide to
the position and appearance of
the planet's features. Follow-
ing long-standing tradition,
south is up in these and other
planet photographs in this
book. For each photograph,
the central meridian and name
of the most prominent feature
is given. (A) 4° Meridian!
Sinus; (B) 50° Erythraeum; (C)
62° Soils Lacus; (D) 107° Solis
Lacus and Amazonis desert;
(E) 769°Sirenum; (F) 233°
Cimmerium and Tyrrhenum;
(G) 286° Tyrrhenum and Syrtis
Major; (H) 344° Sabaeus Sinus.

149
 the desert planet. Mapping the changes is therefore trast of the dark areas. The red filter may be a bit dark
a study in Martian meteorology and geography. for instruments with apertures smaller than 6 inches,
It is a challenging but exceptionally rewarding but try both to get the most out of observing Mars.
area of planetary observation. Larger telescopes also benefit from the filters' reduc-
The clarity of Mars' surface features— white polar tion of the Martian disc's brilliance. In addition, a red
caps and dark, irregular patches on a peach- filterimproves seeing by cutting out the shorter
coloured sphere— depends to a great extent on the wavelengths that are most affected by atmospheric
transparency of the Martian atmosphere. Dust turbulence. For telescopes greater than 8 inches in
storms can lower contrast across large sectors of the aperture, also try the deep red No. 25 filter. Gener-
disc within days of a storm's onset. The planet may ally, telescopes with more than 5 inches of aperture
remain partly or completely shrouded for many respond better to colour filters than do smaller in-

weeks thereafter. Experienced observers can detect struments. For aesthetic appeal, however, nothing
emerging storms when familiar desert areas of the matches an unfiltered view of the coral deserts, pure
planet brighten and encroach on nearby dark fea- white poles and grey-green dark regions.
tures. Global dust storms are both rare and unpre- The best magnification for Mars is about 35x per
dictable. Only five are well documented: one in inch of aperture up to 7 inches and 25x to 30x for
1 956, one in 1 971 one in 1 973 and two in 1 977.
, larger telescopes. This yields a pleasing image while
The Martian south pole is tipped Earthward at op- avoiding the effects of irradiation, a contrast phe-
positions favourable for northern-hemisphere ob- nomenon that originates in the eye and causes
servers.The brilliant white polar cap shrinks during brighter areas to encroach on darker adjacent areas.
the prime observing window (90 days centred on In the case of Mars, irradiation produces the appar-
opposition), sometimes revealing detached patches ent enlargement of the polar caps and the apparent
or notches in the main cap. Summer is then begin- loss of fine, darker details next to the desert areas.
ning in the Martian southern hemisphere. When the The effect is most troublesome at magnifications be-
southern polar cap reduced to a tiny white but-
is low 25x per inch of aperture. Filters are essential in
ton, part of the larger northern polarcap maybe in large telescopes used below 25x per inch.
view. A bluish white atmospheric haze known as Regardless of the instrumentation, experience is

the North Polar Hood often masks the northern cap the key to detecting the wealth of detail that Mars
itself. Both polar caps have a residual water-ice core can present to backyard observers. At first glance,
that never disappears, but the rapid changes seen the planet appears so small that you may wonder
in the more extensive caps are due to the seasonal how anyone sees anything on it. The trick is to start
sublimation (gas to ice or vice versa) of atmospheric observing Mars at least two months before opposi-
carbon dioxide. In winter, the polar regions are a tion to train your eye to detect the ever-so-subtle fea-
brutal minus 140 degrees Celsius. tures that abound on our neighbour world. Then,
Inexpensive colour filters (about $15 each) that around opposition, when the best views are avail-
screw into the bottom of 1 !4-inch eyepieces often able, you will be ready to squeeze the most out of
improve the visibility of Martian surface features by eye and telescope, rather than discovering at the
reducing the effects of chromatic aberration in time of optimum conditions how challenging it
refractors and increasing contrast in all types of tele- is to observe Mars.

scopes. A blue filter (Wratten No. 80A) reveals the Articles containing detailed information on ob-
few nondust clouds that float in the atmosphere of serving Mars appeared in the October 1987, De-
Mars. But the really effective filters are the orange cember 1 987, April 1 988, April 1 989 and August
(No. 2 1 ) or red (No. 23 A) ones that enhance the con- 1 990 issues of Sky & Telescope.

Veteran Mars observer Klaus

Brasch has combined photog- JUPITER
raphy with visual inspection of
the planet. On October 1, UnlikeMars, which requires superb optics and rela- cal and temperate belts of Jupiter are also detect-
1988, he made the sketch, top, tively high magnifications before much detail is able in a 3-inch refractor at 1 0Ox to 1 30x.
and took the photograph, seen, Jupiter has a number of features that are eas- Every increase in telescope size reveals more, but
centre, within minutes of each ily revealed by a 3-inch refractor at about 1 0Ox: its telescope aperture is definitely secondary to the in-
other using a 14-inch Celestron main belts, the Red Spot (unless it is particularly strument's optical quality. Jupiter is a bright object;
Schmidt-Cassegrain. On a faded) and the shadows of the four Galilean satel- there is plenty of light. Focusing that light into a
print of the photograph, he lites. ranges from 4 to 1 00 times larger
Jupiter's disc sharp, high-resolution image of the disc is the key.
added features seen visually in area than the face of Mars, depending on Mars' In fairly good seeing, 25x to 35x per inch of aper-
to produce the composite distance from Earth. Major disturbances on the ture should be adequate for observing Jupiter. The
image, bottom. equatorial belts and the dark "barges" in the tropi- image should remain sharp-edged and well defined.

150
 Selecting something typical as an example, say, ing that its source material is probably deeper than
a 4-inch refractor or an 8-inch Schmidt-Cassegrain, The Red Spot completes a
that of other features.
what can an observer expect to see? Because of counterclockwise rotation once every six days, but
Jupiter's constantly changing, cloud-covered sur- the anticyclonic motion is not detectable in amateur
face, the amount of detail
varies from one observ- equipment. What can be seen is vague texture
ing season to the next. However, three or four dark within the Red Spot and variations in the colour.
belts are always visible and sometimes as many as When the south equatorial belt moves past the Red
10, depending on how the wind circulation is div- Spot and is disturbed by it, the Red Spot leaves a
vying up the clouds. Bumps, projections, loops and churning swath of clouds in its wake (the region be-
general turbulence should be evident along the hind it in terms of the planet's rotation).
edges of the dark belts. Even if the Great Red Spot In the early 1 960s, the two equatorial belts almost
has faded, its home, called the Red Spot Hollow, merged, and the activity between them was extraor- Jupiter's four largest moons
should be visible as an indentation in the south dinary, with thick, twisting bridges of dark material are visible in binoculars and
equatorial belt. In late 1989, the south equatorial crossing the lighter equatorial zone. Such activity are easily seen in a small
belt itself disappeared over a period of just a few is simply cloud and circulation phenomena. The telescope, such as the 80mm
weeks, and the Red Spot, after years of near invisi- light zones are at a higher altitude than the dark belts refractor used for this illus-
bility, regained some prominence. In 1 990, the Red and consist mostly of ammonia haze; the dark belts tration. From night to night,
Spot faded again as the belt returned. are chiefly ammonium hydrosulphide. Incursions the satellites appear to shuttle
In good seeing, several large, white ovals, one- of one belt into another are constantly appearing from one side of Jupiter to the
quarter to one-third thesizeof the Great Red Spot, and disappearing as the belts and zones slip by one other, like beads on a wire,
roam in the next belt south from that occupied by another. The equatorial zone and the adjoining because we see the Jovian
the Red Spot. The Red Spot is a swirling maelstrom parts of the equatorial belts are known as System I, satellite orbits nearly edge-on.
of cloud pumped up from a vortex that penetrates while the rest of the planet (except the polar regions) The four major moons have
a lower level in the planet. Its coral or pinkish colour is System II. The polar regions are referred to as Sys- orbital periods ranging from
(it rarely appears red) is usually quite distinct from tem III, but for amateur-observation purposes, only 1.8 to 17 days. Illustration by
the hue of any other feature on the planet, indicat- Systems I and II are of interest. John Bianchi.

151
 System rotates in approximately 9 hours 50 min-
I

utes; System has a general rotation speed about

II

five minutes longer. The two systems continually

slip by each other inside the equatorial belts, mak-
ing them the most active areas of the visible surface
of Jupiter. System contains the Great Red Spot. Us-
II

ing tables and a calculation method outlined in the

Observer's Handbook, you can determine the Sys-
tem longitude. Sky & Telescope usually lists the
II

Red Spot's longitude when Jupiter is well placed for

viewing. If the System longitude is within 50 II

degrees of the Red Spot, it should be visible. Dur-

ing the 1 980s, the Red Spot stayed fairly constant
with respect to System II, not straying too far from
1 to 20 degrees longitude. However, in 1 990, it be-
gan to move more erratically. In times past, the Red
Spot has been known to shift by up to 30 degrees
^' zoo" ;i2d' ZHO' 2yiS 2j60° ssOo" ^o° >to° o" 20" ^0'• foo' a^ in a single year, so it is impossible to predict where
it will be. Once seen, though, it will be visible
in the same spot two days and one hour later (five

Jupiter rotations).
Overall, Jupiter's disc is creamy white, bright
and distinct. Yet there is an aspect to it called
limb darkening— the edge ofjupiter^s disc about is

one-tenth as bright as centre— that becomes its

apparent only when sought out. It is not obvious

to the eye because the disc edge abuts the black-
ness of the sky. Limb darkening is caused by solar
illumination that is absorbed by a thin haze in
Jupiter^s upper atmosphere, above the highly reflec-
tive clouds. The limb-darkening phenomenon sub-
Above: In the mid-1980s, dues the visibility of the cloud features near the
members of the Hamilton disc's edge. The Great Red Spot, for example, is not
Centre of the Royal Astro- visible at the edge of the disc. Rather, it is seen
nomical Society of Canada when has
clearly only it rotated one-quarter of the
combined sketches of Jupiter way around. The same is true of all the features,
into strip maps that show the which are seldom visible for more than IVi hours
features over many degrees before they rotate out of view.
of Jovian longitude. They If you haveany inclination to draw whatyou see,
eventually mapped the entire Jupiter probably the best planet on which to try
is

planet and were able to track it. Beautiful strip charts of Jupiter, sketched over a
changes in individualcloud few hours as the planet rotates, have been made by
features as well as motions absolute beginners with only a few nights' training
of the cloud belts with respect at the telescope. 'The more you look, the more
to each other. Courtesy you'll see" is an axiom that is never more appro-
Derek Baker. priate than in the case of Jupiter.
Right: Two photographs of
Jupitershow how the intensity
TRACKING THE FOUR MOONS
of theGreat Red Spot varies Among the most dramatic sights in astronomy is the
over the years, from being the transit of one of Jupiter^s moons across the planefs
most obvious feature on the cloudy face. As appears to touch the Jovian disc,
it

planet to just an oval hollow in one of the four large satellites is transformed from
the south equatorial belt. The a dazzling spot against the dark sky into a tiny, frag-
spot has not been prominent ile in the limb. Each moon has its own
disc etched
since the late 1970s. Photo- characteristic appearance as it crosses the planet.
graphs by James Rouse (top) lo, the innermost of the four big moons, has a light

and Don Parker. pinkish hue and high surface brightness. When it

152
 Top: What should a beginner
expect to see on Jupiter using
a small telescope for the first

time? We asked professional

illustrator John Bianchi, a
novice backyard astronomer,
to turn his new 80mm refractor
to Jupiter and draw what he
could see. His Jupiter sketch
from May 1991, using 120x,
shows the Red Spot Hollow,
the pale south equatorial belt
enters the disc, lo always a bright dot on the
is and the darker north equatorial
darker limb. As its transit, lo can become
it begins belt. (North is up because a
lost in the white zones, which have similar reflec- star diagonal was used.) A
tivity. When in front of the darker belts, the moon satellite is shown as a small

is usually a minute but distinct bright spot. disc to represent a steady point
Europa is the smallest of Jupitet^s four major of light.
moons but has the most reflective surface. It is in- Left: Ganymede, Jupiter's
tensely white, especially as it enters the limb— a tiny largest moon, is seen as a
white dot against the edge of the cloud-strewn gi- grey spot beside the intense
ant. As Europa marches in front of the globe, it usu- blackness of the shadow it
allyencounters the white clouds of the zones and casts on the giant planet. This
disappears from view. On the rare occasion when clearly shows why the transit
it tracks across a dark belt, it may be observed for of a moon's shadow across
its entire journey. Europa is probably the most dif- Jupiter is easier to see than the
ficult moon to see throughout a complete transit. moon itself, which is closer in
Ganymede, the largest satellite, is easier to follow hue to that of the planet's
across I upiteKs face because of its size and because cloudy surface. Photograph by
its colour is duller than the white clouds and brighter Don Parker.

153
 I JUPITER'S FOUR MAJOR SATELLITES!

Average
Maximum Effective
Orbital Distance From Apparent Shadow Shadow
Diameter Visual Period Planet Centre Diameter Diameter Diameter*
Satellites (km) Magnitude (days) (arc sec.) (arc sec.) (arc sec.) (arc sec.)

j^^w-e^i^H
Europa
3,630
3,140
^^ 5.0
5.3
^^^HK 1.77
3.55
fi^^^^^Pm
220
12
1.0
-'^ 0.9
0.6
^^~' t.o
0.8
*1H
Ganymede
Callisto
5,260
4,800
4.6fl^^H1
5.6
7.16
16.69
351
618
^^^H
1.6
1.1

0.5
wm1 14
0.9

includes darker part of penumbra! shadow.

than the dark ones. When transiting a white zone, Galilean moons': it orbits Jupiter only once in 1 7
Ganymede is brown
in colour and resembles
light days, compared with 7 days for Ganymede, 31/2
a washed-out shadow. Superimposed on
satellite days forEuropa and just 42 hours for lo. Also, for
the limb, the reverse is the case— the limb is darker more than half of Jupiter's 1 2-year solar orbit, the
than Ganymede, and it appears as a bright dot on planefs satellite system is angled so that Callisto
the darker background. As with lo, there is a transi- passes above or below Jupiter as seen from Earth
tion zone in which Ganymede almost always dis- and misses transiting the disc altogether.
appears as its intensity matches the background be- The shadows of Jupiter's moons are much easier
tween the limb and the more brightly illuminated to observe than a transit because they are black dots,
central part of the disc. far darker than any of the planefs surface features.
Callisto is probably the easiest moon to follow be- But the shadows vary in size, with Ganymede's the
cause its dull surface material makes it darker than largest, lo's the next largest and Europa's and Cal-
almost anything it encounters, except at the very listo's the smallest. Ganymede's shadow is visible
edge of the disc when it enters or exits its transit. Cal- in a 60mm refractor; the others usually require a
listo's crossings are by far the rarest of the four 3-inch refractor for a definite sighting.

SATURN
No photograph or description can adequately dupli- gap about as wide as the United States. Cassini's di-
cate the astonishing beauty of the ringed planet vision looks as black as the sky around Saturn but
Saturn floating against the black-velvet backdrop of is actually a region of less densely packed particles
the sky. Of all celestial sights available through rather than a true blank space. The division is due
backyard telescopes, only Saturn and the moon largely to the gravitational perturbations of Saturn's
are sure to elicit exclamations of delight from moon Mimas. Ring particles orbiting in the gap are
first-time observers. Saturn casts its magic spell: in resonance with Mimas and, over time, are gravita-
To see two satellite shadows beginners and veteran amateur astronomers alike tionally nudged into different orbits, thus largely
trekking across the Jovian never tire of the planet. clearing out the section. The other gaps that produce
cloudscape is unusual, Almost any telescope will reveal Saturn's ring the many rings seen by the Voyager spacecraft are
although not so rare that you structure. A 60mm refractor at 30x to 60x clearly probably generated same way but involve
in the
will never witness it. There are shows it. The view is outstanding in 4-inch or big- much more complex interactions with other moons
always several such events ger telescopes. Such instruments also show several and large ring particles.
during an observing season. of Saturn's large family of which appear
1 8 satellites, Ring A is less than half the width of ring B and is

The times of all Jovian satellite as tiny stars beside, above and below the planet. not as bright, although the difference between the
phenomena— shadow and Although spacecraft have discovered hundreds of two is subtle rather than striking. RingC, the inner-
satellite transits and Jovian disc identifiable rings, only three components can bedis- most ring, is so dim that an experienced eye and at
and shadow disappearances tinguished visually through Earth-based telescopes. least a 6-inch telescope are needed to distinguish it.

and reappearances— are listed They are known simply as rings A, B and C. Rings Also known phantomlike
as the crepe ring, C is a
in the Observer's Handbook. A and B are bright and easily visible in any tele- structure extending about halfway toward the planet
Photograph by Don Parker. scope. They are separated by Cassini's division, a from the inner edge of B.

154
 One other division besides Cassini's is visible in
Earth-based equipment. Properly called the Keeler
gap but incorrectly known as the Encke division, it
is located near the outer edge of ring A and is ex-

tremely difficult to detect. The first person to see a

gap in that position was James Edward Keeler, who
was usingthe Lick Observatory's 36-inch refractor.
The Encke division is not a true division but a shaded
area in the middle of ring A that has been seen with
telescopes as small as 6-inch refractors. Sometimes,
it is invisible in much larger instruments, suggest-
ing some variation in intensity over time.

OBSERVING SATURN
When observing conditions permit, you can spend
hours at the eyepiece looking at Saturn, and the
planet certainly deserves attention on nights of good
seeingwhen it is well placed— especially on nights
when the moon is in the sky and other types of ob-
serving are less profitably pursued. Here is what to
look for, in order of increasing difficulty:

n The rings themselves. It usually takes only 30x to

see them clearly and 60x to show that they really are
like awasher surrounding a marble.
DThe shadow cast by the planet on the rings. It
can be quite small around opposition but rapidly
increases when the planet moves away from op-
position.
n Cassini's division. A 3-inch telescope will reveal
it, but a good 5-inch instrument is required to detect
it all the way around.
DThedusky, brownish equatorial beltof Saturn that
separates the creamy yellow equatorial division
from the beige temperate zone.
D The shadow of the rings on the planet is usually
narrow but is not that difficult to see if specifically
looked Depending on the geometry between
for.

the Earth, the sun and Saturn, the shadow can ap-
pear on the disc either above or below the rings as
they pass in front of the planet.
D Atamuch higher level of difficulty are the gentle
cloud features in the planefs atmosphere. Saturn

seems have a high-level haze of ammonia ice

to
crystals that is largely absent on Jupiter, and this
tends to subdue the contrast of surface features. Very
rarely, a white spot will erupt to disturb the scene,
it happened in 1933,1 960 and 1 990. At maximum perfectly steady, like a Voyager picture taken from Top: Saturn and its satellites,
intensity, the white spots were visible in 4-inch a few million kilometres away. as seen in a 12-inch telescope.
telescopes. Illustration from Richard
D Finally, the SATURN'S SATELLITE FAMILY
Keeler gap, the most difficult Satur- Proctor's Saturn and Its

nian feature. The gap is so thin — a meagre 320 Seven of Saturn's moons are visible in 8-inch tele- System, published in 1865.
kilometres across— that it is detectable only by ex- scopes. Although their number surpasses the four Above: In 1966, Saturn's
perienced observers using excellent equipment, big moons of Jupiter, the Saturn family is much more ringswere edge-on to Earth
probably 8-inch or larger refractors. Neither of the difficult to observe. and invisible for months. Only
authors has ever seen it with certainty, even on one Titan -an eighth-magnitude object orbiting Sat- the ring shadow (thick black
excellent night with the 26-inch U.S. Naval Obser- urn in approximately 16days — isby farthe largest zone) remained. Terence
vatory refractor when, at 330x, the planet appeared of Saturn's moons and is easily seen in any tele- Dickinson; 7-inch refractor.

155
 I SATURN'S MOST-OBSERVED SATELLITES I

Average Maximum
Orbital Distance From Apparent Shadow
Diameter Visual Period Planet Centre Diameter Diameter*
Satellites (km) Magnitude (days) (arc sec.) (arc sec.) (arc sec.)

Titan
Rhea
Dione
Tethys

*Titan's shadow is seen only when the rings are nearly edge-on. Other satellite shadows are exceedingly difficult to see.

scope. When at its nnaximum distance from the moon has the reflectivity of snow, while the other
planet, it appears to be five ring diameters from resembles dark rock. When at its brightest, lapetus
Saturn's centre. Titan is the only satellite in the so- is located about 12 ringdiameterswestof its parent
The image of Saturn seen lar system known to have a substantial atmosphere. planet; because stars may appear at a similar dis-
"live" in a good telescope is Instruments of more than 60mm aperture should tance from Saturn, several observations are neces-
one of the great sights in reveal Saturn's lOth-magnitude moon Rhea less sary for a confirmed sighting.
nature. Repeated viewing than two ring diameters from the planet, lapetus is The next two moons inward from Rhea — Dione
never seems to diminish its nexton the list of visibility, but only when it is in one and Tethys—are about half a magnitude fainter and
elegance and symmetry— part of its orbit. It has the peculiar property of being are visible in 6-inch or larger telescopes. Inward
especially the haunting three- five times brighter when it is to the west of Saturn from Dione and speeding around the edge of the
dimensional quality of the than when it is to the east, lapetus ranges in bright- rings are Enceladus and Mimas, both a magnitude
ringed planet as it floats in the ness from 10th to 12th magnitude. One side of the dimmer and significantly more difficult to detect.
blackness of space. Saturn's
ring structure is divided into
three distinct rings that are
visible in amateur telescopes.
URANUS
Ring A is the outside sector, Uranus was discovered in 1 781 by William Her- stated: "From experience, knew that the diameters
I

separated by Cassini's division schel,probably the greatest observational as- of the fixed stars are not proportionally magnified
from the wide, bright ring B. tronomer of all time. In the course of a systematic with higher powers, as the planets are. Therefore,
Ring C is the faint inner zone. programme to examine every object visible in his I now put on powers of460 and 932 and found the
Photograph, left,by Don 614-inch Newtonian, Herschel observed a sixth- diameter of the comet increased in proportion to the
Parker with a 16-inch Newto- magnitude "star^' that did not look like a point of power, while the diameters of the stars to which I

nian captures the planet's 1989 light. Herschel was in the habit of using high mag- compared it were not increased in the same ratio."
appearance. Sketch by Michael nification to study celestial objects, and when he Herschel thought he had discovered a comet, but
Maroney with a 4-inch Celestron came across Uranus, he was using 227x. itsoon became clear that his find was a planet or-
achromatic refractor at 212x In his report of the discovery, published in biting the sun beyond Saturn. It had been seen be-
was made August 5, 1989. Philosophical Transactions in 1781, Herschel fore and had even been plotted in a star atlas. At

156
WEST EAST

Using corkscrew diagrams

like these for the current
month, you can identify the
four brightest satellites of
Jupiter, left, and Saturn, right.
The horizontal lines represent
hours Universal time on the
date indicated (0 hours UT =
7 p.m. EST the previous day).
The two straight vertical lines
in the Jupiter diagram repre-
sent the disc of the planet. The
wavy lines are the orbiting
moons' positions at any time.
The four vertical straight lines
in the Saturn diagram are
Saturn's disc (inner two) and
the rings. The four satellites
shown for Saturn are, in order
outward, Tethys, Dione, Rhea
and Titan. Saturn satellite
charts for the current year are
published in the Observer's
Handbook. Jupiter charts are
published in the Observer's
Handbook and the Astro-
nomical Calendar. Both
publications are essential
references for planet watchers.
Courtesy U.S. Naval Obsena-
tory (Jupiter) and Larry Bogan
(Saturn).

157
 that is all. No surface features were ever clearly seen
on the planet Voyager spacecraft's en-
prior to the
counter with Uranus And Voyager showed
in 1986.
that there is nothing there to be seen anyway, just
featureless, aquamarine haze— the top layer of the
planefs thick atmosphere.
Five of Uranus's moons were known before the
Voyager flyby, and ten more were discovered by
the spacecraft, but the brightest are only 14th mag-
nitude. Uranus is simply too far away to be of
much interest to the backyard astronomer beyond
mere identification.
If you refer to the Ob-
charts published in the
server's Handbook or the Astronomical Calendar,
the planet is easy to find with binoculars or a finder-
scope. Look for conjunctions that bring a planet
magnitude 5.7, Uranus is barely visible to the un- within one degree of Uranus. This allows Uranus
aided eye; however, it takes about 1 OOx before the and another solar system body to be visible at 50x
3.9 arc second disc of Uranus ceases to resemble a and clearly shows how dimly lit the face of Uranus
star. Apparently, prior to Herschel, nobody had is in comparison with the nearer naked-eye planets.

looked at it with enough magnification. Because of its remoteness, Uranus receives only
A modern telescope similar in size to Herschel's one-quarter of the intensity of sunlight that falls on
easily reveals Uranus's pale bluish green disc, but a similar surface area of Saturn.

NEPTUNE
in some ways, Neptune offers more interest than and both planets will be in the same binocular field
Uranus for the backyard astronomer— certainly, of view from 1992 to 1994.
more challenge. For the beginning observer, Nep- Although 1 0Ox will show Neptune as a disc, only
tuneis a much more demanding target in binocu- powers close to 200 unmistakably reveal it as one.
lars, although moderately experienced observers Its 2.5 arc second disc is definitely blue in 6-inch or

should have no trouble picking it out among the larger telescopes. In smaller instruments, the planet
stars of eastern Sagittarius, where it will be until generally looks pale grey. Neptune has one large
1997. most standard references, such as the
In and seven small satellites. All butoneof the small
Observer's Handbook, charts of Neptune's position ones were discovered by Voyager 2 when it en-
include stars down to eighth magnitude; Neptune countered the planet in August 1989. The biggest
is magnitude 7.7. Uranus passes Neptune in 1993, moon, Triton, is 1 3th magnitude.

PLUTO
A tiny world, smaller than the Earth's moon, float- faint star with a magnitude similar to Pluto's is

Large aperture is not ing on the rim of the solar system offers a challeng- nearby. During the 1990s, Pluto on the is located
necessary for most planetary ing target for owners of 6-inch or larger telescopes. border between the constellations Libra and
viewing. Good optics, good The challenge is simply to see it. Ophiuchus, well positioned in the evening sky in
seeing and experienced eyes Pluto looks identical to a 1 3.7-magnitude star. It late spring and early summer.
are the crucial ingredients, as has been seen in 4-inch telescopes, but it is a tough For a definite Pluto sighting, plot the stars of the
this remarkable drawing of assignment; 8-inch or bigger telescopes are recom- immediate vicinity in a notebook, and be as precise
Jupiter by Isao Mayazaki of mended. Not only does Pluto have to be identified as possible in the positioning of the planet. Return
Japan attests. He was using an using the charts published in the Observer's Hand- to the eyepiece a few nights later, check the same
8-inch Newtonian. Mayazaki, book, Astronomical Calendar, Sky& Telescope or field, and see whether the object identified as Pluto
who has been sketching the Astronomy, but it has to be identified on two nights has moved to another position. The 1 990s are the
planets for more than four within a few days of each other so that its motion best time to look— Pluto was at perihelion in 1989
decades, has astonished among the stars can be plotted and the identifica- and is slowly retreating from both the sun and Earth.
several generations of plan- tion confirmed. A single sighting is usually not good It will lose about one-tenth of a magnitude per
etary observers with his skill. enough because, much of the time, at least one decade during the next century.

158
Planets: Apparent Sizes

/Above: Thousands of
• O O O
asteroids orbit the sun along
Uranus Neptune
o O
with the planets. Astrophotog-
rapher Tom Dey caught one as
a short streak during a time
Mars exposure of the Virgo galaxy
Venus cluster.
Mercury
Left: Illustration of the

apparent maximum and mini-

mum observable sizes of the
Xii^r planets shows what to expect
in a telescope in terms of
Saturn
relative sizes. Venus and Mars,
the planets closest to Earth,
I
1 1 1 1
1
vary enormously in size
10 20 30 40 50
depending on their distance
Seconds of Arc from us, while Jupiter and
Saturn remain fairly constant.

159
 CHAPTER ELEVEN

How to Find
Your Way Around
the Sky

Familiarity with the night sky's geography and its As the months pass, the gradual shift of the celestial
overall motions is as integral to amateur astronomy panorama elicits a sense of cyclical change within
as knowing how to focus a telescope. It is gained a timeless chamber of immense proportions. You
through the experience of observing the stars and see and understand the visible universe.
understandingwhatyou see. Without such knowl- Before this stage, a telescope tends to be a distrac-
edge, the most expensive telescope will add lit- tion rather than an aid, diverting attention from the
tle to the hobby. Equipment alone is not enough big picture. you spend a few months stargazing
If

for navigating the celestial seas. with binoculars, you will know what a telescope is
We have seen this advice ignored many times. designed to do before you buy it. That is why we
People buy telescopes that have fancy-looking recommend binoculars for initial observing. They
mounts with setting circles (numbered dials on the also acquaint you with the capabilities of simple op-
mount) or computer-aided devices that are said to tics and helpyou cross-reference all-sky naked-eye

point automatically to thousands of objects. Yet the star charts to more detailed charts that include a
new owner knows not a single constellation. With- full range of binocular targets.
outa proper understanding of whatthe instrument The next step is to learn to use charts to find tele-
is supposed to do, or why, the observer will spend scopic objects. Even if you plan to use a computer-
a few frustrating nights outside, then neglect it. aided telescope or setting circles, you still need

sky charts. They are the atlases of the night sky.

AN OBSERVING PHILOSOPHY
The point of backyard astronomy is not just to peek
NIGHT-SKY GEOGRAPHY
into a telescope eyepiece; rather, it is the total ex- Right ascension (R.A.) and declination (Dec.) are the
perience of a personal exploration of the cosmos, sky's equivalents of longitude and latitude on Earth,
an incremental process that begins with the first just like latitude, celestial declination is degrees
Dipper and the bright plan-
identification of the Big directly above the Earth's equator and 90 degrees
ets. Recognition of the less obvious constellations above the poles. Right ascension is measured in 24
follows and, from this framework, a growing ap- one-hour segments, rather than degrees, and each
preciation of the sk/s motion due to the Earth's hour is subdivided into minutes and seconds. The
rotation. The quest can then extend thousands or system is used because the Earth's 24-hour rotation
millions of light-years via binocular sightings of the causes the sky to parade in review at the rate of ap-
brighter star clusters, nebulas and a galaxy or two. proximately one hour of right ascension in one hour

160
 In 1600, this was a state-of-
the-art celestial atlas. Of
undeniably high artistic merit,
these charts by Willem Blaeu
of Amsterdam also have rea-
sonably accurate star positions.
Until the 20th century, it was
common practice to show the
stars as part of a globe— the
celestial sphere— and to depict
the constellations as they
would appear from the "out-
side"; hence the mirror reversal
of their positions compared
with a true sky view. Although
visible to the unaided eye,
nonstellar objects such as the
Andromeda Galaxy are simply
portrayed as stars. Courtesy

Harvard University.

161
 31«7 address, so does every sky location. R.A. 16h 42m
\'-^-i>
T* \j9«i 11 Dec. +36° 28' is.the location ofMl 3, the Hercules
^ •
T^
v~---.
y • cluster. Look on any star chart detailed enough to
/i^^^/ • JJiS?-*^ show right-ascension and declination coordinates,
Y . *
t • \ rt«'
and Ml 3 can be found by these numbers alone.
;

i •o / 9VY Older astronomy books and star atlases have epoch

'"
'T .^^ •
35
ji/ " --
• • 1950 coordinates, while more recent charts give
,,'7' . 38 •32 \
J • •
epoch 2000 coordinates. This reflects a slow shift
i'"'"' in the entire coordinate system that is due to preces-
Dubhe

r ^//
'%
/'">«

60°
•a sion, a ponderous wobbling of the Earth's axis.
Ignore it, at least initially. A 50-year epoch dif-
•'0
ference is not a consideration in the beginning
•6 • -42
«f,
»/•« stages when binoculars or low-power telescopes
Merak . ,,, should be used. Eventually, try to use charts and
2fc<*a •n
*"
39 *'
. tables that offer e\ther epoch 1 950 or epoch 2000
coordinates, but not both.
^395J
3631 •
Once armed with the coordinates, how can you
find an object in the sky? The traditional —and best

t^>;.«.,,*^
Ar URSA MAJOR - method is to plot the position on a star chart or star
-3«9J atlas, note the location relative to nearby fifth- and
-»/.
'O, > •a sixth-magnitude stars, point the telescope at that
spot,and locate the object in the finderscope or the
telescope's low-power field. It is simple, it works,
of clock time. However, the association between and the sky can be learned at the same time.
right ascension and time is a secondary issue. The The alternative— employing the telescope's set-
important point is that the right-ascension and is more complicated than just dialling
ting circles—
declination coordinates are fixed to the sky. up the numbers. For simplicity, the star-chart point-
Just as every location on Earth has its coordinate and-look route is strongly recommended.

STAR ATLASES
SmaW sections around the A star atlas is as essential to the backyard astronomer fulness of the charts as actual guides to specific tar-
Big Dipper from the three most as a road atlas is to a traveller. And like the traveller, gets is limited. They are good overviews that reveal
widely used sixth-magnitude the astronomer can be inconvenienced or become at a glance the interrelationships of the constella-
star atlases are shown above lost by not selecting the right atlas for the situation. tions and their positions relative to the horizon.
and on facing page. All are Planning a cross-country trip requires, first, a Unless you are doing solely unaided-eye viewing,
reproduced the same size as national map for an overview, then state or pro- you need more than a single all-sky chart. Star-atlas
the atlases themselves. Apart vincial maps for more detail and, finally, regional charts subdivide the sky into smaller areas that are
from the slightly different or city maps for information about congested areas enlarged to provide greater detail. They are catego-
symbols used, the main or sites of special interest. A similar procedure is rized by their limiting magnitudes. Each increase of
number of
variations are the followed when planning a night of observing under one magnitude more than doubles the number of
deep-sky objects plotted and the stars with binoculars or a telescope. stars and other celestial objects shown and therefore
the overall clarity and legibility For the initial overview, the entire sky must be produces a substantially bulkier atlas. More detail
of the charts. The Edmund on one map. One
such reference is the monthly corresponds with the need for a higher level of
Mag 6 Star Atlas has a 6.2- circular all-sky charts in each issue of Sky & Tele- observer experience to use the atlas.
magnitude limit, while the scope and Astronomy. They are well-crafted maps,
FIFTH-MAGNITUDE STAR ATLASES
Bright Star Atlas and Norton's but we prefer the convenience of rotating sky charts
2000.0 penetrate to 6.5. All that show what is above the horizon at a specific For those just beginning their tour of the night sky,
three atlases have extensive time for any night of the year. Our favourite chart several introductory books provide excellent fifth-
tables of data on deep-sky of this type is 'The Night Sky," designed by David magnitude star atlases along with plenty of support
objects. Charts (clockwise Chandler and available from Sky Publishing for material. These include NightWatch by Terence
from upper left) are copyright about $6. It comes in several versions, each suitable Dickinson (Camden House), The Edmund Sky
Edmund Scientific, Willmann- for a different latitude range. Guide by Terence Dickinson and Sam Brown (Ed-
Bell Inc. and Longman Rotating star charts or monthly all-sky charts usu- mund Scientific), the Mag 5 Star Atlas by Sam
Scientific. Reproduced with down to magnitude 4.5. Only a few
ally plot stars Brown (Edmund Scientific), The Monthly Sky Guide
permission. prominent deep-sky objects are shown, so the use- by Ian RidpathandWilTirion (Cambridge) and the

162
Universe Guide to Stars and Planets by Ian Ridpath
and Wil Tirion (Universe Books). Each of these
books costs $25 or less and contains charts show-
ing all starsdown to magnitude 5.0 or 5.5. They in-
clude extensive introductory material aimed at the
beginningobserveraswellaslistsof hundredsofthe
brightest and easiest-to-find deep-sky objects.

SIXTH-MAGNITUDE STAR ATLASES

Every backyard astronomer needs a sixth-magni-
tude star atlas. Our first choice— and there is ob-
viously some bias to be admitted here— is the Mag
6 Star Atlas by Terence Dickinson, Glenn F. Chaple
and Victor Costanzo (Edmund Scientific, $20). The
first half of the book provides introductory reference

material on telescopes and observing techniques.

The second half is an atlas of the sky to magnitude
6.2, divided among 1 2 charts reproduced on large,
12-inch-square pages. Three additional charts are
blowups of congested areas. Facing each chart
is a list, with descriptive notes, of nebulas, clus-
ters, galaxies, double stars and variable stars to be
found on that chart.
Another favourite is Wil Tirion's Bright Star Atlas
(Willmann-Bell), a beautiful sixth-magnitude star
atlas arranged in similarfashion to the chart section
of the Mag 6 Star Atlas. All stars to magnitude 6.5,
allopen and globular clusters to 7.0 and all galax-
ies to 10.0 are shown. Double stars and nebulas

are limited to those visible in small telescopes. The

data tables are intended for observers with binocu-
lars modest telescopes. It is a bargain at $1 0.
or
The Adas is actually the atlas section
Bright Star
from another wonderful book with the unusual
title Men, Monsters and the Modern Universe by

George Lovi and Wil Tirion (Willmann-Bell). Lovi

and Tirion probably know more about star charts
than any other two people on the planet. Their book
is slightly different from the others in this category
because its text concerns the constellations and their
origins, mythology and importance. For such infor-
mation, no better source exists than this fine hard-
cover reference book, reasonably priced at $25.
The world's best-known sixth-magnitude star atlas
is Norton's StarAt/as, first published in 1910. The
MAP 9

most recent edition (1989) of the durable work is so

heavily revised that its name has been changed to the style established by the original author, Arthur
Norton's 2000.0 (Wiley, $35). All the maps have P. Norton, which reflects the observing tastes in
been completely redone, the tables have been re- vogue early in this century. Variable stars and dou-
worked, and the description section has been re- ble stars constitute 80 percent of the objects listed,
written under the supervision of English astronomy while clusters, nebulas and galaxies are relegated
writer and editor Ian Ridpath. The charts, by Wil to the remaining 20 percent. A better balance would
Tirion, are superb, perhaps the best sixth-magnitude have been 50-50. The chart section is followed by
atlas charts yet available. There are eight main maps 1 50 pages of concise reference material that will be

to magnitude 6.5, each a two-page 1 1-by-l 7-inch of lasting value to the more experienced observer.
spread, with reference tables on the previous two Finally, in the sixth-magnitude category, is the
pages. Unfortunately, the tables emulate too closely book with the weakest charts and the best descri|>

163
 peared through his 8-inch Schmidt-Cassegrain, al-
though the descriptions are useful for most tele-
scopes, in addition, there is a large text section in
which Lorenzin dispenses much practical advice on
observing techniques and equipment. The atlas
charts are competently drawn, but we have found
them to be the least useful of any of the sixth-mag-
nitude atlases mentioned here. Nevertheless, it is a
highly recommended reference.

SEVENTH-MAGNITUDE
STAR ATLAS
Only one volume falls into the seventh-magnitude
category: A Field Guide to the Stars and Planets
by Donald H. Menzel and jay M. Pasachoff, with
monthly sky maps and atlas charts by Wil Tirion
(Houghton Mifflin). It is one of the venerable and
highly successful books in the Peterson Field Guide
Series, pocket-sized volumes intended for field use
by naturalists.Although the format may work for
bird watchers, itfails in this instance. Tirion's beau-
tiful seventh-magnitude star atlas is divided into 52

charts, but each is only four by five inches— far too

• •
V small for the detail they contain. The small page for-

•
• • mat is all wrong for a book this comprehensive,
• \
• .
• •
• which is unfortunate, because there is much useful
' .•• •
• information here, packed into 450 pages of small
• • type. Priced at less than $20, though, it is an excel-
cu
-^.^^. ••
/ • » •
\

\
•
,_^
ifc,_.„-

• \
• lent value for the amount of information it offers.

7~v
•

EIGHTH-MAGNITUDE
STAR ATLASES
m
'^•^^
•
•X
'
•
• X Astrocartographic genius Wil Tirion produced the
1
•j>^
-"
%•% •.. definitive eighth-magnitude atlas with his Sky Atlas
• • •
•
2000.0 (Sky Publishing and Cambridge). The 26
-?^^<.
•
charts are each 1 2 by 1 8 inches. This is a big atlas,
•* • • %;,
• but it works. Swatches of the sky, roughly 40 by 60
•
degrees, are presented. If they were smaller, they
»
• would not include enough of any individual con-
•
• V •
•
•
• <^^>. • K . • stellation to provide a feel for the portion of the sky
\

• being examined. The atlas is available in three for-

7 -o,
'V,
* mats: a deluxe bound edition with colour-coded
•.• • ;
•
*
* charts; individual charts in a desk edition, with black
/
stars on and the so-called field
a white background;
;""-> •
• i- " edition, with white stars on
a black background.
At approximately $20, the desk and field editions
tive catalogue, 1000 + The Amateur Astronomer's
: are real bargains. The deluxe edition costs about
Field Guide to Deep Sky Observing by Tom Loren- $40. Sky Atlas 2000.0 is the obvious step up from
zin {privately published; available through Sky Pub- a sixth-magnitude atlas.
lishing and Astronomy, $40). The "1 000 + " in the
book's title refers to the extensive reference section
NINTH-MAGNITUDE
STAR ATLASES
of approximately 1,1 00 deep-sky objects— double
stars, variable stars, clusters, nebulas and galaxies. Compiling an atlas of stars down to magnitude 9.5
The vast majority of the listed objects are nebulas, was a monumental undertaking. To accommodate
clusters and galaxies, in keeping with the tastes of the observing agendas of serious amateur astrono-
the modern backyard astronomer. Lorenzin looked mers, more than 300,000 stars had to be plotted,
at every one of the objects listed, noting how it ap- along with thousands of deep-sky objects to 14th

164
magnitude. The task was finally completed in the
— — ^^s-vi • •
•

late 1980s with the publication of Uranometria \\i<ysjf . "T^^ • >

^sego •
• •

2000.0hy Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport and George •

1 • j^08<;
Lovi (Willmann-Bell). The scale of detail necessary %7.ss
• se°L I
•
meant that for enti re constel lations to be shown on •
3613
O- .
•

one chart, the charts would have to be the size of ''''^^3619 •

•
•
•

a tablecloth. Obviously, that was impractical, so in- • o •

•
3I.SB
stead, the sky was divided into 472 sections, and the •
/• 36B3A
O •
• •
• •"
book was printed in two bound volumes on 9-by- —ai&aJ m
•
°
1 2-inch pages. The result is a tour de force, unclut-

tered yet offering fantastic detail. Priced at $1 00 for

/ •
;
ojsajp
•

-^ .
3i.580

sSs
3U0
O
•
• •
• t3
the Uranometria 2000.0 has filled the last void
set,
• o
•

• 3Sn ^^ . USSi.
in the star-atlas repertoire for backyard astronomers.
56° t • • O »
Some atlases show fainter stars, but they are
^ 31.99
4S-/9
•

simply reproductions of photographs of the sky, and • 1 c

33
very few of the objects are named. Their value to the C'J59i CHi . •
• 3556'M10e •
average backyard astronomer is limited because the
-• •
1
• •. P3398
most frequent use of an atlas is to look up the lo- •
'°r
~~~^—~~\—^ , JSj7-A«97 . • •
known
cation of a
Uranometria 2000.0
galaxy or nebula.
is
In this

unrivalled. Virtually every

regard,

/
r
•
'
1
1
•
•
^m
-CyOwl Nfh„l„

-•-
•
> .

•
•

•
•

•
•S

deep-sky object you might want to observe is shown • • •^<

• • •
and identified.

ASTRO CARDS task of matching the finderscope view Facing page, top: a fourth
to the star-
Each three-by-five-inch Astro Card features one fielddrawing. The cards are easy to handle at the sixth-magnitude star atlas from
main deep-sky object and often several nearby ob- eyepiece and can be flipped over to match a right- the book 1000-t- : The Amateur
jects of interest. A wide-angle chart indicates where angle finderscope (shine a flashlight through them). Astronomer's Field Guide to
to look in the constellation, and a naked-eye star is There is a set for the Messier objects, two sets of Deep Sky Observing lacks
given as a jumping-off point for star hopping. It also NGC-object cards, a set for large-telescope targets constellation boundaries and
has a chart containing a three-to-four-degree-wide and a set for binary stars. The price is $7.50 per is less detailed than the atlases

finderscope field with the key star marked. Homing set of 100 cards. They can be ordered from Astro shown on pages 162-63. How-
in on an object becomes a relatively straightforward Cards, Box 35, Natrona Heights, PA 15065. ever, the descriptive tables that
accompany it are excellent.
Chart copyright 1000 + ; repro-
SETTING CIRCLES duced with permission.
Facing page, bottom: The
Amateur astronomy is a friendly hobby; however, becomefamiliarwith celestial coordinates and the next step up from a good sixth-
a few topics provoke debate. One issue that never proper alignment of their telescopes succeed at magnitude atlas is Sky Atlas
seems to go away concerns setting circles: Are managing setting circles effectively. With luck, they which plots stars to
2000.0,
they a crutch or a contribution? may get close to a target, but not close enough. A magnitude 8.0 and shows
if you spend any time with a group of amateur series of near misses may cause the hapless observer many more deep-sky objects.
astronomers, you will hear: "Don't use setting cir- to give up in frustration. Furthermore, unfamiliarity Because of the increased scale
cles. Learn to find objects by using star charts and with an object's appearance can cause it to be of this atlas, only the bowl of
hopping from star to star. You'll never learn the missed even though it is in the viewing field. the Big Dipper is shown here.
sky otherwise." Then another voice will quickly do work, but we recommend that
Setting circles Chart copyright Sky Publishing;
counter: "Don't listen to him. I use setting circles all beginners not rely on them. Instead, learn the con- reproduced with permission.
the time. I can zero right in on the object I want, stellations first. Find the best deep-sky objects and Above: The ultimate atlas for
and I don't have to waste time hunting for it." double stars by following star patterns. If your goal detail and comprehensiveness
Actually, both views are right. Setting circles can is to see all the Messier objects, track your quarry is Uranometria 2000.0. Now, so

be a great aid to finding deep-sky objects, but the with care and precision — star-hop. much is shown in such detail
people who use them effectively understand celes- hopping may require more effort than using
Star that only Beta Ursae Majoris
tial coordinates and sidereal time and know the con- setting circles on a properly aligned telescope, but and its immediate surround-
stel lationsand the general positions of their targets. the end result is a working knowledge of the star ings fit in an area that contains
They are skilled observers who can recognize the fields. The sky becomes a friendly place. Star- the entire Big Dipper in the
objects they are looking for and, if forced to, could hopping routes are soon as familiar as finding your sixth-magnitude atlases. Chart
just as easily star-hop across the sky to find them. way through the backstreets of your hometown. copyright Willmann-Bell Inc.;
Very few amateur astronomers who have yet to With practice, you will be able to centre the tele- reproduced with permission.

165
 scope on any number of objects with no more than
a couple of quick glances through the finderscope.
1 '"iHPVIiHni
So why have setting circles? They are very useful
for tracking down objects in star-poor regions, find-
ing planets in the daytime, locating comets and ob-
^L
^B 7^^r,
'ngC 2392
PI Neb
tik^
Tjrpe
RA 07h26.2j,
IllbHV
Dec+?10n,.
siie i*7xH3" Mms
n...

8.1 'in <

"^M
serving in bright city skies. This is true if, and only ^"^^\ Gemini
^^1 '
if, the mount is accurately polar-aligned. There are

two applications
ting circles
of accurate polar alignment: set-
and astrophotography. If you do not do
serious celestial photography and do not use setting
I
^^H
^- "Clovn face nebula
circles, you never need more than rough polaralign- ^^^1 • or Esklno nebula"

ment, despite what the telescope instruction man-

ual might say. Rough polar alignment is accom-
plished in about one minute. Accurate polar
alignment requires anywhere from 5 to 45 minutes.

SETTING-CIRCLE BASICS
To be accurate, setting circles should be at least
four inches in diameter and permanently engraved.
On inexpensive equatorial mounts, the circles are
small and are often marked with printed stick-on
scales, making them decorations rather than tools
for the observer. The pointers should also be dura-
ble and difficult to move as wel I as positioned close
enough to the main dial to allow accurate readings.
Even on expensive telescopes like Celestrons and
Meades, the pointer markers are sometimes just
Top: Astro Cards offer deep- glued on. A declination circle must be solidly fixed
sky enthusiasts a handy way of to the declination axis. If properly calibrated, the cir-

planning an evening's observ- cle should not have to be adjusted. (Instructions for
ing. Individual cards are making the onetime adjustment are in the Appendix.)
selected beforehand, then The right-ascension circle, on the other hand, is
used at the eyepiece. Each designed to slip, but only when it is supposed to.
card shows the location of a Since the sky moves from east to west, the circle
deep-sky object as well as must be calibrated to the current aim point of the
objects of interest nearby. telescope each time it is used. Some right-ascension
Centre: A telescope's right- circles are "driven"; once they are set at the begin-
ascension circle is calibrated ning of the night, the clock drive moves them to
inhours and minutes that keep up with the rotation of the sky regardless of
correspond to hours and where the telescope is aimed. This is the best type. eyepiece, scan around the area within approxi-
minutes of right ascension in mately one degree.
LOCATING OBJECTS WITH A
the sky (not to clock time). To
CLOCK-DRIVEN RIGHT- n Keep dial ling in objects throughout the night. Do
initialize the reading, the circle not turn off the clock drive, or the right-ascension
must be set to the right ascen-
ASCENSION SETTING CIRCLE circle will losetime. Youcan use coordinates from
sion of a known star while the The procedure for finding objects is as follows: eitherepoch 2000 or epoch 1950, but for accuracy,
telescope is pointed at that star. D Be sure that the declination circle is properly do not mix the two. If stalking a comet, use tonight's
M Bottom: A telescope's calibrated. coordinates; comets can moveveryquickly inaday
declination circle can be used D Polar-align to within half a degree or better of or even in a few hours. Also, setting<ircle inaccura-
inconjunction with the right- the true celestial pole. cies due to imprecise polar alignment will show
ascension circle to "dial up" D Aim the telescope at a known star, and slip the up more on objects near the celestial poles.
any celestial object. That is the right-ascension circle around so that it reads the Some references or manuals instruct the user to
theory. In practice, the setting staKs right ascension. This calibrates the circle for set the right-ascension circle for the current sidereal
circles on many commercial the night. If the telescope has been polar-aligned, time, to work out an object's hour angle and, finally,
telescopes are not accurate the declination circle should now automatically to dial in the hour angle. Ignore such information,
enough to do the job. They show the star's declination. as it is needlessly complicated. People who hate set-
areseldom used by backyard D Move the telescope to the coordinates of the tar- ting circles were probably taught this tedious tech-
astronomers. get. If the object is not visible in the lowest-power nique. If the right-ascension circle is not clock-

166
driven, as is the case on many older German equa-
torial mounts, the procedure is a little less con-
venient because before moving to a new target,

the right-ascension circle must be recalibrated on

either a known star or the previous object.

SETTING CIRCLES IN THE DAYTIME

To find Mercury, Venus, Jupiter or even bright stars
in the daytime, use the following technique:
n Polar-align the night before. If the telescope can-
not be set up and left, mark the ground to indicate
where the mount should be placed the next day.
n Align finderscope with the main optics,
n Aim the telescope at the sun, being careful not
to burn the finderscope, the main optics or your
eyes.Use your lowest-power eyepiece and a proper
If you
full-aperture solar filter to focus the eyepiece.
do not have a solar filter, the eyepiece must be
focused on a star the night before.
D Obtain the sun's current position from an ephem-
eris such as the Observer's Handbook, and calibrate
the right-ascension circle.
D Look up the target's coordinates, and move the
telescope to the position. If Venus is the target, it still moving the telescope manually; they do
require
should be visible in the finderscope. not have motors to do the slewing automatically.
That next step up in technology is available on tele-
LETTHE COMPUTER DO scopes such as Meade's LX200 Schmidt-Cassegrains
THE POINTING
and LXD600 and LXD700 mounts and in Celes-
A new generation of computer-assisted devices tron'sCompustar. Their slewing motors will point
combines digital setting circles, which display the the telescope at high speed and with astonishing ac-
telescope's celestial coordinates in LED numbers, curacy to any one of thousands of objects.
with a technique for finding objects using coordi- As expected, computerized telescopes have re-
nates stored in the data base. fuelled the old setting-circle debate. Pro-computer
Computer accessories are available from Celes- fans argue that anything which makes observing
tron (the Advanced Astro Master), Lumicon (the easier and more convenient is worth it. They also
NCC Sky Vector) and Jim's Mobile Industries (the extol the virtues of computers for finding objects
NGC-MAX). They sell for about $500 to $700 and under less-than-ideal sky conditions. Traditionalists
are basically the same units made by Tangent Instru- counter that computers make it so easy to find Dobsonian setting circles?
ments of California. need optical encoders that
All things, people never have to learn the sky. Until the computer age, setting
the owner must instalon the telescope mount's two
I We admit to being in the latter camp. Seeking the circles were possible only on
axes. The encoders measure how far the telescope target and developing an understanding of celestial equatorial mounts. Dobsonian
has moved from one position to another. To cali- geography, which the hunt requires, is an integral telescopes have altazimuth
brate the digital circles to an absolute starting posi- part of backyard astronomy, in our opinion. Com- mounts. But with the aid of a
tion requires an initial sighting of two stars. After puter aids are often bought by beginners in the be- powerful calculator, above, to
that, the internal software does all the necessary lief that spending money on technology— in effect, convert right ascension and
coordinate conversions. Call upMl 3, for example, buying their way hobby- is a substitute for
into the declination to altitude (up-
and the device displays the objecf s coordinates and learning the sky. Computers are incredible tools for down) and azimuth (left-right),
other pertinent data. A display then accurately and seeking out thousands of deep-sky wonders, but we the Dobsonian circles are just
conveniently guides the observer to the object as the find they work
once you are familiar with the
best as effective; and because of
telescope is moved across the sky. sky and know what to look for among the com- their larger size, they are often
The remarkable feature is that the digital circles puter's long list of targets. more accurate than the smaller
work without polar alignment, levelling or inputs of Potential "robo-observers" take note: the more setting circles on commercial
observer position and date. They will work even on technology you have, the more that can go wrong. equatorial mounts. Even so,
altazimuth telescopes such as Dobsonians. The only One loose connection, a blown fuse, a cracked cir- most owners of Dobsonian
caveat is that some effort is required to attach the en- cuit l)oard, a chip fried from static or a dead battery, telescopes do not feel that
coders to the telescope. and the observer who doesn't know the sky is left setting circles are a necessary
But as good as these fascinating gadgets are, they lost in the stars. accessory.

167
 How to star-hop your way to
deep-sky objects with a finder-
scope: First, select an appro-
priate chart from a sixth-
magnitude star atlas. Here, we
have used part of Chart 6 from
Wil Tirion's Bright Star Atlas.
From various references, we
selected five objects suitable
for small telescopes: globular
clusters M3 and M53, galaxies
M64 and NGC 4631 and the
central part of the Virgo galaxy
cluster.Then we chose nearby
but easily identified guide stars
for these objects. Arcturus is

the obvious one for M3. Three

finderscope fields (shown as I WHAT'S IN THE SKY TONIGHT?!
five-degree circles) toward
Alpha Canes Venatici will put The night sky's brightest objects— the moon, Canada. Available for about $6 per year from
M3 in the field of view, where Venus, Jupiter, Mars and Saturn — are always on Sky Calendar, Abrams Planetarium, Michigan
it appears as a fuzzy sixth- the move. Their orbital motion, combined with State University, East Lansing, Ml 48824.
magnitude star. Similarly, M64, that of Earth, means that they constantly shift For more detail, try the Astronomical Calendar
the Black Fye Galaxy, is two position among the constellations of the zodiac, by Guy Ottewell, about $1 5, from Astronomical
finderscope fields from Beta the celestial pathway of the planets. Observing Workshop, Furman University, Greenville, SC
Comae Berenices. But since thismotion and the occasional close passes 2961 3. This extraordinary annual publication,
M64 is too faint to be visible in (conjunctions) among these nearby worlds is with its fine array of charts and diagrams, is
most finderscopes, an exam- always a treat for beginners and veteran indispensable for recreational astronomers.
ination with low power on the stargazers alike. Another outstanding annual astronomical
main telescope would be Astronomy and Sky & Telescope are excellent guide is the Observer's Handbook, about $14,

necessary to identifyit. Using sources of information (detailed tables, charts published by the Royal Astronomical Society of
thissystem of working from and descriptive data) on changing celestial Canada, 1 36 Dupont Street, Toronto, Ontario
naked-eye stars and hopping phenomena. We also recommend the monthly M5R 1 V2. Its 200-plus pages are crammed with
one to three finderscope fields, Sky Calendar charts that include a daily listing of tables, maps and descriptions useful to anyone
hundreds of deep-sky objects phenomena, suitable for use
visible celestial in North America interested in astronomy. The

can be identified. Base chart throughout the United States and southern amount of information it contains is staggering.
copyright Willmann-Bell Inc.;
reproduced with permission.

168
 —

1J«56- ,.«s,. „.,». ,,.,,. (?5) „.,„„ ,,»!.. „.„- ,2-26- '2-2'- ^^ 12-20-__ 2"'6;40° '•06
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• J2i6'37' 7

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1.662 ^ O. 37°
section of Chart 108 from
, O •
Uranometria 2000.0. This
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is a
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• •
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Bi.6
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» .. • • • -®-.r- 1 ^ . shown on facing page. An
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average low-power telescope
• • •
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1
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Objects for scrutiny on this

•

.. • star-hop tour are the galaxies

— 10 NGC 4559,
• •
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. 4631, 4656 and 4395.
9 x^^^^ • •
Starting from Gamma, 70.5-
1.737
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•

\
— -^ Tx\ .14°
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or flopped telescope view.

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guide the viewer to 4631 (9th

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magnitude) and 4656 (10th),
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•
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(see colour photograph on

• • 1676A/B
• O
• . \ •
page 187). The trip to 11 th-
• 1

•
y magnitude 4395 is made easy

^>
•
• • IJI5.303
• •
^ 045P5 •
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by the convenient position of
the bright pair of stars near the
.^ f \ 1 1 43I40 1
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• •5. w 45'4C I

\ •
< 1

b
TI274
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4?45
. halfway point. Equatorial
1 1 «
4?86<^ t?7e
mounts can be used for less
• •
\ \\ JL 1 04495
43roo "«n
_^_,..
direct but often more accurate

^<.793 ,0«735 4\, J ^Z^ r^ ^\ -J

o
4338
star hopping (216 fields due

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Ot.73» '^
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axis of the telescope moves at
a time and the lines of right
4715
o
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^* a _ i.7jeB
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• /\ /
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¥'^ 'II ascension and declination on
\ \. / •
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.
star charts act as guides. Base
oj^e • o P 3^^^
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chart copyright Willmann-Bell

^
1

„„0*7«. !t '^' '^°' O 'S9! •

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4570 .37-
a
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^ '.'- ,.V..
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--
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Inc.; reproduced with
permission.

169
 CHAPTER TWELVE

Exploring the
Deep Sky

Seeing the subtle light from distant galaxies— and Granted, a galaxy cluster might appear as a field
from all the other marvels of deep space— "live" of fuzzy blobs, but each of those indistinct objects
through an eyepiece is very much the domain of the isanotherMilky Way, filled with stars, planets and,
amateur astronomer. Professional astronomers perhaps, curious minds like ours. It is difficult to look
rarely, if The in-
ever, look through theirtelescopes. at any deep-sky object— especially something as re-
struments they use are, in effect, giant cameras. Not mote and vast as a galaxy cluster— without stopping
so long ago, though, deep-sky observers were a rela- to reflect that here you are, alone under a starry sky,
tive minority, even among die-hard skygazers. and a simple telescope is opening your eyes to bil-
Today, with the popularity of inexpensive large- lions of stars and unknown worlds in each puff of
aperture telescopes, the legion of deep-sky ex- celestial mist. Whatever your personal philoso-
plorers has grown. For $500, it is possible to buy phies, deep-sky observing will certainly bring them
or to make a simple Newtonian large enough to out. This kind of astronomy is done as much with
reveal remote clusters of galaxies. the mind as it is with the eye.

INVENTORIES OF THE SKY

The deep-sky realm official ly starts at the edge of the and cataloguing everything within their reach,
solar system and extends out to the galaxy clusters much as the botanists and natural philosophers
and the enigmatic quasars. Taken literally, it encom- of the 1 8th and 1 9th centuries did with the many
passes everything in the universe except our sun and formsoflifeon Earth. The result of such pioneering
its satellites. But in normal amateur-astronomy us- observations of the sky was a series of celestial cata-
age, the term "deep sky" is more selective. It refers logues still very much in use. '

and galaxies.
to nebulas, star clusters
Today, tens of thousands of deep-sky objects
THE MESSIER CATALOGUE
bright enough for backyard telescopes have been When you enter the world of deep-sky observ-
discovered, the result of 200 years of meticulous ob- ing, you enter a world of strange codelike labels.
servation. The early explorers of the sky did not It is easy to become intimidated by discussions

know what all the newfound objects were, but they of M-this, NGC-that and IC-something-or-other.
hunted them down nevertheless, carefully charting What does it all mean?

170
 The region around Zeta
Ononis that includes the
Horsehead Nebula is one of
the night sky's most photo-
genic areas. Zeta Orionis, the
large, overexposed object left
of centre, is a bright naked-eye
star in Orion's three-star belt.
The Horsehead itself is a light-
year-wide dark cloud super-
imposed on a bright emission
nebula, both about 1,500 light-
years away. Despite its bright
appearance in photographs,
the Horsehead is notoriously
difficult to see. A nebula filter
can make all the difference.
Although it has been seen with
apertures as small as 5 inches,
the Horsehead usually requires
a 10-inch or larger telescope.
Photograph by Leo Henzl,
using an 8-inch f/5 Newtonian.
(The Newtonian's secondary-
mirror supports produced the
prominent spikes from the
bright stars.)

171
 to the sky's collection of Messier objects— the clus-
ters, nebulas and galaxies that Messier encountered
as he scanned the sky for comets.
The Messier numbers follow a haphazard se-
quence across the sky because they are numbered
in the order in which Messier located them or

learned of them. Although he intended to, he never

published a list with entries renumbered in order of
right ascension. Illness, old age and the French
Revolution intervened.
The identity of several Messier objects has often
been questioned. Some writers believe that M91
and Ml 02 are mistaken observations of M58 and
Ml 01, respectively. The objects Ml 04 to Ml 09
were discovered by an associate, Pierre Mechain,
and reported to Messier, but they were never in-
cluded in a published version of his catalogue.
These M objects, therefore, are really "Mechain ob-
jects." NGC 205, one of MS
companion galax-
1 's

ies, was apparently found by Messier, who, for some

reason, did not list it in his catalogue. Modern-day

observers have dubbed this object Ml 1 0. Finally,
two Messier objects are not deep-sky objects at all:
M40 is a pair of ninth-magnitude stars, and M73 is

a random groupingoffourstars. Purists sometimes

reduce the Messier list to 99 or 1 00 objects. A re-
cent version compiled by coauthor Dyer for the
Observer's Handbook lists a full 11 entries, includ-
ing two faint galaxies that some astronomers suggest
as candidates for M91 and Ml 02.
From a rural site, all the Messier objects can be
seen with a 3-inch telescope and many with only
7 x 50 binoculars. Tracking down the Messiers over
the course of a year or two is a rewarding en-
deavour. In the process, you will become familiar
with the sky, learn how to see faint objects through
Above: The Swan Nebula, the telescope and, in general, gain enough credits
M17, an emission nebula to graduate to the level of an experienced observer.
about 3,000 light-years distant,
is an excellent nebula-filter First, the M (Messier) objects, a catalogue of deep- THE NGC
target. Many of the faint loops sky objects compi led by Charles Messier, a French Most deep-sky enthusiasts complete the Messier
and tendrils seen here leap out astronomer of the 1 700s. Among the best-known list. But then what? The next goal is the collection

of invisibility with the applica- Messier objects are M45, the Pleiades star cluster; of NGC objects.
tion of a filter— even with a M31, the Andromeda Galaxy; Ml 3, the globular NGC stands for New General Catalogue, al-

small telescope. Photograph cluster in Hercules; and M42, the Orion Nebula. though "new" catalogue is more than 1 00 years
this
by Leo Henzl, using an 8-inch Altogether, there are 1 1 objects in MessieKs cata- old. It was
originally compiled by Danish as-
f/5 Newtonian. logue, which provides a selection of the finest deep- tronomer j.L.E. Dreyerunderthe aegis of the Royal
Right: For a clear view of the sky objects for northern-hemisphere observers. Astronomical Society in England. Published in
dark lane that gives the Black Messier did not set out to find deep-sky targets. To 1888, Dreyet^s New General Catalogue of Nebu-
Eye Galaxy, M64, its name, dark him, they were nuisance objects that he kept bump- lae and Clusters of Stars compiled observations of
skies and a large-aperture ing into during his searches for comets. He pub- 7,840 objects from dozens of observers and re-
telescope are required. Over- lished lists of the fuzzy noncomets so that he and his placed all previous lists and catalogues; in particu-

all, though, the eighth-mag- comet-hunting colleagues would not be fooled by lar, the older General Catalogue of William and
nitude galaxy itself is an easy them. But today, his comet discoveries (he found John Herschel. It was believed that the NGC con-
object for small telescopes. 1 5) are largely forgotten. It is Messiei^s list of nui- tained every nebula and cluster known in 1888.
Photograph by Jack Newton, sance objects that remembered. Modern amateur
is The fact that many of the "nebulas" were actually
using a 20-inch Newtonian. and professional astronomers the world over refer galaxies was unknown at the time; anything that

172
 6

could not be resolved into stars was called a neb-

ula. Even today, the Andromeda Galaxy is some-
times called the Andromeda Nebula, a holdover
from turn-of-the<entury usage.
Unlike the listings in the Messier catalogue, the
NGC objects are al ordered by right ascension. The
I

lov^est-n umbered NGCs are around hours right

ascension, and thenumbers increase as you pro-
ceed eastward across the sky. However, succes-
sively numbered NGC objects can be separated by
many degrees north or south in declination.
Soon after the NGC was published, it required re-

vision.Supplementary Index Catalogues were pub-

lished in 1895 and 1908. Objects labelled IC are
from one ofthose listings. The first IC contains 1,529
objects discovered visually between 1888 and
1 894. The second IC offers another 3,856 entries,

many found between 1 895 and 1 907 through the

newly applied technique of photography. Most IC
objects are very small or extremely faint and, in yard astronomers would seek out even more tar-

many cases, impossible to detect visually. gets. One might assume that anything not in the
The brightest NGCs are easily seen in a 3-inch NGC must be beyond the reach of amateur tele-
telescope. Buta5-to-8-inch telescope is a minimum scopes. This was certainly the attitude among
to explore the NGC list thoroughly. To see all of the amateur astronomers for decades. During the past
thousands of NGC entries, a 16-to-20-inch tele- few years, however, amateur astronomers have
scope is needed, although to our knowledge, no challenged many such assumptions. First, the
amateur astronomer has ever completed this task. Messier and NGC lists ignore one very interesting
type of object: the dark nebula.
BEYOND THE NGC William Herschel commented on several dark
With several thousand NGC objects from which "starless spots" he encountered as he swept the
to choose, it may be difficult to believe that back- skies in the late 1 700s, but it was left to American

I KINDS OF DEEP-SKY OBJECTS

Object Magnitude Sizes Number' Min. Aperture^

Within the Milky Way

globular star clusters 4 in. to 6 in.
open star clusters 2 in. to 3 in.

emission nebulas^ 3 in. to 4 in.

reflection nebulas 6 in. to 8 in.

dark nebuU no mag. 3 in. to 4 In.

planetary nebulas^ 9 to 14 3 in. to 4 in.

supernova remnants^' 8 (Crab) 4 in. to 6 in. The Owl Nebula, M97, a

Beyond the Milky Way Wth-magnitude planetary
galaxies ^^^H^^Hm 8to16fl^Hfe rto3°MM^B4,000 + 4 in. to 6 in. nebula, easy to find near
is

galaxy clusters 1 2 to 1 1°to2° 10 to 12 10 in. to 12 in Beta Ursae Majoris, one of the

Big Dipper's pointer stars.
'Approximate number of these objects within reach of most of the best nebulas have a brightness equivalent (Several of the charts in Chap-
amateur telescopes (under 20-inch aperture). to 4th to 10th magnitude. Dark nebulas, by definition, ter 77 show the location of
^Types of objects that respond well to nebula can have no magnitude. M97.) The Owl's "eyes," so
filters. Some dark nebulas may also be enhanced "Because the brightest members of each class of evident here, are only vaguely
if they are seen against the backdrop of an emission objects listed are detectable in binoculars, minimum apparent in a telescope. This is

nebula. aperture in this table refers to the smallest telescope another object that benefits
'Magnitudes are usually not given for nebulas, but that will reveal some detail or structure in the object. from a nebula filter. Photo-
graph by Bryce Heartwell,
using a 10-inch Newtonian.

173
 amateur-turned-professional astronomer Edward very large; all are extremely faint. Only the bright-
Barnard to compile the first catalogue of these re- est can be detected in the eyepiece.
gions, or B objects as they are called. Included in his Planetary nebulas constitute a category in which
1 927 classic work A Photographic Atlas of Selected many recent d iscoveries of new objects have been
Regions of the Milky Way is "Barnard's Catalogue made. With the advent of nebu la Iters, some of the
fi

of349 Dark Objects in the Sky." non-NGC planetaries once thought to be invisible
In the class of emission nebulas, advanced ama- are bei ng picked off by experienced amateur astron-
teur astronomers pursue elusive objects with omers. Many come from Perek and Kohoutek's
prefixes such as Ced (from S. Cederblad's 1946 1967 Catalogue of Galactic Planetary Nebulae,
Sh2 (Sharpless), vdB (van den Bergh), Mi
list), thus the PK designations. Most are 1 3th to 1 6th mag-
(Minkowski, not to be confused with Messier) nitude, and many are plotted on the Uranometria
and Cum (from Colin Cum's 1 955 nebula survey). 2000.0 charts. There are also Abell planetaries, from
Most of the non-NGC nebulas are very small or George Abell's listing of some 1 00 large, faint plan-

The Eagle Nebula, M16, in

the constellation Serpens, is

another good candidate for

observation with a nebula
filter. Without the filter, it is

almost invisible, but with a

filter in place, the nebula is a
delicate mist embedded in a
Photograph by
star cluster.
Tony Hallas and Daphne
Mount.

174

Ik
etary nebulas,which he discovered by examin-
1 950s with the
ing survey photographs taken in the
Palomar 48-inch Schmidt photographic telescope.
Open clusters are plotted in atlases like the Ura-
nometria 2000.0 with such prefixes as Be (Berke-
ley), Cr (Collinder), Do (Dolidze), H (Harvard), K
(King), Mel (Melotte), Ru (Ruprecht), St (Stock) and
Tr (Trumpler). Many of the non-NGC open clus-
ters are sparse and were missed by previous sur-

veys because they simply do not stand out from

the background star field. There are a few excep-
tions. One is Cr 399, variously called Brocchi's clus-
ter or the Coat Hanger cluster, a bright and distinc-
tive gathering of stars visible in binoculars near Beta
Cygni. (It does look like a coat hanger.)
Over the past few decades, galaxies have been
the targets of many specialized surveys at research
observatories designed to catalogue and label thou-
sands of items missed by the compilers of the NGC.
A Revised Shapley-Ames Catalog of Bright Galax-
ies (1 981 ), the Adas and Catalog of Nearby Galax-
ies (1981), the Second Reference Catalogue of

Bright Calaxies (1 976), the Uppsala General Cata-

logue of Galaxies (the UGC, 1 973) and the Morpho- One area that amateur astronomers have moved
logical Catalogue of Galaxies (1 962-68) are some into since the 1970s is the observation of galaxy
of the main professional reference works used by clusters.The main catalogue used here was com-
galaxy researchers. Most amateur astronomers have piled by George Abell in the 1950s. The brighter
little need for these lists, although the Uranometria Abel clusters are well within reach of owners of
I

2000.0 plots some of the brighter members from the large-aperture telescopes. The amateur's main
UGC. For the most part, any galaxy without an NGC source of information about these remote objects
or IC number is fainter than 1 4th magnitude. Past is the Webb Society Deep-Sky Observer's Hand-

that threshold, the number of galaxies is virtually book, Volume 5.

limitless. Caltech astronomer Zwicky surveyed

Fritz Beyond the Messier catalogue and the NGC is an
nearly 1 5 million galaxies when he compiled the exclusive realm of objects that have rarely been
six-volume Catalogue of Galaxies and of Clusters of glimpsed by human eyes. These faint and remote
Galaxies. At least 20 billion could be detected over targets provide an experience of exploring the
the entire sky using a 150-inch telescope and state- unknown unlike that found in any other aspect
of-the-art CCD imagery. of backyard astronomy.

WITHIN THE MILKY WAY

The most varied hunting ground for backyard astron- reveal the full extent ofthe brighter nebulas. Despite
omers is our own Milky Way Galaxy. Targets range this, a 6-to-l 2-inch telescope can show an amazing
from sparkling star clusters best seen in binoculars wealth of detail in the brightest of this class of ob-
to wisps of nebulosity at the limits of large telescopes. jects, producing views that look almost like photo- UAt magnitude 8.3, the
graphs. In fact, some nebulas look better in real life Sombrero Galaxy, M104, is
EXPLORING PLACES WHERE than they do in an astrophoto. The eye can capture among the sky's top 30 in
STARS ARE BORN
the full range of detail from bright to dim along with brightness. A massive spiral
The Orion Nebula, M42, is probably the first deep- stars embedded deep within the nebula, something galaxy seen almost edge-on,
sky object every amateur astronomer looks at, and that film emulsions cannot do. However, the human with a strong dust lane— the
it is the object all observers return to time after time. eye cannot duplicate the ability of film to register sombrero's brim— this object is
M42 is an example of an emission nebula, which colour. Although subtle greens and pinks may be impressive in any telescope. It
glows with its own unique light. There are hundreds glimpsed in the brightest nebulas, most appear as is about 30 million light-years

of emission nebulas in the sky. Many are too faint frozen puffs of grey celestial smoke. For any nebula distant. Photograph by John
to be seenamateur telescopes and show up only
in to be seen well, the sky must be dark; a light-pol- Leader, using a 12.5-inch
on photographs. Likewise, only a time exposure can luted sky washes out a nebula's delicate features. Newtonian.

•>
,
 oxygen is called O-lll. The fact that nebulas emit
light at these discretewavelengths makes nebula
M31 NCC205 filterspossible— they allow the select wavelengths
to pass through while rejecting all others, especially
M32 M>^ X. NCC 147 those from artificial-light sources. A filtered view of
NCC 185 an emission nebula can show a significant improve-
>And III ment in contrast between object and sky.
The Eagle Nebula, Ml 6, in southern Serpens, is
a good example. Spotting this nebula without a fil-
ter is often difficult even in a dark sky. Viewed with
a filter, it is revealed clearly as a field of greyish haze
surrounding a cluster of stars. Other, fainter NGC
nebulas, such as the Rosette Nebula, in Monoceros,
and nameless nebulas such as NGC 2359, in Canis
IC1613 Major, and NGC 281 in Cassiopeia, are normally
,

barely visible even in a dark sky but stand out dra-

matically when seen through a filter.

REFLECTION NEBULAS
Most nebula filters do little to enhance the view of
reflection nebulas. A memberofthisclass of deep-
sky objects does not emit its own light. Rather, it

shines because the light of nearby stars scatters off

the nebula's clouds of minute dust particles. "Dust"
is a catchall term for any particulate interstellar mat-
ter larger than molecules. The dust inside nebulas
is thought to be made up of particles about 0.0002
millimetre across, probably graphite coated with
ice. When starlight hits fields of dust particles, the
Embedded within every emission nebula is a very light is simply reflected. The spectrum of a dusty
hot blue star (more often, a group of them, such as reflection nebula is essentially the same as the broad
the four Trapezium stars at the heart of M42) newly continuous spectrum found in stars. Since newly
formed out of the surrounding cloud. The star emits formed stars in nebulous regions are usually bluish,
prodigious amounts of ultraviolet light in the heart reflection nebulas are also blue.
of the nebula. The hydrogen atoms in the
neutral Reflection nebulas are less common than emis-
nebula absorb the ultraviolet radiation and are sion types. Most are also much and more dif-
fainter
"pumped up" by this shot of energy. As a result, the ficult to see, since they are often washed out by the
The majority of the galaxies atoms are torn apart into a sea of free electrons glare of the source star. For example, the only reflec-
in what astronomers call the and protons, a process called ionization. Ionization tion nebula in the Messier catalogue is M78, in
Local Group (our neighbour turns the neutral hydrogen into singly ionized hy- Orion. M20, the Trifid Nebula, in Sagittarius, has
galaxies out to three million drogen atoms called H-ll. Thus emission nebulas some reflection components, which show as blue
light-years) are dwarfs invisible are often dubbed H-ll regions. areas in photographs of the Trifid.
or inconspicuous in typical The electrons and protons eventually recombine One hazard in seeking reflection nebulas is that
backyard astronomers' tele- to form neutral hydrogen, but as the wayward elec- dew or a film of dirt on the eyepiece or the main
scopes. But the six brightest trons are recaptured, they give up their excess optics can produce pale glows around bright stars.
are easily seen. Heading the energy as visible light in a series of well-defined To be able to see the nebulosity surrounding the
list are the Large and Small wavelengths. Pleiades, for example, requires clean optics. A hu-
Magellanic Clouds (LMCand In photographs, emission nebulas look red, the re- mid atmosphere also creates hazy star images,
SMC), two satellite galaxies of sult of red hydrogen-alpha light emitted at a wave- thus the need for a dry-climate site or a night with
the Milky Way that are both length of 656. 3 nanometres. In the eyepiece, how- particularly transparent skies.
naked-eye objects visible from ever, emission nebulas, if they show any colour at

the southern hemisphere. Next appear greenish. M42 is a case in point. Its green
all,
DARK NEBULAS
is M31, the Andromeda Galaxy, colour is produced in part from the hydrogen-beta Deep-sky enthusiasts are just beginning to observe
followed by M33, the Triangu- line at 486.1 nanometres, but it arises primarily the class of objects known as dark nebulas. Al-
lum Galaxy. M32 and MHO from a pair of emission lines at 500.7 and 495.9 though composed of the same mixture of gas and
(NCC 205) are companions nanometres. These two lines come from oxygen that dust as other emission and reflection nebulas, dark
to Andromeda. has lost two of its eight electrons. Doubly ionized nebulas lack any embedded or nearby stars that il-

176
 Globular clusters are swarms
of up to one million stars 30 to
100 light-years wide. They are
satellites of the Milky Way
Galaxy, plying huge, looping
orbits well outside the spiral
arms. The brightest of the 140
known globulars are show-
piece objects. A telescopic
view of one can be breath-
taking. Globulars are one class
of celestial object that often
looks more impressive in the
eyepiece than in photographs.
Only the eye can resolve a
cluster to the core and, at the
same time, detect the faint
outlying stars. And only the

eye can see the cluster stars for

what they are— infinitely small,
discrete specks of light. The
globular clusters shown here
are Ml 3, left, the best example
visible from midnorthern
latitudes, and M15, top. Photo-
graphs by John Leader, using a
12.5-inch Newtonian.

\n
 Top: Some celestial objects
are far more impressive in
photographs than they are
"live" in the telescope. The
Triangulum Galaxy, M33, is
certainly one such object. Its
spiral arms, so evident here,
are dim and diffuse, even in
16-inch or larger instruments.
But that is just the type of
threshold observation which
challenges backyard astron-
omers. The pink blobs em-
bedded in the spiral arms are
emission nebulas, similar to,
but larger than, the Orion
Nebula. This exceptional
photograph is a three-hour
exposure by Neyle Sollee,
using a 24.5-inch Astro Works
Schmidt-Cassegrain.
Right: The open cluster Mil,
about 5,500 light-years from
Earth, is so star-rich that it can
be mistaken for a globular
cluster v\/hen seen in a small
telescope. But unlike a globu-
lar, this cluster resolves
completely into stars, leaving
no central stellar mist. The
name "open" derives from this
difference. Many observers
rank Mil as the finest of all
open clusters. Photograph by
John Leader, using a 12.5-inch
f/6 Newtonian.
 *
>

1
.%<^f^:''-:^.. .
^<41
.•• ••!
^ J

1 •
te.

:
Jop left: Northern-hemi-
• > -r,' \ A-
sphere observers do not realize
i what they are missing until
- *•.
they see for themselves some
• ' '.

of the great sights of the far

4
southern skies. Top among
•,".. .• *.:- "-•,
them is the Eta Carinae
'
Nebula, larger and brighter
"
-
'

'•'•. • .
' -V. . . than the Orion Nebula— an
' *'
*•
V % " 'I

awesome object with or

• . • •' » . * * •
without a nebula filter. Beside
the naked-eye cluster
it is

IC 2602, another jewel that is

well seen only from the
southern hemisphere. Photo-
graph by Kenneth Jones, using
a 200mm f/2.8 telephoto.
Top right: The open cluster
M35 Gemini, 2,300 light-
in
years away, happens to lie
in the same direction as
NCC 2158, an even richer
cluster about seven times more
remote. M35 is an easy binoc-
ular target, one of a chain of
four beautifulopen clusters
strung from Gemini into
Auriga. Photograph by John
Mirtle, using a 16-inch f/4.5

Newtonian.
Left: Almost half the diam-
eter of the moon and seventh
magnitude, the Helix Nebula,
in Aquarius, should be easy to
see in binoculars— until you
consider that the bnghtness is
spread over a huge object. This
is a tough binocular target. The

per-unit surface-area bright-

ness is very low. Use a nebula
filter and low power for the
best view. Photograph by
Barry Sobel.

179
 -•
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. \ • • ' .• . .'
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Above: The Double Cluster

in Perseus, a pair of fifth-
magnitude open clusters, is
visible to the unaided eye as a
hazy patch in the Milky Way.
Individual stars are seen in
binoculars, but the scene is

especially captivating with a

telescope at 25x to 40x, which
reveals all the faint stars at the
core of each cluster. NGC 884
is the cluster at left; the other
is NGC 869. Photograph by
Jim Riffle, using a 12-inch
Astromak.

180
luminate them. They appear as nearly starless voids,
dark patches obscuring whatever lies behind them.
Some dark nebulas can be spotted with the un-
aided eye. In fact, rifts and lanes that
the dark
split the Milky Way Cygnus are all dust clouds
in

lining the arms of our galaxy and are about 4,000

to 5,000 light-years away.
Not all dark nebulas are so large. Many fit nicely
into the low-power field of a telescope. Just as Mes-
sier was the first person to catalogue the best and
brightest deep-sky objects, Edward Barnard did the
same for the obscure dark nebulas in the 1920s. For
a unique observing sport, try tracking down some
of the best B objects. How does one observe some-
thing that gives off no light? The trick is to use a wide
field (one degree or more) in order to see the dark
area framed by the surrounding bright star field.

A large telescope is not needed; a fast-focal-ratio

3- or 4-inch refractor will do.So will giant 10 x 70
or 1 1 80 binoculars.
X It is extremely faint and is a challenge even for
Once you find dark nebulas, how do you iden- an experienced observer using a filter-equipped
tify them? Most star atlases either do not plot dark 12-inch telescope. Above: The Dumbbell
nebulas or do not label them. An exception is the One supernova remnant that is bright and fairly Nebula, M27, can be seen
Uranometria 2000.0. With it, you can locate such easy to spot is the Crab Nebula, Ml the remains of, even in 7 x 50 binoculars or a
dark nebulas as B86 and B92, in Sagittarius, both a supernova that exploded in 1054 A.D. Because moderate-power finderscope.
small, opaque patches nestled in the Milky Way. A of its youth, theCrab Nebula has not yet expanded It is among the sky's finest
good binocular object is B 1 68, a three-degree-long into an open shell or into arcs of material like the deep-sky wonders, one you
filamentary streak runningfrom M39, astarcluster Veil. (By comparison, the Veil is thought to be about will return to night after night.
in northern Cygnus, to the faint Cocoon Nebula. 30,000 years old.) Visually, the Crab is a disappoint- This is another object that
A very dark sky is imperative for observing dark ment to many observers. In small-to-moderate aper- looks as good in a large-

nebulas. UnlesstheMilky Way is a shining river of tures, it resembles an amorphous blur. The wispy aperture telescope as in a long-
light, forget hunting for this elusive class of objects. filaments that gave it its name can be seen only in exposure photograph. Narrow-
Even then, a nebula filter often helps by reduc- large apertures. William Parsons (Lord Rosse) first band nebula filters enhance
ing natural sky glow and allowing dark nebulas observed them in 1844 with his 36-inch reflector. the view in any telescope.
to stand out more clearly. Curiously, in 1 848, using his 72-inch reflector. Par- Photograph by John Leader.
sons reported seeing no filaments, just an oval glow y Facing page, bottom: The
EXPLORING PLACES WHERE with little structure. Nebula filters make little differ- edge-on galaxy NCC 4565
STARS DIE
ence with this object, since the brightest part of the probably resembles our own
Mention an exploding star, and people immediately nebula shines with a continuous spectrum gener- galaxy as it would appear from
think "supernova." During that violent event, 90 per- ated by the 16th-magnitude pulsar at its centre. the side. We, of course, view
cent of a star's mass is blasted into space, while the the universe from inside such
OBSERVING PLANETARY NEBULAS
remaining core col lapses into a superdense neutron a system. The dust lane along
star or, perhaps, a black hole. In the process, the star In spite of their name, planetary nebulas have noth- the middle of NCC 4565 is the
gives off as much energy as an entire galaxy —a spec- ing to do with the early stages of the life of stars and same dark stuff that pervades
tacular finale to a star's life, but a very rare one. Only thei r attendant systems of planets. Instead, they are the Milky Way as seen, for
a few of the most massive stars are supernova can- shells of gas expelled by ageing stars during an un- example, on the cover of this
didates. A bright naked-eye supernova in our sec- stable period in their life histories. Many of them book and in the first photo-
tion of the Milky Way is long overdue. appear as small bluish discs through a telescope, graph of the introduction.
Until then, we must be content to observe the re- reminding pioneering observers of Uranus and NCC 4565 is located near the
mains of a handful of ancient supernovas that litter Neptune. Uranus's discoverer, William Herschel, open star cluster Mel 111, also
the sky. The best example is the Veil Nebula (also was the nomenclature culprit. Ignorant of the role known as Coma Berenices. In
known as the Cirrus Nebula), in Cygnus. Viewed these objects played in the life cycles of stars and a telescope, it is a ghostly
with a nebula filter through a large telescope, the for want of a better name, he called them planetary cigar-shaped glow, the best
Veil Nebula is an intricate lacework. Without a fil- nebulas. The name stuck. edge-on galaxy. Photograph by
ter, the Veil is barely visible, even in a dark sky. Planetary nebulas are caused by a continuous Barry Sobel, usmg a 14-inch
IC 443, a similar supernova remnant, appears as stellar wind that, over the course of thousands Celestron Schmidt-Cassegrain
a crescent-shaped arc near the star Eta Geminorum. of years, gradually expels as much as one-quarter atf/7.

181
 of a star's mass into space. The nebulas are thought across and are our sector of the galaxy, no
all in

to be a by-product of the final stages in the life more than a few thousand
light-years away.
cycles of stars one to six times the sun's mass. For the deep-sky observer, planetary nebulas fal I

The formation of a planetary nebula is one way into one of three broad categories: large and bright;
for an ageing star to lose weight. After this bit of bright but starlike; and large and faint. The differ-
Often overlooked even by stellar dieting, the star shrinks to a white dwarf, ences are partly intrinsic and partly due to distance.
fairly experienced backyard an object perhaps only 10,000 kilometres across As an example of a large, bright planetary, the
astronomers is this unusual but with an extremely high surface temperature Ring Nebula, M57, is the classic choice. At ninth
pairing of an open cluster, of 00,000 degrees Celsius. On its way to the white-
1 magnitude and 70 arc seconds across, it has a very
NCC 6939, and a galaxy, dwarf stage, the hot, shrinking star bathes the ex- high surface brightness for a planetary nebula. Its
NCC 6946, less than one panding shell of gas in ultraviolet light that causes smoke-ring form iseasilyseen in a 3-inch telescope
degree apart, near the star it to glow— a planetary nebula. in a dark sky. It is also one of the simplest deep-sky
Eta Cephei. A nice viewing There are about 1 ,500 known planetary nebulas objects to find because of its convenient location be-
combination is a telescope of in our section of the galaxy. Since it is thought that tween the two bright mark the bottom of
stars that
about 1,000mm focal length they last on ly 1 00,000 years or so, planetaries m ust the constellation Lyra. However, one feature of the
with a 13mm, 14mm or 16mm be constantly forming. Indeed, a number of strange Ring Nebula is far from easy— the 15th-magnitude
Nagler-type eyepiece. The objects are now classified as proto-planetaries, stars central star. We have seen it with a 1 4-inch Schmidt-
open cluster is eighth mag- in the early stages of casting off a nebulous shroud. Cassegrain under superb desert skies, but usually,
nitude; the galaxy, ninth. The older, well-formed planetary nebulas visible rendered invisible by the surrounding nebula
it is

Photograph by John Mirtle, through amateur telescopes typically range from no matter what size backyard telescope is applied.
using an 8-inch f/6 Newtonian. about one-quarter of a light-year to one light-year Unfortunately, such large, bright showpiece

182

u.
 ,

planetaries are the exception. The majority fall into metria 2000.0, where it is erroneously plotted as
the category of "bright but starlike," often difficult to having a disc less than 30 arc seconds across.
low power. Most
distinguish from stars, especially at Many other threshold planetaries are tabulated
have diameters of well under 20 arc seconds, mak- with finder charts in Planetary Nebulae by S.j.

ing them smaller than the disc of Saturn. A few of Hynes (Willmann-Bell; 1 991 ). When tracking down
these tiny planetaries are well worth the search. planetary nebulas from such you
will soon
lists,

A couple of our favourites are the Blue Snowbal I learn that the official magnitude figures for most of
(NCC 7662), in northern Andromeda, and the Es- the objects are not reliable indicators of the actual
kimo Nebula (NGC 2392), in Gemini. They are brightness. Large, diffuse planetaries often carry rat-

brightenough — magnitudes 9 and 8, respectively— ings ofeighth or ninth magnitude, which would lead
to accommodate fairly high magnification. With a you to bel ieve that they are as easy to see as the Ring
diameter of 30 arc seconds, the Blinking Planetary Nebula. But these magnitude figures are measures
(NGC 6826), in Cygnus, is fairly large by planetary- of the total integrated light output of the object; a
nebula standards. Its notable feature is a bright 1 0th- large, faint planetary could have the same magni-
magnitude central star. Stare directly at the star, and tude rating as a small, bright one. Also, most mag-
the nebula seems to disappear; look to one side with nitudes are measured using a standard set of pho-
averted vision, and the nebula pops back into view. tometric filters whose passbands do not coincide
The eighth-magnitude Saturn Nebula (NGC 7009), with the green part of the spectrum, where plan-
in Aquarius, has two extensions on either side of the etaries emit the majority of their light. Therefore,
disc and resembles a fuzzy image of Saturn. small planetaries officially listed as 12th to 14th
Planetaries with diameters of less than 1 arc sec- magnitude often appear much brighter than, say, a
onds are tough to fi nd no matter how bright they are. galaxy of the same magnitude. This is especially true
Even at high power, they can look like blug-green if you are using a filter.

stars. One technique that helps is to hold a nebula is one area of observ-
Planetary-nebula hunting
filter between your eye and the eyepiece and move ing inwhich you should ignore all presuppositions
it in and out of the light path. While the stars and of what should and should not be visible through
backgroundsky will dim with the filter in place, the your telescope. Approach the sky with an open
planetary will remain the same brightness and stand mind. Whileyou may encounter some disappoint-
out. Try on two tiny but bright (ninth magnitude)
this ments, you will be guaranteed a few surprises.
blue planetaries: NGC 6210 and NGC 6572, in
Hercules and Ophiuchus, respectively.
K SAVOURING THE
OPEN STAR CLUSTERS
THRESHOLD PLANETARIES: Astrophotographers can make a good case that the
A NEW FRONTIER
full glory of a nebula or a galaxy can be seen only
At the opposite end of the planetary-nebula scale are on film, but they lose the argument when
it comes

large (more than 60 arc seconds) but exceedingly to star clusters.Few astrophotos have ever captured
dim objects. Two good examples are NGC 6781 a cluster^s visual qualityof glittering diamond dust.
in Aquila, and NGC 246, in Cetus. Faint, diffuse Open star clusters are congregations of stars
planetaries such as these are often difficult to see, bound together by their mutual gravity. Individual
if not invisible, without a nebula filter. When stars in an open cluster were all born about the same
viewed with a filter under dark skies, they can be- time from a collapsing nebula such as the Orion or
come showpiece objects in telescopes larger than Lagoon nebulas. The word "open" used to describe
10 inches in aperture. these clusters refers to their resolvability — all the
At the extreme end of visibility are planetaries stars in them can be seen individually in contrast to
that, as recently as the late 1 970s, were assumed to the haze at the centre of globular clusters. There are
be photographic objects. These large but
strictly about 1 ,200 known open star clusters, most of them
from Abell's list or Perek and Ko-
faint planetaries confined to the Milky Way band. Even if your ob-
houtek's Catalogue of Galactic Planetary Nebulae serving is confined to city limits or to a small-
now fall prey to deep-sky hunters armed with "light- aperture telescope, there are many satisfying open
bucket" telescopes and hungry for new targets. One star clusters available. They range from objects that
ofthebestAbell planetaries is PK 205 -^ 14.1, the fill the eyepiece with brilliant star fields to clusters
Medusa Nebula (see illustration, page 201 Its disc ). that appear as faint, barely resolvable smudges.
is more than 1 1 arc minutes across — huge for a How well a cluster shows up in the eyepiece de-
planetary (the moon is 30 arc minutes). However, pends on several factors. Of course, one is size.
this is a rough estimate, since there is no official Large clusters (more than 30 arc minutes in appar-
measurement of the size of the object. can be It ent diameter) require very low power and a wide
found on Chart No. 184 in Volume of the (Jrano-
1 field. For example, the Pleiades and the Beehive

183
 clusters often look better in a finderscope than they
do in a telescope. To appreciate a cluster fully, you
need a field of view twice the size of the cluster
itself so that the cluster will appear distinct from
its background. Conversely, small clusters (less than
five arc minutes) require very high power to resolve.
Magnitudes of open star clusters range from 1 .5

for the Pleiades to fainter than dimmest 1 2 for the

ones. You would think that the brighter the cluster,
the better it would look; however, that is not nec-
essarily the case. The cluster^s magnitude is just a
measure of the total brightness of all its member
stars. If merely a handful of bright stars,
there is

the cluster's appearance may be disappointing de-

spite a high magnitude rating. Where you had
hoped to see an eyepiece filled with scintillating
points, only a sparse collection is visible. What
makes a cluster interesting is its richness (the num-
ber of member stars) and the contrast between it and
the surrounding starfield. The best clusters usually
contain 100 or more member stars, earning them
the official designation of "rich," as opposed to
"moderate" (50 to 1 00 stars) or "poor" (less than 50).
Gorgeous NCC 7789, in Cassiopeia, is one of the
least known of the rich-cluster cream of the crop,
whileMl 1, in Scutum, is one ofthe best known and
RATING OPEN CLUSTERS one ofthe finest clusters in the sky. Not all clusters
are winners; some are duds— no more than scat-
Open clusters range from beautiful stellar jewel boxes tered groupings of stars that look much like the sur-

easily seen in binoculars to scatterings of dim stars rounding field. A few otherwise poor clusters are in-
barely perceptible by telescope. To categorize the triguing because of some unusual trait. NCC 2175,
appearance of open clusters, astronomers use the in Orion, is immersed in nebulosity. Nearby in

'Trumpler system" ratings (e.g., ll-3-r). These ratings Orion, NCC 2 1 69 has a pattern of stars that resem-
are often listed in deep-sky catalogues. Here is how bles the number 37 or an XY, depending on how
to decode them: your mind interprets this celestial Rorschach test.
In the end, despite the vast catalogues of pub-
Concentration of Stars lished data that exi st, the on ly way to know whether
I well separated with a strong concentration a deep-sky object like an open cluster is worth
to the centre looking at is to look at it.

well separated with little concentration to

II
THE GLORIOUS
the centre
III well separated with no concentration to
GLOBULAR CLUSTERS
the centre A second type of star cluster populates the Milky
Galaxy hunting must be IV not well separated from the surrounding Way: the globular cluster. Approximately 1 40 have
approached with the right star field been found associated with our galaxy. G lobulars
frame of mind. Anyone who are like miniature spherical galaxies; they contain
expects to see the crisp details Range in Brightness of Stars hundreds of thousands of stars packed into a space
visible in the best amateur and 1 small range in brightness about 25 to 250 light-years wide. Globular clusters
professional photographs will 2 moderate range in brightness formed 10 billion to 15 billion years ago as by-
be disappointed. Instead, 3 large range in brightness products ofthe creation of the galaxy itself.
ghostly slivers and ashen To see globulars in all their glory requires sharp,
whirlpools on the threshold of Richness of Cluster well-col mated optics as well as aperture. A good
I i

vision float into the eyepiece's p poor, less than 50 stars 4-to-6-inch telescope will begin to resolve the best
field of view. The brightest one m moderate, 50 to 1 00 stars globulars, such as Ml 3 and M92, in Hercules; M3,
shown here is MW5. Photo- r rich, more than 100 stars in Canes Venatici; M5, in Serpens; M22, in Sagit-
graph by John Mirtle, using a tarius; or the legendary Omega Centauri. But with
16-inch Newtonian. a 1 0-to-1 2-inch instrument, the view is speaacular.

184
 Above: Planetary nebula
NCC 6787, in Aquila, appears
telescopically as a dimmer
version of the Owl Nebula,
M97. But even at 12th mag-
nitude, it is easy with an 8-inch
telescope and a narrowband
nebula filter. Photograph by
Jack Newton, using a 20-inch
Newtonian.
Left: Probably the sky's
most-photographed object, the
Orion Nebula, M42, is one of
the great deep-sky showpieces.
Visually, the detail is subtle but
intricate even in small tele-
scopes. Because the human
eye is relatively insensitive to
wavelengths that produce
the nebula's red glow, the
observer instead sees a pale
green hue in the telescope.
Photograph by Tony Halias
and Daphne Mount.

185
 Top: The tattered remnants
of a once mighty star that
exploded as a supernova
30,000 years ago are seen today
as the Veil Nebula, NGC 6992.
Seeing this large, faint object
requires very low power and a
narrowband nebula filter.
Photograph by Mike
Mayerchak.
Right: Celestial jewellery.
The Pleiades, the sky's best-
known open star cluster, is a
group of at 400 stars 450
least
light-years away. The brightest
member stars illuminate a thin
gas that pervades the cluster.
Under ideal conditions, this
elusive nebulosityshows as a
misty fog around the brighter
stars. We have seen this
nebula in a 5-inch in good
skies,but it is subtle at the
best of times and invisible at
any other time. Photograph by
Tony Hallas and Daphne
Mount.

186
 1

Top left: The North America

Nebula, NGC 7000,
located
beside the star Deneb, is one
of the few deep-sky objects
that is too big for the average
backyard astronomer's tele-
scope. It requires a four-degree
field. The best bet is 10 x 70 or
n X 80 binoculars and a black
night sky. No colour is
evident
in binoculars, but the basic
shape is there. Photograph by
Terence Dickinson.
Above: The seventh-magni-
tude galaxy M81 is million W
light-years away and similar to
our own Milky Way. Even at
that distance, it is plainly
visible in 50mm or larger
binoculars as an oval smudge.
Photograph by Tony Hallas
and Daphne Mount.
U Left: One of the best
examples of a pair of edge-on
galaxies is the duo of NCC 4631
(larger galaxy) and NGC 4656,
9th and 10th magnitudes,
respectively. The detailed star-
hop guide chart in Chapter 1
shows their location. Photo-
graph by Evered Kreimer

187
 Above: Seen only from the
southern United States or
farther south (because of its
southerly location in the sky),
the globular cluster Omega
Centauri is a magnificent
celestialshowpiece— a swarm
of a million suns— the largest
and brightest globular cluster.
Photograph by Craig McCaw.
Top right: A group of 12th-
and 13th-magnitude galaxies in
Leo, led by NGC 3190, is the
type of target favoured by
deep-sky observers who have
tracked down all the Messier
objects and the brighter NCCs.
Photograph by Tony Hallas
and Daphne Mount.
Right: Open cluster M46 is

an easy binocular object, but

it requires at least a 3-inch
telescope to reveal the tiny
doughnut of a planetary
nebula that lies in the same
direction as the cluster.
Photograph by Craig McCaw.

188
 Yet the reality is that not all globulars are as RATING GLOBULAR CLUSTERS
dazzling as those showpiece objects. Globulars
vary in appearance because of their apparent size As with open clusters, there is a classification system
and actual concentration. for rating the appearance of globular clusters. This

The size range for globular clusters is from 1 to 20 one deals strictly with the cluster's "concentration."
arc minutes. The best are the largest ones. Small Devised by Harlow Shapley, the globular-cluster
globulars tend to be more difficult to resolve, ap- rating system goes from Roman numeral I through XIL
pearing as fuzzy-edged spheres. But how well even
be resolved depends on their
large globulars can I very highly concentrated; very difficult

concentration. Some are so highly compressed to resolve

that they are impossible to resolve. II thru XI decreasing degree of concentration
At the other end of the scale are a few globular XII least concentrated; very loose globular;
clusters which are so loosely concentrated that easily resolved, but not as richly

they take on the appearance of very rich, finely spectacular

resolved open starclusters. NGC 288, in Sculptor,
NGC 5466, in Bootes, and NGC 5897, in Libra, are The finest globulars fall in the middle of the range,
good examples of this type. All are best seen in large about Class V to VII, which is compromise
the best
apertures; smaller telescopes at low power show between richness and resolvability. Class and I II

them only as circular glows. One oddball globular globulars seem star-poor, while Class XI and XII
in this class that is well worth a look is the bright globulars are so loose that they resemble rich
M71 , in Sagitta; for many years, it was considered open clusters.

to be an open star cluster. On the other hand, the

open star cluster NGC 2477, in Puppis, is so rich
that it borders on being a globular.
As might be expected, the most distant Mi Iky Way face brightness of the galaxy itself is so low that
globulars (more than 150,000 light-years away) ap- the galaxy is too faint for most amateur telescopes,
pear small (one to two arc minutes across) and faint but this one globular stands out. The distance to
and are difficult to resolve in all but the largest am- NGC 1049 is roughly 400,000 light-years.
ateur telescopes. For intergalactic wanderers such But NGC 1 049 is not the distance champ. Since
as NGC 241 9, in Lynx, and NGC 7006, in Delphi- the 1970s, owners of large instruments have ob-
nus, the reward is simply seeing them. If reaching served globular clusters 2.3 million light-years away
out to greater distances appeals to you, you need not surrounding the Andromeda Galaxy. About 300
stop at the boundaries of our galaxy. If you live be- such globulars have been catalogued. The bright-
low latitude 40 degrees North, try NGC 1 049, an est can just be seen in a 12-inch or larger telescope.
llth-magnitude blur only 0.6 arc minute across. The clusters look enti rely stel lar and, at about mag-
Its claim to fame is that it belongs to another galaxy, nitude 1 5, are impossible to distinguish from faint
a dwarf elliptical called the Fornax System. Thesur- foreground stars in our own galaxy.

BEYOND THE MILKY WAY

Galaxies are by far the most numerous class of a photographic magnitude is given, the galaxy will
deep-sky objects. In fact, the stars we think of as usually appear brighter than that. How much
countless are really just a scant foreground clutter depends on the galaxy's relative abundance
brighter
between usand the real universe— a space tangled of young blue stars versus old yellow stars.
witl"" galaxies. Several thousand galaxies are brighter Although small telescopes easily show the bright-
than '3th magnitude, the effective dividing line est galaxies, the best recipe for galaxy hunting is to
between moderately bright galaxies and those combine a dark sky with a large-aperture telescope.
that show as barely perceptible blurs. To see galaxies as more than fuzzy blobs, use at least
However, as with other deep-sky objects, do not a 6-inch instrument. Galaxy aficionados will want
put too much stock in published magnitude figures. a 12-inch or larger telescope. Pursuing galaxies into
Most galaxy magnitudes are photographic, which the depths of space isone of the prime motivations
means that they were measured in the blue part of of those who select bigger and bigger reflectors.
the spectrum. These values are generally fainter than But galaxies are not just for the big-telescope user.
visual magnitudes (yellow-green). For example, a show a handful of the best galaxies,
Binoculars will
galaxy with a photographic magnitude of 12.5 while many more can be seen even in modest
might have a visual magnitude of 1 1 .8. Where only 80mm telescopes, quite remarkable when you con-

189
 sider that the closest major galaxy, the Andromeda gestion of spiral arms through an 8-inch telescope.
Galaxy, is a colossal 2.3 million light-years away. With anything larger, there is no question.
Edge-on galaxies are the favourite targets of many
*8 THE ANDROMEDA GALAXY observers. Because their discs are tilted at such an
Andromeda, M3 1 , is usually the first galaxy anyone extreme angle, edge-on galaxies appear as thin
looks at. Beginners are often disappointed with that streaks. Most are spirals, but some elongated ellip-

initial glimpse. Expecting an eyepiece image that ticals (such as the Spindle Galaxy, NGC 3115, in

looks like a two-hour time-exposure photograph, Sextans) and some members of a transition type
they see instead a featureless smear. The best way called SO spirals also produce fine edge-ons.
tobe introduced to Andromeda is with binoculars. For the best view of an edge-on galaxy, search
With a width of more than fourdegrees, Andromeda out the lOth-magnitude NGC 4565, in Coma
stretches across most of the field of even 7 x 35s. Berenices. It may be difficult to find at first because
To see the Andromeda Galaxy as more than a dif- of the lack of prominent stars for star hopping, but
fuse patch, use a wide-field 6-inch or larger tele- the view is worth it. Even an 80mm refractor will
scope and look for two dark bands crossing the glow show it clearly as a faint sliver of light. It is 16 arc
of the central core. These are the dust lanes that sep- minutes long, very large by galactic standards.
arate Andromeda's spiral arms. They are not difficult
to see, but many people miss them because they SKETCHING AT THE EYEPIECE
are unaware of what to look for.
As viewing the Andromeda Galaxy demonstrates, n By Gregg Thompson
small telescopes may not reveal much detail in a gal- A drawing of a celestial object records much
axy, but they do show its overall shape, a char- more detail and subtlety than can be expressed
acteristic that depends on the galaxy's morpholog- in words. "But I can't draw," some people
ical type and on its orientation to our line of sight. exclaim. Drawing astronomical objects does not
require the talents of Michelangelo. Typical
THE GALAXY ZOO drawings are records of simple shapes with
such as M32 and Mil 0, Andro-
Elliptical galaxies various degrees of shading.
meda's two nearby companions, are the most com- The equipment is ordinary untextured white
mon type in the universe; they are also the least bond paper and a soft 2B or 4B lead pencil. Use
interesting to observe. Most have no internal struc- the tip of the pencil for stars and other well-
ture. However, depending on the degree of ell iptic- defined objects and the side of the pencil for
ity, such galaxies can vary from circular cometlike nebulous objects. Lead pencil on paper provides
glows to elongated patches. (Ellipticals are rated the easiest medium for the soft smudging needed
from type EO to E7; EO and El galaxies are circular, to give a natural look to deep-sky objects.
E4s are football -shaped, and E6s and E7s are very Smudging is best done with an inexpensive
flattened.) In the Messier catalogue, many of the artisfs blending stump.
members of the Virgo swarm of galaxies—
brightest Of course, using pencil on paper means that
namely, M59, M60, M84, M85, M86 and M87 you are making a drawing with black stars on a
— are ellipticals. M87 is a giant elliptical that is white background, much like a photographic
probably the most massive galaxy within 75 mil- negative, but this is of little consequence. It is far
lion light-years of Earth. more practical than trying to use pieces of chalk
The type ofobject people think ofwhen they hear or white crayon on black paper.
the word galaxy is the spiral, its graceful curving After more than 20 years of experimenting
arms the epitome of deep-sky grandeur. As luck with astronomical drawings, I strongly
would have it, the majority of bright nearby galax- recommend two things:
ies are spirals. Not all reveal their classic pinwheel 1 Make the circle representing the eyepiece's
The Pinwheel Galaxy, M101, structure; it depends in part on whether the galaxy field of view six to eight inches across. Most
is easy to locate near Mizar and is tilted edge-on to us or face-on (the best orienta- observers draw a circle half this size, and it is

Alkald, the two end stars in the tion for seeing the spiral arms) or somewhere in too small.
Big Dipper's handle. Binoc- between (as is usually the case). 2. Apply the highest magnification that permits
ulars show it as a pale smudge. The finest spiral galaxy is M51, the Whirlpool you to see the object at its best. Contrary to
A W-inch telescope will reveal Galaxy. Exactly how small a telescope will reveal advice in older books, most deep-sky objects
the curving spiral arms. M101 is its face-on spiral arms is debatable. Most people are reveal much more at high power than at low
nearly double the size of our so familiar with what this object is supposed to look power because of their increased size and
Milky Way Calaxy. Photograph like that they often imagine a blatant spiral structure enhanced contrast against a darker background.
by Tony Hallas and Daphne where there only a hint of a circular glow. But
is

Mount. it is safe to say that even novices perceive the sug-

190
 Other top-ranked edge-ons are NGC 5907, in neat category. This class of galaxies is a minority
Draco, and NGC 2683, in Lynx. A fine southern-sky group whose members are often oddly shaped or
edge-on is NGC 55, in Sculptor; it has no dust lane contain such chaotic details as patches of nebulos-
but has a mottled appearance. NGC 4762, on the ity, mottled dark lanes or straggling appendages.

outer limits of the Virgo galaxy cluster, has the dis- The best example of an irregular galaxy is M82, in
tinction of being the flattest galaxy known. Ursa Major, thought to be exploding because of
The list of superb edge-on galaxies is long. Be- some unknown internal process. Another irregular
cause their light is concentrated into a compact objea that doubles as a radio source is the southern-
shape, are very distinct and therefore good tar-
all sky galaxy NGC 5128, orCentaurus A. It looks like
gets for owners of small telescopes. When selecting a bright elliptical with a dark band crossing its disc
candidates for a night's observing, look for galaxies and is theorized to be two galaxies colliding.
whose catalogued dimensions are asymmetrical; Some galaxies are regular spirals that have pecu-
for example, 10 arc minutes long by 1 arc minute liar characteristics which distinguish them from the
wide. This is an indication of an edge-on galaxy galactic crowd. For example, M77, in Cetus, is a spi-

that is sure to be an interesting sight. ral with a very starlike nucleus. It is the brightest
A few galaxies — irregulars— do not fall into any example of a Seyfert galaxy, a type that has a very

Use most of the area of a page, keeping the Drawing the view in the eyepiece forces you to
bottom for notes about the factors that affect look for subtle shadings and structure.
your drawing. Such notes become a valuable Scrutinizing a celestial object for 1 to 20
reference and encourage consistency. Record minutes often rewards observers with inspiring
the name of the object, the image orientation detail that is invisible to those who merely take a
(mark north and east by watching the drift of the cursory look. The proof is in the doing.
image across the undriven field), the telescope's Gregg Thompson, an expert deep-sky observer
aperture and magnification, the type of eyepiece, and coauthor of The Supernova Search Charts
the type of one was used), the object's
filter (if and Handbook (Cambridge; 1989), lives in
elevation in degrees above the horizon, the Brisbane, Australia.
steadiness of the air (seeing), the darkness of the
sky (transparency), the observing site and

whether you have made a detailed drawing or

merely a rough sketch.
Start by drawing simple telescopic objects

such as the Ring Nebula, M57. Other good

beginning subjects are naked-eye or binocular
drawings of star clusters such as Coma
Berenices, the Beehive, the Pleiades or the
Hyades. Gradually progress to fainter and more
detailed objects.
Always begin by positioning the main features
relative to each other— some bright stars or the
general shape of a galaxy, for instance. Once
you are happy with the overall proportions, fill *^ Eyepiece sketch of the
in the detail. Do not be reluctant to draw brighter eighth-magnitude globular
stars larger or to give them spikes or diffraction cluster M30 shows the detail
s
INSTRUMENT CONDITIONS
rings to indicate the relative brightness.
Aperture Seeing :/'
seen by experienced deep-sky
ii«,
A proficient observer must learn how to see. Focal Ratio
Telescope Type
^ Transparency
Sky Darkness
-S.
observer Cregg Thompson,
N J.

Letyour eyes adapt to the darker field. Novice Optical Quality xvao Wmd S Lim Mag 56 using a 12.5-inch Newtonian.
Collimation E Temp w Dew N
observers simply glance at an object in the Retlect'Transmlss Q Altitude of Object 7-S-
Thompson developed this
Eyepiece li.iHtaVu Altitude of Site :«5"
Magnification 330 Location of Site 5b^li^qwc^:«i
eyepiece for a few seconds and believe that they Field Oiametor ly
:

ftbt^*./!^"/ observing form and had copies

Type
have seen it. Always inspect the object carefully. Filter '

printed on SVi-by-H-inch
When you make draw what you
the effort to Name f-^^iqTKotvbCory
Visual Acuity 4j^^EKporlence paper so that he could record
Address Thres Vision 3 Fatigue
see, a wonderful thing happens: you will see far Accuracy his observations with some
more than you ever imagined you could. degree of consistency.

191
 Above: The galaxy pair M81 energetic nucleus. Seyferts are thought to be one enough to be called clusters but which provide in-
and M82. Photograph by Neyle step away from being quasars. (Quasars are vastly teresting fields containing two or more members.
Sollee, using a 24.5-inch remote galaxies with energetic nuclei.) One of the best is the "Leo trio": M65 and M66,
Schmidt-Cassegrain. Most people have heard of quasars, but not all in Leo, are two bright spirals that form a triangle
Facing page: What can you amateur astronomers realize that they can see a with a large, faint edge-on galaxy called NGC 3628.
expect to see when you first quasar. At about 13th magnitude (the brightness A much fainter target is the NGC 5353 group lo-

look at deep-sky objects? varies), the quasar 3C 273, in Virgo, is the brightest cated seven degrees southeast of the Whirlpool
Professional illustrator John member of this unusual and controversial class of Galaxy. Owners of lO-to-1 2-inch telescopes will
Bianchi spent an evening at objects. (The next brightest quasars are roughly 1 4th find a high-power field containing five 12th-to-14th-
the eyepiece of a 5-inch to 16th magnitude.) All that can be seen, however, magnitude These are only two of count-
galaxies.
telescope and prepared these is a faint star. But at an estimated three billion less such fields around the sky. Volume 5 of the
sketches. Unless otherwise light-years, 3C 273 is one of the most distant ob- Webb Society Deep-Sky Observer's Handbook
noted, all are 66x with 1%- jects visible in an amateur telescope. series. Clusters of Galaxies, will lead you to many
degree fields. Clockwise from more, and star charts such as Uranometria 2000.0
upper left: Hercules cluster,
GALAXY GROUPS offer good candidate targets.
M13; Dumbbell Nebula, M27; Our Milky Way Galaxy belongs to a cluster of galax- For southern observers, the field surrounding
Albireo, double star; Albireo, ies called the Local Group, whose two largest mem- NGC 1399, in Fornax, contains no fewer than
300x; Swan Nebula, Ml?; bers are M31 andtheMilky Way. A third prominent nine galaxies within a one-degree circle. All the
compact open cluster Mil; member, M33, in Triangulum, just below M3 is 1 , members ofthis group are between 11th and 12th
VeilNebula; galaxies M81 and rated as a small spiral. There are other similar fami- magnitude, making them suitable for 4-to-6-inch
M82; Ring Nebula, M57 (centre). lies of galaxies visible which are not populous telescopes. This is the best collection of galaxies

192
193
194
 Far left: A window on the
Sagittarius Milky Way reveals
one of the richest sectors of
our galaxy. The larger emission
nebula is the Lagoon, M8; the
smaller one is the Trifid, M20.
They are about 4,000 light-years
away but easily visible in
binoculars. Photograph by
Tony Hallas and Daphne
Mount, using a 5-inch f/8 Astro-
Physics refractor.
Above: The Andromeda
Galaxy, M31, has two small
elliptical companion galaxies,
M32 (above M3V and MHO,
that a skilled observer can see
using 50mm binoculars. Photo-
graph by Terence Dickinson,
using a 4-inch f/6.5 Astro-
Physics refractor at f/4.3.

Centre: A celestial traffic jam

inJune 1991 featured the
Beehive open cluster and, in
order of brightness, Venus,
Jupiter and Mars. Photograph
by Terence Dickinson.
Left: A desert location was

ideal for capturing the entire

constellation Scorpius and a
portion of the Milky Way rising
Photograph
in the southeast.
by Terence Dickinson, using a
35mm lens at f/2.8.

195
 Above: Through a 12-inch or
larger telescope, the tendrils of
gas extending out to either
side of M42, the Orion Nebula,
sonnetimes have a very slight
reddish tinge. Film picks up
red light much better than
does the eye. Conversely,
photographic film overexposes
M42's central region, but here,
the eye sees tremendous detail
around the central four stars,
called the Trapezium. Photo-
graph by Jack Newton, using a
20-inch Newtonian.
Right: A wall of starlight
marks the centre of the Milky
Way Calaxy. When viewed
from the darkest locations on
Earth, this sector of the Milky
Way is bright enough to cast
shadows. Composite photo-
graph by Terence Dickinson,
using a 35mm f/2.8.

196
in the southern sky, an area otherwise sparsely

populated with galaxy clusters.

THE VIRGO GALAXY CLUSTER

When we face Cetus, Sculptor and Fornax, we are
looking down through the plane of our galaxy to-

ward its South Galactic Pole. This area has many

widely scattered galaxies but lacks the great swarms
and clusters found in the north polar area. In part,
this is because the view south is not as clear; we
have to peer through a greater thickness of the Milky
Way disc because our solar system lies about 30
light-years north of the Milky Way's equator. But
another reason we do not see as many galaxy
clusters in this region of the Milky Way is that there
are not as many to be seen.
In the direction of the constellations of Ursa
Major, Canes Venatici, Coma Berenices, Leo and
Virgo, we look straight up out of the disc of our
galaxy toward its North Galactic Pole, which lies in

Coma Berenices. That sight line passes through the

least amount of galactic dust, allowing us to see
clearly into the many gatherings of distant galaxies.
The crowd of galaxies in the Coma-Virgo area is

a galaxy cluster, the nearest such grand-scale gather-

ing. Its presence in the northern spring sky gives that
area ofthe heavens a definite statistical edge in gal-

axy numbers. The centre of this galaxy cluster is

about 60 million light-years distant, only a stone's
throw away on the galactic scale, in fact, member
galaxies of the Coma-Virgo cluster, because of its
proximityand size (about seven million light-years
across), are scattered over a huge swath of sky.
The problem with exploring spring-sky galaxies
is that because there are so many galaxies and so

few bright guide stars, it is easy to become lost in a

field of anonymous fuzzy spots. Still, ifyou wantto
check off all the Messiers, you wi have to enter the 1 1

galactic labyrinth of Coma-Virgo one night, since

about a dozen Messier objects reside there. To help
you in this galaxy quest, see charts in Appendix.
To begin a night of galaxy hunting, first find
second-magnitude Denebola (Beta Leonis) at the
end of Leo's tail. Then slew about 6.5 degrees due
east to the fifth-magnitude star 6 Comae Berenices
(it is bright enough to be a naked-eye star at a dark
site). That is the jumping-off point for the Virgo gal- There is something here for every size of tele- This is a more detailed view
axy cluster. Within one degree of 6 Comae are M98 scope. One night, we examined Markarian's Chain of the same section of the
and M99. From there, work north to M 1 00 and on with a 4-inch f/6.5 refractor using a 1 6mm Nagler Milky Way shown on the
uptoM85 (near the star Comae). Then backtrack1 1 eyepiece that gave 41 x and a two-degree field. Ten facing page. The rich webbing
to 6 Comae and work south to NGC 42 6 (a neat 1 galaxies floated like tiny, pale snowflakes in the star of star fields and dark nebulos-
edge-on galaxy) and east to M84
and M86. These field. The view included the entire chain and the gi- ity makes this region endlessly
two ellipticals are in the same field and are the ant elliptical galaxy M87 to the southeast, the true fascinating at low power. Can
brightest members of a remarkable string of galax- gravitational centre of the Virgo galaxy cluster. you see the dark horse with
ies of different sizes and shapes called Markarian's From M87, move farther east to M89 and the trio the ghostly rider in the sky?
Chain, which is the core of the Virgo galaxy cluster, of M58, M59 and M60. Two degrees east of M60 Photograph by Mike
one of the greatest deep-sky wonders. is the edge-on spiral NGC 4762. This excursion will Mayerchak.

197
 I A SAMPLING OF GALAXY CLUSTERS I

Cluster R.A. (2000) Dec. Remarks

'
'^Abell 347 2h 23.3m + 41°57'j 1 5th-magnitude galaxies Vi ° SE of NGC 891
Abell 426 3h 19.8m + 41° 31' chain of galaxies west of NGC 1275
Abell 1367 11 h 44.0m 1+19° 57' rich collection of faint galaxies in Leo
Abell 1656 12h 59.6m + 27° 58' Coma Berenices cluster; very rich
Abell 2065 15h 23.0m + 27° 45' Corona Borealis cluster; extremely faint
Abell 2151 16h 04.4m + 17° 45' Hercules cluster (brightest member mag. 14.5)

RECOMMENDED WIDE-FIELD INSTRUMENTS I

Exit Actual
Instrument Eyepiece Power Pupil Field

1 1 X 80 binoculars ^^H^K Kellner^^^^H llx ^1 7mm 5°

15 X 100 binoculars
4-inch f/5 refractor ^^fl^^
Kellner
32mm Erfle
^^^^ 15x
15x
7mm
6.6mm
3.3°
4.3°
-^
40mm 25x 5mm 2.6°
5-inch f/8 refractor

6-inch f/4 reflector

8-inch f/5 reflector
^^B^B 20mm
32mm
Erfle

Nagler
Erfle
^| 30x
30x
IB 5^^^
6.6mm
^^1 2.7°
2.1°
^

A quintuple galaxy,
NGC 7317-20 in Pegasus (lower
popularly called
right),

Stephan's Quintet, has long

been a centre of astronomical
controversy, because one of
the quintuplets has a very
different redshift than the
other four. The Quintet is

located just an eyepiece field

southwest of
(half a degree)
NGC 7331 (upper left), a fine
9.5-magnitude spiral. With
magnitudes of 13 to 15,
Stephan's Quintet can be seen
as a smudge in a 6-inch, but a
12-inch is usually considered
minimum to distinguish the
individuals properly. Through
an eyepiece, only four galaxies
are obvious, since two of them
are so close together they
appear as one. This photo-
graph by Tom Dey may have
set a record for amateur astro-
photography— it is a five-hour
exposure. Dey used gas-
hype red Tech Pan 2415 on his
12.5-inch Newtonian.

198

11
introduce you to the richest portion of the Virgo
galaxy cluster and perhaps inspire you to extend
your explorations farther afield to the straggling clus-
ter members north and south of the core area. In this

section of the sky, there are galaxies enough to oc-

cupy many evenings of deep-space observing.

DISTANT CLUSTERS
If you enjoy observing the Virgo galaxy cluster, you
may wish to attempt other rich but much fai nter gal-
axy clusters. These objects are at the top of the cos-
mic hierarchy and are among the most challenging
of deep-sky targets. Because of their great distance,
each is contained within an area only one to two
degrees wide at most, instead of being spread across
30 degrees as is the Virgo galaxy cluster. Often, the
entire cluster can be seen in one field as a col lection
of faint, ill-defined smudges. Galaxy clusters usually
require a lot of aperture, preferably 1 4 to 20 inches.
The Uranometria 2000.0 is a must for observing
distant galaxy clusters. Its clear, well-labelled charts
have a limiting magnitude ofabout 15 for galaxies,
a couple of magnitudes fai nter than most other star
atlases. A skim through Volume 1 (northern sky) will
reveal numerous swarms of galaxies packed within
a square degree or so.
A starter cluster in this challenging category is

Abell 1656, the Coma Berenices galaxy cluster.

(Most galaxy clusters have an Abell number, from
George Abell's 1950s catalogue of some 2,700
rich galaxy clusters.) The brightest members of
Abell 656 are a pair of 1 2th-magnitude galaxies,
1

NGC 4874 and NGC 4889, 400 million light-years

away. We have seen them in a 5-inch telescope.
Surrounding these two giant ellipticals are about
50 very faint 1 3th-to-1 6th-magnitude galaxies that
require at least a 12-inch instrument.
Nearby, in Leo, is Abell 1 367, centred around the
13th-magnitude elliptical NGC 3842. Five dozen
galaxies brighter than 1 6th magnitude make up this metria 2000.0, but it is not a target for the casual
cluster. An autumn-sky favourite is Abell 426, just skygazer. With a 14-inch telescope under pristine
two degrees east of Algol, the eclipsing binary star skies, sharp-eyed amateur astronomers have ob-
in Perseus. This cluster is composed of a chain served this cluster as a greyish mottling of the sky,
of 14th-to-15th-magnitude galaxies, with the ex- just bright enough to indicate its presence. Abell
ploding galaxy NGC 1 275 at its heart. 2065 is 1.5 billion light-years away, nearly 1,000 The lure of the deep sky can
The distance record holder for galaxy clusters is times farther than the Andromeda Galaxy. Except take observers to such out-
Abell 2065, the Corona Borealisgalaxycluster.lt is for afew ofthe brightest quasars, Abell 2065 marks posts as the Hercules galaxy
included in Tirion's Sky Atlas 2000.0 and Urano the edge of the amateur astronomer's universe. one degree
cluster (Abell 2151),
northwest ofXi Herculis. In a
single-eyepiece field with a 10-
DEEP-SKY STRATEGIES inch or larger telescope, more
than a dozen galaxies float
There is so much to explore in the deep-sky realm — n Plan each nighfs targets, and make a list of a within a volume of space tens
several classes of nebulas, open star clusters, globu- dozen or so deep-sky objects. Avoid beginning of millions of light-years wide,
larsand galaxies-that it can be difficult to know without any idea of what you want to look at. 600 million light-years from
where to start. Here are a few suggestions for mak- n Have a long-term goal. We recommend tracking Earth. Photograph by Tom Dey,
ing the most of deep-sky excursions: down all the Messiers. Or pick a constellation and using a 12.5-inch Newtonian.

199
 attempt to locate every deep-sky object within its ban observing is a situation in which settingcircles
boundaries. This is called "constellation mopping." can be put to good use, especially the new style of
D Organize a work station for accessories, atlases easy-to-calibrate digital circles.
and notebooks. Whatever makes life in the field D Do not underestimate the capabilities of your
more convenient will also make observing more small telescope. Every Messier object can be tracked
enjoyable. down with no more than a 3-inch instrument. Un-
n Find some observing friends. The hunt is all the der a dark sky, a small telescope can reveal an
more satisfying when you share the prize. Also, amazing amount of detail. You can thoroughly
other observers may introduce you to deep-sky explore the Virgo galaxy cluster, including picking
objects you have never seen before. out 1and 12th-magnitude NGC galaxies. An
1th-
D Do not give up on city observing. The brighter 30 minutes' drive to a dark site sometimes
extra,
Messier objects are visible even through the murk more than compensates for a modest aperture.
of urban sky glow. As long as there are no lights glar- D Subscribe to astronomy magazines. Astronomy
ing into your eyes, with a little patience, you should has frequent deep-sky articles of interest, but real en-
be able to locate double stars, variables, open star thusiasts read Deep Sky journal, in which some of
clusters and the brighter nebulas and globulars. Ur- the world's fi nest deep-sky observers share thei r ex-

DEEP-SKY OBSERVING AT THE LIMIT I

DBy Alister Ling observer's body moisture from condensing onto

Among the great pleasures of deep-sky observing the lens.The cost of a heater is small compared
is the challenge of detecting the subtle wonders with that of any eyepiece; one can even be
of the universe by pushing both your instrument made from old toaster wire.
and your skill as an observer to the limit. Seeing Experienced observers constantly use averted
wispy streamers from explosive stellar shock vision.Glancing to one side of an object aligns it
waves, dust lanes and nebular complexes in with the more sensitive receptor cells around the
galaxies or delicate puffballs of ionized gas does periphery of the retina. Seeing an elusive deep-
not necessarily require brute-force aperture. I sky object by not staring straight at it may sound
have found that by refining techniques, attitudes contrary, but it works. Another trick is to jiggle
and equipment, it is always possible to see more the telescope, which can reveal the presence of
with the telescope you already own. dim targets that might go unnoticed otherwise.
In addition, have found that fatigue can cause
IMPROVING YOUR VISION
I

the view to "grey out" as I strain to detect a faint

In small telescopes, the Crab The most important tool in astronomy is the object. lie down for 1 5 minutes to rest, then
I

Nebula, MT, looks like a tiny, eye. Its sensitivity depends on its level of dark have a hot drink (but not alcohol; it does not
dim cloud located between adaptation. cannot overstate how jealously you
I warm you, and it hinders dark adaptation).
the horns of the traditional must guard dark adaptation. A highly dark-
IMPROVING CONTRAST
depiction of the constellation adapted eye is vastly more effective than a
Taurus. Charles Messier saw it larger telescope. To see faint deep-sky objects, the solution is not
in 1758 during his comet Studies have showneven the particular
that necessarily brighter images (a larger telescope)
sweeps and, after deciding that shade of red of a flashlight can affect how but images with more contrast between the sky
it was not a comet, started to quickly the eye readapts after exposure to the background and the target object. If stray light-
compile his list of bogus light. The deeper the red (the longer the even that of the Milky Way— leaks into the
comets, which proved to be wavelength), the better. Red light should also be eyepiece, it can scatter across the eyepiece field

his enduring legacy. Why, dim. An intensity sufficient to locate dropped and degrade contrast. recommend that owners
I

then, did Messier include objects or to read star charts at arm's length of open-tube Newtonians cover the tube's
obvious naked-eye objects can retard your maximum sensitivity by up framework with a dark cloth. Next, an extension
such as the Beehive, M44, and to 15 minutes. tube at the front end ensures that stray light
Pleiades, M45, clusters? Astron- Even at relatively dark sites, shield my eye
I cannot infiltrate the focuser. If your instrument is
omy historian Owen Gingerich while observing. Any ambient light is too much. a solid-tube Newtonian, line the telescope tube,
has suggested that Messier A black cloth hood draped over my head keeps especially the section opposite the focuser, with
added M44 and M45 simply to me in the dark quite nicely. A hood also black velveteen or corduroy. This will absorb
bring the number of entries in keeping the nonobserving
alleviates the stress of light bouncing off the tube walls.
the initial instalment of his list eye closed. However, a heater coil around the As a further measure, keep the optics clean;
up to 45. Photograph by Neyle eyepiece may be required to prevent the dust scatters a lot of light in the wrong directions.
Sollee, using a 24.5-inch Astro
Works Schmidt-Cassegrain.

200
periences and expertise. Another worthy reference as a short-focus refractor or giant binoculars, which,
is back issues of The Observer's Guide, available in a dark sky, can give stunning views of Milky Way
from Astro Cards (address, page 165). fields and large deep-sky objects.
DCollecta library of deep-sky references. No deep- n Change latitudes. If you live at midnorthern lati-

sky observer should be without a copy of Burnham's tudes, a whole new sky awaits you in the south. You
Ce/est/a/ /-/andboo/c. The three-volume set contains do not have to go to Australia; even a trip 1,000
a gold mine of information about thousands of kilometres farther south will bring hundreds of
objects. It is wonderful cloudy-night reading. Other new objects above the horizon.
recommended references are listed in the Appendix. Endless satisfaction can be found exploring the
D Change telescopes. If you feel that you have ex- deep-sky realm. From objects so large that they can
hausted all that is visible with a particular telescope, be seen on ly with the naked eye to objects so small
a new telescope will often rekindle your observing and faint that they require a 24-inch giant telescope,
interest. Usually, this involves moving to a larger the universe has much to offer. While deep-sky
aperture. Using an 8-inch telescope after being ac- objects may appear merely as faint puffs of light
customed to a 3-inch is like rediscovering the sky. briefly glimpsed in the eyepiece, they will long
Another possibility is a wide-field instrument such be etched in your memory.

Finally, faint stars and small galaxies can be seen

only with aligned optics. Always ensure that the
telescope is collimated so as not to defeat
yourself at the outset.

USING NEBULA FILTERS

Nebula filters boost image contrast. In my
one nebula filter is basic
opinion, at least
equipment, not a luxury. Broadband filters, such
as Lumicon's Deep-Sky and Orion Telescope
Center^s SkyGlow models ($60 to $120), are
useful in heavily ormoderately light-polluted
areas. As well as enhancing emission nebulas
such as M42, broadband filters improve galaxies,
comets and reflection nebulas under less-than-
ideal conditions. But in darker skies, a
broadband filter has a limited effect.
While narrowband filters, such as Lumicon's
UHC and Orion's UltraBlock ($80 to $200), do
nothing for galaxies, comets and reflection through the narrowband filter, so it cannot be /4 typical entry in Alister
nebulas, they work wonders on emission and made any blacker. Ling's observing log has this
planetary nebulas. have found that filters work best in
I drawing and the following
The third type of filter, the line filter, is a combination with an observing hood. Without a notes: "The Medusa Nebula
specialty item. This category includes Lumicon's hood, stray light can reflect off your eyeball, (planetary), PK 205 +14.1 =
Oxygen-Ill and H-beta filters ($100 to $200), travel through the eyepiece, reflect off the filter Abelin = Sharpless 2-274;
which provide extreme contrast, blocking and bounce back to interfere with the view. I 744" X 670". Seeing 2"; limiting
starlight by almost three magnitudes. Compared have seen this effect discourage observers who mag. 6.2; 12.5-inch, 65x, 40'
with the narrowband filter, the Oxygen-Ill filter did not shield their eyes. field, O-lll filter. Very bright in
offers a distinctimprovement in the visibility of Through the application of such simple O-lll,huge! Has a dark E-W
planetary nebulas, at least at low power. The techniques, my well-used instrument continues lane through half. Hints of a
H-beta filter enhances some faint extended to provide me with one of the most rewarding complete circle, but I can't be
nebulosities and is especially effective on the experiences in amateur astronomy — observing sure. Better skies would help.
Horsehead Nebula, the California Nebula and the delicate details in the web of our universe. H-beta filter shows just the
NGC 40. A line filter is most efficient at low Alister Ling has written many articles on deep- northern brighter-limb 'blob.'
power (5mm-to-7mm exit pupil). At higher sky observing for Astronomy and Deep Sky. /-/e Cannot see anything without
powers, the sky is already completely black lives in Edmonton, Alberta. the filter."

201
 PART III

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

Capturing the Sky

on Film

Backyard astronomers are captivated by sky shoot- pleasure again and again. Everything we see in
ing for the same reason that people are motivated the sky, and many things we cannot see, can be
to take pictures of any scenic attraction — it provides captured on film. Here is a guide to selecting the
a permanent memento that can be viewed with best equipment to do it.

SELECTING THE RIGHT EQUIPMENT

For the professional astronomer, photography is a ries. But times have changed. Today, virtually every
technique for collecting data. For the rest of us, it is professional telescope used for taking photographs
a means of producing beautiful images that we can is fitted with charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras.

look upon with pride. Some astrophotographs, like These electronic marvels produce images that are
constellation portraits, star trails and planetary con- wonderful for research purposes and for computer-
junctions, are surprisingly easy to take. Others, such ized data reduction but often look unimpressive or
as planet, galaxy and nebula shots through a tele- indecipherable to the nonresearcher. Only the clas-
scope, require practice and proper equipment. As- sic methods of photography can produce the stun-
trophotography is a hobby within ahobby that can ning wide-field, people associate
star-filled pictures

grow to addictive levels. ("If only it would clear up with fine astronomical photography.
tonight so could try that shot of Ml 01 again.")
I We Producing images on film, especially colour film,
have both spent many nights outside staring into a is a realm now left almost exclusively to the ama-
viewfinder or guiding eyepiece hoping to bag a teur. This is rather fitting, because amateur scientists,
memorable shot. Much can go wrong— too much, some of them astronomers, invented photography
it seems. But astrophoto addicts keep trying. Their in the 1 830s. Since then, photography and astron-
achievements are displayed throughout this book. omy have progressed hand in hand, innovations in

Astronomical work pushes photographic technol- one field prompting advances in the other.
ogy to the limit, and that alone provides a sense Professional astronomers' recent penchant for
of accomplishment for those who love to make CCD chips over photographic film comes, interest-
the most of what cameras and film can do. For dec- ingly, at a time when the technology of photo-
ades, amateur astrophotographers could not com- graphic emulsions is improving greatly. Super-fine-
pete with the output from professional observato- grained films such as Kodak Tech Pan 241 5 along

202

Ik
ASTROPHOTOGRAPHY

The Central America Nebula,

a section of the North America
Nebula, is seen here in
remarkable clarity. Yet the
instrument used for the 70-
minute exposure was an 8-inch
f/6 Newtonian, a modest

instrument by today's stan-

dards. Apart from the attention
to detail on the part of photog-
rapher John Mirtle, the secret
to great black-and-white
astrophotography is Kodak
Tech Pan 2415 film. When gas-
hypered, this film is in a class
by itself. All senous astro-
photographers use it (unless
they shoot colour only).

203
 with gas-hypering techniques to increase the film's taken with the world's largest telescopes. This is an-
now enable the dedicated amateur to
sensitivity in-spi ration spurring many backyard
other source of
produce astronomical photographs that rival those astronomers on to greater levels of achievement.

SELECTING THE RIGHT CAMERA

Any camera, from a pocket model to a 4 x 5 Linhof,
can be used to take pictures of the night sky. The
main requirement is a B (bulb) setting on the shut-
ter that permits time exposures. But for taking pic-
tures through a telescope or for exploring the full

range of astronomical photography, one type of

camera is best: the 35mm single lens reflex, or SLR.
If it is model with automatic functions,
a recent
however, it may have some major drawbacks for
night-sky photography. Not only is all the high-tech
electronic wizardry for auto-exposure, auto-wind
and auto-focus unnecessary for astrophotography,
but it can be a real disadvantage.
Some cameras are so automatic that they have no
manual override of aperture and shutter speeds.
Such cameras are essentially useless for astropho-
tography. Other types allow manual settings but rely
on battery power to maintain them — battery power
is required to keep a shutter open on a B setting, for

Top: Two important features example. A cold night coupled with a 30-minute ex-
in an astrophotography camera posure is guaranteed to kill the batteries, reducing
are the ability to remove both the camera to a high-tech counterweight rather than
the pentaprism and the a functioning piece of equipment. When purchas-
interchangeable focusing ing acamera that may be used for astrophotography,
screens. Pentaprism removal remove the battery in the store and determine what
allow/s insertion of a viewfinder shutter speeds still function. Unfortunately, most
magnifier. Shown here are 2x 35mm cameras now on the market are unsuitable ter for the B setting and for speeds from 1/2,000 to
and 6x magnifiers. The best for astrophotography. 1/125 second, an excellent array of focusing screens
focusing screens for through- Only a handful of fully manual non-battery- and a superior 6x viewscreen magnifier— every fea-
the-telescope photography dependent cameras remain available in the 1 990s. ture an astrophotography camera should have ex-
have extremely fine-
plain, The Nikon FM2 is relatively inexpensive (about cept, surprisingly, mirror lockup.The competitive
ground-glass surfaces with no $400) but lacks interchangeable prisms, and neither Nikon F3 has an electronic shutter that works with-
Fresnel lens pattern and of the two optional focusing screens available for it out batteries at 1/60 second and at B. (The newer
preferably a clear central spot is suitable for astrophotography. The Pentax K1 000 Nikon F4 is burdened with an unnecessary motor
with etched cross hairs. An is a low-cost, no-frills manual camera ($150) that is drive; we do not recommend it.) Overall, Canon
independent brand of fine- adequate for all but the most demanding astropho- and Nikon cameras stand out in this select group be-
ground-glass focusing screens tographic pursuits. Among the feature-laden high- cause of their superb array of lenses, which are con-
by Beattie, called Intenscreens end models, the Pentax LX has an excellent array of sidered by many to be the best on the market.
(available for some cameras), viewfinders and screens and a shutter that works
works very well. from 1/75 to 1/2,000 second and at B, even if the
USED CAMERAS
Bottom: Available only on batteries fail. The Olympus OM-4T has interchange- Since the selection of current cameras that can be
the used-equipment market able screens as well as a shutter that works without used for astrophotography is limited, we
recom-
(for about $150), the Olympus batteries at 1/60 second and at B. The Contax S2 is mend seeking out a used model traded by some-
in

OM-1 is the camera of choice a fully mechanical manual camera that features in- one upgrading to fully automatic equipment. All
for many astrophotographers. terchangeable screens and renowned Zeiss lenses. that is really needed is a camera body in good con-
It is lightweight, fully manual, The Leica R6 is also a fully manual, nonelectronic dition. The lenses can be purchased either used or
reliable and far less expensive camera with interchangeable screens, but its cost— new. However, find out whether new accessories
than a new manual camera $2,500 — may raise eyebrows. such as lenses, screens and viewfinders will fit
suitable for celestial photog- Of all current camera models, the Canon F-1 is the older model or whether suitable older-model
raphy, such as the Canon F-1. probably closest to ideal, it has a mechanical shut- accessories are available.

204
 Among secondhand models, Nikon F and F2
cameras are unbeatable. The original Canon F-1 is
in the same high-class league and has mirror lockup.

But the camera of choice for many astrophotogra-

phers was, and remains, the Olympus OM-1 It is .

a lightweight manual camera with mirror lockup, in-

terchangeable screens and a selection of good, al-
though not great, lenses. Our best recommendation
for a reasonably priced astrophotography unit is a
used OM-1 (The OM-2 and OM-3 are also good
.

choices.) But act quickly; they may not be available

on the used market for much longer.

SELECTING A LENS
CAMERA FEATURES YOU NEEDH
Most lenses do a creditable job on terrestrial sub-
jects. Even the least expensive 35mm camera lenses Presented in decreasing order of importance.
are reasonably sharp at f/1 1 , the typical snapshot set- n High-quality interchangeable lenses
ting. But capturing a field of stars with the aperture D All shutter speeds (or at least B setting)
setwide open is another matter— it is the ultimate operational without battery power
testofa lens. The smallest deviations from lens per- n User-interchangeable focusing screens
fection will become glaringly apparent as distortions D Availability of clear-spot astrophoto screen
in the star images. For astrophotography, fast lenses D Interchangeable prisms or right-angle
are preferred— f/2. 8 to f/1 .2. These are difficult to magnifier finder accessory
make and can exhibit the greatest optical aberra- n Independent mirror lockup
tions, one reason we prefer top-quality brand names
such as Nikon and Canon.
Unfortunately, the most common SLR lenses to-
day are zoom lenses, the least desirable for as- (24mm
angle or 28mm), a normal lens (50mm or
trophotography. Zoom lenses are typically f/4, too 55mm) and a short telephoto (85mm to 1 35mm).
slow for many types of celestial shooting. Fixed- Resist being tempted by compact 300mm-to-500mm
focal-length lenses are usually f/2. 8 or faster. A basic f/8 mirror or scxalled reflex telephotos. They are far
set of lenses for astrophotography would be a wide- too slow for anything but the brightest subjects.

SELECTING THE RIGHT FILM

The most common astrophotography question is. ISO 3200, used at one time or another. Indeed,
is

What film do I use? Since the night sky is a very dim experimenting with new films is part of the fun.
subject, the first impulse to use the fastest film: the
faster the film, the shorter the
is

exposures. Certainly,
COLOUR FILMS
shorter exposures are desirable; during long ex- We recommend using colour film right from the
posures, all sorts of gremlins can creep in to blur the start. The idea that black-and-white film is less ex-
picture. On the other hand, fast films are grainier pensive to learn with is ancient history. Consider- The best lenses for piggy-
than slow films. Slow, fine-grained films record ing the time required to develop and print, not back astrophotography are
sharper detail than fast, coarse-grained films. In all to mention the cost of darkroom supplies, black- fixed focal length (that is, non-
cases, use the finest-grained (which usually means and-white film is far from inexpensive. zoom) and manual focus. They
the slowest) film that the subject will allow. There are two types of colour fi Im: one that yields should be f/2.8 or faster. A
Film speeds are indicated by ISO numbers; the slides and one that produces negatives from which good set would include a wide-
higher the ISO number, the faster the film. The prints can be made. Prints have the disadvantage of angle lens (24mm or 28mm),
slowest, finest-grained films currently available are requiring an extra processing step. Unless you do a normal lens (50mm) and a
ISO 1 6, and the fastest fi Ims are ISO 3200. ISO num- your own printing, you will have to rely on some- short telephoto (85mm to
bers are the same as the old ASA speeds. Therefore, one else (usually involving an automated opera- 135mm). These sizes are widely
ASA 400 is ISO 400. tion) to prepare the photographs. The results can availableon the used-equip-
As might be expected, there no one "best" film.
is range anywhere from perfect to terrible. ment market. Many new auto-
The selection of film depends primarily on the The main advantage of print film is the availabil- focus lenses do not fit manual
brightness of the object. In astrophotography, ity of very fast medium-grained emulsions, such cameras, which are the most
the entire range of film speeds, from ISO 16 to as Kodak Ektar 1000, Fujicolor Super HG 1600 suitable for astrophotography.

205
 and the remarkable Konica SR-G 3200. These films 800/3200 (known in the United States as Scotch
are so good that many astrophotographers use them Chrome 400), are actually 400-speed slide films
exclusively, despite the extra work and expense packaged for "push-processing." All of them can be
involved in achieving a final positive image. In shot at ISO 400, 800, 1 600 or 3200, marked for
medium-speed colour print films, Fujicolor Super push-processing and sent to a film laboratory, where
HG 400 has gained a reputation for fine grain technicians will leave them in the developer longer
and superb colour. than normal to boost the films' speeds. There is usu-
The alternative to the fuss of colour negatives is ally a surcharge of $2 or $3 for this process.

transparency, or slide, film. The advantage of slide Any slide emulsion can be push-processed, but
film is that it requires no further treatment for fin- the 400-speed films gain the most for astrophotog-
ished images. It is generally less expensive than print rapKy. Push-processing them to ISO 800 creates
Im and produces good results for the least amount
fi relatively little increase in grain yet produces dou-
of effort and cost without imposing the vagaries of bled speed, cutting exposure times in half. When
the print process. Beginners are well advised to use pushed to 1 600, 400-speed films become substan-
slide film. As of early 1993, Agfachrome 1000 and tially grainier, Agfachrome 1000, but the
similarto
Scotch Chrome 000 are the fastest slide films cur-
1 speed gain isgood trade-off. Push-processing
often a
rently available, although they are quite grainy. to ISO 3200 offers spectacular sensitivity, but most
Other high-speed emulsions, such as Fujichrome astrophotographers feel that the cost in increased
1 600D, Ektachrome 800/1 600 and Scotch Chrome graininess is too great.

RECOMMENDED 35mm FILMS!

Astrophoto Subject Colour Slide Colour Print B&W

( day-sky phenomena Kodachrome 25 Ektar 25

sunsets and twilights Kodachrome 64 Ektar 125
constellations
'
Agfachrome 1 000 or Ektar 1000 or T-Max 400 or
(fixed camera) Scotch Chrome 400 Konica SR-G 3200 T-Max P3200
star trails Kodachrome 200 or Ektar 125 or T-Max 400
Fujichrome 400 Fuji HC 400
auroras Fujichrome 400 or Fuji HG 400 or
I moon (telephoto and
Scotch Chrome 400
Kodachrome 25 or 64
Ektar
Ektar 25
1000
T-Max 100 or
prime focus of scope) Tech Pan 241
lunar close-ups (high magni- Kodachrome 200 or Fuji HG 400 or T-Max 400 or
I fication through scope) Fujichrome 400 Ektar 125 Tech Pan 2415
sun (white-light filter) Kodachrome 25 or 64 Ektar 25 Tech Pan 241
H sun (H-alpha filter) ^H Tech Pan 241 5' '

planetary (high magni- Kodachrome 200 or Fuji HG 400 or T-Max 400 or

fication through scope) Fujichrome 400 Ektar 1000 Tech Pan 2415
Facing page: Another ' lunar eclipse (telephoto Kodachrome 64 and Ektar 125 and
example of modern amateur or prime focus of scope) Fujichrome RD400^ Ektar 1000^
astrophotography reaching solar eclipse Kodachrome 25 or 64 Ektar 125 T-Max 1 00
""
levels of excellence previously deep-sky (piggyback) Kodachrome 200 or Fuji HG400 Tech Pan 2415
attained only at professional Scotch Chrome 400 or T-Max 400
observatories is this portrait of deep-sky (prime focus) Scotch Chrome 400 Ektar 1000 or Tech Pan 2415
the Rosette Nebula. The (pushed to 1 600) Konica SR-G 3200
smallest dark globules sil- comets (fixed camera) '
Agfachrome 1 000 or Ektar 1 000 or T-Max P3200
houetted against the bright i Scotch Chrome 400 Konica SR-G 3200
backdrop of nebulosity are comets (guided) Fujichrome 400 or Fuji HG400or T-Max 400 or
about one-tenth of a light-year Scotch Chrome 400^ Ektar 1000 Tech Pan 2415
wide. The Rosette is roughly
3,000 light-years away. Tom ^Tech Pan film was designed for this type of photography.
Dey used gas-hypered Tech ^Slower film for partial phases of lunar eclipse; faster film for totality.

Pan 2415 for this three-hour ^Speed of film depends in part on brightness of comet.
guided prime-focus shot with a
12.5-inch Newtonian.

206
207
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1 1
I THE ULTRAFAST FILMS
During the past few years, manufacturers have n photographers who do not have access to
introduced myriad high-speed colour films: f/2. 8 or faster lenses
Fujicolor Super HG 1600, Ektar 1000, n taking the maximum possible number of
Agfachrome 1000, Scotch Chrome 1000 and quality pictures during one observing session
Konica SR-G 3200, the most popular film among n photographing bright comets and auroras
amateur astronomers. The ultrafast films can pick D prime-focus deep-sky work at f/6 to f/1
faint nebulas and Milky Way star clouds out of If the high-speed films are so laudable for
M Although gas-hypered Tech the sky better than any film before them, all in deep-sky photography, why use anything else?
Pan 2415 is king of the black- exposures of less than 1 minute at f/2. For The answer is film grain. A Konica SR-G 3200
and-white films, Kodak T-Max example, with Konica SR-G 3200 or Ektar 1000 negative will not stand tremendous enlargement.
P3200 is easier for beginners. and a tripod-mounted camera, a 30-second For most purposes, this will not matter, even if

It can be push-processed to untracked photograph can capture almost as the exposure is published in a magazine, unless
ISO 25,000 for results like this, much faint deep-sky detail as a 5-minute tracked it is enlarged to the size of a two-page spread.
unhypered. The film grain is and guided piggyback exposure on ISO 400 But if the goal is to have 1 1-by-1 4-inch or 16-by-
much more evident, but expo- film. Ultrafast films are ideal for: 20-inch framed prints or the sharpest originals
sure times are short and the D beginners or dabblers who want satisfying possible, then medium-speed film (ISO 200 to
film can be used right out results from the simplest equipment 400), top-quality fast optics and longer guided
of the box. Photograph by D travellers who cannot pack elaborate clock- exposures are the only alternative. The finest
Andreas Gada, using a 6-inch driven mounts results always come at a price.
f/6 Newtonian; 10-minute

exposure.

208
 Astrophotographers need an ISO 3200 colour evolved from a film
scientific applications that
slide emulsion with reasonable grain. Major manu- designed for solar photography. With extended
facturers have tested such fi Ims but have yet to place red sensitivity, incredible resolution and a normal
them on the market. Apparently, the demand is ISO speed of 125, Tech Pan 2415 has been de-
still too small to justify perfecting them. scribed as an almost perfect astrophotography film.
Because of the lack of a good u Itrafast si ide emu I- It is available in 36-exposure cassettes from photog-
sion, acknowledgment must be given to Konica raphy dealers that cater to professionals. Tech Pan
SR-G 3200 print film. Introduced in 1 987 (as SR-V 241 5 can be used right out of the box for solar,
3200), this amazing product is by far the most sen- lunar and planetary photography, hlowever, for
sitive colouremulsion available. For pure speed, it deep-sky work, it must be gas-hypered to boost
is in a class by itself. The typical exposure times of its sensitivity over long exposures. (More about

other films are cut in half by Konica 3200, making this in Chapter 15.)
it a backyard-astronomy favourite. For decades, the most common black-and-white
emulsion was Kodak Tri-X. However, its day is past.
THE BEST
In the mid-1980s, Kodak introduced its T-Max
BLACK-AND-WHITE FILMS
black-and-white film, with much finer grain, in
While selecting a colour film might involve dif- 100, 400 and 3200 speeds. T-Max 100 and 400
ficultchoices and, ultimately, compromise, there can be pushed one f-stop with very little increase
is one black-and-white film that stands out as the in grain, while T-Max P3200can easily be pushed

best: Kodak Tech Pan 2415. It is a high-contrast, to ISO 6400 or 1 2,500. Tests show that it can with-
medium-speed, very fine-grained emulsion for stand pushing to 25,000 or even 50,000.

SELECTING THE RIGHT TELESCOPE

Ifyou are still in the process of selecting a telescope
and suspect that astrophotography is one of your
ambitions, keep in mind that the crucial feature in
an astrophotography telescope— more important
than the optics— is a very solid mount. A beefy
equatorial mount with a clock drive is essential.
However, in most cases, portability is also a pre-
requisite. Despite the marvels of current films and
filters, most deep-sky photography, like deep-sky
observing, has to be done from dark locations. This
involves transporting the telescope into the coun-
try, so while the instrument must be sturdy, it should

also be compact, easy to set up and capable of

carrying piggyback cameras with large lenses. ways required for through-the-telescope photog-
Another feature to look for is a telescope drive raphy. To allow instantaneous variation of the drive
with a worm-and-wheel gearing mechanism. This rate for overcoming such errors, telescopes with a
type of drive is usually better than spur gears. It pro- battery-powered DC stepper or pulse motors usu-
vides a smoother, more accurate drive motion that allyhave standard push-button speed controls. AC
reduces the trailed star images produced by any in- motors require a separate electronic drive corrector.
accuracies. The larger the wheel-gear diameter, the
TELESCOPE OPTICS FOR
more precise the drive. When stated at all, drive- A top priority for successful
error ratings are usually given in arc seconds. An er-
ASTROPHOTOGRAPHY astrophotography is a rock-
ror of less than 1 arc seconds, general ly stated as Aperture is important for only one type of astro- solid, accurate equatorial
plus or minus five arc seconds, is excellent. photographic subject— planets. To photograph mount such as this Astro-
Celestron and Meade have introduced periodic our neighbour worlds requires a great deal of mag- Physics Model 600. The best
error correction (PEC) circuits that electronically nification and therefore as much light as possi- plan is to get an oversize
memorize, and compensate for, the regular speed ble to keep exposures short. A 4-inch telescope mount for the telescope you
variations introduced by gear errors. These PEC is the absolute minimum for planetary photography. plan to use. A mount that will
circuits can reduce tracking error to below five arc Lunar photography is not so demanding. Small hold a 10-inch telescope for
seconds. However, even with the finest drives and instruments (less than 4 inches) fare well in this casual viewing should be used
PEC circuits, random tracking errors creep in from area. However, a telescope with a focal length with a 5-inch telescope for
motors, gears and bearings. Manual guiding is al- of 1 ,500mm to 2,200mm is best for good pictures astrophotography.

209
 scope (1 to 20 inches) has a small field of view, of-
ten less than a degree when coupled with 35mm
film. This makes large telescopes superior for de-
tailed pictures of small deep-sky objects, such as
planetary nebulas, globulars and many galaxies.
However, some deep-sky objects are so huge (M3 1
the North America Nebula and the Veil Nebula, for
example) that they wil not fit into the frame when
I

using a large telescope. Small 4-to-6-inch f/4 to f/6

telescopes excel with oversize targets. With their
shorter focal lengths, smaller instruments have a
wider field of view; they are certainly more porta-
ble. As with visual observing, there is no perfect
of the moon, since at these focal lengths, the moon telescope for every type of astrophotography.
fills a 35mm frame nicely.
For photographs of deep-sky objects, aperture is
RECOMMENDED TELESCOPES
not as important as focal ratio. Fast f/4 to f/6 tele- What telescope has most of the right features?
scopes of any aperture are far easier to use for faint- Among portable off-the-shelf systems, we recom-
object portraits than ill to f/10 instruments. Any- mend either of two choices: for a general-purpose
thing slower than f/10 makes the exposures tor- system, an 8-inch Schmidt-Cassegrain; for a deep-
turously long, even with the fastest film available. sky instrument, a short-focus (f/5 to f/8) 3-to-4-inch
In this respect, deep-sky photography is not like apochromatic refractor.
deep-sky observing. Forobserving, the biggest trans- All the Schmidt-Cassegrains have a wide selection
portable telescope is usually preferred. However, of astrophotography accessories. An 8-inch Schmidt-
forastrophotography, a larger-aperture instrument Cassegrain has the necessary aperture for planetary
will not produce shorter exposures. Rather, deep- photography, and the 2,000mm focal length of the
sky exposures are determined by focal ratio: the f/1 models is ideal for shots of the whole disc of the
faster the telescope, the shorter the exposure. moon. For piggyback photography, cameras read-
Why use a large-aperture model at all? A big tele- ily attach to the top of the tube. A fork-mounted

DEVELOPING YOUR ASTROPHOTOGRAPHIC SKILLS

We want to encourage backyard astronomers to developing, darkroom techniques or film

take up astrophotography as a rewarding part of sensitometry curves to achieve good results. The
the hobby, but at the same time, we offer this secret of success in astrophotography is to start
counsel: astrophotography can be a mine field of simple. Here is the sequence we recommend for
aggravations and technical problems. To avoid developing your astrophotographic skills:

unnecessary anguish, you need to know: D constellations with a camera on a fixed tripod
D how to operate a manual camera for regular Dthe moon through a telescope
photography (or how to operate a fully D tracked exposures with a camera piggybacked
automated camera in manual mode) on a telescope
n what f-stops, film speed and film grain mean D eyepiece-projection shots of the moon
D how to find things in the sky n eyepiece-projection shots of the planets
D how to polar-align a telescope n guided deep-sky exposures through a
But you do not have to know about film telescope

ESSENTIAL FEATURES IN AN ASTROPHOTO TELESCOPE!

Wheel-and-worm gears,
such as those used to drive n Very solid mount n Ability to attach piggybacked cameras or
Celestron's 8-inch Ultima, are D Fine polar-alignment adjustments guidescopes
preferred for astrophotography n Declination slow-motion control, either D Fast optics, preferably f/6 or faster for broadest
over the spur gears on earlier manual or electric choice of targets
models of Schmidt-Casse- D An accurate worm-gear drive D Ability to 35mm film frame
fill

grains. We regard the Ultima D Speed controls in right ascension D Smooth focuser (preferably 2-inch diameter)
as one of the best off-the- D Car-battery adapter with lock
shelf Schmidt-Cassegrains
for astrophotography.

210
Schmidt-Cassegrain with sliding tube weights is aperture. Fully outfitted, an 8-inch Schmidt-Casse-
easy to balance and relatively simple to set up grain astrophoto system costs $2,200 to $3,000.
and polar-align. Our other top choice is a 3-to-4-inch f/5 to f/8
On the negative side, the long focal lengths apochromatic refractor. These instruments have ex-
(1,600mm to 2,000mm) require very accurate cellent speed and a two-to-four-degree field with
polar alignment and precise guiding for successful a 35mm camera, characteristics ideal for wide-
deep-sky shots. In addition, the fork mounts of some field deep-sky photography. Their relatively short
Schmidt-Cassegrains have a tendency to bounce at 500mm-to-800mm focal lengths are very forgiving
the slightest touch or breeze. Long exposures are of tracking and guiding errors. The compact tubes
possible but require care and a calm night. Premium can be solidly mounted on portable German equa- Left: Serious astrophotog-
models, such as Celestron's Ultima 8 and Meade's torial mounts. Some of today's apochromatic refrac- raphy with a big telescope
LX200, are much improved in this regard. tors will also accept larger-format cameras, such as such as the Celestron C14
Anotherdisadvantageof Schmidt-Cassegrains is the popular Pentax 67. requires a better mount than
their speed. Atf/1 0, it is difficult to record faint deep- The disadvantage of a fast apochromatic is that its the fork version provided vv/f/?
sky objects, even over long exposures. However, short focal length is not well suited to detailed close- the telescope. The owner of
Celestron's f/6.3 reducer/corrector lens turns an f/1 up shots of smal deep-sky objects
I (galaxies, for ex- this instrument replaced the
Schmidt-Cassegrain into an f/6.3 unit and also com- ample). A small refractor also lacks the aperture re- mount with a massive German
pensates for the curvature of field that is inherent in quired for good planet shots. Guiding a refractor for equatorial. Manufacturers of
all Schmidt-Cassegrains. This essential accessory deep-sky shots is best done with a separate guide- specialty mounts for photo-
yields sharp star images across a 35mm frame, al- scope, but not all models will accommodate a graphic applications are listed
though with some vignetting at the corners. guidescope. in the Appendix.
As an alternative, Meade offers Schmidt-Casse- A solid performer in the small apochromatic class Above: For less ambitious
grains thatproduce an f/6.3 speed without accessory is the Tele Vue Genesis SDF, either on the Tele Vue astrophotographers, mounts
lenses.These fast Schmidt-Cassegrains are a suitable Systems mount or adapted to a Super Polaris mount. such as Vixen's Super Polaris
choice for someone looking specifically for a deep- The wide, flat field and the fast f/5. 4
speed of the DX (shown here) or Tele Vue's
sky instrument. Genesis make it an excellent astrophotography in- Systems mount are good
With either speed, our main advice is to stick with strument. Equally superb are the Astro-Physics choices. If carefully polar-
the 8-inch models. Many prospective buyers find 105 Traveler EDT (a 4.1 -inch f/5. 8 triplet ED tele- aligned using the built-in
the 10-inch Schmidt-Cassegrains tempting but don't scope), the 3- and 4-inch fluorites from Takahashi polar-axis finderscope, these
realize how much bulkier the big units are com- and, at the top of the price ladder, the 3-to-4-inch mounts track very accurately
pared with the 8-inch instruments. They are also not APQ triplet fluorite from Zeiss jena. The
refractors for photography using focal
as steady. Remember, bigger telescopes do not nec- Astro-Physics and Takahashi mountings are among lengths up to 600mm, and
essarilyproduce better photographs -shorter ex- the finest equatorial mounts on the market. For a virtually no guiding correc-
posures come from faster focal ratios, not increased complete package builtaround a small, portable tions are required.

211
 apochromatic, expect to spend $2,500 to $4,500. guidescope and accessories), and Takahashi's series
There are other options. A 5- or 6-inch apochro- of Newtonian-like instruments called Hyperbolic
matic refractor can provide a longer focal length for Astrographs (starting at $6,000).
recording smaller objects in greater detail but de- Although many avid astrophotographers choose
mands a larger, heavier mount and a greater cash Newtonians, most replace the standard drives with
outlay. A serious astrophoto system built around a highly accurate custom gears from companies such
5- or 6-inch apochromatic starts at $5,000. as Edward E. Byers or Thomas Mathis or adapt the
For far less money, a 6- or 8-inch f/4 to f/6 New- tubes to premium mounts. In other words, they as-
tonian can provide superb speed, portability and semble a custom system.
good focal length. But the mounts of most commer- Another drawback with some commercial New-
cially made Newtonians are not designed for the de- tonians is that the focuser will not rack in far enough

mands of astrophotography. Two exceptions are the to low a camera to reach focus. There are two so-
al

Celestron SP-C6, a 6-inch f/5 Newtonian on a Su- lutions: move the main mirror up one or two inches,
per Polaris mount (for about $1,500, with drives, or switch to a low-profile focuser.

SELECTING THE RIGHT ACCESSORIES

There are many kinds of earthbound photography
— portrait work, landscapes, still lifes, photojournal-
ism—and each requires a special set of photo-
graphic equipment and accessories. The same is
The moon calls for differ-
true of astrophotography.
ent techniques and equipment than the planets. A
faint galaxy requires another set of accessories.
However, to attach the camera to the telescope, you
need one essential accessory: a camera adapter.
There are two types of basic camera adapters.
One si ides i nto the focuser just as an eyepiece does.
These are available for 2-inch, 1 T4-inch and 0.965-
inch focusers and should be used on Newtonian
reflectors and refractors. The other type is for The first prerequisite is an equatorial mount
Schmidt-Cassegrains. They screw onto the back of with a clock drive. Another necessity is an eye-
the instrument in place of the usual eyepiece holder, piece-projection adapter— an eyepiece inserted
or visual back. At the camera end of both of these into the light path acts as a projector lens, throwing
kinds of adapters are so-called T-mount threads, a magnified image directly onto the film. As with
which were once used by camera manufacturers prime-focus photography, there is no lens on the
when screw-in lenses were common. To attach a camera. On a Schmidt-Cassegrain, eyepiece projec-
camera body to the threads, a T-ring is needed to tion accomplished with a tube that screws onto
is

fit the brand of camera. T-rings are sold in most cam- threads on the normal visual back. This accessory,
era stores and by many telescope dealers. called a tele-extender by both Meade and Celestron,
With a basic camera adapter and a T-ring, a cam- also has standard T-threads on the camera end.
era body can be attached so that it looks through the The other kind of camera adapter, the type that
telescope. This is called prime-focus photography. slides into the focuser, comes with extension tubes
There is no eyepiece on the telescope and no lens which allow the insertion of an eyepiece. But be
Any single lens reflex (SLR) on the camera. The telescope becomes the lens, a sure that the eyepieces will fit into the projec-
camera can be attached to a setup useful for photographs of the whole disc of the tion adapter. Some eyepieces are too big.
telescope with a T-ring and a moon or the sun.
VA-inch or 2-inch camera PIGGYBACK PHOTOGRAPHY:
adapter. T-rings for SLR cam- EYEPIECE PROJECTION: LUNAR THE STARS AND THE MILKY WAY
eras are available from any CLOSE-UPS AND THE PLANETS
A normal camera lens can capture spectacular pic-
photography store. All tele- With prime-focus photography, a 2,000mm-focal- and nebulous regions of the sky,
tures of star fields
scope dealers carry telescope length telescope becomes a 2,000mm telephoto provided that the camera tracks the stars. An equa-
adapters. Then comes the hard lens. By normal standards, this is an enormous fo- torial ly mounted telescope makes an ideal camera
part: taking a celestial photo- cal length. But in astronomy, it is only the beginning. platform. To attach a camera so that it rides along
graph through the telescope. moon and detailed
Close-ups of small regions ofthe with the telescope requires a piggyback bracket af-
Start with the moon. exposures ofthe planets require more power. fixed to the tube or mount of the telescope.

212
 FIXED-CAMERA EQUIPMENT

Astrophoto Telescope Camera

Accessories Requirements Requirements

n solid tripod n no telescope needed n B shutter setting (nonbattery

D locking cable release B setting preferred)

n 50mm ill or faster lens

(wide-angle or telephoto
lenses optional)

PRIME-FOCUS EQUIPMENT

Astrophoto Telescope Camera

Accessories Requirements Requirements

D basic camera adapter n equatorial mount with clock n right-angle magnifier viewer
n T-ring drive preferred (for S-C and refractors)
D extra counterweights n any focal ratio okay for the D fine-matte ground-glass
(optional) moon screen (i.e., no microprism
D 2,000mm focal length best spot)
n mirror lockup
n self-timer on camera (use
instead of cable release)

I EYEPIECE-PROJECTION EQUIPMENT

Astrophoto Telescope Camera

Accessories Requirements Requirements

n tele-extender or eyepiece- n equatorial mount with D right-angle magnifier viewer

projection extension tube clock drive (for S-C or refractors)
n T-ring D 5-inch telescope minimum D OR straight magnifier viewer
n extra counterweights nf/10tof/15best n clear centre spot focusing
(optional) screen (very important)
D eyepieces (25mm to 6mm) n cable release

Another piggyback accessory is an illuminated- During the 1 0-to-60-minute exposures needed for
reticle eyepiece. It allows the observer to position prime-focus deep-sky pictures, the telescope can-
a set of lit cross hairs on a star. Ideally, the telescope's not be left on its own. Minor speed varia-
to track Top: The heart of an off-axis
drive should automatically keep the star centred would produce trai led stars, an aes-
tions in the drive guider is the pick-off mirror
on the cross hairs, ensuring pinpoint images on thetic and technical flaw that is the bane of deep-sky that deflects a small portion of
the film. However, because of drive errors and photographers. To avoid this problem, manual the telescope's field to a guid-
misaligned mounts, the star may appear to wan- guiding is required during the exposure. To do this, ing eyepiece. The assembly
der off. Using the right-ascension or declination it is necessary to monitor the movements of a star can be rotated around the field
slow-motion controls, the trick is to centre the near the object being photographed. to access the brightest star
star again carefully to avoid trailed images. The off-Axis Guiders on which to guide.
illuminated cross hairs make it where
easier to see How do you look through a telescope when a cam- Above: When used with a
the centre is. When photographing with 28mm-to- era is attached to the telescope's focus? The usual Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope,
1 35mm lenses, such guiding is not essential. solution is an which contains a small
off-axis guider, the most common arrangement
prism that deflects a image from the edge of the
star for an guider is (from
off-axis
GUIDED PRIME FOCUS: field and sends it to an eyepiece. Celestron and the telescope outward) the
DEEP-SKY OBJECTS
Meade have oft-axis guiders; Lumicon, Spectra Celestron f/6.3 reducer/cor-
This is the most demanding area of astrophotogra- Astro Systems and Versacorp make off-axis guiders rector, the off-axis assembly
phy and therefore requires the most elaborate setup. for all brands of telescopes. and a camera T-adapter.

213
 eyepiece. Cordless types are less prone to tangled
cables, but the-batteries can die in the cold, and
replacements can be difficult to find. The best de-
signemploys a cable that plugs into a designated
low-voltage jack on the telescope's control panel or
drive corrector. Celestron has an interesting unit that
projects an illuminated reticle into the field of any
eyepiece and allows movement of the cross hairs
to help select a guide star. It is heavier and bulkier
than normal guiding eyepieces, but it works well.
Reticle patterns also vary. The best type defines
the centre with dual cross hairs or a small circle so
that when the star is accurately centred, it is not
An alternative is a second, smaller telescope, a hidden behind the intersection of the cross hairs.
guidescope, piggybacked to the main unit with an A 12mm or 9mm focal length is adequate. For
adjustable bracket that allows it to be positioned in- higher guiding power, a Barlow lens can be added.
dependently. It is easier to find a bright guide star DTelecompressors
with this method than with the off-axis guider. The An optional deep-sky photography accessory is the
disadvantage is possible flexure between the guide- telecompressor, commonly used with Schmidt-
scope and the main optics, producing false guide- Cassegrains, although companies such as Astro-
star motions. When the guidescope moves in its Physics have models for their refractors as well. A
housing, the astrophotographer mistakenly cor- telecompressor an achromatic lens that functions
is

rects the position of the main telescope, and trailed in a manner opposite that of a Barlow. It reduces the
stars result. telescope's effective focal length, usually by a fac-
Compared with a guidescope, an off-axis guider tor of 0.7 to 0.6, turning a standard f/10 Schmidt-
is much more convenient to set up and is more ac- Cassegrain into a fast f/7 to f/6 telescope. The result
curate. It is usually less expensive as well. For is smaller but brighter images and much shorter ex-
Schmidt-Cassegrains, off-axis is preferred. Refractors posures. Meade, Celestron and Lumicon all market
should be used with separate guidescopes, while telecompressors.
Newtonians work well with either. DComa Correctors and Field Flatteners
D Drive Correctors/Speed Controls Astrophotographers who use fast Newtonians for
The actual guiding can be done with a manual deep-sky pictures must contend with coma at the
slow-motion control in declination, although an edgeof the field— with an f/4 system, stars beyond
electronic slow-motion control is usually smoother. the central 12 millimetres of the frame elongate into
But in right where most of the correc-
ascension, comet-shaped blobs. At f/5, the coma-free zone is
tions are needed, manual slow-motion controls a circle about 20 millimetres across. At f/6, only stars
are too crude. The tiny corrections must be done at the Coma-
very corners of the frame are distorted.
electronically. With AC synchronous motors, a corrector lenses marketed by Celestron, Tele Vue
drive corrector is required. This black box puts and Lumicon greatly reduce coma in f/4 to f/6 New-
out 1 1 volts at 60 cycles AC for its normal speed. tonians; they are expensive, but they work.
The fast button increases the output to 1 10 volts Schmidt-Cassegrains also have an off-axis aberra-
at 70 cycles, speeding up the motor, while the tion—a curvature of field that throws stars at the
slow button produces a 50-cycle output and slows corners slightly out of focus. This problem is not as
down the motor. intrusive as the Newtonians' coma, but with f/6.

DC pulse motors do not require separate drive Schmidt-Cassegrains, the field curvature is more
correctors. Most include a control paddle and the noticeable. Celestron's f/6. 3 reducer/corrector, which
necessary electronics to vary the stepping pulse rate. we highly recommend, works with either brand.
Two to eight times the normal speed range is com- A similar field flattener is sold by Astro-Physics for
mon. Two times the normal speed rate is best for use with the Starfire line of apochromatic refractors.

performing the slight corrections needed during The lens corrects for field curvature beyond the
A portrait like this, showing deep-sky photography; the high-speed rates are for normal 35mm frame, which allows the use of
a galaxy in far more detail fast slewing of the telescope around areas of the sky. medium-format 1 20-film cameras such as a Pentax
than can be discerned visually, D Guiding Eyepieces 6x7. This combination provides a sharp field three
is a significant achievement- Alltheguidingeyepieces have illuminated reticles. to four degrees wide while retaining the focal length
especially you took the
if There are several options. Some are powered by necessary to resolve smaller deep-sky targets. Some
picture. Photograph by separate battery packs. Others use small batteries of the most impressive photographs in this book
Rajiv Gupta. placed in a compartment attached to the side of the were taken using such a setup.

214
 PIGGYBACK EQUIPMENT I

Astrophoto Telescope Camera

Accessories Requirements Requirements

n piggyback mount/bracket n solid equatorial mount with D nonbattery B setting

n illuminated reticle clock drive n high-quality fast lenses
eyepiece (optional) n slow motions (manual okay) D locking cable release
n drive corrector (for AC Dany optics will do
motors only)

I GUIDED PRIME-FOCUS EQUIPMENT

Astrophoto Telescope Camera
Accessories Requirements Requirements

D illuminated reticle D equatorial mount with n nonbattery B setting

eyepiece (essential here) worm-and-wheel clock drive D right-angle viewer Left: A powerful, portable
D drive corrector (AC motors) n slow motions (fine manual (for S-C and refractors) piggyback setup— a camera
D off-axis guider or okay on Dec; electric better) D fine matte or clear centre with a 180mm f/2.8 telephoto
separate guidescope n fast to telescope best
f/4 f/6 spot focusing screen atop an 8-inch Schmidt-
n T-ring for off-axis guider n any aperture okay (larger D locking cable release Cassegrain. Note the wire
n extra counterweights (optional) telescopes give bigger images) that provides current for the
D telecom pressor (optional) illuminated-reticle eyepiece. If
n coma corrector (optional); the selected guide star stays in
for Newtonians only the telescope's cross hairs
(reticle), the exposure will have
PHOTOGRAPHIC LIMITING MAGNITUDE! nice round stars. Before trying
through-the-telescope shoot-
Faintest Stars Possible Unlike visual limiting magnitude, which is aperture- ing, we recommend piggyback
Focal Length (magnitude) dependent, the limiting magnitude of a photographic astrophotography. Most of the
system is dependent on focal length, not aperture or wide-field photographs in this
( 24mm
28mm
^^^^H focal ratio. For a given focal length, once the exposure book were taken using this
10 is sufficient to reach the limiting magnitude, surprisingly effective tech-
f 35mm j^KK^^M lengthening the exposure just increases the nique. Many manufacturers
50mm 11.5 background sky glow. Focal ratio is a factor in offer piggyback adapters for
fc 85mm ^^B^m 12.5 ^^^^^^m determining the length of the exposure. Faster focal their telescopes.
135mm 13.5 ratio means shorter exposures to reach limiting M Right: One option for
1 180mm
300mm
^^Hito 14
15
^g^^^m magnitude. Sky conditions, film resolution and optical
quality are important too. Limiting magnitudes given
guiding when shooting
through the main telescope is
500mm "^^ 16 jg^^^^^B in the table are for ideal conditions, good optics and to use a separate guidescope,
1,000mm 17 optimum exposure. as shown here, firmly mounted
on the main telescope. Cour-
tesy Meade Instruments.

215
 CHAPTER FOURTEEN

The Essential
Techniques

Astrophotography can be simple or complex. You this aspect of backyard astronomy. For beginners,
are the arbiter. For some enthusiasts, celestial though, taking things step-by-step is crucial. Start
photography is a consuming passion, a hobby simple. Basic tripod-and-camera techniques can
within a hobby. There is no limit to the depth of produce startlingly beautiful results.

TRIPOD AND CAMERA

Anything visible with the unaided eye can be cap- move enough to become trails, rather than pin-
tured on fi Im with no telescope at all, just a camera points. Shorter exposures may not show them at all.
on a tripod. Photographs that depict the sky virtu- With today's superfast films, it is amazing what
ally as the eye sees it can be taken with exposures can be recorded using this simple technique,
of less than 60 seconds. Longer exposures pro- provided that you shoot from a dark-sky location.
duce results that border on the abstract. An f/2 lens will reveal stars of at least eighth magni-
tude, much fainter than the naked-eye limit. The
SHORT EXPOSURES: brightest sections of the Mi Iky Way are within easy
CONSTELLATIONS few years
reach, yet with the slower fi Ims aval lable a
Pictures of the major constellations are a good start- ago, they required lengthy guided exposures. Many
ing point in astrophotography. The technique is sim- deep-sky objects can be picked up in wonderful
ple, making it ideal for a first attempt at celestial por- colours. Where your eye sees only white stars,
traiture. First, load a camera with Konica SR-G 3200, the film will record the reds, yellows and blues
Kodak Ektar 1000, Fujichrome 1600D or some that are hovering below the colour-perception
other ISO 1 000 to 3200 colour film. Use a 50mm threshold of human vision.
normal lens. Attach the camera to a tripod, and set As the accompanying photographs show, the
the lens to f/2 and the shutter to B. Frame the con- same technique can also be used to capture bright
stellation, and open the shutter for ... ? comets, planetary configurations and auroras.
After"Whatfilmdol use?" the second most com-
mon astrophotography question is"How long should
LONG EXPOSURES: STAR TRAILS
the exposure be?" For constellations, about 15 Despite the chart showing maximum exposure
seconds. In exposures longer than that, the stars times for photographs of the constellations, some

216
 The vast majority of
astrophotographers take
celestial portraits because their
pictures reveal another uni-
one of beauty and
verse,
wonderment that is largely
invisible to the human eye.
This shot by jim Riffle of the
Rosette Nebula, in the constel-
lation Monoceros, is a perfect
example. In binoculars, the
Rosette is a pale, ghostly haze
around a small star cluster. Yet
here, it is a magnificent, star-

studded gaseous wreath; 90-

minute exposure on Tech
Pan 2415 with a 12-inch f/5
Astromak Maksutov-Cassegrain.

217
 FIXED CAMERA: Maximum Exposure Times to Avoid Star Trails

The maximum exposure that can be used before the celestial equator (Dec. 0°) move over a larger arc
trailingbecomes noticeable depends on the focal than do stars near the pole (Dec. 90°). Exposures for
length of the lens and on where in the sky the camera the Big Dipper can be longer than exposures for Orion
is pointed. During a given amount of time, stars near before trailing begins.

Near Celestial Dec. of Near Celestial

Lens Equator 45°NorS Poles

||28mm sec^^^H^Hj^B .40sec.M

50mm 1 2 sec. 20 sec.

BlOSmm sec. ^^tK^^^M 10 sec.

200mm 3 sec. 5 sec.

FIXED CAMERA: Exposure Summary ^^H

Subject Lens Film Focal Ratio Duration

^constellations ^i"^^ 50mm

'

'^^» ISO 400 3200

to f/1.4tof/2 10 to 20 sec.
planets in dark sky 50mm to 135mm ISO 400 3200
to f/2 to f/2.8 4 to 20 sec.
planets in twilight ^|^^ 50mm to 135mm ISO 64 to 200 f/2 to f/4 2 to 6 secfl
lunar haloes 35mm ISO 100 to 400 f/2.8 to f/4 2 to 1 sec.
^auroras ___ 8mm to 50mm ISO 400 to 3200 f/1.4tof/2.8 4 to 20 sec._
zodiacal light 8mm to 28mm ISO 400 to 3200 f/2 to f/2.8 1 min.+
star trails
^^^^1HU28mm to 50mm ISO 400 f/2.8 to f/4 5 to 60 minT
meteors 28mm to 50mm ISO 400 f/2 to f/2.8 5 to 20 min.

^^
of the most creative results arise from breaking will produce only washed-out skies. Instead, use
the exposure rules. If the shutter is left open for standard ISO 100 to 400 film with the lens set at
more than a minute during a star shot, the stars Anything from a 24mm to a 50mm lens
f/2.8 to f/4.
will trail noticeably due to the Earth's rotation. It can works aiming at the celestial pole (north
well. Try
produce a dramatic photograph. At a dark site, try or south, depending on your hemisphere). The
exposures of 10 to 60 minutes. In this case, avoid result: an amazing set of concentric star trails cir-

using superfast films and lens apertures, as they cling Polaris or Sigma Octantis.

SHOOTING THE MOON

While the moon is certainly bright enough to be blurs the image depends on the focal length of
photographed with a short exposure, it is smaller the lens. As with fixed-camera constellation shots,
than it looks— half a degree in diameter. Thus its im- the longer the lens, the shorter the exposure must
age will be very tiny on the frame with standard be to avoid blurring.
camera lenses. To capture an image of the moon Any specific lunar-exposure recommendations
large enough to show features such as craters and we offer are based on our experience, but they are
mountains, use a 500mm or longer telephoto lens easy to calculate yourself. The key is to realize that
or a telescope. To determine the lunar image size the moon is simplya sunlit grey rock. Ifyou are pho-
with a particular lens or telescope, divide the focal tographing a sunlit rock or scene on Earth, the rule
length (in millimetres) by 1 10 to arrive at the lunar of thumb is: at f/1 6, set the shutter speed at the
diameter (in millimetres) on the film. reciprocal of the ISO speed of the film. For exam-
What exposure should you use? Because of the ple, ISO 64 film at f/1 6 under full sun light would be
moon's brightness, it is possible, although not ideal, correctly exposed at 1/60 second. ISO 400 film
to photograph it with long focal lengths without a would require 1/500 second (the closest setting to
drive or an equatorial mount. How long an ex- 1/400). The same rule applies to the full moon, even
posure can be used before the motion of the sky though it is 380,000 kilometres away. In practice.

218
 LUNAR PHOTOGRAPHY I

Maximum Exposure to Avoid Trailing

Image Size Driven at
Lens on Film Undriven Sidereal Rate

i 50mm ^^^^H^^B ^^^^1^^B ^^H^^^^^^P4min. gH

100mm 0.9mm 6 sec. 2 min.
200mm ^^^H^^B ^^^^1^^^ sec. .^^^^^1^I^^^^l J
^
500mm
1,000mm
1,500mm
4.5mm
9mm
13.5mm
^^1 H
1

Vi

'/4
sec.

sec.
HIB 20

7 sec.
sec.

2,000mm _ 18mm Va sec. ^^^V 5 sec. ^_^H

2,500mm 23mm /i5 sec. 3 sec.

I EXPOSURE GUIDE FOR LUNAR PHOTOGRAPHY: Nominally f/1

6^

ISO
Film Full First Thick Thin
Speed Moon Gibbous Quarter Crescent Crescent Earthshine

r^oo
—""^looT^H
'
^B7i,ooo Ksoo 7250 '/125
'"2
to 5 sec. T
\
1600
800
'/l.OOO

Vsoo ^1^HH^IH
/500 '/250

/l25 ^1^HHHB
'/l25 'Ao

'/30 ^ 5 to 1

10to20sec.i
sec.

1^
400
200
'/250

/l25
/l25

'/60
'/60

/30 ^^
'/30 /,5

'/s ^^ 20 to 40
40 to 80
sec.

sec.
100

25
'/bO

'/30

'/l5
^MHHi
'/30

/e
'/,5

1/8

'/4
^ ^^^^^B
/8

V4
'/4

</2

1
H N/A
N/A
N/A

*Use one shutter speed faster around f/1 1 and two either side of values given to account for atmospheric
faster around f/8, and so on. As a general rule, though, absorption and other vagaries. Use a lunar-rate drive
always bracket exposures one or two shutter speeds for longer Earthshine photographs.

some light absorption by our atmosphere usually rocal. Decreasing the ISO speed by half (in this case,
means ncreasi ng the exposu re by about one f-stop
i going to ISO 200 film) requires twice the exposure;
or one shutter-speed increment. Therefore, the cor- doubling the speed requires half the exposure.
rect exposure for the full moon at f/1 6 with ISO 400
film 1/250 second, not 1/500.
WHAT ABOUT PHASES OTHER THAN
THE FULL MOON?
is

What happens if another focal ratio is used? Sup-

pose you have an f/1 telescope, which is one full The most interesting lunar features are revealed
f-stop faster than an f/1 6. (Recall that the photo- along the terminator, which is best seen near first

graphic f-stops run f/22, f/1 6, f/11, f/8, f/5.6, et quarter and last quarter phases. A general rule is

cetera.) A gain of one f-stop means the shutter speed that a decrease of one lunar phase requires a dou-
will be twice as fast. For the full moon, the exposure bling of exposure. However, no astrophotography-
becomes 1/500 second instead of 1/250. With an exposure calculation is guaranteed. Variations in
f/8 instrument (two f-stops faster than an f/1 6), the film sensitivity and atmospheric absorption are only
exposure would be 1/1 ,000 second. The relation- two of the unpredictable factors. It is always a good
ship between and shutter speed is reciprocal:
f-stop practice to take shots one to two shutter-speed incre-
as the aperture is increased, the exposure is de- ments either side of the recommended exposure.
creased, and vice versa. In short, a change of one (Taking extra shots to ensure that at least one is
f-stop requires a change of one shutter-speed in- properly exposed is a technique applicable to all
crement to give the same exposure. aspects of astrophotography. Even veteran astro-
What happens when using a film with a speed photographers do it.)

other than ISO 400? The relationship is again recip- Because the moon is so bright and offers so much

219
 fine detail to record, the best images are captured colour-slide films. Kodak Ektar 125 is regarded as
on fine-grained film. This applies to those taken at one of the best print films for the moon. For black-
prime focus through a telescope or through a long and-white work, Panatomic-X and ilford Pan-F (both
telephoto lens. Faster films are needed only for high- about ISO 32)areexcellent, asisKodakT-Max 100.
magnification close-up photographs using eyepiece Tech Pan 2415 (developed for low contrast) is
projection. Kodachrome 25 and 64 are preferred another ultra-fine-grained black-and-white film.

THE SUN AT PRIME FOCUS

Nearly everything we have said about photograph- chroprie Velvia are excellent colour-slide films.
ing the moon applies to the sun at prime focus or Among black-and-white films, Tech Pan 2415,
with a long telephoto lens. The sun has the same developed for medium to high contrast (in either
apparent size as the moon, making its image on Im fi D-19 or HC-1 10 Dilution D), is the best choice,
as small as the moon's. To pick out sunspots requires giving an effective ISO speed of 100.
a focal length of at least 750mm. Exposure depends on the density of the fi Iter used.
What about the fi Iter? The information about safe Both Mylar and metal-on-glass filters vary several
filters and solar-observing techniques in Chapter 9 f-stops in density from filter to filter, even while stay-
applies to photography. Never attempt solar pho- ing within the range of safety. In general, a good
tography without a fi Iter. You could easi ly damage starting assumption is that the filtered sun is the same
your eyes and melt the inside of the camera. brightness as the full moon. One or two test rolls
A slow, fine-grained film is optimal for pho- should narrow down the correct exposure for
tographing the sun — Kodachrome 25 and Fuji- your own telescope, filter and film.

LUNAR AND SOLAR CLOSE-UPS

The disc of the moon or the sun will fill the frame cave, or negative, lenses.They project an enlarged
at a focal length of 2,000mm, but for close-ups of image onto the film. Placing a 2x Badow in the light
selected areas, at least 4,000mm — sometimes more path doubles the effective focal length of a tele-
than 10,000mm — is needed. Few amateur tele- scope, but at a loss of two f-stops. This is probably
scopes have focal lengths thatlarge, so how are they the best application for 2-inch Barlows, which
achieved? There are two techniques: negative pro- have limited use astronomy.
in visual

jection and positive projection. The former uses a An alternative to a Barlow is a 2x photographic
Barlow lens or camera teleconverter, whi le the lat- teleconverter. Click the teleconverter onto the
ter uses a regular eyepiece. With both techniques, camera adapter, then attach the cam-
T-ring of the
there is no lens on the camera itself. erabody to the teleconverter. The result is a sturdier
Barlow lenses and teleconverters consist of con- hookup than can be achieved with most Barlows.
Negative projection is fine for a small increasein
focal length, but for more power, switch to positive,
or eyepiece, projection. Using an eyepiece inside
a suitable extension tube on the camera adapter will
yield focal lengths of up to 40,000mm and focal
ratios of f/45 to f/200 or more.

EXPOSURES AND FILMS

The Earth's turbulent atmo-
FOR CLOSE-UPS
sphere is the main barrier to To close in on a small sector of the moon or sun, you
capturing fine detail on the will need a focal length of about 10,000mm. Posi-
sun's surface. For this sunspot- tive projection with an eyepiece of 25mm to 12mm
group photograph on Tech Pan is usually required. To calculate the approximate
2415 at 1/500 second, Brian increase in focal length created by an eyepiece-
Tkachyk used a Celestron C8 projection setup, measure the distance in milli-
with f/50 eyepiece projection metres from the eyepiece's eye lens to the camera's
and a photographic solar filter, film plane. Divide this figure by the eyepiece focal
which is several f-stops faster length. This amplification factor (usually between
than a visual filter. 4x and 1 Ox) is how many times your telescope's fo-

220
 Lunar close-up using eye-
piece projection shows the
region around the three giant
craters Theophilus, Cyrillus
and Catharina. Photograph by
lames Rouse, using a 4-inch
Celestron fluorite refractor and
Tech Pan 2415.

221
cal length and focal ratio are increased. For exam- Around f/50, exposure times for sunspots will be
ple, 5x amplification on an 8-inch f/10 Schmidt- about 14 second-with ISO 200 film. The lunar ter-

Cassegrain (2,000mm focal length) yields 10,000mm minator, regard less of the moon's phase, will require
focal length and an effective focal ratio of 50. about 1 second with ISO 200 film.

PLANETARY PORTRAITS
Eyepiece projection is the only good technique for raphy, planetary work is a compromise between
photographing the planets. There is no other way two conflicting requirements: the need for a large
to make the planets appear large enough on film, image to combat fi Im grain and the need for a short
since they are so small that with any focal length exposure to compensate for seeing and drive errors.
shorter than 10,000mm, they are submillimetre Even large telescopes at professional observatories
dots composed of a few lumps of film grain. have never overcome these problems. Planetary
Check the "Image Sizes on Film" table for a break- photography is tough. We recommend it as one of
down of how big an image can be expected from the last types of astrophotography to be attempted.
each planet, although "big" perhaps the wrong
EXPOSURES AND FILMS FOR
is

word. While focal lengths longer than the

30,000mm upper limitofthe table would produce
THE PLANETS
larger images, too high a power spreads the image To capture detail on the planets, there would
into a faint, fuzzy disc. It is better to keep it sharper seem to be a choice: slow film and a short focal
and brighter, between 2mm and 4mm across. length, giving a small, bright image on a fine-grained
More than any other type of celestial photog- emulsion; or fast film and a long focal length, yield-

THE PLANETS: image Sizes on Film

Actual Apparent Size With Various Focal Lengths

Planet Size 5,000mm 10,000mm 20,000mm 25,000mm 30,000mm

Mercury
Venus
^ ^ 0.2mm 0.45mm 0.9mm 1.1mm 1.3mm

full phase 10" 0.25mm 0.5mm 1.0mm 1.2mm 1.5mm

quarter phase 35" 0.85mm 1.7mm 3.4mm 4.2mm 5.1mm
crescent phase 60" 1.5mm 2.9mm 5.8mm 7.3mm 8.7mm
Mars
smalles size
smallest 4"
imHH BmiV
0.1mm 0.2mm 0.4mm
"^m^i
0.5mm
IPW^^I
0.6mm
average
average size 12" 0.3mm 0.6mm 1.2mm 1.5mm 1.7mm
largest size 24" 0.6mm 1.2mm 2.4mm 3.0mm 3.6mm
Jupiter
smallest size 30" 0.7mm 1.5mm 2.9mm 3.6mm 4.4mm
near opposition 45" 1.1mm 2.2mm 4.4mm 5.5mm 6.5mm
Saturn
planet diameter 16" 0.4mm 0.8mm 1.6mm 1.9mm 2.3mm
across rings 45" 1.1mm 2.2mm 4.4mm 5.5mm 6.5mm
Uranus 4" 0.1mm 0.2mm 0.4mm 0.5mm 0.6mm
I
Neptune 2" 0.05mm 0.1mm 0.2mm 0.25mm 0.3mm

Notes:
The "actual" size of a planet is its angular diameter measured in arc seconds. This size will vary depending
on the distance of the planet from Earth. The apparent size on the film is measured in millimetres. Any
image less than 2mm across is too small to be of much value. These sizes were calculated using the
formula:

SIZE ON FILM = Angular Size x Focal Length

206,265

222
 image on a coarse emulsion.
ing a larger, fainter
Exposure times could be the same in both cases.
However, experienced astrophotographers have
found that combining a medium-speed film with
a focal ratio of about 1 00 produces the best com-
promise of a reasonably short exposure (to avoid
the effects of poor seeing) and an image large
enough to overcome the limitations of the film's
resolving power and grain. With an 8-inch f/10
Schmidt-Cassegrain, the standard Meade or Celes-
tron tele-extender adapter plus a 1 6mm eyepiece
will yield an effective focal length of 18,000mm
at f/96, which is close enough.
The best choice in colour film at this focal ratio
Is medium speed, such as Kodachrome 200, Ek-
tachrome 200, Fujichrome 400, Kodak Gold 400
or Fujicolor Super HG 400. Higher-speed films are mended colour films are: less than 1 second for
too grainy. In black-and-white films, we recom- Venus, 1 4 seconds for Jupiter and Mars and 2 to
to
mend the remarkable Tech Pan 241 5, which when 10 seconds for Saturn. To minimize atmospheric
developed for high contrast produces a speed of blurring, exposures should be less than 5 seconds.
about ISO 125. Ashorterfocal length and faster fo- Planetary photography is not easy— especially
cal ratio (f/64 or so) are acceptable with this high- with small telescopes. For example, a 3-inch tele-
resolution film. All the black-and-white photo- scope at the suggested focal ratio of f/100 yields
graphs in this chapter were taken with Tech Pan a focal length of only 8,000mm. Even with a super-
2415 (unhypered). fine-grained film such as Tech Pan 2415 (at
Venus is the brightest planet; Jupiter, with its ISO 125), the images are too small and the ex-
lower surface brightness, is three to four f-stops posures are too long. Venus's brightness and size
fainter; and Saturn is one to two f-stops fainter still. make it the only planet accessible to a 3-inch tele-
Mars at opposition is usually the brightness of Jupi- scope. For the other planets, a 4-inch is minimum
ter. Ballpark exposures at f/100 with the recom- and a 6- or 8-inch aperture is far better.

DEEP-SKY PIGGYBACK PHOTOGRAPHY

Lunar and planetary astrophotographers strive to With a 200mm lens, a well-aligned telescope re-
record all the detail visible through the eyepiece. In quires only occasional adjustments. However,
deep-sky astrophotography, the camera's long ex- when shooting through a 2,000mm-focal-length
posures capture detai Is and objects the eyes cannot telescope, guiding is a physical and mental strain.
see, revealing an otherwise invisible universe. Why is guiding necessary? After all, telescopes
All aspiring deep-sky astrophotographers should have clock drives to take care of that, don't they?
firstgo through the school of piggyback astro- They do, up to a point. But to expect a mount and
photography. Only when you have mastered sharp, drive to keep stars centred to an accuracy of a few
nontrailed piggyback exposures should you venture arc seconds for more than half an hour is expecting
into the arduous world of prime-focus deep-sky too much even of modern machining and electron-
work — the through-the-telescope shots. But piggy- ics. Besides, there are other factors such as atmo- This is the setup James
back astrophotography is not just a stepping-stone spheric refraction thatwill also slightly shift the im- Rouse used to take the photo-
to higher accomplishments. Far from it. It is a power- age during a long exposure. However, the major graph on page 221 and several
ful technique that can produce stunning results, in source of image drift with portable setups is that the other shots in this book. With
fact, piggyback work may give you all the photo- telescope is not precisely polar-aligned. The real so- a motorized focuser and a bulb
graphs you need to satisfy the urge to capture glow- lution is more accurate alignment, but exact polar shutter release, he avoids
ing deep-sky objects in star-filled frames. alignment can be time<onsuming and difficult with jiggling the telescope. The
The big task is guiding, which becomes more portable equipment. The only method to compen- extension tubes house an
demanding in proportion to the focal length of sate for all of these factors is manual guiding. eyepiece used for image
the lens being used. With wide-angle and normal projection to the camera. This
lenses (20mm to 50mm), guiding is easy, and if the
GUIDING TOLERANCES effectively increases the 4-inch
telescope is aligned within half a degree of the To determine how far the guide star can drift before fluorite refractor's f/9 focal ratio
celestial pole, no guiding should be necessary. the photograph becomes spoiled by trailed stars, put to anywhere from f/30 to f/90.

223
 the reticle eyepiece in the guidescope and locate a FIELD OF VIEW!
star fairly close to the celestial equator. Now, turn
off the drive for the following interval, depending (measurements are for 35mm-format cameras)
on the focal length of your telescope or telephoto
lens: 50mm, 12 seconds; 100mm, 6 seconds; Focal Length Field of View
200mm, 3 seconds; 400mm, 1 Vi seconds; 800 mm,
Va second. The star might move only the width of |[|l8mm ^^1 ^B 67° x 90°H H^B
a cross hair. That distance is the allowable guiding 24mm 53°x74°
tolerance.
moves any farther than
If, during the exposure, the guide
that in any direction, the stars
star 28mm
35mm
m|| W^ 46°x65«^B
38°x54°
HH
To track the sky without an
wi 1 1 be trai led. Clearly, for focal lengths longer than
800mm, the tolerances are tight. Some quick excur- 85mm
^H^l ^^ 27°x40°{|||
16° x24°
HB
equatorial mount, you can sions can be tolerated, especially at the
when much
end of an ^ 105mm
135mm
^H 1^,^13° x20°fl| HIH
build a "barn-door" platform
for a few dollars that will keep
your camera aimed at the stars
exposure,
tivity.

from
But
its
if
the film has lost
the guide star spends any time
"correcf position, start again.
of its sensi-
away 200mm
300mm
^P 10°x15°
7.0° X 10°
4.4° x6.5°
iHH

for up to 10 minutes. Coupled The advantage of photographing with shorter 400mm 3.3° X 4.9° ,^1
with today's ultrafast films, the focal lengths is can move around
clear: the star 500mm 2.6° X 3.9°
photographs obtained with
this simple setup will rival the
much more before the photograph is ruined. The
advantage of high power for the guiding eyepiece
"'
600mm
800mm
^H IB 2.2° X 3.3°
1.6° x2.5°
'^B
best piggyback shots. The
secret is to use a lens no
is also apparent. Small movements ofthe guide star

are easier to detect. However, at higher power, the

1 ,000mm
1,500mm
^^1 B 1.3° X 2.0°
0.9° X 1.3°
^BH
longer than about 135mm. The guide star is fainter and more difficult to see. In Q^2,000mm _^|||| |V 0.6° X 1.0^
actual tracker is made of two general, guiding requires a magnification of at least
hinged pieces of wood. One lOOx. For critical work at focal lengths of 1,500mm
piece is fixed to a camera or more, 200x to 400x is often used by veteran as-
tripod; the other has the trophotographers. Start with short-focal-length for their speeds, but they are still grainy. In piggy-
camera on it, mounted on a lenses, then work up. back astrophotography, we are usually dealing with
ball-and-socket tripod head As with lunar and planetary
of small-scale detail.
EXPOSURES AND FILMS FOR lots

that allows the camera to face work, the trick to use as slow a film as possible.
is
PIGGYBACK SHOTS
any region of the sky. The In general, the best piggyback results are pro-

platform itself is aimed so The immediate inclination with deep-sky work is to duced with a medium-speed film and longer guided
that the hinge points at the useasfastafilm as possible. Certainly, ISO 1000 to exposures (5 to 30 minutes at f/2 to f/2.8), rather than
celestial pole. A sighting tube 3200 film will record faint objects very quickly, the shoot-and-run technique involving superfast
or inexpensive finderscope often in less than 5 minutes, making guiding fre- film. A few years ago, Fujichrome 400 was the
attached to the top board near quently unnecessary with lenses shorter than choiceforpiggyback work. Then Fuji changed the
the hinge serves as a pole 1 35mm. The new films are remarkably fine-grained 400's emulsion formula, reducing the red sensitiv-
finder. As the top board turns ity important for picking up emission nebulas.

around this hinge, it and the Kodachrome 200 has outstanding fine grain and red
camera it carries are essentially sensitivity, but it tends to turn magenta during long
rotating around a polar exposures. Our favourite slide film is Scotch
axis. The two boards have a Chrome 400. It has nearly as fine a grain struc-
threaded rod running between ture as Fujichrome 400, has better overall sensi-
them that gradually separates tivity and retains its speed well throughout long

the two halves asit turns. The exposures. Unfortunately, Scotch Chrome 400 is
rotation canbe supplied by not as widely available as more familiar brands,
hand or with an electric motor. but it is worth tracking down, especially for piggy-
In manual models, as shown back work (for the Scotch Chrome 400 dealer near-
here, the distance from the est you, call 3M at 800-695-3456). On the other
hinge point to the 14-20 hand, the more readily available Kodak Ektachromes
threaded rod must be 11 ''/le produce greenish skies and lose speed rapidly dur-
inches. If the rod is turned Veo ing extended shots, although some astrophotog-
of a turn every second, then raphers have had success with them.
the camera will track the stars. In colour print films, the medium-speed Fujicolor

For more information, see the Super HG 400, Kodak Gold 400 and Konica 400 are
October and November 1985 ail highly rated because of their fine grain and

issues of Sky & Telescope. medium speed, but custom printing is usually re-

224
 Above: Of all types of
photography, star
celestial
trails are the simplest to take.
This is one of the few ways a
standard zoom lens can be
used in astronomy. Photo-
graph by Terence Dickinson;
90 minutes with 35mm lens at
f/3.5on Fujicolor200.
Left: Star parties where no
one dares brandish a white-
light flashlight are ideal
settings for star-trail photo-
graphs such as this one from
the Riverside Telescope
Makers Conference. Alan Dyer
used a 28mm f/2 lens and
Fujichrome 400 for the 20-
minute exposure.

225
 Almost all camera lenses
shorter than 90mm focal length
cannot be used "wide open"
for astrophotography. Even the
best lenses do not correct all
aberrations at very fast focal
These
ratios like f/2 or f/1.4.
two photographs by Alan Dyer
demonstrate the problem and
itssolution. Both are 30-second
exposures of Scorpius with the
same Nikon 50mm f/1.4 lens
on Konica SR-G 3200 print film.
The top photograph used the
lens wide open at f/1.4. At
right, the lens was stopped
down one full f-stop to f/2. Not
only are the stars much sharper
in the f/2 image, but there are
just as many if not more stars
shown. Lenses of lesser quality
may require a retreat ofiy2 0r2
f-stops to produce sharp star
images across most of the
field. Good-quality telephoto
lenses 90mm or longer can be
used wide open.

226
 Top:Two photographs taken
thesame night with the same
85mm ill lens show the effects
of Lumlcon's Deep-Sky filter.

Two-minute exposure at left

(nofilter) is overexposed and

washed out from light pol-

lution. At right, the filter

dramatically cuts light pol-

lution and sky glow but lets
the stars,and particularly the
Orion Nebula, shine through.
Exposure was increased to
5 minutes to account for the
filter. Fujichrome 400 was

used, which responds well to

this filter's characteristics.
Photographs by Terence
Dickinson.
Left: Even the best standard

camera lenses 50mm or shorter

produce vignetted fields (the
centre is brighter than the
edges). This is a property of
short-focal-length, fast-focal-
ratio optics, but it seldom
reveals itself in standard
photography. However, in
astrophotography, a smooth,
dark background is desired.
Stopping down (he lens helps,
but vignetting cannot be
eliminated entirely. Photo-
graph by Mark Kaye.

227
 Top: No colour films are
intended to be used for
exposures of more than a few
seconds' duration. When used
for 20-minute celestial por-
traits, as they were here, some

films exhibit gross colour shifts

due to differential reciprocity
failure. Fujichrome WO turns quired to realize their potential. Among black-and- a straightforward relationship: ifthe shutter is open
green, while Kodachrome 200 white films, T-Max 400 and T-Max P3200 have ex- twiceas long, the film records twice as much light.

goes magenta. Photographs by cellent grain for their speeds. Tech Pan 2415 is However, beyond a few seconds, the relationship
Terence Dickinson. better still, but only if it is hypersensitized. breaks down. A 60-minute exposure does not re-
Right: The remarkable cord twice as much light as a 30-minute one, and
RECIPROCITY FAILURE
Konica SR-C 3200 shows its a two-hour shot may not pick up any additional in-
stuff. No colour film can touch Most piggyback exposures are best if kept at less formation at all. The new incoming light simply
it for speed, making it ideal for than 30 minutes. Even if you could tolerate guiding does not trigger the film's atoms into doing anything,
camera-on-tripod shots that for longer than that, the result might not be any bet- meaning much more effort for much less output.
include loads of stars. For this ter than with a 30-minute shot. The reason is a film An ISO 400 film can drop to an effective speed
25-second exposure, Alan Dyer flaw called reciprocity failure. In standard photog- of ISO 25 after20 minutes. Reciprocity failure varies
used a Nikon 28mm f/2 lens. raphy, exposures shorter than a few seconds have from film to film. Two of the best are Konica SR-G

228
 5

Cuts Out These Increase Cost

Filter Film Wavelengths Exposure (approx.)

Colour or B&W
(Ncl A Skylight
Minus Violet
^ JUJcolour or
colour or
B&W
B&VV
shorter than
shorter than
480nm
440nm
Ox
l.lx
^BI ^^^
$50
Lumicon Deep-Sky

B&W
colour or

^""^
B&W shorter than 440nm &
from 540nm to 620nm
''
m
^^
1 $120 ^i
|No.25Red
No. 29 Red
fHH^B&W2415
B&W 241 5
shorter than
shorter than
580nm
600nm
1.5x
1.5x
$15
$15
^^
^No. 92 Red
H-Alpha Pass
f^||||.B&W2415
B&W
JH^ 241
shorter than
shorter than
620nm
630nm
2x
3x
J|[||1 $15
$50
J

The skylight and Minus Violet filters let through all green band but lets through blue, blue-green and deep
colours except ultraviolet and deep violet light. The red. The various red filters and the H-alpha filter block
Lumicon Deep-Sky filter also cuts out the yellow- all colours except varying amounts of red.

3200 and Scotch Chrome 400; both continue soak- exposure times must be tripled to accommodate it.
ing up light during extended exposures. In some In typical dark but not black skies, a 45-minute ex-

cases, slower Ims are as good as fast ones for deep-

fi posure at f/2. 8 on ISO 400 film would be hopelessly
sky work. As in the story of the tortoise and the hare, fogged without the Deep-Sky filter, but with it, the
the fast films leapahead initially but are eventually result is a dark sky with good red nebulosity. The
passed by the slower films that hold out over the filter impartsa pinkish cast to colourfilm,butsince
exposure. Because films are reformulated every few many films have a tendency toward greenish sky
years, and error is often the only guide.
trial backgrounds in long exposures, the Deep-Sky filter
Colour films have another problem— the reci- helps rebalance the colour. We have found this fil-
procity failure does not occur equally in each ter is especially effective with Fujichrome 400 film.

colour-sensitive emulsion layer. This creates a Most other light-pollution filters not specifically
colour shift during long exposures, often resulting intended for astrophotography cut out so much of
in magenta, green or brown background skies. Hy- the spectrum that photographs taken through them
persensitizing film, discussed in the next chapter, is have a very strong colour cast.
a technique that greatly reduces reciprocity failure. The best filter for black-and-white film is another
marvel from Lumicon, the H-alpha Not to be
FILTERS FOR PIGGYBACK WORK confused with the expensive H-alpha filters used for
filter.

For piggyback astrophotography in colour, there is solarobserving, the deep-sky H-alpha filters resem-
a limited selection of useful filters. A No.1 A skylight ble ordinarycamera fi Iters that screw onto the front
filter or an ultraviolet filter helps cut down sky fog of the lens.They cut out all colours except the
a modest amount, although both serve best as lens extreme red end of the spectrum that includes the
protectors.Lumicon markets an interesting variation H-alpha line (where many nebulas emit much of
called the Minus Violet filter. Like the ultraviolet their light). This filter must be used with hypered
and skylight filters, it also eliminates ultraviolet Tech Pan 241 5. No other readily available black-
and violet light but has a deeper cutoff point that and-white film has enough sensitivity in the red end
pushes slightly into the visible part of the spectrum. of the spectrum. With hypered Tech Pan 241 5 and
It fi Iters out the shorter wavelengths that contribute an H-alpha filter, a large amount of nebulosity can
most chromatic aberration. This yields sharper
to be photographed even from suburban locations.
star images, especially with telephoto lenses. However, the disadvantage of H-alpha filters is
Most nebula and light-pollution filters on the mar- theirextreme darkness, which makes it difficult to
ket are not suitable for colour photography. Lumi- see through them in order to focus and frame the
con's Deep-Sky filter is an exception, since its band- photograph. For piggyback astrophotography, the
pass broad enough to be effective with colour
is image can be framed with the filter off, but focus-
films. It dramatically cuts sky fog (sky background ing is still a problem. It may be necessary to move
illumination from natural and artificial sources), but the focus closer to the infrared mark on the lens

229
 barrel. The exact setting for any particular lens will red filter, stocked by any camera store. With a
require a series of test exposures. broader bandpass than an H-alpha, a No. 25 lets

Since H-alpha filters cut out so much light, ex- through more and has a less drastic effect on
light
posures through them on hypered Tech Pan 241 exposures. At f/2.8, try 30 minutes. (No. 29 or
may have to extend for 30 to 60 minutes even at No. 92 filters are a little deeper than a No. 25, but
f/2. H-alpha photography is effective only for emis- not as severe as an H-alpha.)
sion nebulas. Do not expect the filter to enhance While red-light photography is generally consid-
photographs of galaxies, blue-reflection nebulas or ered to be specific to black-and-white film, it can
bright comets. Most of the green<oded objects plot- also be applied to colour emulsions: place a No. 25
ted in the deluxe edition of the Sky Atlas 2000.0 over the lensfor half of the allotted time, and
filter

are emission nebulas. complete the exposure without a filter. Some as-
A less expensive but still effective method of trophotographers have found that this method
It is amazing what a standard cutting through sky glow is to use a plain No. 25 works well for enhancing red-emission nebulas.
lens can do. Here, Brian
Tkachyk stopped down a
55mm lens to f/2.8 to obtain PRIME-FOCUS DEEP-SKY PHOTOGRAPHY
pinpoint star images. He used
the finest-grained film, gas- Prime-focus deep-sky work is the point at which that beginners go slowly and first master the less de-
hypered Tech Pan 2415 and a many aspiring astrophotographers start their hobby; manding requirements of piggyback work.
deep red filter for the 45- unfortunately, all too often, it is where many find Many of the objects that show up well on piggy-
minute piggyback exposure. theirenthusiasm coming to an abrupt end. All they back exposures through lenses under 500mm focal
The result: a plethora of have to show for their efforts are some blurry pho- length are too large for prime-focus work, which
nebulas in the Orion region. tographs, a depleted bank account and an advertise- between 750mm
typically operates at focal lengths
The Rosette is at upper left; ment in the astronomy-magazine classifieds for a and 2,500mm and with fields of view of one degree
Barnard's Loop is the large arc "complete astrophotography outfit, seldom used, or less. The targets for prime-focus shooting are
on the left side of Orion. mint condition, best offer." We strongly recommend small and preferably bright deep-sky objects.

230
 The two best objects for cutting your teeth on guiding eyepiece is making it difficult
also filtered,
prime-focus work are the Ring Nebula, visible April to see the guide star. Lumicon guiders accept any
through November, and the Orion Nebula, visible 48mm-diameter filter in a position after the pick-off
October through April. Both are bright enough to prism, so light going to the guiding eyepiece is

show up well on a 5-to-10-minute exposure, even unfiltered — the preferred arrangement.

atf/10. Initial photographs ofthese objects may be Second, no matter where the filter is in the system,
trailed, underexposed or a little out of focus, but its use shifts the focus point considerably. You must
enough will show up so that you will know you are therefore refocus with the filter in place. When the
on the right track. Analyze your less-than-perfect fi Iter is as dark as an H-alpha, this can be a problem,
Ring Nebula or Orion Nebula pictures, figure out since it is difficult to see anything through it. One
what went wrong, then try again. Galaxies are too trick is dense filter, focus and frame
to insert a less
faintfor beginning targets. Also avoid open clusters theobject, then switch back to the H-alpha. Forthis
and globular clusters; they are bright, but a star-filled to work, the dummy filter must be the same thick-
field makes the slightest trailing stand out. ness as the H-alpha.

EXPOSURES AND FILMS FOR FINDING A GUIDE STAR

DEEP-SKY PHOTOGRAPHY The most important task in setting up an astrophoto
At telescopic apertures, it is easy to reach stars as is finding a bright guide star close to the target ob-
magnitude 1 5 or 1 6 photographically. How-
faint as ject. With a separate guidescope, it is not too diffi-

ever, extended objects fainter than eighth or ninth cult, although the pointing adjustments may need
magnitude require fast film and/or fast focal ratios. to be fiddled with to get everything lined up. To
For the brighter objects, a 400-speed film should avoid field rotation, always use a guide star within
work fine. Fujicolor Super HG 400 is a favourite. But three degrees of the subject.
most prime-focus subjects will benefit from the use Using an off-axis guider is more limiting because
of faster films. The standouts in this category are of the small field of view. Suppose, as frequently
Konica SR-G 3200 and Ektar 1000 (for prints) and happens, not a single guide star is available. To bring
Scotch Chrome 400 pushed to 1 600 (for slides). Ex- one to the centre of the cross hairs, you must move
posures with these superfast films can be as brief as the telescope in rightascension and declination. But
3 minutes for the brightest objects, but endurance doingthatwill move the target object, cutting itoff
sessions of 1 5 to 90 minutes are more common, es- at the edge of the frame. After 1 or 1 5 minutes of
pecially with systems slower than f/6. Again, for fussing, you settle for a fainter guide star, in order
black-and-white film, hypered Tech Pan 241 5 has to keep the target object well framed. To use this
vanquished all contenders. star, however, puts the guiding eyepiece at a neck-

straining angle. You tolerate the position; about 10

FILTERS AT PRIME FOCUS minutes into the exposure, the guide star begins to
The same array of filters useful in piggyback as- fade. Where Then you catch sight of it again,
is it? MThe late Alfred Lilge, top, an
trophotography can be employed in prime-focus far off centre, and hurriedly recentre it. And so it outstanding astrophotographer,
work. For colour pictures, many astrophotographers goes for perhaps another 30 minutes. used an off-axis guider, the
have found a Lumicon Deep-Sky filter worthwhile The longer you stare at a guide star, the fainter it most common method of
for less-than-perfect skies. The Minus Violet filter is gets. It is almost as if your eye and brain have a guiding long-exposure prime-
not needed with reflector telescopes, nee there is
si reciprocity failure of theirown; after several minutes focus photographs. An alter-
no chromatic aberration to worry about, and of constant staring into an eyepiece, it becomes native is the CCD auto-guider,
Schmidt-Cassegrains have their own Minus Violet more difficult to see faint stars and even the cross centre and above, from Santa
filter, the corrector plate. For hypered Tech Pan Gusts of wind blowing across your face that
hairs. Barbara Instrument Croup. The
241 5 film, a No. 25, No. 29 or No. 92 red or an H- make your eyes water or a careless breath on the heart of the guider is a tiny
alpha filter is generally preferred to a nebula filter eyepiece that causes it to fog up contributes to the CCD chip located at the centre
for reducing sky glow and enhancing emission neb- discomfort. Keep repeating to yourself, 'This will be of a short tube that fits in the
ulas. However, using any filter for prime-focus pho- a great shot, this will be a great shot . .
." standard 1 '4 -inch focuser of a
tography introduces additional complications. If the process sounds tedious (and it is), start sav- guide telescope. The control
First, the filter must be placed in the light path. ing for one of the new CCD auto-guiders. For $800, box senses the guide star's
Meade and Celestron Schmidt-Cassegrains accept these ingenious devices take all the work out of position and, by signalling the
special drop-in filters in their rear cells. The off-axis guiding. Once properly aligned, the light-sensitive telescope's right ascension
guider screws onto the cell and holds the filter in CCD chip senses any motion of the guide star away and declination drives to make
place. Meade and Celestron also offer nebula fil- from its original position and pulses the drive mo- appropriate corrections, keeps
ters that screw onto this cell; the guider/camera compensate, automatically ensuring a guid-
tors to it locked on a single pixel of
adapter then screws onto the filter. The disadvan- ing accuracy of one arc second. During the ex- the CCD chip. The result is
tage of both methods is that the light going to the posure, you can enjoy the stars. perfectly guided exposures.

231
 CHAPTER FIFTEEN

Gremlins and
Eclipses,
Advanced Techniques

Learning the basic techniques of astrophotography the things that can go wrong. First, though, the es-
is True mastery of the art comes
just the beginning. sentials of eclipse photography, the one category of
only after making lots of mistakes and learning from astrophotography that almost all backyard astron-
them. Later in this chapter, we will review some of omers attempt sooner or later.

LUNAR ECLIPSES
An eclipsed moon glowing deep red against a back- so (2 seconds for 300mm; 1 second for 500mm).
ground of faint stars is an irresistible target. Striking During totality, use ISO 1 000 to 3200 film. For a
photographs can be taken without resorting to elab- very dark eclipse, even fast film may not be sensi-
orate equipment. tiveenough to keep exposures under 2 seconds.
The eclipse-streak photograph is an interesting
LUNAR-ECLIPSE PHOTOGRAPHY
and easy alternative. Lock the shutter open, and let
WITHOUT A TELESCOPE the moon move across the frame for the duration of
The simplest technique for recording a lunar eclipse the eclipse.The result is an unusual light streak the
is the same method used to photograph untrailed width of the moon that gradually fades from white
constellation patterns. With a 50mm lens and fast to red and back to white again. A normal 50mm lens
fi Im (ISO 400 to 3200), expose up to 1 5 seconds at for a 35mm single lens reflex (SLR) camera has a
f/2tof/2.8. Use exposures for the normal full moon field of view wide enough to record the continuous
until the shadow is halfway, then descend in motion of the moon across the sky for Vh hours,
steps until you reach 1 5 seconds for full totality. more than long enough to last from the start to

Sincethemoon's image on film will be very small the finish of totality.

when a standard 50mm lens is used, most people To avoid excessive light buildup from sky glow
use their longest telephoto and 2x teleconverter. and city lights during the eclipse-streak exposure,
Such a setup works well during the partial phases stop the lens down to f/16. Use
slow film like
a
when the moon is bright, but not during totality. Kodachrome end of
64. At the beginning or the
With a stationary tripod-mounted camera and a the exposure, you might also try a double expo-
long telephoto lens, the moon's motion will blur its sure of an extra 2 to 4 seconds at f/2.8 to add fore-
own image ifexposures are more than 1 second or ground landscape details.

232
500mm lens to take exposures up to 10 minutes dur- During totality, switch to a faster ISO 400 film, the Orion Nebula appear in
ing totality. With ISO 400 film, the eclipsed moon but have a roll of ISO 1 600 film handy in case it is this book, each was taken with
may be overexposed, but the idea is to record the a rare "black" eclipse. For darker eclipses, exposures a different film and a different
background stars as they frame the dimmed full can extend up to 80 seconds, even at f/5. The mount telescope. This portrait was
moon. Of course, a dark site is a prerequisite. Man- has to be precisely polar-aligned, and the drive must taken from a moderately light-
ual guiding on a star should not be strictly necessary, be running at a slower lunar rate (about 4 percent polluted suburban location
provided that the mount is properly polar-aligned slower than the sidereal rate). with a 10-inch f/ll Schmidt-
Cassegrain. Shooting with
such a long focal length keeps
SOLAR ECLIPSES the sky background dark but
requires the use of fast film
There is no more dramatic astrophoto than one Use a slow, fine-grained film, 50mm or shorter —in this case, Konica SR 1600,
depicting a total eclipse of the sun. It seems that lenses and exposures of 1 /2 to 8 seconds at f/2.8 to the predecessor to Konica's
everyone who makes the effort to see an eclipse f/4. This may overexpose the solar corona but will new-generation 3200 films.
wants a photograph of it. Fortunately, total eclipses recorddimly lit landscape details and bright planets More details on city and sub-
are among the easiest astronomical subjects to cap- near the sun. urban astrophotography on
on film. The problem is to contain your excite-
ture As with lunar eclipses, the entire sequence of pages 244-45. Photograph by
ment enough to shoot the event properly. a solar eclipse— whether partial or total — can be Klaus Brasch.
captured on one frame. During the partial phases, Top right: The blue haloes
SIMPLE SOLAR-ECLIPSE
keep the on for every shot. Remove it only
filter around the bright stars in this
PHOTOGRAPHY for a single image of the totally eclipsed sun. Make photograph are caused by
The fi rst thought is to use a long telephoto lens. But precisely spaced exposures once every 5 minutes chromatic aberration, a flaw
many photographers have produced outstanding re- (if you want lots of suns) or once every 1 minutes. common in inexpensive tele-
sults with normal, wide-angle and even fish-eye A 50mm lens should frame the entire sequence, photo lenses, such as this
lenses. Try to include foreground objects — a dra- since the sun and the moon will move about 30 200mm f/3.5 lens that cost
matic landscape, a city skyline, a well-known degrees across the sky during a typical two-hour less than $150. In telephoto
landmark-to set the scene. The hole-in-the-sky im- eclipse. If it is a partial or an annular eclipse, the se- lenses that use glass desig-
pression created by a total eclipse turns even the quence could be ended with an unfiltered exposure nated ED, UD or low disper-
most mundane terrestrial setting into a surrealistic of the whole scene, placing the multiple suns in a sion, this defect is largely
image. The eerie twilight glow on the horizon can daylit sky. Wait until the sun moves out of the corrected. Photograph by
also be recorded with a wide-angle lens. frame before adding this final touch. Terence Dickinson.

237
 For images of just the eclipsed sun, use as long filter is never removed from the lens or telescope.
a telephoto lens as possible. During totality, use For telephoto-lens photography up to 400mm, a
ISO 25 to 100 film. The Kodachromes are recom- simple, inexpensive No. 10 to No. 14
filter is a
mended, although many photographers prefer print welders' filter. Never use anything lighter than a
film due to its wide exposure latitude for recording No. 1 for photography, and never look at the sun
both bright and dim parts of the pearly corona. for extended periods with a filter lighter than a
There is no single correct exposure. Shorter ex- No. 14. Welders' filters are not optically flat but will
posures reveal only the brilliant red prominences; provide acceptable images when securely taped
successively longer exposures show more of the co- over the front of the lens. They produce a green sun,
rona. The best plan: At the onset of totality, start at so you might want to use black-and-white film.
the fast end of the shutter range to capture Baily's Never use photographic neutral-density filters,
beads and the diamond-ring effect (1/1 ,000 to 1 /30 crossed polarizers or homemade devices. Only ap-
second), and work down to the slow exposures proved astronomical solar filters or welding filters
{1 to 2 seconds), then step back up to the fast speeds block all the harmful infrared and ultraviolet light
for the end of totality. that can damage the reti na, even through a camera
viewfinder. Exposures forthe partially eclipsed sun
SOLAR-ECLIPSE PHOTOGRAPHY or for an annular eclipse depend on the filter but will
WITH AN EQUATORIAL TELESCOPE probably fall into the range of 1/60 second at f/8 with
For spectacular shots of the corona and for details ISO 64 film. Since the sun's surface is the same
of the prominences, focal lengths of ,000mm to 1 brightness whether it is being eclipsed or not, take
2,000mm are needed. This requires shooting at the test shots advance of eclipse day to deter-
well in

primefocusof a telescope and focusing the image mine film and exposure times.
carefully once totality arrives. While an equatorial The secret of a good eclipse photograph is to se-
mount and clock drive are not essential, they keep lect one technique, then plan and rehearse the steps

the sun's image centred during the eclipse. over and over again. The limited time available dur-
Exposures for telescope shots are about 1 /500 sec- ing the big event is not the time to be learning how
ond for the diamond ring, 1/125 for the promi- to do astrophotography, although it inevitably hap-
nences, 1/1 5 for the inner corona and l/4tol sec- pens. Minutes before totality, a cry goes out: "Hey,
ond for the outer corona, assuming f/8 with ISO 64 what exposures do use?" or "Can someone help
I

film. Fast film is not necessary; the delicate details me? can't get my camera to focus." For want of a
I

of the corona and prominences call for fine grain. little preparation and practice, the hapless pho-

tographer misses the chance of a lifetime.

FILTER ADVICE FOR PARTIAL
As a final bit of advice: Do not forget to look at
AND ANNULAR ECLIPSES
the eclipse. A binocular view of a totally eclipsed
All the techniques for total eclipses apply to par- sun will imprint in your memory with more last-
tial and annular eclipses as well, except that the ing value than any photograph.

KEEPING THE GREMLINS AT BAY

In Twilight Zone— The Movie, John Lithgow por- So what can go wrong? Lots. Here are some of
trayed a man with The poor fellow
a fear of flying. the more common gremlins.
kept seeing a terrifying gremlin on the wing tearing
apart the engines. No one else could see the crea-
PROBLEMS WITH
ture. There comes a time in every astrophotog-
FUZZY PHOTOGRAPHS
Why is it necessary to guide rapher^s life when he or she feels a little like Lith- Probably the number-one nemesis of astrophotog-
a clocli-driven equatorial gow's character. The gremlins are attacking, but raphers is fuzzy, out-of-focus pictures. Tracking
mount manually? The reason is only you are aware of them. Everyone else seems down the cause depends on the specific problem.
demonstrated in this unguided to be doing just fine. DOut-of-Focus Images
shot with the mount's polar You see all the great photographs other people are Solution: Replacing the camera's focusing screen
axis purposely off the pole so taking and wonder. Why are the gremlins picking with a fine-grain matte focusing screen on the
that the stars drift slightly. As on me? Relax. There is no escape. They pick on camera is sometimes enough. However, the best
they do, tracking errors in the everyone, even on the people with the multi- method is to use a focusing screen that has a ground-
drive cause wiggles that would thousand-dollar astrophotography setups. Nobody glass area surrounding a clear central spot. The
show up as blurring in a displays failed attempts, yet everybody has them. It central spot should have cross hairs. Position the
properly aligned shot. Photo- is not your equipment that makes the difference; image in the central spot, and focus as well as you
graph by John Mirtle. it is your patience. can. Then, move your head back and forth. Note

238
whether the image moves with respect to the cross
hairs. If it does, it isstillout of focus. This technique
is called aerial-image parallax focusing. Another
trick is to offset to a bright star and focus on it,

then return to your subject.

Some deep-sky photographers use a method
called "knife-edge focusing." A special viewer is in-

serted at the focus in place of the camera body. The

photographer looks for a certai n pattern of dark and
bright areas in the disc of light from a bright star, a
pattern that appears only when the viewer^s knife-
edge or grating cuts across the precise focus. Com-
mercially available knife-edge focusers, such as
Spectra Astro Systems' SureSharp ($150), can be
valuable items for deef>sky photography.
DBlurring From Wind or Vibration
Solution: Ensuring that all the fittings on the mount
are tight can reduce vibration. Keeping the tripod
low and wide can also help, as can placing it on a
set of vibration-dampening pads.
For lunar and planetary exposures longer than 1/2
second, a common technique is the "black-hat
method." Hold a black card over the front of the lens
or telescope (nobody really uses hats), and open the
shutter to B. Wait a few seconds for the vibrations
to die down. Quickly flip the card away for the du-
ration of the exposure. With the card back in front
of the lens, close the shutter.
Blurred Images From Poor Seeing
Solution: There is none; just wait for a night of
better seeing. On
bad seeing but good
nights of
transparency, do piggyback photography. In all
cases, photograph objects when they are as high
as possible in the sky.
Fuzzy Stars on Part of the Frame
Solution: This occurs when the film buckles in the
film plane, if the film has been in the camera for a
few weeks, advance it two frames before a shoot-
ing session. Fuzzy stars on part of the frame can also
occur if the camera was mounted crookedly.

PROBLEMS WITH
TRAILED-STAR IMAGES
In deep-sky photographs, stars can be sharply fo-

cused and appear misshapen because of trail-

still

ing in one or both directions.

Trailing in Right Ascension tronics may be emitting a signal that makes the motor
Due to Drive Errors run too slowly or too quickly. Try running the unit
Solution: If the guide star takes off suddenly at regu- from a different power source or on another mount. Vibration introduced by
lar intervals, the clock drive has periodic errors; that Rotation ArouncJ the Guide Star mirror slap in an SLR camera
is, one of the gears (usually the worm wheel) was Solution: Do stars in your guided photographs ap- can ruin any celestial photo-
inaccurately manufactured. Barring an outright pear to be trailed in arcs? If so, the telescope has not graph in the V3o-to-^/2-second
mechanical failure in the drive (such as a loose or been accurately polar-aligned, and stars are drifting exposure range. The lower
broken gear), the only solution to periodic errors is out in declination during the exposure. Correcting photograph was taken with the
to replace the entire motor-and-gear drive mecha- in the usual way for such drift ensures that the guide mirror locked up, a feature not
nism with a unit of greater precision. If the star keeps star is untrailed, but the rest of the frame gradually all SLR cameras have. Photo-

drifting out slowly in the same direction, the elec- turns about the guide star. The problem shows up graphs by Alan Dyer.

239
 more frequently when you are shooting near the bright stars just outside the frame. Their light reflects
celestial poles. Accurate polar alignment is not just off optical elements or internal parts of the telescope
convenient— it is essential in astrophotography. and reaches the film.
D Trailing for No Apparent Reason D Fogged Deep-Sky Shots
Solution: If you are using a separate guidescope, it Solution: Sky fog will always be worse when you are
could be shifting with respect to the main telescope. photographing close to the horizon or in the direc-
In piggyback photography, the camera can slip on tion of a city.To shoot Orion when it is in the east-
its mooring as it changes orientation during the ex- ern sky, travel east of a city, thus putting the urban
posure. With Schmidt-Cassegrains, the primary mir- glow behind you. Red filters and black-and-white
ror itself can shift as the telescope moves from one Tech Pan 2415 film can cut through a lot of sky
side of the sky to the other. glow, but the best solution is to find a darker site. As-
Sometimes, too low a power is being applied trophotographers often plan their vacations around
when guiding. A rule many photographers follow the new moon. Indeed, a week or two at a dark site
M Above: Murphy's Law at is to use a guiding magnification equal to 272 to 5 in, say, the desert in the American Southwest can
work. In the middle of this times the focal length of the telescope (measured in produce finer results than any number of extra ac-
exposure, the batteries died, inches). Thus an 8-inch f/1 Schmidt-Cassegrain re- cessories, filters or exotic films. Many of the best
and of course, the camera quires a guide power of 200x to 400x. astrophotos are shot at a dark site with no filters.

ceased to track the target.

Right: Accurate polar align-
PROBLEMS WITH PROBLEMS FROM
ment isnot necessary for visual
UNWANTED IMAGES OPERATOR ERROR
observation, but it is for astro- Once you succeed in recording a sharp, untrailed If you think you can blame all the bad pictures on

photography. Even when the image, unwanted extras sometimes appear. Several equipment or on viewing conditions, think again.
telescope is manually guided, "comets" and "novas" have been reported by astro- It helps to have a sense of humour, because once

as it was here, if the alignment photographers misinterpreting these rogue images. the setup is perfected, there is still human error.
is off by just a few arc minutes, D UFOs on the Deep-Sky Shots n Nothing Is Visible on the Exposure
field rotation results— star trails Solution: Any location near airport glide paths is a Solution: After making a beautifully guided half-
around the guide star. The bad place piggyback astrophotography. if you
for hour exposure, you release the shutter cable. Rather
longer the exposure, the more see an aircraft coming, cap the lens until the airplane than hearing a satisfying click, you hear nothing. Im-
field rotation occurs. This was moves clear of the frame. Restart the exposure af- mediately, you realize that the shutter was set at
a 90-minute exposure. Photo- ter you have made sure the guide star is still centred. 1/500 second. It is a mistake everyone makes—
graph by John Mirtle. Strange ghost images can sometimes come from once. Always double-check camera settings. Also,

240
check for tension on the rewind knob to ensure that
the film is loaded properly. You do not want a whole
night's photography exposed onto a single frame.

You Cannot Find the Target

Solution: A clear spot-focusing screen or an extreme
fine-grain matte screen, liketheBeattielntenscreen,
can help you see deep-sky objects through the cam-
era finder. But some objects are so faint that it is

necessary to employ a detailed star chart or a pho-

tograph of the target to show the star pattern around
the area.
Every Star Looks Double
Solution: Commonly called "nose and foot bina-
ries,"such images are created by bumping the Let it warm up inside the bag; otherwise, moisture
tripod with your foot or by nudging the guiding can condense on the intricate workings inside
eyepiece with your nose sometime during the the camera and on the film.
exposure, usually as you nod off to sleep. images Sliced in Half
Solution: Photographic laboratory technicians can
PROBLEMS WITH have a tough time locatingtheedgeofframes in as-
MISCELLANEOUS GREMLINS
trophotos. Make it easy for them. Expose frames at
A horde of other gremlins can creep in that do not the beginning and end of a roll with nonastronom-
fit into any neat categories. They are just annoying. ical shots; even aiming the camera into a flashlight

Dew Coats the Main or for a second or two will do. For added insurance,
Corrector Lens instruct the laboratory to return the film uncut and
Solution: The result will be haze around
a blufsh unmounted, then mount the frames yourself.
the bright stars, a loss of faint detail and a sky that Processor Flaws
is not very black. Dew caps, dew guns and heater Solution: Seek recommendations on good profes-
coils are the answer. sional photographic laboratories. Such outfits are
vignetted Lunar Shots accustomed to satisfying the demanding profes-
Solution: The problem is insufficient eyepiece pro- sional photographers whose livelihoods depend
jection distance; the projected image is not suffi- on reliable service.
ciently large to fill the frame. Either increase the pro- If the film has scratches, check the camera first.

jection distanceby adding another extension tube Scratches can come from the camera back, from
or use an eyepiece with a shorter focal length. film guides or from dirt in the mouth of the film
Cold-Weather Gremlins cassette itself. One way to beat the odds is to shoot
Solution: Unless the film advanced and rewound
is two of everything.
slowly in cold, dry weather, static electricity can be The gremlins get the best of many backyard as-
created that shows up in the photograph as un- tronomers, causing them to throw up their hands in
wanted lightning strokes across the sky. Cold film perhaps quitting astronomy altogether.
frustration,
also becomes brittle and can break at the sprockets The gremlins can be beaten. It takes time and pa- The darkened edges in this
with a sharp stroke of the advance lever. Go easy. tience. Getting good results is challenging but re- photograph were caused by
As another cold-weather precaution, always wrap warding. The key to great astrophotos lies in your the vignetting effects of a
the camera in an airtight plastic bag before moving ability to learn from mistakes and in your willing- camera adapter that does not
it into the warmth from subfreezing temperatures. ness to stick with it. Indeed, the learning never ends. offer an unobstructed light
path to the film plane. Stan-
dard 2-inch-focuser T-adapters
ADVANCED TECHNIQUES for astrophotography,
above photograph, have
at left in
a
astrophotography appeals to you, you will soon
If More specific to the amateur world, the most com- 37mm field diameter that is

want to graduate to more advanced techniques to mon hypering process involves: (1 ) Sealing the film not quite large enough for an
improve your Here is a quick summary of
craft. inan airtight container (with the film preferably unvignetted 35mm frame.
some of the methods that amateurs are now using spooled out of its cassette onto a developing reel), Premium full-frame adapters,
to achieve the best possible results. then pumping out all the air. (2) Filling the cham- like the one at right from Astro-

ber with a mixture of 92 percent nitrogen and 8 per- Physics, offer a 45mm field
HYPERSENSITIZED FILM diameter that does not vignette
cent hydrogen for several days prior to exposure and
Broadly defined, hypersensitizing, or hypering, is development. This nonflammable, nonexplosive the 35mm frame's corners.
any film treatment that reduces reciprocity failure. gas mixture is called forming gas and is commonly Photograph by John Mirtle.

241
 used in welding shops. (3) Heating the container 10 times as sensitive when hypersensitized. Gas
and its contents to 30 to 50 degrees Celsius for the hypering can bd applied to colour films as well.
duration. The combination of "soaking" in forming Amateurs often treat Konica, Fuji and Ektachrome
gas and baking in warm temperatures desiccates the emulsions, but there have been few objective com-
film and removes the oxygen from the emulsion. parison tests to determine which film works best.
more sensitive, although
Dry, oxygen-free film is For more information on hypering, contact Lumi-
the reason is not fully understood. Gas hypering con. Also see Brad D. Wallis and Robert W. Pro-
seems to be part alchemy and part black magic. vin's informative book A Manual of Advanced
The best techniques have been determined strictly Celestial Photography.
by trial and error. Even so, after recommended
SLIDE DUPLICATING
times and temperatures have been followed, films
may not hyper consistently for peak results. What When considering ways to enhance a photograph
works on one day may not work on another. Some once it has been taken, many astrophotographers
films and some emulsion batches hyper better think first of darkroom techniques that involve ex-
than others. pensive enlargers and of printmaking skills that ri-

A few amateur astrophotographers have built val those of Ansel Adams. But few people have the
their own hypering chambers. Others have pur- space or the resources to set up an elaborate dark-
chased them from Lumicon, the sole supplier of this room, let alone put it to good use. However, if the
equipment. Still others prefer not to get involved originals are slides, home duplicating can work
with handling high-pressure gases and simply buy wonders. Slide duplicators for SLR cameras range
prehypered film. The problem with buying gas- from $70 to more than $2,000.
hypered film via mail order is that once treated, the Be prepared to use rolls and rolls of film to estab-
film should be stored in a freezer until use. Several lish the correct colour balance and exposures. The

days' exposure to normal humid airduringshipping most important preliminary is matching the light
could negate all the hypering benefits. source to the type of fi Im being used. Standard day-
Clearly, hypering is a lot of work. Is it worth it? To light colour film requires either daylight or an ap-
obtain maximum deep-sky detail or the faintest ob- propriate electronic flash or floodlights. In all cases,
jects, the answer is yes. Thirty-minute exposures that use a slow, fine-grained film to duplicate onto. Each
show barely any nebulosity with stock film produce type of film will requiredifferentfiltration, soafew
knockout results with hypered film— at least with rolls of testing are needed initially to determine
Tech Pan 241 5. Gas hypering is de r/gueur for deep- the correct filter pack.
sky work with this remarkable film, which is nearly Duplicating is a powerful tool for bringing out de-

I SLIDE-DUPING SUMMARY I

Copy From Copy To Result

colour slide Kodak 5071 dupe film positive colour slide as close to the
original as possible (no contrast change)

colour slide Kodachrome 25 positive colour slide with slight increase

in contrast

colour negative Kodak Vericolor 5072 positive colour slide with slight increase
in contrast

E-6 slide film Kodak Vericolor 5072 positive colour slide with increase in
developed as a ne gative contrast
in C-41 chemistry

Two fine planet shots by

Tech Pan 2415
negative
two colour negatives
wtr developed in D-19

two Vericolor 5072

jaosTtiveTSW^He vvitR good contrast

positive colour slide or print with major

James Rouse using a Celestron sandwiched together positives sandwiched increase in contrast and some decrease in

4-inch fluorite refractor demon- and duped onto Kodak grain (technique developed by Tony
strate what is possible when Internegative 41 17 Hallas and Daphne Mount)
good optics, good seeing, film; two internegs
experience and persistence sandwiched and duped
come together in astrophotog- onto 5072 or printed
raphy. (Mars, November 21,
1990; Jupiter, April 7, 7997.;

242
tailsfrom an underexposed original, increasing con- I DETERMINING FILTER PACKS I

trast and colour saturation, cropping in to magnify

a subject and correcting off-colour skies. We do not If Dupe Is Too Subtract Or Add
recommend the special duplicating films provided
by majorfilm manufacturers. Generally, astronom- red ^mB yellow and cyan
ical subjects benefit from contrast enhancement, 1 magenta
which occurs naturally when a slide is duplicated green cyan and magenta
onto standard transparency film. In most astropho- yellow
tography, contrast snaps up the image and brings blue cyan and yellow fl
out faint detail, improving upon the original. magenta
Colour-print-film negatives can be turned into posi- cyan cyan yellow and
tives by duplicating them onto a film designed for magenta
this purpose: Kodak Vericolor 5072. magenta magenta cyan and
The above techniques and the ones summarized yellow ^
in the table are only a few of the most popular. yellow yellow cyan and
Inventive photographers will no doubt find other magenta
combinations of films that will wring every last
bit of detail from their originals.

SPECIAL CAMERAS
Up to this point, we have concentrated on photog-
raphy with standard 35mm SLR cameras. However,
by skimming through the pages of Astronomy and
Sky & Telescope magazines, you can find photo-
graphs attributed to cold cameras or Schmidt
cameras. What are these?
First, cold cameras. They can be purchased from
specialty suppliers such as Northern Lites. They
are simple camera bodies with chambers for hold-
ing crushed dry ice— maintained at a temperature
of about minus 80 degrees Celsius— which freezes
the film. Cooling the emulsion during exposures
is another hypering technique, it, too, eliminates
many years, cold cameras
reciprocity failure. For
were the preferred method among advanced deep-
sky photographers. Now, gas hypering has largely
taken over, and only a tiny minority of astro-
photographers still prefer cooling.
Schmidt cameras are special telescopelike units
that sound like an astrophotographer's dream come
true: incredible resolution and speed (f/1 .5) plus pin- A peek into the future of
point images across a wide field. But there is a catch. astrophotography. These views
They are expensive and have a fussy film-loading of images obtained by CCDs
technique. Schmidt cameras are less commonly on the amateur-
available
used than they once were, especially with the astronomy market are just the
excellent high-speed films now available that have vanguard of what will become
almost eliminated the need for the f/1 .5 speed. a major revolution in the
hobby before the turn of the
DIGITAL ASTROPHOTOGRAPHY century. Top: Mare Imbrium
According to professional astronomers, film is images by SpectraSource
on the way out. Charge-coupled devices (CCDs) Instruments' Lynxx. Centre:
produce digital images that can be enhanced M51 by Patterson Electronics'
and number-crunched far better than any photo- CCD. Bottom: Ring Nebula, a
graph, without the fuss of changing film and guid- composite of four 2-mmute
ing the telescope for hours. But is this relevant exposures with a Celestron CII
tobackyard astronomy? Until recently, the answer and the Santa Barbara Instru-
was no. In the 1990s, however, CCDs will likely ment Croup's CCD.

243
 DEEP-SKY PHOTOGRAPHY FROM URBAN SETTINGS
record of the sky-fog limits, appropriate focal
ratios and and filter combinations for your
film
location. For example, try shooting the Orion
region with a 50mm lens (closed down a stop or
two) and a medium-speed slide film. Most of the
constellation will be captured on the frame as
well as M42, the Horsehead region and
Barnard's Loop. Try 2-, 4- and 8-minute
exposures, then 4-, 8- and 1 5-minute shots with
a light-pollution filter (Lumicon's Deep-Sky filter

or a generic broadband filter). After that, try the

same sequence with a good telephoto lens for
comparison.
Although suitable for deep-sky photography
with the usual array of camera lenses, the super-
fast colour emulsions (ISO 1 000 -I- ) are not ideal
for this from urban locations. They are simply
too fast and will quickly fog, even with light-
pollution filters. It is better to use medium-speed
(ISO 200 to 400) finer-grained films under typical
urban conditions, permitting longer exposures
and providing better contrast and resolution.
When you finally "graduate" to prime-focus
By Klaus R. Brasch photography through the main telescope, use
If you live in the suburbs of a fairly large city as I one of the super-fast colour emulsions like
do, there are probably streetlights on both sides Konica SR-G 3200 or Scotch Chrome 400 pushed
of your house and an infernal "security" light to ISO 1 600. These films are exceptionally good
shining day and night in your neighbours yard. with instruments of long focal length and slow
In short, it is less than ideal for backyard effective focal ratios. Most Schmidt-Cassegrain
astronomy and seems hopeless for deep-sky and Maksutov-type telescopes fall into this class,
photography. You really should drive 80 as do many refractors. Such combinations have
kilometres out of town for reasonably dark skies. several distinct advantages in moderately light-
But how often will you do that— twice, maybe polluted backyard conditions.
Above: Photographing the three times a year? First, longer focal lengths translate into large
Horsehead Nebula from the However, the situation is not all that bleak. image sizes and consequently less trouble with
suburbs is a challenge, but it is Thanks to modern developments in films and the relatively coarse-grained structure of the
possible. Klaus Brasch used a filters, many of the brighter Messier objects can superfast films. Second, slower focal ratios yield
Deep-Sky filter on a 500mm f/6 be shot from urban settings, often with darker backgrounds and better image contrast,
lens piggybacked on a W-inch astonishing results. Here are some hands-on since film fogging is sharply reduced. Exposure
telescope for this 18-minute pointers to get started. times are still reasonably short (10 to 30 minutes)
exposure with gas-hypered most light-shielded areas
Select the darkest or with brighter Messier objects because the films
Tech Pan 2415. on the property. Trees, tall fences and garages are so sensitive.
Far right: The Ring Nebula can be great assets here. do 90 percent of my
I For black-and-white work with all optical
was captured on gas-hypered backyard astrophotography between adjacent combinations, there is only one choice for
Tech Pan 2415 from a suburban houses, which provides a usable sector of sky astronomical objects: Kodak Tech Pan 2415.
location using a 10-inch f/13.5 about 60 degrees wide. Fortunately, the celestial This film must be hypersensitized for deep-sky
telescope and a long exposure panorama changes seasonally, and have I objects, as it is too slow otherwise. Its extended
—40 minutes. Filters and learned to be patient. red sensitivity makes it possible to use deep-red
longer focal ratios are almost The easiest way to begin urban deep-sky filters such as a Wratten No. 25, No. 29 or No.
mandatory for deep-sky pho- photography is to use the camera piggyback 92. This effectively blocks most light pollution
tography in less-than-good fashion on the main telescope. Half a dozen while admitting light from emission nebulas like
conditions. Photograph by exposures can be obtained quickly during one M8, M17, M20andM42.
Klaus Brasch. session. More important, though, this provides a Unfortunately, similarly efficient filtration is

244
 change the way we approach astrophotography.
CCDs are currently found in two kinds of
cameras: the home camcorder (for movies) and
scientific imaging cameras (for still frames). Today's
home video cameras are remarkably sharp and sen-
A camera with a low-light sensitivity of about
sitive.

two lux can easily record images of the moon and

planets through a telescope. The best cameras for
thistechnique are those with a removable ^ens.
Most home cameras do not have this feature, but it
is possible to obtain remarkably detailed solar, lu-

nar and planetary imagessimply by aiming a video

camera with lens attached straight into a telescope
eyepiece. Then use the camera's zoom lens to vary
the size of the image, and your video tour of the
solar system can be recorded on tape.
However, the maximum exposure time avail-
able with a home video camera is 1/30 second,
too short to record deep-sky objects or faint stars.

That requires a CCD imaging camera capable

of building up an exposure over extended inter-
not possible for most galaxies and other faint vals. Such cameras are beginning to appear in

objects that are not strongly red-light-emitting. the marketplace.

Nonetheless, any attempt at galaxy
in For about $1,000, a simple-to-use CCD astro-
photography from urban settings, light-pollution photography system can be purchased from sup-
filters are essential. With the aid of such pliers like Santa Barbara Instrument Group anc
filters, have captured pleasing images of
I SpectraSource Instruments, both of California. With"
brighter, compact galaxies such as the Blackeye exposures of only 30 seconds, the CCD imagers
(M64) and the Sombrero (Ml 04) in about 20 produce prime-focus deep-sky images with almost
minutes using Konica SR-G 3200 or hypered as much detail as30-minutefilm shots. The single-
Tech Pan 241 5 at f/6 to f/8. Without such a filter, frame output of a CCD chip can be displayed in real
the films would be hopelessly fogged under the time on a television monitor or stored on a computer
same conditions. disc. A personal computer and some remarkable
With open and globular star clusters, shooting image-processing software can then be used to
at relatively slow focal ratios, even up to f/1 5, is manipulate the pictures with far greater ease and
possible. The
best option is to try photographing precision than is possible in a darkroom with film.
such objects without telecompressors or light- But even such state-of-the-art cameras have draw-
pollution filters. At f/1 0, bright clusters such as backs. First, a lot of equipment is needed at the Astounding planetary detail
M2, Ml 1 Ml 3 and M22 can be nicely recorded
, telescope— not only the CCD camera but also a con- never before achieved with
in 20 to 30 minutes with hypered Tech Pan troller box, a computer and a monitor. Much of it backyard equipment is now
2415 and unhypered Konica SR-G 3200 colour requires standard household power. Another prob- possible with CCD cameras
negative film. lem is that affordable CCD chips are small, just a few and computer image-process-
Overall, light pollution and sky glow will millimetres across. On a telescope, they provide a ing software. The shorter
noticeably diminish around midnight in most fieldofviewof merely a few arc minutes; when at- exposures with CCDs com-
locations, when the normal world goes to sleep. tached to a telephoto lens, their field is only a de- bined with the computer's
Whenever possible, aim away from the city gree or so. Such a narrow field is fine for compact ability to enhance subtle
centre, and wait for the target to reach its highest deep-sky objects, but astrophotography requiringa differences in image contrast
point in the sky.Always use a dew shield with wide field is likely to be the domain of film well into yield unprecedented detail
Schmidt-Cassegrains, refractors and telephoto the next century, especially for ultrahigh resolution. equivalent to the best profes-
lenses to prevent condensation on the front Nevertheless, CCDs are going to take over several sional-observatory efforts of
element and to protect it from stray light from areas of amateur astrophotography -prime-focus just a few years ago. Veteran
airplanes, cars and other unexpected sources. deep-sky and planetary photography in partic- planetary photographer Don
Klaus R. Brasch, an active amateur astronomer ular- making many of the techniques we have out- Parker obtained these images
since the late 1 950s, is a biology professor at lined in the last three chapters obsolete. The new with a Lynxx CCD camera at the

California State University, San Bernardino. digital technology linked with computer processing focus of his 16-inch Newtonian
is beginning to offer backyard astronomers power- reflector. Jupiter, March 2,
ful new ways to capture the sky. 1992; Mars, Decembers, 1992.

245
 EPILOGUE

The Universe Awaits

Every August, a small band of dedicated sky- observe, it same limitless sky overhead, a
is the
watchers navigates the tortuous 20-kilometre road sky we hope book helps you to explore.
this

up Mount Kobau, in southern British Columbia, in Throughout The Backyard Astronomer's Guide,
search of perfect skies. Sometimes, they are re- we have tried to emphasize topics that have been
warded: the weather cooperates, and the black largely neglected by other guidebooks to astron-
canvas of the sky is painted with the delicate brush omy. For example, we have talked a great deal
strokesof the Milky Way. But other years, the nor- about equipment. We have done this because we
mally dry summer weather turns foul. Isolated at the find that most of the enquiries we receive from be-
top of a 1,500-metre mountain, the troop of ob- ginners are variations on a single question: What
servers is forced to wait out a thunderstorm's torren- should buy? Our emphasis on hardware may lead
I

tial rains, hoping that the next night, or perhaps to the impression that amateur astronomy is noth-
the next hour, will reveal the stars. ing more than collecting equipment. For some, that
And even when the weather turns cold and
yet, is the case. But those people rarely sustain their
wet, everyone leaves the Mount Kobau Star Party enthusiasm for the hobby, which brings us to
saying, "See you nextyear."They know they will be the concluding topic that is seldom discussed in
back. And so it goes at vi rtually every star party and amateur-astronomy literature: why people lose
amateur-astronomy gathering. The great thing about interest in astronomy.
backyard astronomy is that it can extend much far- As we said in you cannot buy your way
Chapter 1 ,

ther than your backyard. There is a vast community into astronomy; but some newcomers try. They pur-
of thousands of like-minded loversof the sky. Per- chase the best and most prestigious equipment on
haps, as you pursue your interest in the stars, you the market but never get around to investing the
will find yourself becoming a part of that commu- time to learn how to make proper use of it. Are they
nity. You, too,may discover a place such as Kobau backyard astronomers? Not in our view. Real back-
or Stel lafane or any of the many other dark-sky ob- yard astronomers learn how to use the instruments
servingmeccas for amateur astronomers that are and how to appreciate what they can reveal. Most
emerging across the continent. important of all is developing the ski lis to find things
On the other hand, your personal mecca may al- in the sky, something no book can teach people
ways be and your com-
as close as your backyard unless they spend time under the stars with star
munity of fellow skywatchers no larger than your maps in hand and with curious minds.
family and friends. But no matter. Wherever you The primary reason people lose interest in as-

246
 Moonrise: Multiple expo-
sures reveal the moon climbing
above the eastern horizon due
to the Earth's rotation. The
silvery orb may add lustre to a
night scene like this one, but
for astronomy enthusiasts, full
moonlight obscures many of
the sky's more subtle treasures.
Photograph by William Sterne.

247
248

m^
tronomy is that the equipment absorbs their atten
tion and they neglect the stars. The sky neve
becomes a friendly place: the star patterns ar(
anonymous, and the locations of the sky's attraction'
remain hidden. What could have been a lifelong in
terest becomes a passing phase. Instruments that an

too complex make setting up the gear an onerou

chore. We have seen this problem many times, anc
that is why we recommend binoculars, rather thar
a telescope, to most first-time buyers.
There are other reasons people lose interest in as
tronomy. Some leap into astrophotography toe
quickly. Three chapters of this book deal with pho
tography techniques, because many beginning
amateurs express an interest in taking astrophotos.
Butdonotthinkthatastrophotography is something
you must do. if you wish to try it, start with some sim-
ple constel lation shots or photographs of the moon
more
taken through the telescope. Ease into the
complex subjects slowly. The equipment— filters,
special lenses, gas-hypering tanks, CCD auto-guiders
—can be seductive. Butalotofdedicated time is re-
quired to learn howtouseitall properly. Both of us
began our astronomical careers as avid astrophotog-
raphers, and we both gave it up. We reached our
limits of tolerance in terms of effort and dollars
expended photographic results, and so we
for the
returned to visual astronomy. Butthere is something
undeniably satisfying about seeing a great astro-
photo that you took, and so, with the improvement
in high-speed films in the past few years, we have

both cautiously inched back into astrophotography.

From experience, we advise others to go slowly.
Developing stargazing skills takes time. Some
people find they simply never have enough time.
Weeknights are filled with work, courses, health-
club sessions and meetings. Weekends are busy
with trips, family outings, errands, social engage-
ments and more obligations than we care to think and timely information on special events in the sky.
about. It seems the more leisure time we have, the Keeping abreast of celestial happenings is essential
more we fi 1 1 it with demanding activities that are far to maintaining your interest and sustaining the feel-
from leisurely. We certainly cannot pose as experts ing that you are a true naturalist of the night. "*
Above: Sometimes, a sky
on time management, but we feel that finding time Every now and then, we all need a shot of inspi- observer's line of sight inter-
to be under the stars is more a matter of attitude than ration to recharge our batteries. Sometimes, a casual sects terrestrial as well as
of organization. For us, the time spent pursuingthis observation of a planetary conjunction or an excep- celestial objects. Thisimage of
hobby is a quiet respite from life in the fast lane. And tionally clear night is enough remind us of how
to a DC- 70 zipping across the
backyard astronomy does not have to be a solitary endlessly fascinating the sky is and how much we moon was discovered only
pursuit. Involving the family will make your mo- have been missing by not paying closer attention. after the film was developed.
ments under the stars all the more valuable. Other times, it takes a "group therapy" session, such Courtesy John Stull.
After the initial novelty wears off, some amateurs as a star party, a motivating lecture at a club meet- Si Facing page: Barnard's "E"
drift away from the hobby for lack of a purpose, a ing or just touching bases with skywatching friends. Nebula is one of many dark
common malaise we have both experienced from Like every other leisure pursuit, you can take as- nebulas that web the Milky
time to time. To rekindle the interest, take on a tronomy seriously or casually. It is entirely up to you. Way, imparting a textured
project and work toward a goal, such as observing Our task has been to provide advice on the tools and appearance to our galaxy's
all the Messier objects, sketching the planets or pho- an introduction to the techniques of sky observing. midsection. Photograph by
tographing the constellations. There are many pos- We leave the rest to you. Welcome to the universe John Mirtle, using a 6-inch
sibilities. The astronomy magazines offer new ideas of backyard astronomy. f/4.5 Newtonian.

249
 KS AND MAGAZINESI
ure). Much better charts and diagrams than most
jooksof this type.

OBSERVING REFERENCES
Burnham's Celestial Handbook by Robert Burn-
nam, Jr. (Dover; New York; 1 978). A classic. Won-
derful descriptions and data for thousands of
deep-sky objects visible in amateur telescopes.
In three volumes.

Messier's Nebulae & Star Clusters by Kenneth Glyn

Jones (Cambridge; New York; second edition,
1991). A welcome new edition of a fine reference
longout of print.

Observing Handbook and Catalogue of Deep-Sky

Objects by Christian B. Luginbuhl and Brian A. Skiff
(Cambridge; New York; 1 990). Eyepiece descrip-
tions of more than
2,000 galaxies, nebulas and star
amateur astronomers' telescopes.
clustersvisible in
An important work for advanced observers.

Sky Catalogue 2000.0 edited by Alan Hirshfeld and

Roger W. Sinnott(Sky Publishing; Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts; 1985). Volume 1 of this two-volume set
contains data on every star to magnitude 8.0. Vol-
ume 2 lists information on tens of thousands of
deep-sky objects.

Observing Variable Stars by David H. Levy (Cam-

bridge; New York; 1989). The best introduction
to the subject, written by a veteran variable-star
observer.

-erstronomy ana^eem to repeat the same information The Supernova Search Charts and Handbook by
from one author to the next. Gregg Thompson and James Bryan (Cambridge;
New York; 1 989). A magnificent set of 236 charts
Binocular Astronomy by Craig Crossen and Wil drawn by Gregg Thompson, each showing the ap-
Tirion (Willmann-Bell; Richmond, Virginia; 1 992). pearance of a galaxy visible in backyard telescopes
A complete guide to using standard binoculars for along with magnitudes ofthe stars in the same field.
finding and observing hundreds of celestial objects. Intended as a guide for seeking supernovas in other
Contains the complete Bright Star Atlas described galaxies, the charts also serve as a reference for ca-
on page 163. An excellent reference. sual observers of galaxies. A 1 34-page descriptive
handbook is included.
Touringthe Universe Through Binoculars by Philip
S. Harrington (Wiley; New York; 1990). A good Webb Society Deep-Sky Observer's Handbook,
guide to binocular observing. Comprehensive edited by Kenneth Glyn Jones (Enslow; Short Hills,
tables and descriptions but no charts. Must be used New Jersey; 1979). Despite a crude printing job and
with a sixth-magnitude star atlas. weak illustrations, this eight-volume series from
England's Webb Society contains a wealth of infor-
Turn Left at Orion by Guy Consolmagno and Dan mation on double stars, nebulas, clusters and galax-
M. Davis (Cambridge; New York; 1989). A practi- ies. We have found Volume 4 (Galaxies) and Vol-
cal guide to the night sky's showpiece objects for be- ume 5 {Clusters of Galaxies) especially useful.
ginners with small telescopes (under 4-inch aper- Available individually from Sky Publishing.

250
 APPENDIXES

The Deep Sky Field Guide by Cragin, Lucyk and Introduction to Astronomical Image Processing by
Rappaport (Willmann-Bell; Richmond, Virginia; Richard Berry (Willmann-Bell; Richmond, Virginia;
1 993). This massive catalogue includes observing 1991). An easy-to-follow introduction to the new
data on every galaxy, star cluster and nebula plotted art of computer processing and enhancement of
in the huge Uranometria 2000.0 atlas described on digital CCD images. Includes image-processing
page 1 65. A monumental and indispensable guide software.
for active deep-sky observers.
LUNAR & PLANETARY OBSERVING
Visual Astronomy of the Deep Sky by Roger N. Introduction to Observing and Photographing the
Clark (Sky Publishing; Cambridge, Massachusetts; Solar System by Thomas A. Dobbins, Donald C.
1990). Intended to pick up where more introduc- Parker and Charles F. Capen (Willmann-Bell; Rich-
tory deep-sky guides end, this serious work includes mond, A comprehensive guide
Virginia; 1988).
many drawings and charts as well as detailed dis- to planetary observing and photography by three ex-
cussion of observing techniques for the advanced perts. Many of the planetary photographs in Chap-
aficionado. ter 1 were taken by Parker.

Observe Meteors by David H. Levy and Stephen J. Astronomical Tables of the Sun, Moon, and Planets
Edberg (The Astronomical League; Washington, byjean Meeus (Willmann-Bell; Richmond, Virginia;
D.C.; 1986). Two experts offer everything you need 1983). Tables of oppositions, conjunctions, dis-
to know about meteor observing in a concise form. tances and much more. A handy reference.
Also from the same authors: Observe Comets. Or-
der both from The Astronomical League listed un- Adas of the Moon by Antonin RukI (Hamlyn; Lon-
der North American Organizations. don; 1991). By far, the most useful lunar atlas avail-
able to amateur astronomers, this outstanding work
The Under-Standing of Eclipses by Guy Ottewell has 76 well-indexed charts showing every feature
(Astronomical Workshop; Greenville, South Caro- seen in backyard telescopes.
lina; 1991). Written by the same person who pre-
pares the indispensable Astronom/ca/ Calendar, this Planets & Perception by William Sheehan (Univer-
90-page book uses clear text and excellent illustra- sity of Arizona Press; Tucson; 1988). Well-written
tions to explain why eclipses occur and the cycles investigation into why the great planetary observers
behind them. Address: Astronomical Work-
that lie (Schiaparelli, Lowell and others) so frequently mis-
shop, Furman University, Greenville, SC 29613. interpreted what they saw— or thought they saw.
ASTROPHOTOGRAPHY TELESCOPES
Astrophotography for the Amateur by Michael Telescope Optics by Harrie G.J. Rutten and Martin
Covington (Cambridge; New York; 1 985). Good in- A.M. van Venrooij (Willmann-Bell; Richmond, Vir-
troduction to astrophotography with many exam- ginia; 1 988). The most detailed book of its type suit-
ples and tables. able for amateur astronomers.

Astrophotography by Barry Cordon (Willmann- All About Telescopes by Sam Brown (Edmund; Bar-
Bell; Richmond, Virginia; second edition, 1985). rington. New Jersey; 1967). Badly out of date but
Lots of practical tips for astrophotographers. still a classic with unique illustrations and plenty
of solid information.
A Manual of Advanced Celestial Photography by
Brad D. Wallis and Robert W. Provin (Cambridge; The History of the Telescope by H.C. King (Dover;
New York; 1988). Much useful information for New York; reprint). Every step in the development
more serious astrophotographers. of the telescope from Galileo to Mount Palomar is
between the covers of this definitive work.
Choosing and Using a CCD Camera by Richard
Berry (Willmann-Bell; Richmond, Virginia; 1 992).
TELESCOPE MAKING
CCDsare revolutionizing astrophotography, and no Build Your Own Telescope by Richard Berry (Scrib-
book explains how to take part in the revolution bet- ner's; New York; 1 985). Without question the best

ter than this one. Includes software and sample CCD guide for anyone who wants to build his or her first
images for IBM personal computers. telescope.

251
How to Build Your Own Observatory, edited by sky events, product reviews and lots of advertise-
Richard Berry (Kalmbach; Waukesha, Wisconsin; ments for everything from astronomy books to ob-
several editions). A compilation of more than a servatory telescopes. One or the other of the two
dozen articles from Telescope Making magazine publications is essential reading for any backyard as-
— ideas for anyone contemplating building an tronomer. Many enthusiasts subscribe to both. As-
observatory. tronomy, Box 1612, Waukesha, Wl 53187 (414-
796-8776); Sky & Telescope, Box 91 Belmont, 1 1 ,

Amateur Telescope Making, edited by Albert G. In- MA 021 78 (61 7-864-61 17).
galls (Scientific American; New York; 1935, and Quality bimonthly publications include Mercury,
many subsequent editions). The "bible" for genera- The Journal of the Astronomical Society of the
tions of telescope makers. In three volumes. Pacific (390 Ashton Avenue, San Francisco, CA
941 1 and Star Date from the McDonald Obser-
2),

How to Make a Telescope by Jean Texereau vatory (RLM 15.308, University ofTexas at Austin,
(Willmann-Bell; Richmond, Virginia; second edi- Austin, TX 7871 2). Back issues of The Observer's
tion, 1984). Much useful information for do-it- Guide, which contained much useful deep-sky ob-
yourself fans. serving information, are available from Astro Cards
(Box 35, Natrona Heights, PA 15065).
THE DAY SKY
In 1 992, two small but highly praised magazines.

Day by Terence Dickinson

Exploring the Sky by Deep Sky and Telescope Making, ceased publica-
(Camden House; Camden East, Ontario; 1988). tion. The former has been replaced by the bimonthly

Concise guide to day-sky phenomena. Deep Sky journal, 6210 Karjala Road, Aberdeen,
WA 98520 (206-532-071 1 ). As of early 1 993, no
Light and Color in the Outdoors by M. Minnaert publication had appeared to fill the place once oc-
(Springer- Verlag; New York; 1 993). An updated ver- cupied by Telescope Making.
sion of the all-time classic daytime-sky-phenomena
reference. Amazingly comprehensive and detailed.
BUY AND SELL
Two small monthly magazines offer amateur astron-
Sunsets, Twilights and Evening Skies by Aden and omers an economical and comprehensive market-
Marjorie Meinel (Cambridge; New York; 1 983). A place to buy or sell everything from complete ob-
fine summary of twilight atmospheric phenomena. servatories to a single eyepiece: Starry Messenger,
Box 6552, Ithaca, NY 1 4851 and Cosmic Exchange,
;

Rainbows, Halos, and Glories by Robert Greenler Box 101 1, Camas, WA 98607.
(Cambridge; New York; 1 980). Thorough but very
readable guide to the day-sky phenomena men-
tioned in the title. Greenler is a world authority
on this subject.

UNIQUE BOOKS
N/ghts by Leslie C. Peltier (Sky Publishing;
Star//g/it

Cambridge, Massachusetts; 1980). A compelling

and ultimately profound book chronicling one
man's odyssey in backyard astronomy. Written
by one of the 20th century's most gifted amateur
astronomers.

The Astronomical Companion by Guy Ottewell

(Astronomical Workshop; Greenville, South Caro-
lina; 1 979). Clear diagrams and text show where we
are in the galaxy and the universe. Lots of useful in-

formation not easily found elsewhere. Highly rec-

ommended. Order from: Astronomical Workshop,
Furman University, Greenville, SC 29613.

MAGAZINES
Astronomy enthusiasts have two outstanding
monthly magazines— /Astronomy and Sky & Te/e-
scope— brimming with news items, charts of current

252
 NORTH AMERICAN ORGANIZATIONS
Amateur Satellite Observers, HCR65, Box 261 -B, National Deep Sky Observers Society, 1607
Kingston, AZ 72742. Washington Boulevard, Louisville, KY 40242 (502-
426-4399; 502-561-6103).
American Association of Variable Star Observers,
25 Birch Street, Cambridge, MA 021 38 (61 7-354- National Space Society, 922 Pennsylvania Avenue
0484). Variable-star charts available. SE, Washington, DC 20003 (202-543-1900).

American Meteor Society, Department of Physics- The Planetary Society, 65 North Catalina Avenue,
Astronomy, SUNY— Geneseo, Ceneseo, NY 14454 Pasadena, CA 91106 (818-793-5100). Excellent
(716-245-5282). magazine. Planetary Report, with membership.

Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers, Box Problicom Sky Survey and Nova Patrol, 1 940 Cot-
143, Heber Springs, AZ 72543 (501-362-7264). ner Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90025 (213-478-
Journal with membership. 2526). Free quarterly newsletter; send four self-
addressed stamped envelopes.
The Astronomical League, Science Service Build-
ing, 1 719 N Street NW, Washington, DC 20036. Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, 1 36 Dupont
Street, Toronto, Ontario M5R V21 (41 6-924-7973).
Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 390 Ashton Local centres across Canada. Observer's Handbook
Avenue, San Francisco, CA 941 1 2 (41 5-337-1 1 00). and other publications with membership.

Astronomy Book Club, 08370. Offers

Riverside, NJ Small Scope Observers Association, 4 Kingfisher
four or five new astronomy books each month at dis- Place, Audubon Park, NJ 08106 (609-547-9487).
count prices. Convenient and reliable, especially for
those in rural areas, but after shipping and handling, Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers, 247 North
savings over bookstore prices are modest. Write for Linden Street, Massapequa, NY 11758 (516-
membership brochure. Unlike other entries in this 798-8459).
section, this is a business, not a nonprofit club.
Webb Society (North America), 1440 S. Marmora
Astronomy Day Headquarters, Chaffee Planetar- Avenue, Tucson, AZ 8571 3-1015 (602-628-1 077).
ium, 54 Jefferson SE, Grand Rapids, Ml 49503
(616-784-9518; 616-456-3987). International As- Western Amateur Astronomers, 1 63 Starlight Crest
tronomy Day resource materials available. Drive, La Canada, CA 9101 1.

Croup 70/Large Amateur Telescope Project, 2331 World Space Foundation, Box Y, South Pasadena,
American Avenue, Hayward, CA 94545 (415- CA 91031-1000 (818-357-2878).
969-6869).

International Amateur-Professional Photoelectric

Photometry, Dyer Observatory, Vanderbilt Univer-
sity, Nashville, TN 37235.

International Dark-Sky Association, 3545 North

Stewart, Tucson, AZ 85716. Promotes awareness
of light pollution. Quarterly newsletter.

International Occultation Timing Association, Box

7488, Silver Spring, MD 20901 (301-495-9062).

The Meteoritical Society, Department of Geologi-

cal Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville,
TN 37996.

253
 ASTRONOMY PRODUCT SOURCES
Each company listed is the primary source for at Jim'sMobile Industries, 810 Quail Street East, Lake-
least one unique product. Some of the companies wood, CO 8021 5 (303-233-5353).
offer their products through telescope dealers; Large equatorial Newtonians, electric focus and
others only sell direct. Write or call for information declination motors, digital setting circles, focusers.
on complete product lines and aval lability of items
Jupiter Telescope Company, 810 Saturn Street,
through local dealers.
Suite 1 6, Jupiter, FL33477 (407-694-1 1 54).
COMPLETE TELESCOPES Premium equatorial reflectors.

Some of these companies offer optics and mounts Land, Sea, and Sky/Texas Nautical Repair, 31 10S.
separately to those who wish to assemble their own Shepherd, Houston, TX 77098(713-529-3551).
telescopes. Many sell accessories and eyepieces. Importer of Takahashi apochromatic refractors,
astrographs, Cassegrainsand Miyauchi binoculars.
Aro instrument Company, 1245 South 6th Street,
Coshocton, OH 43812 (614-622-8895). Lorraine Precision Optics, 1319 Libby Lane, New
Importer of Russian Maksutov telescopes. Richmond, OH 451 57 (51 3-553-4999).
Tilted-component reflectors, optics.
Astro-Physics, 1 1 250 Forest Hills Road, Rockford,
IL61111 (815-282-1513). MAGI Instruments, 16342 W. Coachlight Drive,
Apochromatic refractors, premium equatorial NewBedin, Wl 53151 (414-785-0926).
mounts. Dealer for Zeiss Jena apochromatic re- Unique premium Newtonian on sphere mount.
fractors.
Meade Instruments Corporation, 1675 Toronto
Celestron International, 2835 Columbia Street, Tor- Way, Costa Mesa, CA 92626 (714-556-2291).
rance, CA 90503 (310-328-9560). Schmidt-Cassegrains, equatorial Newtonians, apo-
Schmidt-Cassegrains, equatorial Newtonians, apo- chromatic and entry-level refractors, plus mounts,
chromatic and entry-level refractors, plus eyepieces mirrors, eyepieces, filters and accessories.
and accessories. Importer of Vixen telescopes.
Obsession Telescopes, 923 Stony Road, Lake Mills,
Ceravolo Optical Systems, Box 27092, Gloucester, Wl 53551 (414-648-8284).
Ontario K1J 9L9 (613-258-4480). Premium Dobsonian reflectors.
Maksutov-Newtonian telescopes.
2450 Huntingdon Pike,
Optical Guidance Systems,
Cosmos Ltd., 921 5 Waukegan Road, Morton Grove, Huntingdon Valley, PA 19006(215-947-5571).
IL 60053 (708-827-4846). Ritchey-Chretien Cassegrain telescopes, mounts.
Newtonian telescopes.
Optical Research Corporation, 3009 East Forest,
Coulter Optical, Box K,ldyllwild,CA 92349 (714- Appleton, Wl 5491 5 (414-734-5006).
659-4621). Newtonians with unique fixed-eyepiece mount
Economical Dobsonian reflectors and mirrors.
Orion Telescope Center, 2450 1 7th Avenue, Box
D&G Optical, 6490 Lemon Street, East Petersburg, 1 1 58, Santa Cruz, CA 95061 (408-464-0446).

PA 17520(717-560-1519). Entry-level refractors and reflectors, plus eyepieces,

Large achromatic refractors, lenses, mirrors. filters and accessories.

Edmund Scientific, 100 East Gloucester Pike, Bar- Parallax Instruments, 7914Tifton Road, Charlotte,
rington, NJ 08007 (609-547-3488). NC 28226 (704-542-481 7).
Entry-level refractors and reflectors, eyepieces, Premium Newtonian reflectors, optics.
accessories, optics, telescope-making supplies.
Parks Optical, 270 Easy Street, Simi Valley, CA
Handmade Telescopes, 2906 Spooky Nook Road, 93065 (805-522-6722).
Manheim, PA 1 7545 (71 7-898-3089). Medium- and large-aperture equatorial Newtonian
Premium Dobsonian reflectors. and Cassegrain reflectors, entry-level refractors, plus

binoculars, mirrors and accessories.

Iowa Scientific Optical, 4231 Northwest Drive, Des
Moines, lA 5031 (5 1 5-255-01 66). Photon Instrument, Ltd., 9301 E. Shey Boulevard,
Newtonian and tilted-component Schiefspiegler #127-1 79, Scottsdale, AZ 85260.
telescopes, optics. Small- and medium-aperture refractors, plus tele-
scope repair and restoration.

254
 1

Pirate Instruments, 28073 Diaz Road, Suite D, Star Instruments, Box 597, Flagstaff, AZ 86002
Temecula, CA 92590 (714-694-5876). (602-774-9177).
Economical Dobsonian and equatorfal Newtonian
Stellar Optics, 401 1 7-1 72nd Street East, Palmdale,
telescopes, optics.
CA 93550 (805-264-1287).
Questar Corporation, Route 202, Box 59, New
Hope, PA 18938 (215-862-5277).
MOUNTS FOR TELESCOPE MAKERS
Premium Maksutov-Cassegrains.
AND ASTROPHOTOGRAPHERS
Edward R. Byers Company, 29001 W. Hwy. 58,
Safari Telescopes, 1 10 Pascask Road, Pearl River,
Barstow,CA 92311 (619-256-2377).
NY 10965 (914-735-4163).
Premium Dobsonian reflectors. Epoch Instruments, 2331 American Avenue, Hay-
ward, CA 94545 (415-784-0391).
Sky Designs, 4100 Felps, Suite C, Colleyville, TX
Also sells Schmidt cameras.
76034(817-581-9878).
Premium Dobsonian reflectors. Hollywood General Machining, Inc. (Losmandy),
1 033 N. Sycamore Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90038
Sky Instruments, Box 3164, Vancouver, British
(213-462-2855).
Columbia V6B 3X6 (604-270-2813).
Small refractors and reflectors. Mountain instruments, 5050 Laguna Boulevard,
Suite 1 1 2, Elk Grove, CA 95758 (91 6-422-0962).
Starsplitter Telescopes, 3228 Rikkard Drive, Thou-
sand Oaks, CA 91362 (805-493-2489). Optic-Craft Machining, 3391 8 Macomb, Farming-
Premium Dobsonian reflectors. ton, Ml 48024 (313-476-5893).

Starstorm Optical, 1 02 1 S. Revere, Mesa, AZ 852 1 Thomas Mathis Co., 830 Williams Street, San Lean-
(602-461-1758). dro, CA 94577 (41 5-483-3090).
Premium Dobsonian reflectors.
ACCESSORIES AND
1 1 Whitfield Park Avenue, Sarasota, FL
Tectron, 21 TELESCOPE PARTS
34243(813-758-9890).
Ace Dome, 3186Juanita, Las Vegas, NV 89102.
Premium Dobsonian reflectors, focusers, collima-
Portable domes and shelters.
tion tools.
Astronomical Innovations, Box 14853, Lenexa, KS
Tele Vue Optics, Inc., 100 Route 59, Suffern, NY 66285(913-894-5775).
10901 (914-357-9522).
Accessories and observing aids.
Apochromatic refractors, mounts, premium eye-
pieces (including Nagler designs). AstroSystems, Inc., 1 109 Kimbark Street, Longmont,
CO 80501 (303-678-5339).
Torus Optical Works, 67 Bon-Aire, Iowa City, lA
Focusers, Dobsonian parts, laminated star atlases.
52240(319-339-0524).
Premium Dobsonian reflectors, optics for Newto- 1 8 Kinne Road, Lockport, NY
Carlino Woodcraft, 71
nian and tilted-component reflectors. 14094(716-433-3432).
Handcrafted wood tripods and refractor mounts.
Unitron,1 70 Wilbur Place, Box 469, Bohemia, NY
11716(516-589-6666). CompuScope, 3463 State Street, Suite 431, Santa
Achromatic refractors. Barbara, CA 93105 (805-687-1914).
CCD accessories, telescope automation packages.
OPTICS FOR TELESCOPE MAKERS
Cusick Telescopes, Box 256, Buena Vista, CO
E&W Optical, Inc., 2420 E. Hennepin Avenue, Min- 81211 (719-395-8253).
neapolis, MN 55413(612-331-1187).
Binocular chair, Dobsonian mount.
Box 41
Enterprise Optics, 3, Dept. A, Placentia, CA DayStar Filter Corporation, Box 1 290, Pomona, CA
92670(714-524-7520).
91769(714-591-4673).
Galaxy Optics, Box 2045, Buena Vista, CO 81 2 1 H-alpha solar filters, nebula filters.
(719-395-8242).
Edwin Hirsch, 1 68 Lakeview Drive, RR 1 , Tomkins
Pegasus Optics, 2301 W. Corrine Drive, Phoenix, Cove, NY 10986 (914-786-3738).
AZ 85029 (602-943-3279). H-alpha solar filters, solar telescopes.

255
Electrim Corp., Box 2074, Princeton, NJ 08543 Spectra Astro Systems, 6631 Wilbur Avenue, Suite
(609-799-7248). 30, Reseda, CA 91335 (818-343-1352).
CCD cameras. Astrophoto and other accessories.

Equatorial Platforms, 1 1065 Peaceful Valley Road, SpectraSource Instruments, 31324 Via Colinas,
Nevada City, CA 95959 (916-265-3183). Suite 1 1 4, Westlake Village, CA 91 362 (81 8-707-
Tracking platforms for Dobsonian reflectors. 2655).
CCD cameras and software.
Grandview Instruments, Box 278, Concord, CA
94522. Star Bound, 68 Klaum Avenue, North Tonawanda,
Cantilever binocular holders. NY 14120(716-692-3671).
Binocular stands.
Kenneth F. Novak & Co., Box 69, Ladysmith, Wl
54848(715-532-5102). Stewart Research Enterprises, 1 658 Belvoir Drive,
Primary and secondary mirror cells, focusers. Los Altos, CA 94024 (41 5-941-6699).
Fibreglass observatory domes.
Lumicon, 2111 Research Drive, #5, Livermore, CA
94550(415-447-9570). Technical Innovations, 22500 Old Hundred Road,
Nebula filters, hypering kits, digital setting circles. Barnesville, MD 20838 (301-972-8040).
Fibreglass observatory dome kits.
Northern Lites, 640 Cains Way, RR 1 , Sooke, Brit-

ish Columbia VOS 1 NO (604-478-8065). Thousand Oaks Optical, Box 5044-289, Dept. A,
Cold cameras, guiders. Thousand Oaks, CA 91359 (805-491-3642).
Mylar and glass solar filters.
Optec, Inc., 199 Smith Street, Lowell, Ml 49331
(616-897-9351). University Optics, Inc.,2122 E. Delhi Road, Box
Photometers and CCD accessories. 1205, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 (313-665-3575).
Eyepieces, telescope-making supplies.
Optica b/c Company, 41 00 MacArthur Boulevard,
Oakland, CA 94619 (415-530-1234). Vernonscope, 5 Ithaca Road, Box 1 05, Candor, NY
Astrophoto accessories, telescope-making parts. 13743(607-659-7000).
Brandon eyepieces. Barlows, filters.
Opto-Data, 600 Mariners Island Boulevard, Suite
36, San Mateo, CA 94404 (41 5-377-021 1 ). Versacorp, Box 7, Sun City, AZ 85372 (602-876-
Digital-setting-circle and LED-star-atlas display unit. 8344).
Astrophoto accessories.
P&S Skyproducts, 20095 Concession Road 7, Mt.
LOG IMO (416-473-1627).
Albert, Ontario Vista Instrument Co., 307 E. Tunnell Street, Santa
Astrophotography focusing aid. Maria, CA 93454 (805-925-1240).
Cantilever binocular mounts, camera trackers.
Photometries Ltd., 3440 E. Britannia Drive, Tucson,
AZ 85706 (602-889-9933). Vogel Enterprises, 38W1 50 Hickory Court, Batavia,
Premium CCD cameras. IL 60510 (708-879-8725).
Drive correctors and other accessories.
Quadrant Systems, Box 370, Oregon House, CA
95962(916-692-2563). I
BINOCULARS
Digital setting circles and slewing motors.
Bushnell/Bausch and Lomb/Jason, 9200 Cody, Box
Rige! Systems,26850 Basswood, Rancho Palos 1 4930, Overland Park, KS 662 1 4 (91 3-888-0220).

Verdes, CA 90274 (310-375-4149).

Carl Zeiss Optical, Inc., 1015 Commerce Street,
PulsGuide LED accessory for guiding eyepieces.
Petersburg, VA 23803 (804-861-0033).
Roger W. Tuthill, Inc., Box 1086, 1 1 Tanglewood
Carton Optics, c/o TAD international, 1037 En-
Lane, Mountainside, NJ 07092 (908-232-1 786).
derby Way, Sunnyvale, CA 94087 (408-245-481 8).
Mylar solar filters and other accessories.
Adierblick binoculars.
S.B. Kufeld, 7092 Betty Drive, Huntington Beach,
Celestron International, 2835 Columbia Street, Tor-
CA 92647 (714-847-8903).
rance, CA 90503 (310-328-9560).
Telrad finderscope.
Europtik, Ltd., Box 319, Dunmore, PA 18512
Santa Barbara Instrument Group, 1482 East Valley
(717-347-6049).
Road, #601, Santa Barbara, CA 93108 (805-969-
German aus Jena (formerly Zeiss) binoculars.
1852).
CCD auto-guiders, imaging cameras, software. Fujinon Inc., 10 High Point Drive, Wayne, NJ
07470(201-633-5600).

256
Leica Camera Group, 156 Ludlow Avenue, North- David Chandler Co., Box 309, La Verne, CA 91 750
vale, NJ 07647 (201-767-7500). (714-988-5678).
Planispheres, slide sets. Deep Space 3-D software.
Meade Instruments Corporation, 1675 Toronto
Way, Costa Mesa, CA 92626 (714-556-2291). Edmund Scientific, 100 East Gloucester Pike, Bar-
rington, NJ 08007 (609-547-3488).
Minolta Corporation, 101 Williams Drive, Ramsey,
Introductory star atlases and how-to books.
NJ 07446 (201-934-5437).
Hansen Planetarium Publications, 1098 S. 200
Mi rador Optical Corp., Box 1 1614, Marina del Rey,
West, Salt Lake City, UT 84101 (801-538-2242).
CA 90295 (310-821-5587).
Posters and slide sets from major observatories.
Nikon Inc., 1 300 Walt Whitman Road, Melville, NY
Kalmbach Publishing, 21027 Crossroads Circle,
11747(516-547-4200).
Waukesha, Wl 53187 (414-796-8776).
Optolyth USA, 18805 N.E. Melvista Lane, Hills- Books and atlases. Publisher of Astronomy.
boro, OR 97123 (503-628-0246).
MMI Corporation, Box 1 9907, 2950 Wyman Park-
Orion Telescope Center, 2450 1 7th Avenue, Box way, Baltimore, MD 2 1 2 1 1 (301-366-1 222).
1 1 58, Santa Cruz, CA 95061 (408-464-0446). Slide sets, globes, portable planetariums.

Parks Optical, 270 Easy Street, Simi Valley, CA Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, 1 36 Dupont
93065 (805-522-6722). Street, Toronto, Ontario M5R V2 (41 6-924-7973).
1

Publishes annual Observer's Handbook.

Pentax Corporation, 35 Inverness Drive East, Engle-
wood, CO 801 1 2 (303-799-8000). Science Graphics, Box 7516, Bend, OR 97708
(503-389-5652).
Seisi Company, Inc., 40 Veterans Boulevard, Carl-
Slide sets.
stadt, NJ 07072 (201-935-0388).

Steiner Binoculars, c/o Pioneer Marketing, 216

Sky Publishing Corp., Box 9111, Belmont, MA
02178(617-864-7360).
Haddon Avenue, Suite 500, Westmont, NJ 08108
Books and atlases. Publisher of Sky & Telescope.
(609-854-2424).
Tersch Enterprises, Box 1059, Colorado Springs,
Swarovski Optik, 2 Slater Road, Cranston, Rl 02920
(401-942-3380).
CO 80901 (719-597-3603).
Slide sets.
Swift Instruments, inc., 952 Dorchester Avenue,
Willmann-Bell, Inc., Box 35025, Richmond, VA
Boston, MA 021 25 (61 7-436-2960).
23235(804-320-7016).
Unitron,1 70 Wilbur Place, Box 469, Bohemia, NY Star atlases and astronomical books.
11716(516-589-6666).
IP ASTRONOMY SOFTWARE
2122 E. Delhi Road, Box
University Optics, Inc.,
General-purpose star-charting programs:
1205, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 (313-665-3575).

Vivitar Corporation, 9350 DeSoto Avenue, Chats-

DAmr
Distant Suns, Virtual Reality Laboratories, 2341
worth, CA 91 31 1 (213-870-0181).
Ganador Court, San Luis Obispo, CA 93401 (805-
STAR CHARTS, POSTERS, SLIDES 545-8515).
AND SPECIALIZED PUBLICATIONS Voyager, the Dynamic Sky Simulator, Carina Soft-
ware, 830 Williams Street, San Leandro,CA 94577
Abrams Planetarium, Michigan State University,
(510-352-7332).
East Lansing, Ml 48824 (51 7-355-4676).
Monthly Sky Calendar. D IBM-PC and compatibles
(* = Windows version)
Astro Cards, Box 35, Natrona Heights, PA 15065
Dance of the Planets, ARC Software, Box 1955,
(412-295-4128).
Index-card finder charts.
Loveland, CO 80539 (303-663-3223).
Distant Suns*, Virtual Reality Laboratories, 2341
Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 390 Ashton Ganador Court, San Luis Obispo, CA 93401 (805-
Avenue, San Francisco, CA 941 1 2 (415-337-1 1 00). 545-8515).
Posters, slide sets, videos. Epoch 2000*, Farpoint Research, 10931 Hasty Ave-
nue, Downey, CA 90241 (310-861-6606).
Astronomical Workshop, Physics Department, Fur-
Expert Astronomer, Expert Software, 800 Douglas
man University, Greenville, SC 2961 3.
Entrance, North Tower, Coral Gables, FL 33134
Guy Ottewell's annual Af>tronomical Calendar.
(305-444-0080).

257
EZCosmos*, 1508 Osprey Drive, Suite 103, De-
Soto, 1X75115(214-224-3288).
HyperSKYII, Willmann-Bell, Inc., Box 35025, Rich-
mond, VA 23235 (804-320-7016).
Lodestar, Zephyr Services, 1900 Murray Avenue,
Pittsburgh, PA 521
1 7 (41 2-422-6600).
Megastar Deep Sky Atlas, E.L.B. Software, 8910
Willow Meadow, Houston, TX 77031 (713-541-
9723).
PC Sky, CapellaSoft, Box 3964, La Mesa, CA 91 944.
SkyClobe (shareware by Mark A. Haney), Klass M
Software, 284 142nd Avenue, Caledonia, Ml 49316.
StarCaze*, CEB Metasystems Inc., 200 Lawrence
1

Drive, Suite 1 75, Newbury Park, CA 91 320 (805-

499-0958).
Superstar, PicoScience, 41 51 2 Chadbourne Drive,
Fremont, CA 94539 (41 5-498-1095).
TheSky*, Software Bisque, 912 12th Street, Golden,
CO 80401 (303-278-4478).
n Macintosh
Voyager II, Carina Software, 830 Williams Street,
San Leandro, CA 94577 (510-352-7332).

Image-processing programs:

D IBM-PC and compatibles

Astronomical Image Processor (by Richard Berry),
Willmann-Bell, Inc., Box 35025, Richmond, VA
23235(804-320-7016).
lmagine-32 (by Philip Lubin), CompuScope, 3463
State Street, Suite 431, Santa Barbara, CA 93105
(805-687-1914).
PhotoStyler, Aldus Corporation, 41 1 First Avenue
South, Seattle, WA 98104 (206-622-5500).
n Macintosh
Adobe PhotoShop, Adobe Systems Inc., 1585
Charleston Road, Box 7900, Mountain View, CA
94039.
NIH Image, public domain available free through
many Mac bulletin boards and user-group libraries
or for $100 from National Technical Information
Service (703-487-4650), order #PB90-500687.

Astronomical CD-ROM suppliers:

Astronomical Research Network, 206 Bellwood

Avenue, Maplewood, MN
551 1 7 (61 2-488-51 78).

Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 390 Ashton

Avenue, San Francisco, CA 941 1 2 (41 5-337-1 1 00).

ChestnutCD-ROM, Box 360, Cambridge, MA

02141-0004 (617-864-8326).

Hopkins Technology, 421 Hazel Lane, Hopkins,

MN 55343-71 16 (612-931-9376).

National Space Science Data Center, Code 930.2,

Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771
(301-286-6695).

258
 .

POLAR ALIGNMENT
If a telescope has an equatorial mount but its polar The finder charts included here should help you
axis aimed toward the wrong part of the sky, its
is zero in on the celestial pole. Now that you know

tracking function is nullified. The equatorial mount where the celestial pole for your hemisphere is, the
becomes an impediment to comfortable viewing, next step is to aim the telescope's polar axis at it.
rather than an asset. When a first-time purchaser of
POLAR-ALIGNING FORK-MOUNTED
an equatorially mounted telescope reports that "the
TELESCOPES
clock drive doesn't work, and nothing stays cen-
tred," the trouble probably lies not in the drive but Which one is the polar axis? In fork-mounted tele-

in the user's skill at setting up the telescope. scopes such as Schmidt-Cassegrains, the polar
Equatorial mounts with clock drives have the ad- axis (also known as the right-ascension axis) is the
vantage of hands-off tracking of celestial objects, one around which the forks revolve. The other mo-
while setting circles provide a method of finding tion, which swings the tube up and down through
objects. For both to work as promised, the mount the fork arms, is the declination axis. To be polar-
must be aligned to the celestial pole. aligned, the polar axis, and therefore the two fork
As Earth rotates, the heavens appear to rotate in tines, must be aimed at the celestial pole. Here
the opposite direction. The sk/s pivot point (in the is what to do:

northern hemisphere) is an imaginary spot called 1 First, adjust the altitude, or latitude, setting on the

the north celestial pole, directly above the North wedge (or top of the pier). From a latitude of 40
Pole. Ifa telescope is to track properly, it, too, must degrees North, set the angle on the latitude scale
rotate around an axis aimed at this location. to 40 degrees. This can be done at any time, even
indoors before setting up.
THE EASY WAY 2. At the observing site, place the telescope so
Rigorous, time-consuming methods of precision that its forks are aimed northward. Roughly level
polar alignment are necessary only for advanced the telescope if you wish, but precise levelling
astrophotography— either extended and guided is not necessary.
deep-sky shots or high-magnification f/200 plan- 3. Swing the tube so that it reads 90 degrees decli-
etary photographs. For general observing, pictures nation on the ci rcles on the side of the tube, and lock
of the moon or wide-angle piggyback exposures, an it there. This should put the tube parallel to the forks.
alignment within one or two degrees of the celes- 4. Move the telescope left to right to centre the pole
tial pole will be adequate. This is accomplished in in Do this by moving the whole tri-
the finderscope.
a few seconds by aiming the polar axis toward pod or by using the fine azimuth adjustments on the
Polaris, the North Star, as closely as possible. wedge assembly. Do not alter the telescope tube's
Schmidt-Cassegrains can be aimed up one of the declination or right ascension.
fork tines and raised or lowered on adjustable tripod 5. Move the telescope up and down to centre the
legs to achieve approximate alignment. Precise pole in the finderscope. This may mean raising or
levelling is a waste of time for casual point-and- lowering a tripod leg (it is usually best to have a tri-

look viewing. The polar axis of German equatorial pod leg pointing south for this) or using fine altitude
mounts can simply be eyeballed toward Polaris. adjustments on the wedge.
6. may be necessary to adjust the azimuth and
MORE ACCURATE POLAR It

altitude a few times to refine the aim point. With

ALIGNMENT practice, it takes only 5 to 1 minutes. Remember,
For more demanding applications, the telescope's to aim at the north celestial pole, move the entire
polar axis should be within five arc minutes of telescope so that the finderscope cross hairs are
the true celestial pole. 0.9 degrees from Polarisalonga line toward the end
The north celestial pole is conveniently near star in the Big Dipper's handle. If that star is not visi-

Polaris, the end star in the handle of the Little Dip- ble, use a line joining Polaris and Epsilon Cassio-
per. To be exact, the true pole ies 0.9 degrees from
I peia, the first star in the distinctive W shape, but still

Polaris in the direction of Alkaid, the end star in offset toward the Big Dipper's handle.
the handle of the Big Dipper. The main problem with this method is that it can
For observers in the southern hemisphere, locat- be difficult to find the correct pole location, since
ing the south celestial pole is a little more difficult. it lies in a blank area of sky. Moreover, it is too easy

Itlies one degree from a 5.4-magnitude star in to move off the pole star by the required amount
Octans called Sigma Octantis, which is not a shin- in the wrong direction. In straight-through finder-
ing beacon in the southern skies. scopes, the sky appears upside down; in right-angle

259
 finderscopes, the skyis right side up but flipped left Ifthe mount has a polar-alignment telescope built
With most 6x and 8x finderscopes, the field
to right. into the polar axis, accurate polar alignment is rela-
of view is about four degrees wide, which means tively easy. The small instruments have reticles that
that when the true celestial pole is in the centre, the show how far to offset from Polaris in order to centre
pole star (Polaris or Sigma Octantis) is about halfway on the true celestial pole. Since polar-axis telescopes
from the centre to the edge of the field. invert the image, the true pole offset appears to be
toward Cassiopeia from the pole star. Many finder-
POLAR-ALIGNING GERMAN scopes offer almost the same convenience as polar-
EQUATORIAL MOUNTS axis telescopes if they have an offset ri ng or a smal I

The finderscope method described above can be off-centre circle for Polaris. For this to work, the find-
applied to all telescopes on German equatorial erscope must be prealigned to the main telescope.
mounts. The declination axis on such mounts has In addition, the declination setting-circle reading
the telescope on one end and the counterweight on must be accurate. In other words, when the tele-
the other. The polar axis— the one the clock drive scope is set at 90 degrees declination, the tube must
turns— has the declination axisattached to it and is be aimed at the same spot that the polar axis is.
the part of the mount that must be ai med at the pole. Declination circles can slip, so a setting of 90
First, set the angle of the polar axis to your present degrees may not in fact be 90 degrees.
latitude with the adjustment at the base of the
CALIBRATING THE DECLINATION
mount- usually a large bolt with a graduated dial
CIRCLE
showing to 90 degrees. Extra care should be taken
when it is loosened, though, since the whole mount Swing a fork-mounted telescope in declination so
could flop down. If the telescope has a graduated that it parallels the forks as closely as the eye can
dial, set the latitude and tighten the bolt. The latitude judge. For German mounts, move the instrument to
adjustment should be made only once, when the in- bring its tube parallel to the polar axis. Look into the
strument is purchased, unless the telescope is trans- eyepiece of the main telescope at low power, and
ported north or south to a new latitude (travelling watch the stars (any stars) as the telescope is rotated
east or west makes no difference). If the equatorial around the polar axis. Do the stars circle the centre
mount does not have a graduated circle for a local of the field? (If the telescope is truly set to 90 degrees
latitude setting, follow the steps in the next para- declination, they will.) If not, move the telescope
graph; otherwise, skip ahead. slightly in declination to see whether the situation
Latitude adjustment: At the observing site, place improves. Keep adjusting the declination until the

the telescope so that the polar axis aims as close stars move in concentric circles when the instru-
to Polaris as possible using the eyeball method. ment is rotated in right ascension.
Adjust the tripod legs to level the base of the mount. Now, loosen the declination circle(s), and set it

(This one case when you do have to level the

is (them) to show 90 degrees. Most declination circles
Six-degree finderscope views mount. Some mounts have bubble levels for this on fork-mounted telescopes have a central bolt that
show the stars in the vicinity of purpose.) Swing the tube in declination so that can be loosened for this. Once tightened, the decli-
the north celestial pole (NCP) it is at 90 degrees as read on the declination cir- nation circle(s) should not need readjusting.
and the south celestial pole cle—the circle nearest the tube or the counter-
(SCR). Delta Ursae Minoris is weight. The tube is then parallel to the polar axis
MORE PRECISE METHODS
the closest star to Polaris in the and is pointed in the samedirection. Lock both axes. Serious astrophotographers prefer stars to stay
handle of the Little Dipper. Carefully loosen the bolt that clamps the tilt of the within a few arc seconds of their intended spot for
Many telescope finders and polar axis, and adjust it until Polaris is seen in the an hour or more. This requires high-precision polar-
polar-axis finderscopes have finderscope midway between the top and bottom alignment techniques.
offset reticles for positioning of the field (not necessarily centred, j'jst midway). DThe Single-Star Method
Polaris relative to theNCP. Now, tighten the bolt, and that should set the lati- This technique was described by Dennis di Cicco
Stars to eighth magnitude are tude angle. This procedure is necessary only once. in December 1986 Sky & Telescope. It is a
the
plotted near the SCP to aid in When the latitude adjustment is made and the favourite of many amateurs, since with practice, it
direct aligning with polar-axis telescope is levelled, the polar axis will be at the takes only 10 minutes. First, follow the steps in

finderscopes. Fifth-magnitude correct angle aimed toward Polaris. On sub-

if it is the previous section to align the mount with the
Sigma Octantis is also shown sequent setups, with the tube at 90 degrees decli- celestial pole. Then aim the telescope at a bright
on the Sky Region Chart on nation, use the fine altitude and azimuth adjust- star near the celestial equator whose right ascen-
page 287. NCP and SCP posi- ments on the mount to move the telescope left and sion is known, preferably in coordinates for the
tions are for the year 2000, but right and up and down to centre the pole area in the current year.
diagrams
at this scale, these finderscope. If your telescope has no fine adjust- With the star centred in the eyepiece, rotate the
will be useful throughout the ments, alter the height of the south-pointing tripod right-ascension setting circle so that it displays the
two decades from 1990 to 2010. leg and nudge the tripod left or right. star's right ascension. Now, swing the telescope

260
 I CALIBRATION STARS I

Star Name R^. (1990) Dec.

a Andromedae Alpheratz ^_^^H^^^^B Oh OSm __^^^^^^V + 29°02'fl

a Arietis Hanial 2h07m + 23° 25'
a Tauri '^''SiHf ^^4h35m ^mmi^Ml^ + 16°29'V
Aldebaran ""T^^H
a Canis Minoris Procyon 39m + 05= 7h 15'

a Leonis ^Bl^B ^^^Hii^H lOh OSm IHHSiilW+i2°'0VH

Regulus
a Bootis 14h 15mArcturus+ 19° 14'

a Aquilae ^^^^^| ^^ ..i^^^fl^l^P"" 19h 50m ^^^"+08°5T-"

Altair

back until the circles show Polaris's coordinates or south. It may take a few minutes to show up.
(1990: R.A. 2h 22m Dec. +89° 13'). Move right If the star drifts north, the polar axis is aimed too
ascension first, then declination. When swinging far west (it is to the left of the actual pole for northem-
the mount in declination, be sure to stop at the first hemisphere astronomers). If the star drifts south, the
89-degree setting. Do not go past the 90-degree polar axis is aimed too far east (to the right of the

mark to the 89-degree mark on the other side. Lock pole). Be careful. Make sure you know which way
the mount in right ascension and declination. north is in the eyepiece. Move the mount in azimuth
Do not worry if Polaris is not in the field. in the appropriate direction, then go back to the star,

Using the mount's fine altitude and azimuth ad- and watch again. Has the drift improved? Eventu-
justments, move it until Polaris is in the centre of the ally, no drift should appear even after 20 minutes.

field of a medium-power eyepiece. Do not move Once this stage is satisfactory, point the telescope
the declination or right-ascension motions. Once at another star on the celestial equator, but one that
Polaris is in the centre, unlock the telescope and is rising in the east. Observe it for a while, again ig-
swing it back to the calibration star. Adjust the right- noring any drift in right ascension. If it drifts north,

ascension circle again if necessary. Repeat the the polar axis is aimed too high (it is above the ac-
procedure. Each repetition should require fewer tual pole). If the star drifts south, the polar axis is

and fewer adjustments. If the starting position was aimed too low (it is below the pole). Adjust the alti-
fairly close, only a couple of iterations should be tude of the polar axis accordingly. As long as the ini-

needed to zero in on the pole. As di Cicco points tial setup was good, only a small adjustment should
out, the method also works in the southern hemi- be required. Now, go back to the east star, and
sphere with Sigma Octantis and its coordinates watch again. The drift should have improved. Fi-
(1990: R.A. 21h 00m Dec. -89° OOT nally, repeatall the steps. Ifthis is done in the south-
If this technique is used often, keep the perti- ern hemisphere, substitute south everywhere we
nent coordinates handy in a logbook or gadget have said north, and vice versa. Clearly, such a te-
case. Or if the telescope is set up in the same spot dious procedure is best reserved for permanent
every night, mark the ground so that the tripod is setups or for astrophotographic situations in which
always returned to the same orientation. This saves only perfection will do.
having to polar-align at every session.
DThe Two-Star Method
This procedure is more time-consuming, but for per-
fectionists, it is the method of choice. When setting
up a permanent site or a backyard observatory, it is

also the best way to achieve the final alignment of

the mount.
Again, use the simpler method to polar-align.
Then aim the telescope at a star on the celestial
equator due south. If possible, put an illuminated-
reticle eyepiece in the telescope, and align the cross

hairs so that they run parallel to the lines of right-

ascension and declination motion. Ensure that the
drive is running. Now, watch the star carefully. Ig-

nore any drift it makes east or west in right ascen-

sion, but watch for a drift in declination, that is, north

261
 MAINTAINING TELESCOPE PERFORMANCE
There is very little to wear out on a telescope, and
it should literally last a lifetime, but not without

some basic maintenance. The constant jostling and

exposure to the elements is bound to take its toll,
requiring that you clean and collimate the optics.

COLLIMATION
For a telescope to deliver the best image possible,
precise collimation of the optics is essential. This
means all the mirrors and lenses should be centred
and angled properly so that light rays hitting the
main mirror or lens on-axis form an image in the
exact centre of the eyepiece. If the optics are not
collimated, stars in the centre of the field will be hand — a mere fraction of a turn may be all that is
distorted comets flared to one side, rather than required— and check your progress to be sure you
symmetrical pinpoints. In severe cases, nothing are on the right track.
will focus properly. Beforeblaming the quality of With the typical Meade and Celestron Schmidt-
your telescope's optics for poor images, check Cassegrains, there are two other precautions:
the collimation. (1 Never loosen the central screw on the second-
)

The test for poor collimation is simple: slowly rack ary mirror cell. It holds the mirror in place. (2) Be
a bright star out of focus. If the resulting expanding careful not to overtighten the three collimation
round disc is not symmetrical, there is a problem. screws. If they push on the secondary with too much
On reflectors, the test is especially easy because the force, the mirror surface will distort, creating astig-
central dark shadow cast by the secondary mirror matic star images,
should be dead centre in the out-of-focus blur circle. n Collimation Procedure
Commercially made Maksutovs are
refractors or 1 On a night with fairly steady star images, set up
collimated at the factory and generally offer no user- the telescope, and let it cool to outside air temper-
adjustable settings. In the event that their optics do ature. This may take an hour.
require collimation, it usually means a trip back to 2. Aim the telescope at a second-magnitude star
the manufacturer. Some refractors have three sets more than 45 degrees above the horizon. Use a
of screws in the lens cell for home collimation, but medium-power eyepiece, but do not use a star di-
that is needed.
rarely agonal, because it can introduce collimation prob-
However, you have a Newtonian or a Schmidt-
if lems of its own.
Cassegrain, collimation is something you should be 3. Place the star dead centre, then crank it out of
aware of. Although it takes a major bump to knock focus until it is a sizable blob. If the telescope is out
mirrors out of collimation, it can happen (sometimes of collimation, the secondary-mirror shadow will
during shipping from the factory). Or the accumu- appear off-centre.
lation of small shocks and temperature changes over 4. Now use the slow motions to move the telescope
time can eventually degrade the alignment of mir- so that the star image is displaced from the centre
rors. In either case, an adjustment of their collima- of the field. Select a displacement direction that
tion is required. makes the central shadow appear better-centred.
nCollimating Schmidt-Cassegrains 5. Using a tiny Allen wrench, turn the collimation

These are the simplest telescopes to collimate. The screw that makes the out-of-focus star image move
adjustments are done strictly with the three small back toward the centre of the field. This takes
screws on the secondary mirror cell. (On some careful trial and error. Remember to make very
models, the screws are hidden behind a protective small adjustments.
plastic cover.) The idea is to use these screws to ad- 6. If the image is still asymmetrical, then repeat
The three collimation screws just the tilt ofthe secondary mirror so that it projects Steps 4 and 5. Turning one screw may not be suffi-
for a Schmidt-Cassegrain are the light beam straight down the centre of the tele- cient. A combination of two may be required. one If

located on the secondary scope. On

most Schmidt-Cassegrains, the second- screw gets too tight, loosen the other two to perform
mirror cell. Small adjustments ary mirror magnifies the focal length by a factor of the same move. At the end ofthe whole procedure,
to these screws are often all five; its collimation is therefore extremely critical. all three screws should be finger-tight.

that is required if collimation Even a slight maladjustment can degrade perfor- 7. Once you have done this at medium power,

becomes necessary. mance. Always approach collimation with a light switch to high power (200x to 300x). Any residual

262
 .

View Down the Eyepiece Tube

1. Uncollimated 2. Diagonal mirror centred under eyepiece tube

Bottom end of
eyepiece tube

Diagonal
mirror holder

3. Diagonal mirror properly aimed 4. Primary mirror properly aimed

collimation error that remains after Step 6 will show need to make a "collimating eyepiece." Cut off the
up now, especially you rack the star just slightly
if bottom of a plastic 35mm film canister, then drill or
out of focus. Perform Steps 4 and 5 again, making punch a small pinhole in the exact centre of the lid
even finer adjustments. (where the moulding dimple is). This makeshift de-
You can do this procedure to a fair degree of ac- vice will keep your eye in the centre of the focuser
curacy during the day. Sight a distant power-pole in- tube for the line-uptests. Insert the film<an eyepiece
sulator or piece of polished chrome trim. Look for into the focuser in place of a regular eyepiece.
a specular glint of sunlight— can serve as an artifi-
it D Rough Collimation Procedure
cial star. For the final adjustment, use a star at night. 1 The first step is to centre the secondary or di-

DColiimating NexA'tonians agonal mirror. should be in the centre of the tube

It These four diagrams,
Both mirrors in a Newtonian are subject to adjust- and directly underneath the focuser. To get it in the adapted from Perspectives on
ment, which slightly complicates the process. But centre of the tube, adjust the spider vanes so that Collimation— a booklet from
you can bring Newtonian mirrors into close colli- they are of equal length. It is that simple. Tectron Telescopes— represent
mation in the comfort of your home simply by ex- 2. To get the mirror directly under the focuser, turn the view down the eyepiece
amining the appearance of the various reflections the threaded rod that the secondary-mirror holder holder during the main phases
while looking down the focuser. To do this, you sits on. This moves the secondary up and down the of collimation.

263
length of the tube. Look into the focuser through mercially available lens cleaners work fine for the
your collimation eyepiece to see whether the sec- small surface area of camera lenses and eyepieces
ondary mirror is centred on the focuser hole. Do but may be too high in detergent content for the
not worry about any off-centre reflections in the larger areas of telescope objectives and corrector
diagonal mirror; just get the mirror itself positioned. plates. Often, the result is smearing, unless the
3. Rotate the diagonal holder until the top of the larger optic is polished to excess following the
holder is under the focuser (so that the di-
directly application of fluid.
agonal is not turned away from the focuser tube). It The best plan is to mix your own lens cleaner suit-
isfairlyeasy to eyeball this. (On most new commer- able for optics both large and small with inexpen-
cial telescopes, Steps 1 to 3 should rarely, if ever, sive supplies available at a drugstore. Mix distilled
be necessary. However, homemade or used tele- water and isopropyl (rubbing) alcohol of the
scopes can have many collimation ills.) cheapest and least aromatic variety in a ratio of SO-
4. Adjust the tilt of the secondary mirror. This is SO. Then add a few drops of dishwashing liquid (not
where most Newtonian owners will need to start. dishwasher), just enough to undo the surface ten-
To do this, adjust the three collimation screws on sion thatcausesbeadingof the water-alcohol mix-
the diagonal holder so that the reflection of the main ture on polished glass. The resultant brew is a po-
mirror is precisely centred in the diagonal mirror. tent cleaning agent that is safe for virtually any
For this step, ignore the reflection of the spider and anti reflection coating and dries clean with a mini-
secondary mirrors; just concentrate on getting the mum of polishing.
perimeter of the main mirror nicely lined up with You can use lint-free commercial lens tissue, but
the outline of the secondary mirror. Up to now, you we have found white facial tissue to be equally satis-
have nottouched the main mirror at all. That is next. factory. It may leave but that is what a can of
lint,

5. At this point, the main mirrot^s reflection of the compressed air is for. Avoid the perfumed tissues,
spider and diagonal holder probably looks off- because they may contain oily aromatic substances.
centre.To bring them in line, adjust the three colli- However, the chief ingredient of care is the
mation screws on the main (primary) mirror cell. prevention ofdust in the first place, so keep the op-
The dark diagonal-mirror silhouette should end up tics covered when not in use. When dust does ac-

in the centre of the reflection of the primary mirror, cumulate on the surface, you can defer a major
which itself is centred in the secondary mirror. cleaning job by removing it promptly while it is
6. Once the coarse mechanical adjustments are still dust, before a night of heavy dew transforms

made, take the telescope out at night and check the it into mud.

out-of-focus star images to see whether they are D Cleaning Eyepieces and Lenses
symmetrical. Wait for the telescope to cool down, Of all components, eyepieces require the
optical
then follow the same procedure outlined under most cleaning. The eye lenses pick up grease and
Schmidt-Cassegrains, but with a difference: use oil from eyelashes and from misplaced fingers fum-

the three collimation screws on the primary mirror bling in thedark. In refractors and catadioptrics, the
cell to do the final fine-tuning. Do not adjust the front lens or corrector plate can gather dust. If dew
secondary mirror. is allowed to form on these surfaces often, a filmy

On some Newtonians, the secondary mirror is on residue can accumulate.

no provisions for adjust-
a single-stalk spider with 1. First, blow loose dust and dirt off the exterior lens

ments. Should adjustments be necessary, the stalk surfaces with a bulb-blower brush or a can of com-
must be bent to achieve Steps 1 to 4. pressed air. (Be careful with the canned air: if you
Any Dobsonian telescope in which the mirror is tilt the can, some of the propel lant may spew out,
removed each night may require collimation touch- spotting the optics with chemical gunk.)
ups each time the telescope is used. To assist you 2. Next, use a soft camel-hair brush and very light
in coliimating Newtonians, more sophisticated strokes to remove loose specks. Any that remain
accessories such as the Cheshire eyepiece are could scratch the surface when you perform the
available. Tectron Telescopes in Florida makes following step.
a series of collimation aids that come with detailed 3. Moisten some tissue with a few drops of the
instruction manuals. For more information on col- cleaning fluid mentioned above. Do not apply the
iimating telescopes, see the March and April 1 988 fluid directly onto the lens; it can seep into lens cells
issues of Sky & Telescope. and into the interior of eyepiece barrels.
4. Gently wipe the lens with the moistened tissue.
CLEANING TELESCOPE OPTICS new
Do not press hard. If the stain is stubborn, use
Never use cleaning solutions or special cloths sold pieces of tissue. Sometimes, gently breathing on
foreyeglasses. These contain ingredients that may the lens can help remove stains.

smear, leaving a chemical film on the lenses. Com- 5. Use a dry tissue for a final cleaning of moist areas.

264
 .

plus some more air puffs to blow off the bits of 6. Lay the mirror flat in the sink; there should be

tissue that inevitably remain. about half an inch of water covering the surface. Use
Never take an eyepiece apart, at least to the ex- sterile cotton balls or gobs of cotton to swab the mir-

removed from their

tent that the eyepiece lenses are ror gently. Always brush in straight lines across the
mountings. The inner surfaces were assembled in surface, using the weight of the wet cotton as the
a dust-free environment. Also, in attempting to re- sole source of pressure on the mirror's face. Never
assemble an eyepiece, it is all too easy to get the rub or use circular motions. Repeat if necessary with
tiny lenses in the wrong order or flipped around fresh cotton balls and moving in a direction perpen-
back to front. dicular to the first procedure.
In some refractors, it is possible to remove the 7. Drain the sink; then rinse the mirror with cool
front lens assembly, cell and all. This may be nec- water.
essary to get at the rear surface, where a filmy resi- 8. Perform a final rinse with bottled distilled water
due can sometimes appear. But never take doublet (to remove mineral substances from the tap water).
or triplet refractor lenses apart or remove the assem- 9. Let the mirror dry by standing it on edge. Once
bly from the cell. cleaned in this fashion, the mirror should not have
The front corrector complete with the sec-
plate, to be subjected to this treatment again for many
ondary mirror attached, can be removed from the years, if Be very careful when
ever. Final caveats:
front of most Schmidt-Cassegrains. But use extreme handling the wet mirror. Remove any rings from
care; Schmidt-Cassegrain corrector plates are very your fingers so that the mirror does not get
thin. Getting at the inside surface ofthe corrector or scratched. And do not use any chemical solvents
at the secondary mirror may be required if the in- or cleansers.
terior of the telescope has become contaminated
with dust or moisture. Important: The corrector
COLD-WEATHER PRECAUTIONS
plate/secondary mirror assembly must be put back Moving a telescope from a warm house to the cold
in the same orientation as you found them. night air, even if it is minus 30 degrees, should not
For objective lenses, correctors and other large haveany effect on the optics. Parts will contract,
ill

refractor surfaces, clean in a number of relatively but we

have never heard of a telescope mirror or
small pie-shaped sections. If you attempt to clean lens shattering from the cold. However, mechani-
a large optic in a single swoop, the portion wet-
fell cal parts become difficult to move because of the
ted wil almost certai n ly dry to smears whi le you at-
I grease stiffening. Focusers and clock drives become
tempt to get the first part dry. Discard the tissues very balky. If your telescope mount seems to seize
used on prior sections, and use fresh ones, in case up under extremely cold conditions, never force it.
some grit was picked up along the way. There may Forcing a frozen component can cause it to break
be a few smears remaining, but a final polish with or strip gears. To solve this, observers who fre-

a fresh tissue and light condensation from your own quently use their telescopes under cold winter con-
breath will restore the pristine appearance, ditions often replace the standard grease with a
ncieaning Mirrors special low-temperature silicone lubricant.
For most ofthe lifetime of a Newtonian, the primary When bringing a frosted or dew-covered tele-
and secondary mirrors should require only the oc- scope in from the cold, always cap the main optics
casional blast of canned air and a few strokes of a and pack the telescope and eyepieces in their cases
camel-hair brush. Aluminized surfaces can scratch first. Then carry the protected optics inside, and al-

easily, and a mirror full of microscopic scratches is low them to warm up gradually. This will help pre-
far worse than a mirror with a few isolated specks vent condensation from forming on them. Once the
of dust on it. However, for that rare cleaning, follow equipment has warmed close to room temperature,
these steps: it can be uncovered. If optics have notdried off, ex-

1 Remove the mirror from its cell— a task some- posure to warm household air wil soon clear them. I

times made tricky by poorly designed clips. A little moisture on the optics now and then will
2. Once the mirror is free from the cell and safely do no harm, but if it happens regularly, corrector
on a table, use a blower and brush to remove as plates and lenses can collect a filmy residue, some-
much loose dust as possible. times on both the outside and inside surfaces, forc-
3. Now, place the mirror on edge in a sink on top ing more frequent cleaning, which is not good. If the
of a folded towel to prevent it from slipping around. telescope is being used night after night in cold
4. Run cold water over the front of the mirror to weather, store it in a cold but dry place, such as an
wash off more of the dirt. Do not worry; this wil not I unheated garage with a dry concrete floor. This will
remove the aluminum coating. avoid all the condensation problems, not to men-
5. Then fill the sink with warm water and a few tion the long wait for perfect star images while the
drops of a gentle liquid soap. telescope settles down to ambient temperatures.

265
 A GLOSSARY OF OPTICAL JARGON
D By Peter Ceravolo diffraction rings, lowering contrast. To understand
Here is a glossary of terms to help decode the jar- this, think of the Airy disc as the telescopic equiva-
gon often encountered in product reviews and tele- lent of the dots that make up a television image. In
scope advertising. In reviewing the definitions of extended such as planets and deep-sky ob-
targets,
terms, you will detect a bias toward high-quality, jects, light that spills into the rings washes over the
high-contrast telescopes. Although this might sug- adjacent picture dots, diffusing the difference in
gest refractors as the only instruments of choice, brightness between adjacent dots. The Airy disc's
Newtonian and Cassegra in-type reflectors can, in size is 280 divided by the aperture of the telescope
fact, achieve a high degree of optical perfection in millimetres.
when made correctly. Also addressed are a few im-
perfections in the way amateur-astronomy optics
APOCHROMATIC REFRACTOR
are described and marketed. Words in italics are Apochromatic is sometimes used to mean any high-
defined elsewhere in the glossary. contrast colour-suppressed refractor system. To
be precise, an apochromatic lens will bring three
ABERRATIONS
wavelengths to a common focus and will achieve
Aberrations are the result of the defects and/or de- spherical aberration correction in two wavelengths.
sign compromises inherent in even the finest optics. In order that no extraneous colour is seen even on

On-axis aberrations, such as spherical aberration the brightest celestial objects, a lens must bring all
and chromatic aberration, cause a loss of sharpness the visible colours together to within 0.01 percent
and contrast to images in the centre of the field. Off- of the system's focal length. Modern apochromatic
axis aberrations, such as coma and curvature of telescopes can have two-, three- or four-element ob-
field, affect images at the edge of the field. Depend- jectives in focal ratios as fast as f/5. A telescope that
ing on the source of the aberration, astigmatism has extra lens elements beyond the two standard in

can affect images in either part of the field. an achromatic refractor is not necessarily apochro-
matic; must be carefully designed that way.
ACHROMATIC REFRACTOR it

ASPHERIC SURFACES
A refractor that uses a two-lens objective made of
conventional crown and flint glasses will reduce Any optical surface that employs a figure which Is

chromatic aberration to low levels, bringing two not a simple surface of a sphere is called aspheric.
colours to a common focus. Such a lens system is Spherical surfaces are the simplest optical systems
called "achromatic," meaning mostly colour-free. to manufacture and are therefore more likely to a|>
proach perfection. Examples include the classic
AIR-SPACED LENS
long-focus refractor. However, some refractor sys-
Small doublet lenses (less than 4 inches) are often tems and most reflector and catadioptric systems
cemented together. In larger lenses, this is imprac- require optics that are aspheric. Examples are the
tical. Larger doublets and many triplet lenses are parabolic surface used on all quality Newtonian
air-spaced, a design that gives lens makers greater primary mirrors.
freedom produce an objective which reduces
to
ASTIGMATISM
aberrations to a minimum and which cools down
more quickly than would a massive lens with all One of the principal optical aberrations, astig-
elements in contact. matism spreads the star image out into an ellipse or
line. In main optics, astigmatism can be caused by
AIRY DISC
poorly mounted optics that bend the lens or mirror
The wave nature of light prevents even the most op- along one axis. It can also be caused by improperly
tically perfect telescope from showing stars as pin- manufactured optics. Astigmatism is often present
points. Instead, in the ideal telescope system at high in even the finest eyepieces, where it distorts stars

power, a star looks like a tiny disc— the Airy disc- at the edge of the field intoelongated sea gulls. Eye-
surrounded by a series of rings (diffraction rings) of piece astigmatism effects are frequently and errone-
decreasing brightness. In fine-quality, unobstructed ously called coma by amateur astronomers.
optical systems, 84 percent of the light is concen-
BAFFLING
trated into the central Airy disc, and 16 percent is
distributed among the rings. As the optics or design Ideally, only light passing directly through the tele-
of the telescope system deviates from perfection, scope's optics from the object under scrutiny should
more light is spilled out of the Airy disc and into the reach the focus, but this is seldom the case. Light

266
from other areas of the sky can sometimes enter the scope can show the same detail as seen in a less
field of view, either directly or after bouncing off efficient system with a significantly larger aper-
tube components. The result is reduced contrast. ture. Overall, the image may be fainter, but the
Eliminating the scattered light is the job of well- same details are visible.
placed baffles, in a refractor, baffles take the form
DAWES' LIMIT
of several discs with holes of varying diameters posi-
tioned along the inside of the tube. In a Cassegrain Nineteenth-century observer William R. Dawes
telescope, baffle tubes usually extend from the main found that a telescope could resolve double stars
mirror's central hole and from the secondary mirror which were separated by 4.56 arc seconds divided
mount. Newtonian reflectors are difficult to baffle. by the aperture of the telescope (in inches). The rule
If the focuser mounted too close to the end of the
is of thumb applies only to yellow stars of equal mag-
tube or if there is a gap between the primary mirror nitude. However, manufacturers often state that
cell and the tube, then stray light can reach the a telescope will resolve better than Dawes' limit
focus directly from both top and bottom. as a claim of its optical quality.

CERTIFIED OPTICS DIFFRACTION-LIMITED

OPTICAL QUALITY
Manufacturers sometimes use this term to indicate
quality. But optics certified by whom and to what Even a perfect telescope does not form a point
standard? Few manufacturers supply documenta- image of a star but, rather, an Airy disc with its sur-
tion to prove their so-called certification. "Certified rounding diffraction rings. Therefore, there comes
optics" is a meaningless advertising term. a point when no longer have
optical imperfections
a significant effect on image quality, and the natu-
CHROMATIC ABERRATION ral effects of diffraction dominate and limit perfor-

This optical aberration, characteristic of refractors, mance. Commercial telescopes are often described
occurs when all the colours are not brought to the as diffraction limited. This implies a smooth 1/4-
same focus. The result is a halo of unfocused colour wave peak-to-valley wavefront error, or about 1/1 6-
around bright objects called the secondary spec- wave RMS wavefront error. This "1/4-wave" rule
trum. Refractors with fast focal ratios suffer the most was once regarded as being too lax for high-defini-
from this defect. tion observing (see Glossary in previous edition of
this book), but recent experiments (see pages 93-94)
COMA have vindicated the age-old rule first put forth by
Coma is an off-axis aberration that affects only im- Lord Rayleigh of England in the late 1 800s. It must
ages away from the centre of the field of view. Coma be noted, however, that Lord Rayleigh arrived at this
causes stars to appear flared, like tiny comets point- conclusion when observing with refractors, which
ing inward from the edge of the field. It is a char- do not suffer from the degrading effects of a large
acteristic of fast-focal-ratio Newtonians and some central obstruction.
Cassegrain telescopes.
ENHANCED COATINGS
CONTRAST Ideally, a mirror reflect 1 00 percent of the
should
The difference in brightness over the surface of an lightthat strikes However, the aluminum coating
it.

object or the difference in brightness of an object standard on most telescope mirrors reflects 88 per-
compared with the sky is the contrast. Since a great cent of the incident light. Since there are at least two
deal of the detail on planets and within deep-sky mirrors in any reflective system, only 88 percent of
objects is inherently low in contrast to begin with, 88 percent (78 percent) of the incident light gets
anyaberra(;on, stray light or turbulence that lowers to the focus. In a Cassegrain telescope, the star di-
contrast will also obscure detail. agonal, whether it is a mirror- or prism-type, causes
a further loss of light.
CONTRAST EFFICIENCY The efficiency of reflective telescopes can be im-
in effect, contrast efficiency is the capability of proved by using silvered rather than aluminized sur-
a telescope to form as ideal a diffraction pattern faces. Silver has about 95 percent reflectivity, but it

as possible with the least amount of scattered light. tarnishes easily unless overcoated for protection.
Only high-quality optics in a well-designed tube Because of problems with si I vered optics, manufac-
assembly will offer high-contrast efficiency. A turors turned to aluminum enhanced with multi-
high-contrast image of an object in a small tele- layered overcoatings. Reflectivities as high as 98

267
 percent can be achieved, although in practice,
enhanced aluminum coatings are usually limited to
about 95 percent reflective efficiency —a significant
improvement in image brightness that makes
enhanced coatings an excellent option.

FULL-THICKNESS MIRRORS
Mirrors with a width-to-thickness ratio of 6:1 are
called full-thickness mirrors. Theoretically, they will
hold their figure better than will a thin lightweight
mirror. However, their large mass can take a long
time to cool down.

HAND-FIGURED OPTICS
Manufacturers often say that their optics are hand-
figured, implying a greater degree of precision or
care in the manufacture. In practice, all telescope amount of full-thickness mirrors and are much
optics must receive some degree of hand-figuring. lighter. Yet it takes just as much time, if not more,
The quality that results depends on how well the to figure a thin mirror accurately as it does a full-

optics are hand-figured. thickness one. any mirror is not supported

If

properly, gravity will deform it. This problem be-

INTERFEROMETER
comes worse with thin mirrors. As an alternative to
An interferometer is an optical testing device that thin mirrors, mirrors can also be made lightweight
uses the special properties of laser light to assess the by moulding them using a ribbed egg-crate
quality of telescope optics. Interferometers can be structure.
extremely expensive instruments when profession-
ally made. However, with theavailability of instruc-
MAGNESIUM-FLUORIDE COATINGS
Right: An interferogram tional material, inexpensive surplus lasers and the In a refractor, some of the light (approximately 1 per-
reveals optical quality more specialized components needed to assemble a unit, cent per 25mm of thickness) is absorbed by the thick
precisely than do traditional the technology is finally trickling down to the hobby- glass lenses. If the lens surface is uncoated, about
tests used by amateur astron- ist. Nearly commercial interferometers use the
all 4 percent of the light is also lost to reflection at each
omers, such as the Foucault common red laser. The interferometer employed for air-to-glass surface. For the average uncoated air-

and Ronchi tests. An interfer- testing amateur telescopes should have a green spaced doublet, only 81 percent of the incident light
ogram is created when two laser, since green is the light to which the dark- reaches the focus. To increase light transmission,
wavefronts—the telescope's adapted eye is most sensitive. Even more important, lenses can be treated with a single layer of mag-
wavefront and a master wave- refractors are designed to be properly corrected for nesium-fluoride coating. This reduces the light loss
front of excellent quality- green light and suffer from spherochromatism, so to less than 1.5 percent per surface, and the overall
interfere witheach other and testing in the red will not do them justice. transmission of an air-spaced doublet increases
form light and dark bands to about 95 percent.
called interference fringes. The
INTERFEROMETRY
straighter the fringes, the better Interferometry is the modern and preferred method
MULTICOATED OPTICS
the optical figure. Patterns like of testing optical quality in professional optical To increase light transmission further, lenses and
these can easily be accurately shops, since the test results can be analyzed by com- corrector plates can be coated with multiple layers
analyzed by computer to puter to give an unbiased and accurate account of of anti reflection material. This reduces light loss to
assess optical quality. The telescope's wavefront quality is
optical quality. less than 1 percent per surface. Modern eyepieces,
Above: A professional directly compared to a high-quality reference in the with up to 1 or more air-to-glass interfaces, bene-
interferometer set up at the interferometer. Using interferometers to test optics fit the most from multilayered coatings.
National Research Council of istheonly way to achieve a consistent level of op-
Canada. The long, white tube quality in a production environment. com-
NULL FIGURED
tical If a
is one of the experiment tele- pany states a level of optical quality, say, 1/4-wave A type of test used during fabrication of telescope
scopes mentioned in Myth #6 peak-to-valley wavefront error, but does not base Does not necessarily imply high quality. (The
optics.
(Chapter 6). The interference this claim on interferometric test results, the asser- Hubble SpaceTelescope's primary mirror was null
pattern is viewed on a video tion should be viewed with suspicion. figured.)
monitor. A computer linked to
the interferometer analyzes the
LIGHTWEIGHT MIRROR PARABOLIC MIRROR
fringe pattern and determines Thin mirrors(with a width-to-thickness ratio of from all incoming light rays to the same point,
To focus
optical quality. 10:1 to 15:1) are often priced at a fraction of the Newtonian primary mirrors must be aspheric or

268
parabolic in achieved by altering the
shape. This is RMS wavefront error roughly equals 1/4-wave PV
spherical surface of the mirror during polishing. wavefront error).

Accurate parabolizing is essential to achieving

SATISFACTION GUARANTEED
optimum performance (except in the case of 6-inch
or smaller Newtonians f/10 or longer, where a Many manufacturers of amateur-astronomy optics
spherical primary will suffice). lack the costly test equipment necessary to guaran-
tee a specific surface accuracy or wavefront error.
PEAK-TO-VALLEY
Rather than misrepresent their products, they sim-
WAVEFRONT ERROR ply guarantee satisfaction. Should you be unhappy
The peak-to-val ley (PV) wavefront error is a measure with your purchase, most companies will readily ex-
of the amplitude of defects on the wavefront from change or fix your telescope. However, the prob-
the highest to the lowest point. Taken alone, the PV lem some buyers have encountered is that the new
wavefront error does not always accurately describe or repaired instrument is no better than the original,
the imaging quality of a telescope. A 1/4-wave making such a guarantee rather hollow.
"bump" in the central region of the aperture is much
SPHERICAL ABERRATION
less harmful to image quality than a 1/4-wave "roll-
off" at the edge of the aperture. The PV wavefront The defect that plagues the Hubble Space Tele-
error should be considered along with the RMS scope. Rays from the perimeter of the objective do
wavefront error to assess imaging characteristics not focus at the same poi nt as rays from the centre.
properly. Often, a manufacturerwill givea PV value The result is overly bright diffraction rings, loss of
without expl icitly stating whether it is the wavefront detail and haloes of unfocused light around planets.
that is being measured. This is the case in advertise- If the aberration is acute, star images will be un-
ments for Newtonian telescopes, since it is common focusable blurs.
to describe only the primary mirror's surface qual-
ity, not the system's wavefront error. In this case, the
SPHEROCHROMATISM
wavefront error is twice the surface error because The variation oi spherical aberration with the wave-
the defect is doubled in reflection. For example, length of light is called spherochromatism. In some
a 1/8-wave PV mirror surface yields a 1/4-wave can be very low
refractors, spherical aberration in

PV wavefront error. the green portion of the spectrum but higher in

the red and/or blue ends of the spectrum.

RESOLUTION
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Resolution is a telescope's ability to reveal fine de-
tail, especially low-contrast detail such as Jovian Although commercially made mirrors, corrector
cloud belts. The traditional test for resolution is to plates and lenses can have a good overall figure,
examine equal-magnitude double stars close to the they may suffer from relatively narrow but numer-
instrument's theoretical resolution limit, or Dawes' ous zones that add up to a "rough" surface which
limit. However, an optical system that splits equal- causes light scatter and reduced image contrast.
brightness double stars will not necessarily reveal
V^AVEFRONT ERROR
subtle lunar and planetary details. (See Chapter 6.)
Each of the various lenses or mirrors in a telescope
RMS WAVEFRONT ERROR contributes some distortion to the light rays passing
The RMS (root mean square) wavefront error is a through the system. The final effect is a wavefront
measure of wavefront error. Not only is the
statistical entering your eye with a certain degree of optical
magnitude of the defect considered, but its area (the aberration. The amount of wavefront error, or
numberof light rays itaffects) is factored in. For ex- optical path difference, is one of the most critical

ample, two 200mm telescopes are rated at 1/4-wave variables in determining optical quality. Optical
peak-to-valley wavefront error. The first has a 20mm- production isnotasrepeatableas, say, metalwork,
diameter bump in the centre of the aperture, and the so each telescope's wavefront quality will vary
second hasaroll-offattheedge 10mm wide Which somewhat, even in instruments made one after the
one will provide better images? While both tele- other. To ensure that quality is within acceptable
scopes have the same magnitude of aberration, the tolerances, rigorous quality-control checks are re-
second telescope's edge roll occupies an area 19 quired. The best way to analyze wavefront error is

times greater than the first telescope's bump, and this by computerized interferometry.
will result in a higher RMS value with correspond- Peter Ceravolo is a professional optician, former
ingly poorer images. Vor spherical aberration to be Making magazine and
associate editor of Telescope
reduced to acceptable levels, the RMS value should owner of Ceravolo Optical Systems, makers of pre-
be about one-quarter the PV value (i.e., 1 /1 6-wave cision custom telescopes and optics.

269
 HOW TO TEST YOUR TELESCOPE'S OPTICS
Have you ever wondered whether your telescope
is delivering the image quality is supposed to? You
it
A Perfect Star Image (as seen at high power)

can find out by conducting the star test, which can

be done outside at night with no special equipment Airy Disc

yet is sensitive enough to reveal even subtle defects

in a telescope's optics. It can also reveal many prob- First Diffraction Ring (brightest)
lems that are not the fault of the telescope, so some
care is required. Second Diffraction Ring (fainter)

WHAT YOU SHOULD SEE

Third Diffraction Ring (faintest)
The star test is administered by examining star im-
ages at high power, both in focus and out of focus.
Surprisingly, the out-of-focus images can demon-
strate a great deal about a telescope's optical qual- structed telescope— a reflector with a secondary
ity and performance potential. mirror— the out-of-focus pattern looks more like a
doughnut. Examining the appearance of an out-of-
THE IN-FOCUS focus star image (called the extrafocal image no
DIFFRACTION PATTERN
matter which way it is defocused) is the essence
At high power, a star looks like a distinct spot sur- of the star test.

rounded by a series of concentric rings, with the in- Now, remove the aperture stop, and test the in-
nermost ring being the brightest and most obvious. strument at full aperture. To do
choose a this,

This is called the diffraction pattern. The spot in the second-magnitude and defocus it so that four
star
middle is known as the Airy disc. Any telescope that to eight rings are visible. If you defocus it too far,
claims to be diffraction limited must create a very the test loses all sensitivity. Use about 25x to 35x
good likeness of that pattern. per inch of aperture.

AIRY DISC AND WHAT YOU MIGHT SEE

DIFFRACTION PATTERN
Many factors besides the qual ity of the optics them-
Your telescope may not produce as perfect a bull's- selves can ruin star images, so try to reduce these
eye as is depicted in the accompanying illustration. outside effects. Otherwise, you may be blaming
Few telescopes do. But you can see a perfect diffrac- your telescope for a defect it does not have.
tion pattern by masking your telescope down to a
TELESCOPE COLLIMATION
one-to-two-inch aperture. Then focus the telescope
on a bright star well above the horizon, such as Vega A telescope that is out of collimation is unfairly
or Capella, using a magnification of 50x to lOOx. judged by the star test. The out-of-focus diffrac-
Doing so should provide you with a classic diffrac- tion pattern in such a telescope looks like a striped,
tion pattern that can then be used as a standard of tilted cone as viewed from the pointy end. If your

comparison when star testing telescopes. telescope gives poor images, it is probably be-
cause of poor collimation. Follow the directions
THE OUT-OF-FOCUS in the collimation section of Appendix 3 before
DIFFRACTION PATTERN conducting a star test.
With the telescope stopped down, slowly rack the
staroutoffocus. An expanding pattern of rings will
ATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE
emerge, like ripples spreading across a quiet pond. On nights of poor seeing, turbulent air churning
Defocus the instrument to the point where four to above the telescope can turn the view into a boil-
six rings show. Except for a fat outer ring, the light ing confusion. When this happens, don't bother test-
is spread more or less uniformly among the rings. ing or collimating. Because they look through a
Now, rack through focus to the same place on the larger volume of air, large telescopes are affected
other side of focus. The pattern shou Id look identi- more by this problem than small ones, making itdif-
cal, with a uniform distribution of light within rings. ficult to find a good night to test big instruments.
The outer edge of the rings will be sharp; the edge
should not fuzz out on either side of focus.
TUBE CURRENTS
In an unobstructed telescope, such as a refractor, Slow-moving currents ofwarm air inside a telescope
the out-of-focus pattern will be filled in. In an ob- can introduce defects that mimic permanent errors

270
on the glass. Diffraction patterns look flattened or
flared.These image-distorting currents occur when
WhatYou Should See
Light
a telescope is taken from a warm house into the
Rays
cooler night air. When star testing, always allow A Perfect Star Image /J\ in Focus

the telescope to cool down. It may mean a wait

of an hour or more.

PINCHED OPTICS
Badly mounted optics create very unusual diffrac-
tion patterns. Most common for Newtonians is a tri-

angular or six-sided spiking or flattening (depend-

ing on which side of focus you are on). This occurs
if the clips holding a mirror in its cell are too tight.

The solution is to loosen them. Secondary mirrors

glued onto holders can also suffer from pinching.
Inside Focus Outside Focus
OTHER SOURCES OF ERROR Out of Focus
(obstructed telescope)
To conduct a star test, use a good-quality eyepiece
such as a PlossI or Orthoscopic. Do not use a
Barlow — it may add some optical errors of its own.
Also,do not use a star diagonal; always look straight
through the telescope. And be sure to do the star test
with the image centred in the field of view.
As a final precaution, if you wear glasses which
Inside Focus Outside Focus
have strongly curved lenses or which correct for
astigmatism, leave them on. Although you may
not be able to see the whole field, that does not ration that in turn leads to fuzzy images. Stars and
matter for this test. planets never snap into focus.
But do not confuse the secondary mirroi^s shadow
WHAT YOU DONT WANT TO SEE: in the ring system with a problem in your instru-
DEFECTS
ment's optics. At some point in defocusing, the
Now, the heart of the test: determining whether centre of the expanding cone of light is no longer
there is a defect in the optics themselves. Errors on illuminated in obstructed telescopes, leading to a U In a perfect telescope, all the
the optical surface are divided into categories. Un- doughnut pattern.The important factor is that the light rays reach a common
fortunately, the diffraction image does not always pattern should be the same on both sides of focus. focus. When viewed at high
neatly conform to textbook patterns. Errors some- power and precisely in focus, a
times combine to mix up the patterns illustrated
ZONES star should appear as a tiny
here. However, one error usually dominates, mak- Zones are small figuring errors in the form of shal- disc surrounded by faint rings
ing the diagnosis fairly obvious. low valleys or low hi Is arrayed in rings on the opti-
I (top). When viewed out of

cal surface. They often result from harsh machine- focus, the star image should
UNDERCORRECTION AND polishing methods. Most commercial optics suffer appear as a series of concentric
OVERCORRECTION from zones to some extent. Severe cases degrade rings. Ideally, the pattern will
The most common error in optical surfaces pro- image quality noticeably. To check for zones, defo- be identical on either side of
duces a distortion called spherical aberration. This cus the image more than is usual in the star test. On focus, although few telescopes
often happens when a mirror or lens is undercor- one side of focus or the other, you may notice that exhibit the ideal textbook
rected, that is, the surface has not been polished to one or more of the rings looks weak. patterns depicted here. In an
the proper parabolic shape, making light rays from unobstructed telescope (such
the perimeter focus closer in than rays from the
TURNED-DOWN EDGE as a refractor), the out-of-
centre. Inside of focus, the diffraction pattern has an One type of zone is the turned-down edge -a focus pattern will be filled
overly bright outer ring; outside of focus, the outer rounding off of the edge of the mirror or lens caused in (middle). In an obstructed
rings are faint and ill defined. by unusual polishing pressure. Turned-down edges telescope (a reflector with a
The opposite pattern, with a fuzzball inside of fo- can be troublesome because the perimeter of a mir- secondary mirror), the out-of-
cus and a doughnut outside of focus, results from ror or lens represents a large fraction of the light- focus pattern will look more
overcorrection. Either error causes spherical aber- collecting area. like a doughnut (bottom).

271
 Don't Blame the Optics if You See These
For Comparison:
Perfect Out-of-Focus Star Image Poor Collimation Atmospheric Turbulence

.^^r*
'^' :\ 'ft

-^,
^N^-^
^.*--:^¥

'Ni»i»U*>i«^-

Tube Currents (three variations)

;>•

^f%.
5^
'^''^
-:^m

Pinched Optics (three variations)

r.-*^^*---'«,

^*'-
K:''-*p-

Strange, out-of-focus star

images may not be the result In reflectors, a turned-down edge displays its pres- ening of contrast between the rings and the appear-
of poor optics. Poor collimation ence in thestartest by afuzzingoutof theedgeof ance of spiky appendages to the rings. Do not con-
can produce elliptical images. the disc inside of focus. As you approach focus, the fuse diffraction from spider vanes with these
Tube currents often cause a diffraction pattern looks flat; the rings are not crisp. spikes— spider diffraction is spaced regularly. Since
distortion on one side of the Outside of focus, the diffraction pattern is less dis- other aberrations can often obscure the appearance
image. Turbulence in the turbed and is difficult to distinguish from that of rings on one side of focus or the other, you must
atmosphere outside the tele- produced by a perfect mirror. inspect both sides of focus for signs of roughness.
scope tube generates overall For refractors, the reverse is true; the disc has a A velvety smooth ring system means you do not
distortions (poor seeing). The fuzzy edge outside of focus. However, the edge of have trouble with roughness.
patterns created by pinched a refractot^s objective covered by the mounting
is

optics are caused by the way in

ASTIGMATISM
cell, so a turned-down edge appears less often
which the optics are mounted, in a refractor. If an optical surface is ground orpolished on an un-

not by the optics themselves. even backing with an uneven stroke or if poorly
Also, a refractor or Schmidt-
H ROUGH SURFACES annealed glass is used, the resulting cylindrical
Cassegrain should never be Another common problem with commercial optics shape causes astigmatism. This in turn makes a star
tested with a star diagonal in is a kind of bumpiness or relief pattern caused by image look like a stubby line or an ellipse that flips
place because defects in the harsh machine polishing. Its descriptive nickname over at right angles as you rack from one side of fo-
diagonal's mirror or prism can is "dog biscuit," and it is more prevalent in reflectors cus to the other. The best focus looks vaguely cross-
contaminate the test. than in refractors. It appears in the star test as a less- like. The easiest way to detect astigmatism is to rock

272
 A Common Defect The Optics Have a Defect if You See These

Spherical Aberration Zonal Error

Inside Focus Outside Focus

Outside Focus

Turned Edge

Inside Focus Outside Focus

Inside Focus Outside Focus

the focuser back and forth quickly. Mild astigmatism

Surface Roughness
may be evident only at three rings defocused. This
problem is common in Schmidt-Cassegrains that
have corrector plates poorly matched to the main
mirrors or improperly oriented.
Astigmatism can also arise from an uncollimated
telescope or from pinched optics. Astigmatism in

Newtonians may indicate a diagonal that is not flat.

Smooth Surface Rough Surface
To test this, rotate the main mirror 45 degrees. If the
pattern does not rotate by the same amount, the
Astigmatism
diagonal is bad or pooHy mounted.

WHAT IF YOUR TELESCOPE FAILS?

Nearly all telescopes have questionable grades on
one or more of the star-test checks — not because
they are bad instruments but because the star test
can be astonishingly sensitive. So before dismissing One Side of Focus The Other Side of Focus
any telescope, do some other checks. How does it
perform on the snap test? One of the quickest star Left: In many telescopes, the
tests iswatch the image as it passes through fo-
to to do. If yours is a low-cost light bucket, be prepared mirrors are undercorrected. In
cus. Does the focus snap into place, or does it ooze to accept less-than-top-grade optics. On the other such systems, light rays from
through focus? If it snaps, it is doing well. hand, you have paid a premium price for a tele-
if the perimeter of the mirror
How does it do in comparison with other instru- scope advertised as diffraction limited, you have a focus close in, while light rays
ments of similartype, size and focal length? If your right to expect high marks on the star test. from near the centre of the
telescope always performs poorly in comparison If your telescope seems to fai the star test, do not
I mirror focus farther out. This
with others, you have good reason to believe the in- immediately confront the dealer or manufacturer. produces spherical aberration.
strument is at fault. Then consider the magnitude of You may be wrong. Like all types of observing, The result is images that never
the defect. Severe errors on any telescope include proficiency at star testing takes time. Try star testing snap into sharp focus.
obvious turned edge, any astigmatism that origi- other instruments. Get a second opinion. Ask more Right: Four primary optical
nates on the glass, easily seen correction difficulties, knowledgeable members of your local amateur defects. A turned edge is a
bad zones or severe roughness. These warrant re- group to star test your telescope. If the telescope still form of zonal error in which
turning the telescope. fails,work with the dealer or manufacturer respon- the edge of the mirror is lower
Possible acceptable errors include small correc- sibly, and you will probably receive satisfaction. than the ideal surface. Surface
tion flaws that are not immediately obvious, mild This Appendix was adapted with permission from roughness and turned edge are
zones (particularly those near the centre) and light the article "Test Drive Your Telescope" by Florida more common in reflective
roughness. You must carefully weigh the likelihood amateur astronomer and telescope maker Dick than in refractive optics. A
thatyou will get better optics at the same price. You Suiter. The original appeared in the May 1990 is- telescope can be afflicted with
must also consider what you bought the telescope sue of Astronomy. Illustrations courtesy Astronomy. more than one defect.

273
CHARTS OF SELECTED SKY REGIONS
This Appendix presents charts of selected regions prominent naked-eye each constellation:
stars in
of the night sky rich with interesting objects. alpha for the brightest, beta for second brightest, and
so on. The system is still used today. For example,
INTRODUCTION TO THE Deneb, the brightest star in Cygnus, is also known
SKY REGIONS
as Alpha Cygni. (Following traditional rules of star
As we described Chapter 1 1 the backyard as-
in , naming, constellation names become genitive in
tronomer can choose from a complete range of star this context— Cygnus to Cygni, Orion to Orionis,
atlases for every observing situation. Rather than et cetera.)
attempt a mini-atlas to end this book, we have Deneb is known
as 50 Cygni, a designation
also
selected eight sky regions that are particularly rich called a Flamsteed number after English astronomer
The format for each is a photo-
in celestial treasures. John Flamsteed, who decided that a system which
graph accompanied by a map based on the pho- extended beyond the limitations of the Greek al-
tograph. This combination avoids cluttering a pho- phabet was needed. In general, the very brightest
tograph with labels, permitting clear identification stars, such as Deneb, Altai r, Rigel and about 40

A small locater map showing

of individual objects. others, are widely known by names handed down
one of the bright stars identified in the key
at least over the centuries. Most stars in the range of mag-
maps on pages 22 and 23 displays the specific nitude 2 to 5 have Bayer designations. Fifth- and
position of each sky region. sixth-magnitude stars are usually known by Flam-
steed numbers. Fainter stars have modern catalogue
STAR NAMES
numbers such HD 105262. as
The worn-out expression "It's all Greek to me"
OBJECT DESIGNATIONS
actually applies when a backyard astronomer exam-
ines a star chart. Just before the invention of the tele- Clusters, galaxies and some nebulas are marked by
scope early in the 1 7th century, German astronomer open circles on the charts. The general shapes of
Johannes Bayer assigned a Greek letter to all of the larger bright nebulas are shown with a solid-line out-
line, dark nebulas with a dashed-line outline. Ob-
THE GREEK ALPHABET I jects from the Messier and IC catalogues are given
their M or IC prefixes. Usingthe system followed in
most star atlases, we omit the NGC prefix. Thus
NGC 4298 is marked as 4298.

VIRGO GALAXY CLUSTER

FINDER CHART
The night sky's richest galaxy hunting ground, the
Virgo galaxy cluster is given two sky regions of the
eight, a detailed photograph and chart on pages
276-77 and the wide-field finder chart on the fac-
ing page. The finder-chart photograph shows stars
to about ninth magnitude; the chart gives the posi-
tions of 1 galaxies, all eighth or ninth magnitude.
Use the dashed line from BetaLeonistoEpsilon Vir-
ginis (1 7 degrees long) as a guide. At its midpoint

is the core of the Virgo galaxy cluster, a congrega-

tion of galaxies known as Markarian's Chain.

274
 VIRGO GALAXY CLUSTER FINDER CHART

'•.

COMA BERENICES
*
'• .:/
'.

LEO
OM85 • ' •
'
^v

i • •
•
' ^^--^ /-
^
\ .
•
(,\
o*^^^ y
\ Close-Up Chart \ /
•

OM90 V^^^^^"^^ Markarian's Chain

/ OM87

y^ OM58 •

• '^ qOMS'^ _
.
•

^ M60 •
•

«• OM49 •

VfRCO
•

275
 /*-

/•, LEO *^.

I Regulus

\
•'VIRGO
Spica

Markarian's Chain of at least a dozen galaxies is a M86, 9.1; NGC 4438, 10.1; NGC 4459, 10.4;
premier target for any size telescope. The wider field NGC 4473, 10.2; NGC 4477, 10.4.
of view in small instruments can include the entire Observingtip: Start exploring this region by cen-
archipelago of galaxies from M84 to NGC 4477 and tring on the fifth-magnitude star 6 Comae Berenices.
NGC 4459. The galaxies in Markarian's Chain It can be spotted with the naked eye under dark skies

range from 9th-magnitude M84 and M86 to 1 3th about seven degrees east of Beta Leonis. By easing
magnitude. the telescopic field away from this star, you can trace
All the galaxies marked on the chart should be the star chains to the various galaxies. If you get lost,
visible in a 1 0-inch telescope, and most of them are return to 6 Comae Berenices and start again. Base
seen in much smaller instruments. A very dark sky photograph by Tom Dey; 6-inch f/1.6 hybrid
is far more important than aperture for galaxy hunt- Schmidt-Cassegrain astrographic camera.
ing. Magnitudes of some of the brighter galaxies:
NGC 42 1 6, 1 0.0; M99, 9.9; Ml 00, 9.4; M84, 9.3;

276
Crux (Southern Cross), 287 Kellner, 68, 71
Cygnus, 283 Konig, 68, 73
Dawes' limit, 267-68 Nagler, 68, 71-77
day-sky phenomena, 96-101 Orthoscopic, 68, 71
daytime observing of planets, 145-46, 148, 167 PlossI, 68, 71-77

declination, 160, 162 Wide-Field, 69, 71-77

circle calibration, 260 fieldofview, 33, 56, 68
deep-sky orientation, 58
filters, n, 79-81 photographic, 224
nomenclature, 1 70-75 field rotation (in photography), 239-40
objects, types, 173-76, 181-84, 189-92 film for astrophotography, 205-9, 220-24
observing, 93, 1 70-201 filters

Delphinus, 283 for astrophotography, 227, 229-31, 238

Deneb, 22 for visual observing, 66, 77-81
dew and anti-dew devices, 85-87 see also solar filters

diffraction limited, 268 finderscopes, 82-86, 87

diffraction pattern, 270-73 field orientation, 58
Dobson, John, 47, 60 finding celestial objects, 160-69
Dobsonian fireball, 105
see telescope types fluorite lens, 268
Double Cluster (in Perseus), 29, 180, 281 fluorite refractor
double stars, 90 see telescope types
drawing celestial phenomena, 108-9, 190-91 focal length, 50, 92
drive correctors, 86, 214 focal ratio, 50, 92-93
Earth's shadow, 1 00 galaxies, 189-92, 197-201
eclipses see also specific names
see lunar and solar galaxy clusters, 198-99
Edmund Astroscan, 58, 59 Gamma Cygni Nebula, 283
Edmund RKE eyepieces, 71 Geminid meteors, 104, 105
elongations (diagram), 145 globular clusters, 177, 184, 189
enhanced coatings, 268 see also specific names
equatorial mounts, polar-aligning, 259-61 Great Red Spot (Jupiter), 151-52, 153
see telescope mounts green flash, 102
Eta Carinae Nebula, 29, 1 79, 287 guiding (for photography), 214, 223-24, 231,
Evans, Robert, 1 7 238-40
exitpupil, 26, 27-28, 119-20 Halley's Comet, 22, 24, 1 32-33, 1 35, 1 36, 1 39
exposures for astrophotography, 21 6-45 haloes, solar and lunar, 99, 101
eye relief, 68-70 Helix Nebula, 179
eyepieces, 66-77 Horsehead Nebula, 42-43, 171, 279
actual field of view, 68, 69 Hyades, 23
apparent field of view, 68, 69 hypersensitized film, 241-42
barrel diameters, 70 inferior conjunction, 145
cleaning, 264-65 invertors, 87
coatings, 70 Jupiter, 141, 142, 143, 150-54, 157, 158, 159
eye relief, 68-70 moons, 151-54, 157
Jupitei^s
filters, 77-81 Leonid meteors, 106
focal length,68 Levy, David, 1 7
magnification, 68 light-gathering power, 50
reticles, 214
86, light pollution, 32, 110-16
star diagonal, 70 light-pollution filters
storage case, 88 see nebula filters

eyepiece types limiting magnitude, 95, 1 1 3, 1 1 7-21

comparisons, 68-77 photographic, 21 5
Erfle, 68, 71-72 Ling, Mister, 200-201

291
locating celestial objects, 160-69 M71, 189,283
Lumicon filters, 78-81, 201, 227, 229 M76, 281
lunar eclipses, 15, 232-37 M77, 191
lunar filters, 79, 126-27 M78, 176, 279
lunar observing and photography M81, 187, 192, 193
see moon M82, 191, 192, 193
Lyra, 283 M84, 197,277
Ml (Crab Nebula), 181, 200, 289 M85, 275
M3, 168 M86, 197,277
M6, 285 M87, 197,275
M7, 285 M88, 275
M8 (Lagoon Nebula), 194-95, 285 M89, 197
Mil, 178, 184, 193 M90, 275
Ml 3 (Hercules cluster), 177, 193 M91,275
Ml 5, 177 M93, 279
Ml 6 (Eagle Nebula), 74, 76, 285
1 1 M97 (Owl Nebula), 1 73
Ml 7 (Swan Nebula), 72, 93, 285
1 1 M98, 197,275
M18, 285 M99, 197,277
M20 (Trifid Nebula), 194-95, 285 M100, 197,277
M21,285 MlOl (Pinwheel Galaxy), 190
M22, 285 M103, 281
M23, 285 Ml 04 (Sombrero Galaxy), 1 75
M24, 285 Ml 05, 184
M25, 285 M110, 195, 281
M26, 285 magnification, 49, 50, 64, 90, 92, 1 19-20
M27 (Dumbbell Nebula), 180, 193, 283 magnitude, 63, 117-21
M28, 285 Maksutov-Cassegrain
M29, 283 see telescope types
M30, 191 Markarian's Chain, 197,277
M31 (Andromeda Galaxy), 21, 176, 190, 195, Mars, 142, 143, 144, 147-50
281 oppositions, 147
M32, 176, 195,281 Meade
M33 (Triangulum Galaxy), 1 76, 1 78, 281 eyepieces, 68-77
M34, 281 Model 312 refractor, 49, 55
M35, 179,289 telescopes, 47, 57, 59-62, 210-11
M36, 289 Medusa Nebula, 183, 201
M37, 289 Mercury, 140, 141, 143, 145, 146
M38, 289 Messier catalogue, 1 70, 1 72
M41,31, 32,279 meteors, 103-6
M42 (Orion Nebula), 91, 175, 176, 185, 196, Milky Way, 9, 24,25,29,31, 144, 195, 196,
279 197,284-87
M44 (Beehive star cluster), 34, 1 95 Milky Way Galaxy, 1 76, 285
M46, 188,279 moon
M47, 279 eclipse photography, 232-37
M48, 279 observing, 122-27
M49, 275 photography, 123-24, 218-22
M50, 279 mounts
M51 (Whirlpool Galaxy), 83, 190, 243 see telescope
M53, 168 Musca, 287
M56, 283 Nagler, Al, 48
M57 (Ring Nebula), 182, 193, 243, 283 naked-eye observing, 22-23, 26, 108-9
M58, 197,275 nebula filters, 77-81, 176,201
M59, 197,275 nebulas, 175-76, 181-83
M60, 197, 275 see also specific names
M62, 285 Neptune, 158, 159
M64 (Black Eye Galaxy), 1 68, 1 72 Newtonian
M69, 285 see telescope types

292
 5

NGC55, 191 periodic error correction (PEC), 209

NGC147, 281 Perseid meteors, 1 05
NGC185, 281 Perseus, 281
NGC281,281 piggyback astrophotography, 212-1 3, 224,
NGC457, 281 228-30
NGC654, 281 planetary
NGC 752, 281 filters, 77-78
NGC2419, 189 nebulas, 181-83
NGC 2683, 191 see also specific names
NGC 31 15, 190 observing, 92-93, 108-9, 140-59
NGC 3190, 188 see also planet names
NGC 3532, 287 observing in daylight, 145-46, 148, 167
NGC 4395, 169 photography, 222-23
NGC 4559, 169 planets
NGC 4565, 180, 190 apparent sizes, 1 59
NGC 4631, 168, 169, 187 see also specific names
NGC 4656, 169, 187 Plato (crater), 126
NGC 4755 Oewel Box), 287 Pleiades, 23, 184, 186
NGC 4762, 191 PlossI eyepiece
NGC 5128, 191 see eyepiece types
NGC 5907, 191 Pluto, 158
NGC 6781, 185 polar-aligning, 87, 94, 166, 259-61
NGC 6939, 182 Polaris (North Star), 14, 22, 65, 1 1 7, 259
NGC 6946, 182 Pollux, 22, 23
NGC 7000 (North America Nebula), 187, 203, prime-focus photography, 213-15, 230-31
283 Procyon, 23, 279
NGC 7006, 189 quasar3C 273, 192
NGC 7331, 198 Questar telescope, 58-59, 212
NGC 7789, 184,281 rainbows, 96, 98, 101
New General Catalogue (NGC), 1 72-73 reciprocity failure, 228-29
noctilucent clouds, 98, 108 recording observations, 108-9, 190-91
North America Nebula recreational astronomy, definition, 12, 16-18
see NGC 7000 red flashlight, 87
north celestial pole, 259 refractor
North Star see telescope types
see Polaris Regulus, 22
northern lights resolution, 50, 66, 149
see auroras Rigel, 23, 279
observatories for amateur telescopes, 84, 88, 89 Rigil Kentaurus (Alpha Centauri), 287
Observer's Handbook, 1 68 right ascension, 160, 162
observing Ring Nebula
accessories, 87-89 see M57
myths, 90-96 Riverside convention, 118
site, 53-54, 110-16 Rosette Nebula, 207, 217, 230, 279
Omega Centauri, 188, 287 Sagitta, 283
open clusters, 178, 183-84 144,285
Sagittarius, 31,
see also specific names Sampson, Russ, 108-9
oppositions of Mars, 147 satellites, 102-3
optics Saturn, 45, 142, 143, 144, 154-57, 159
collimation, 262-64 moons of, 155-57
for astrophotography, 209-1 Schmidt cameras, 243
tests, 90, 270-73 Schmidt-Cassegrain
organizations for amateur astronomers, 253 see telescope types
Orion, 23, 32, 279 Schmidt-Newtonian
parfocal eyepieces, 71 see telescope types
Parsons, William, 44, 181 Scorpius, 195, 285
Pelican Nebula, 283 Scutum, 285

293
Seagull Nebula (IC 21 77),279 manufacturers, 254-55
seeing, 51,94-95, 120,270-72 mounts, altazimuth, 49, 55, 167
setting circles, 165-67 mounts, Dobsonian, 44, 45-46, 57, 60, 167
Sirius, 23, 31, 32,279 mounts, fork equatorial, 48, 1 66
sketching celestial phenomena, 108-9, 190-91 mounts, German equatorial, 44, 48, 86
Sky & Telescope magazine, 168 mounts, polar-aligning
sky measure, 56 see polar-aligning
slide duplicating, 242-43 myths, 90-96
slow-motion controls, 88 optics cleaning, 264-65
software for astronomy, 258 opticstests, 90, 270-73
solar prices, 10, 54-65
eclipse photography, 235-38 purchasing tips, 63, 65
filters, 127-31,238 resolution, 50, 63, 149
halo, 99, 101 storage, 89, 265
observing, 127-31 telescope types, 45-55
photography, 220 advantages and disadvantages, 52-53
projection, 1 28-29 Cassegrain, definition of, 267
prominences, 130-31 catadioptric, definition of, 46, 47, 54, 267
sources for astronomy products, 254-58 Dobsonian, 47, 52-53, 55, 56-57, 60
south celestial pole, 259, 287 Maksutov-Cassegrain, 58-59, 212
Southern Cross Newtonian, 44, 47-48, 52-58, 60-61, 63,
see Crux 210-11,262
spherical aberration, 64, 269, 273 refractor, achromatic, 48, 52-53, 54, 55-56
Spica, 22 refractor, apochromatic, 48-49, 52-53, 55, 56,
star atlases, 1 62-65 57
star diagonal, 70 refractor, fluorite, 48, 56
star hopping, 168-69 Schmidt-Cassegrain, 46-47, 52-55, 59-62, 210-
star-trail photography, 216, 218, 225 11,262
stars Schmidt-Newtonian, 58
see individual names telescope versus observing site, 114-17
Stellafane, 117-18 telescopes for astrophotography, 209-1
Stephan's Quintet, 198 Telrad, 84-85
streetlights, 110-16 testing optics
Summer Triangle, 282-83 see optics
sundogs, 99 Texas Star Party, 1 1

sunset phenomena, 98 Thompson, Gregg, 44, 1 1 5, 1 89-90

sunspots, 128-29 Tirion, Wil, 163-65
superior conjunction, 145 transparency, 95
Takahashi, 56, 21 Triangulum (constellation), 281
Tele Vue Triangulum Australe, 287
eyepieces, 68-77 Triangulum Galaxy
Genesis, 48, 56,57,211 see M33
telecompressors, 214 Uranus, 144, 157-58, 159
telescope Vega, 283
accessory sources, 256 Veil Nebula, 10, 181, 186,283
aperture, 50-51 Venus, 141, 142, 143, 145, 146-48
collimation, 262-64 vibration
comparison charts, 52-53, 55 dampeners, 88
evolution, 40-49 in photography, 239
field-of-view orientation, 58 vignetted fields (astrophotography), 227, 241
focal length, 50 Virgo galaxy cluster, 159, 190, 197,275-77
focal ratio, 50 vision sensitivity, 1 19-20, 200
jargon, 45-47, 50-51, 266-69 Vixen telescopes, 56, 21
light-gathering power, 50 Vulpecula, 283
magnification wavefront error, 51 , 269
see magnification zodiacal 100, 106
light,

making, 12 zoom eyepieces, 73

294
 THE AUTHORS

TERENCE DICKINSON ALAN DYER

Terence Dickinson is Canada's leading astronomy Alan Dyer is an associate editor of Astronomy, the
writer. He is the author of six books and the co- world's largest-circulation magazine for backyard
author of three and has received numerous national astronomers. He is widely regarded as an authority
and internationalawardsforhiswork. A former edi- on commercial telescopes, and his evaluations of
tor of Astronomy magazine, Dickinson was an in- equipment appear regularly in Astronomy. He is an
structor at several science museums and planetar- experienced astrophotographer, deep-sky observer
iums in Canada and the United States before turning and astronomy writer and, for more than a decade,
to science writingfulltimein 1976. His articles have was writer/producer at the Edmonton Space and
appeared in many magazines, including Equinox, Sciences Centre.
Reader's Digest, Omni and Science Digest, and he Dyer recalls, as a child, asking his parents' permis-
writes a weekly astronomy column for The Toronto sion to stay up late to watch the stars. At 1 5, he used
Star. Dickinson also teaches astronomy part-time at money earned from delivering newspapers to
buy
St. Lawrence Col lege, Kingston, Ontario, and is an his first telescope, a 4-inch Newtonian reflector.
astronomy commentator for Quirks and Quarks, He has owned telescopes up to 1 3-inch aperture
CBC Radio's weekly science programme. but prefers high-quality optics of more moderate
Dickinson traces his interest in astronomy back size that he can use at a moment's notice from his
to the age of 5 when he was fascinated by the sight backyard near Eagle, Wisconsin.
of a bright meteor. At 14, he received a 60mm
refractor as a Christmas present and since then has
owned more than 20 different telescopes. Today, he
observes under sixth-magnitude night skies near the
village of Yarker in rural eastern Ontario.

295
*
Thousands of novice stargazers became lifetime enthusiasts when CONTENTS INCLUDE:
they were introduced to the wonders of the sky by Terence Dicl<- D more than 200 never-before-published photographs and
inson's best-selling beginner's guide NIGHTWATCH. Now Dick- illustrations
inson has teamed up withAstronomy magazine associate editor D a detailed guide to equipment, with special emphasis on the
Alan Dyer to produce a companion volume, THE BACKYARD most recent products and innovations
ASTRONOMER'S GUIDE, which takes amateurs to the next level D how to observe the sun, moon, planets, stars and galaxies
of what for many has become an irresistible nighttime vocation. D a guide to binoculars for both beginners and experts
D a comparison of commercial telescopes by brand and type
Expanding on NIGHTWATCH's successful formula of how-to in- D myths about telescopes and observing
formation and stunning illustrations, THE BACKYARD ASTRON- D detailed star charts of celestial regions of special interest
OMER'S GUIDE focuses on the practical aspects of this increas- D how to select an observing site
ingly popular hobby. The authors explain why some binoculars D practical advice on astrophotography
and telescopes perform better than others, suggest what equipment n special observing tips from the experts: David H. Levy,
to buy and what to avoid and describe observing techniques to en- Alister Ling, Gregg Thompson, Klaus R. Brasch,
hance the performance of any telescope. Drawing on decades of Russ Sampson
stargazing experience, they also offer advice on how to contend D how to avoid being romanced by unnecessary technology
with light pollution, how to take successful and impressive colour n a gallery of the finest photographs by amateur astronomers
photographs of galaxies and nebulas (with or without a telescope)
and how to hunt down the most interesting celestial objects. Each ISBN 0-921820-11-9
chapter is written in clear, jargon-free yet detailed prose and illus-
trated with the latest, breathtaking amateur astrophotography, mak-
^
ing THE BACKYARD ASTRONOMER'S GUIDE an essential refer- tn
en
ence tool for both beginning and veteran sky observers who are CT)

setting out to navigate "the celestial seas." 780921"820116

n