Pumps and Hydraulics Part-2

Presented to the
LIBRARY of the
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
by
Mrs. Mary B. Wakeham

PUMPS
AND
HYDRAULICS.
IN TWO PARTS.
Part Two.
TEN THOUSAND HORSE POWER.
(See Part One, Page 133.)
— ;
PUMPS AND
HYDRAULICS
— BY
WILLIAM ROGERS
Author of ^"Drawing and Design,^'' etc.
RELATING TO
HAND PtrBCPS POWEB PTJMPS PASTS OP PUMPS ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN
; ; j
PUMPS; STEAM PUMPS, SINGLE, DUPLEX AND COMPOUND; PUMPING-

ENGINES, HIGH DUTY AND TRIPLE EXPANSION THE STEAM FIRE ;
ENGINE UNDERAWRITERS' PUMPS MINING PUMPS AIR AND

; ; ;
VACUUM PUMPS; COMPRESSORS; CENTRIFUGAL AND ROTARY

PUMPS THE PULSOMETER JET PUMPS AND THE INJECTOR
; ;
UTILITIES AND ACCESSORIES VALVE SETTING MAN-

; ;
AGEMENT CALCULATIONS, RULES AND TABLES.

;
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS,
ALSO
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS; GLOSSARY OP PUMP TERMS; HISTORICAL
INTRODUCTION, WITH ILLUSTRATIONS THE ELEMENTS OP HYDRO-ME-;
CHANICS, HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS GRAVITY AND FRICTION ;

;
HYDRAULIC MEMORANDA; LAWS GOVERNING FLUIDS; WATER

PRESSURE MACHINES PUMPS AS HYDRAULIC MACHINES, ETC.
;
PART TWO.
PUBLISHED BY
THEO. AUDEL & COMPANY

/2 FIFTH AVE., 7, IMPERIAL ARCADE,
LUDGATE CIRCUS, E.C.,
NEW YORK, U.S.A. LONDON, ENG.
Copyrighted, 190J, by
THEO. AUDEL & CO., NEW YORK.
Entered at Stationer* Hall, London, England.
Protected by International Copyriglit in Great Britain and all

her Coloniea, and, under the proviaions of the
Berne Convention, in
Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Tuala,

Hayti, Luxembourg, Monaco, Montincgro
and Norway.
Printed In the United State).

TABLE OK CONTENTS
Part TWO.
The divisions of Part Two are represented by the following
headings : each subject is fully treated and illus-
trated on the pages shown:
Introduction to Part Two ....

PREFACE.
The owner of a great tannery had once an improvement in
making leather proposed to him by a foreman, but the mer-
chant could not comprehend it even with the most earnest
verbal explanation. As a last resort he said, " put it in writing
so that I can study itThis was done and the change
out."
after an examination of the paper was made as advised. So
in these volumes much important information is written and
printed that it may be " studied out."
The author believes the following features of his work
adapt it to the purpose for which it was designed :
1. It contains no more than can be mastered by the average
engineer and those associated with him, such as millwrights,

machinists, superintendents of motor power, electric stations,
water works, etc.
2. It is thoroughly systematized. The order and develop-
ment of subjects is thought to be logical, and the arrangement
of topics especially adapted to the needs of those who aspire
to do the best service in their every day responsibilities.
3. The work is written in accordance with modern theories
and practice no exertion has been spared in the attempt to

;
make it fairly represent the latest state of the science of

hydraulics and adaptation to the needs of modern mechani-
its
cal advancement, i. e., in the line of practical hydraulics.
4. It has been made by "men who know for men who

care," for the whole circle of the sciences consists of principles
—
Note. The preface is almost invariably made after the book itself is
finished, for an author never knows with much exactness whither his re-
searches will lead him. The book he begins is not always the book he
finished ; this is especially the case with books relating to modern sciences
and industry. As an instance of this, it may be told that at the com-
mencement of this work it was generally agreed that the easy ' lift of the
'
'
'
centrifugal pump was some sixty or eighty feet, and not much more, but
the appropriate section relating to centrifugal pumps has reached a lift of
two thousand feet had been practically assured by recent discoveries. This
important difference demanded a change in the writing although as it hap- —
—
pened not in the printing. This, to explain why here, the author gives
generous praise to others who have assisted in ttie long task of making
these volumes.
Preface.
deduced from the discoveries of different individuals, in different

ages, thrown into common stock this ; is especially so of the
science of hydraulics; thus it may be truthfully owned that
the work contains the gathered wisdom of the ages, utilized
wherever the author has found that it would increase the use-
fulness of the volumes.
5. It is a work of reference minutely indexed. We are

warned by Prof Karl Pearson that " education can only de-
velope it cannot create. If a man has not inherited ability to
;
learn, education cannot make him learn," but in a well indexed

book, simply and plainly 'vritten, both classes referred to are
equally benefitted.
There came the moment, once upon a time, when the
author of this book, in his eager pursuit of knowledge, asked
one question too much, to which he received the "gruff"
answer :
" Look ahere, I don't propose to make a dictionary of

myself."
This was a painful retort from a man already under large
obligations to the questioner, but it had its reason in being
spoken. There are things in the way of a man's own craft that
he most unwillingly imparts to anyone else.
It is not thus with this work nothing has been withheld

;
that would make it and helpful to one in need of the

plain
special line of information aimed to be conveyed in its make-up.
In making acknowledgment for favors received the author
first remembers Mr. Alberto H. Caffee who arranged in behalf
of the L. Middleditch Press for the issue of the work. Mr.
Caffee's name appears in the dedication, with that of the brave
soldier and accomplished gentleman Maj. Abram B. Garner.
The latter is " Jove has assigned a wise, extensive, all
one to whom
considerate mind." is proud to call him friend and to
The author
acknowledge the benefit received in kindly advice relating to his pro-
ductions.
Mr. Harry Harrison's skill is shown in the " lay out " or
typographical arrangement of the work and Mr. Henry J. Harms
Preface.
has contributed his careful supervision to each page of the

book as it has gone through the press.
Lewis F. Lyne, Mechanical Engineer, has, amid his other
responsible and active duties " passed upon " each page of the
entire two volumes.
Mr. Lyne, it may be said, was one of the founders of the American
Society of M. was also the first mechanical engineer on the
E.; he
editorial staflf American Machinist in its early days, and con-
of the
tributed as editor and stockholder to its success. In his youth Mr. Lyne
was apprentice in the machine shop of the Penn. R. R. and received his
papers for full aud faithful service.
Having been commodore of the Pavonia Yacht Club he has papers
both as U. S. pilot and also as a marine engineer. He performed practical
service both as locomotive fireman and was later superintendent of the
Jersey City Electric Light Co. for a period of six and a half years.
Moreover Mr. Lyne was assistant master mechanic of the Delaware,
Lackawanna & Western R. R. (M. & E. Div.) for seven years and had
charge of establishing their new shops at Kingsland, N. J. Few men
have had so long and honorable a record as Lewis Frederick Lyne.
Credit due also to Mr. Edward F. Stevens, assistant at

is
the Yale University library, New Haven, Conn., for a careful

reading of the two volumes for clerical errors, punctuation, etc.
Mr. Stevens is a graduate of Colby University and a ripe
scholar moreover after leaving college he has had some twelve
;
or more years experience in business and editing with a mechan-

ical book publishing house widely known throughout England
—
and the U. S. a rare combination of useful experience.
The final revision of the two volumes has been made by
one of the brightest young engineers in New York City, now
consulting engineer and attorney at Patent Law with offices in
the Flat Iron Building, corner of Twenty-third St. and Fifth
—
Avenue Mr. Edward Van Winkle.
He is associate member of the Am. Soc. M. E. and associate member
of the Canadian Soc. of C. E. He was a Student in The Stevens
Institute of Technology, and graduated from Columbia University in
the City of New York with the degree E. E.
These names should assure confidence in the contents of

the work, which has been some years in preparation, and with
nothing spared to make it trustworthy. _
*^
Kicking doTvn " a well in the early days. A hole was dug in
the rock and cased with a wooden tube eight or ten inches square.
In this way the tools, suspended from a horizontal elastic hickory
pole, which in turn was fastened to a stake, were worked over an
upright piece as a fulcrum. The tools were worked up and down
shown in the picture.
in the hole, as
THE AIR PUMP
*' There is this remarkable difference between bodies in a fluid and
bodies in a solid form, namely, that every particle of a fluid is per-
fectly independent of every other particle. They do not cohere in
masses, like the particles of a solid, nor do they repel one another, as
is the case with the particles composing a gas. They can mingle among
each other with the least degree of friction, and, when they press
down upon one another by virtue of their own weight, the downward
pressure is communicated in all directions, causing a pressure up-
wards, sideways, and in every possible manner. Herein the particles
of a fluid differ from the particles of a solid, even when reduced to
the most impalpable powder; and it is this which constitutes fluidity,
namely, the power of transmitting pressure in every direction, and
that, too, with the least degree offriction. The particles which com-
pose a fluid m,ust be very much smaller than the finest grain of an
impalpable powder.^' — Richard Green Parker, A. M.
PNEUMATICS.
Pneumatics treats of the mechanical properties and effects of
air and similar fluids; these are called elastic fluids and gases,
or aeriform fluids.
Hydro-pneumatics. This is a compound word formed from
two Greek words signifying water and air; in its primary
meaning it conveys the idea of the
combined action of water and air or
gas.
Air is the respirable fluid which
surrounds the earth and forms its
atmosphere. It is inodorous, invisible,

insipid ;olorless, elastic, possessed of
gravity easily moved, rarefied and
condensed, essential to respiration
and combustion> and is the medium
composed by volume
of sound. It is
oxygen and 79.3 of
of 20.7 parts of
nitrogen by weight, of 23 of oxygen
,
Fia 330.
and TJ of nitrogen. These gases are
not chemically united, but are mixed mechanically. Air con-
tains also 1/2000 of carbon dioxide some aqueous vapor, about
one per cent, of argon, and small varying amounts of am-
monia, nitric acid, ozone, and organic matter. The specific
gravity of the air at 32" F is to that of water as to 773, and i
100 cubic inches of air at mean temperature and pressure weighs

30| grains.
Aeriform fluids are those which have the form of air. Many
of them are invisible, or nearly so, and all of thein perform very
important operations in the material world. But, notwith-
standing that they are in most instances imperceptible to our
sight, they are really material, and possess all the essential
properties of matter. They possess, also, in an eminent degree,
Note. —Fig. 330 is one of the simplest forms of an air pump, The de-
scrintjoo «w:companying Fig. 341 properly applies to this one.
15
16 Pumps and Hydraulics.
all the properties which have been ascribed to liquids in general,

besides others by which they are distinguished from liquids.
Elastic fluids are divided into two classes, namely, i, per-
manent gases and, 2, vapors. The gases cannot be easily con-
verted into the liquid state by any known process of art; * but
the vapors are readily reduced to the liquid form either by
pressure or diminution of temperature. There is, however, no
essential difference between the mechanical properties of both
classes of fluids.
As the air which we breathe, and which surrounds us, is the

most familiar of all this class of bodies, it is generally selected
as the subject of Pneumatics. But it must be premised that
the same laws, properties and effects, which belong to air, be-
long in common, also, to all aeriform fluids or gaseous bodies.
There are tivo principal properties of air, namely, gravity
and elasticity. These are called the principal properties of this
because they are the means by which their pres-
class of bodies,
ence and mechanical agency are especially exhibited.
Although the aeriform fluids all have weight, they appear
to possess no cohesive attraction.
The pressure of the atmosphere caused by its weight is ex-
erted on all substances, internally and externally, and it is a
necessary consequence of its fluidity. When the external pres-
sure is artificially removed from any part, it is immediately felt
by the reaction of the internal air.
Heat insinuates itself between the particles of bodies and

forces them asunder, in opposition to the attraction of cohesion
and of gravity it therefore exerts its power against both the
.
attraction of gravitation and the attraction of cohesion. But,

as the attraction of cohesion does not exist in aeriform fluid?,
the expansive power oj heat upon them has nothing to contend
with but gravity, hence, any increase of temperature, ex-
pands an elastic fluid prodigiously, and a diminution of heat
condenses it.
NoTR — Carbonic aci<l gas forms an exception to this assertion. Water
also is Ihf union of oxygen and hydrogen gas.
Air Pumps. 17
A column of air, having a base an inch square, and reaching

to the top of the atmosphere, weighs about fifteen pounds.
This pressure, like the pressure of liquids, is exerted equally in
ill directions.
The elasticity of air and other aeriiorm fluids is that prop-

erty by which they are increased or diminished in extension,
according as they are compressed. This property exists in a
much greater degree in air and other similar fluids than in any
other substance. In fact, it has no known limit, for. when the
pressure is removed from any portion of air, it immediately ex-
pands to such a degree that the smallest quantity will diffuse
itself over an indefinitely large space. And, on the contrary,
when the pressure is increased, it will be compressed into in-
definitely small dimensions.
The and all gases is in direct

elasticity or pressure of air
proportion to what
their density
; is the same thing, in-
or,
versely proportional to the space which the fluid occupies. This
law, which was discovered by Mariotte, is called " Mariotte's
Law." This law may perhaps be better expressed in the follow-
ing language ; namely, the density of an elastic fluid is in direct
proportion to the pressure which it sustains.
Air becomes a mechanical agent by means of its weight, its

and its fluidity.
elasticity, its inertia
The fluidity of air invests it, as it invests all other liquids,

with the power of transmitting pressure: fluidity is a necessary
consequence of the independent gravitation of the particles of
a fluid. It may, therefore, be included among the eff'ects of
weight.
The inertia of air is exhibited in the resistance which it op-
poses to motion, which has already been noticed under the head
of Mechanics. This is clearly seen in its effêcts upon falling
bodies, as will be exemplified in the experiments with the air-
pump.
The great degree of elasticity possessed by all aeriform
fluids,renders them susceptible of compression and expansion
to an almost unlimited extent. The repulsion of their particles
—
18 Pumps and Ffydraulics.
causes them to expand, while within certainlinfiits they are
easily compressed. This materially affects the state of density

and rarety under which they are at times exhibited *
It may here be stated that all the laws and properties of
liquids (described under the heads of Hydrostatics and Hydraul-
ics) belong also to aeriform fluids.
The chemical properties of both liquids and fluids belong

peculiarly to the science of Chemistry, and are, therefore, not
to any extent, considered in this volume.
The air which we breathe is an elastic fluid, surrounding the
earth, and extending to an indefinite distance above its surface,
and constantly decreasing upwards in density. It has already
been stated that the air near the surface of the earth bears
the weight of that which is above it.
Being compressed, therefore, by the weight of that above
it, it must exist in a condensed form near the surface of the
earth, while in the upper regions of the atmosphere, where

there is no pressure, it is highly rarefied. This condensation,
or pressure, is very similar to that of water at great depths in
the sea.
Besides the two principal properties, gravity and elasticity,
the operations of which produce most of the phenomena of
Pneumatics, it will be recollected that as air, although an in-
visible is yet a material substance, possessing al. the common

properties of matter, it possesses also the common property of
impenetrability.
The Thermometer is an instrument to indicate the tempera-
ture of the atmosphere. It is constructed on the principle that
heat expands and cold contracts most substances. The
thermometer consists of a capillary tube, closed at the top and
terminating downwards in a bulb. It is filled with mercury
which expands and fills the whole length of the tube or con-
tracts altogether into the bulb, according to the decree of heat
or cold to which it is exposed. Any other fluid which is ex-
NoTE. The terms " rarefaction " and "condensation," and 'rarefied"
and "condensed," must be clearly understood in this connection. They
are applied respectively to the expansion and compression of a body
Air Pumps. 19
panded by heat and contracted by cold, may be used instead

of mercury.
As ithas been proved by experiment that lOO cubic inches
of air weighs 30I grains, it will readily be conceived that the
whole atmosphere exercises a considerable pressure on the
surface of the earth. The existence of this pressure is shown
by the following experiments. On one end of a stout glass
cylinder, about 10 inches high, and open at both ends, a piece
of bladder is tied quite air-tight. The other end, the edge of
Fio. 331. Fio. 832. Fio. 333.
which is ground and well-greased, is pressed on the plate of the
air-pump. Fig. 331. As soon as the air in the vessel is rarefied

by working the air-pump, the bladder is depressed by the
weight of the atmosphere above it, and finally bursts with a
loud report caused by the sudden entrance of air.
The preceding experiment only serves to illustrate the
downward pressure of the atmosphere. By means of the
Magdeburg hemispheres, Figs. 332 and 333, the invention of
which is due to Otto von Guericke, burgomaster of Magde-
burg, it can be shown that the pressure acts in all directions.
This apparatus consists of two hollow brass hemispheres of 4
to 4>4 inches diameter, the edges of which are made to fit
tightly, and are well greased. One of the hemispheres is pro-

vided with a stop-cock, by which it can be screwed on to the
air-pump, and on the other there is a handle. As long as the
hemispheres contain air they can be separated without any
difificulty, for the external pressure of the atmosphere is counter-
balanced by the elastic force of the air in the interior. But

when the air in the interior is pumped out by means of an
air-pump, the hemispheres cannot be separated without a
powerful effort.
The Barometer is an instrument to measure the weight of

the atmosphere, and thereby to indicate the variations of the
weather, etc. It consists of a long
glass tube, about thirty-three
inches in length, closed at the up-
per end, and filled with mercury.
The tube then inverted in a
is
cup or leather bag of mercury, on

which the pressure of the atmos-
phere is exerted. The following
experiment, which was first made
in 1643, by Toriictlli, a pupil of
Galileo, givesan exact measure
of the weight of the atmosphere.
A
glass tube is taken, about a
yard long and a quarter of an inch
internal diameter, Fig. 334. It is
sealed at one end, and is quite

filled with mercury. The aperture,
C, being closedby the thumb, the
tube is inverted, the open end
placed in a small mercury trough,
and the thumb removed. The
Fig. :m.
tube being in a vertical position,
the column of mercury sinks, and, after oscillating some time,

it finally comes A, which at the level of the
to rest at a height,
sea is about 30 inches above the mercury in the trough.
Air Pumps. ^1
The mercury is raised in the tube by pressure of the

atmosphere on the mercury in the trough. There is no con-
trary pressure on the mercury in the tube, because it is
closed but, if the end of the tube be opened, the atmosphere
;
will press equally inside and outside the tube, and the mer-
cury will sink to the level of that in the trough. It has been
shown that the heights of two columns of liquid in com-
munication with each other are inversely as their densities and ;
hence it follows that the pressure of the atmosphere is equal

to that of a column of mercury the height of which is 30 inches.
If, however, the weight of the atmosphere diminishes, the
height of the column which it can sustain must also diminish.
Why a vacuum gauge is graduated in inches instead of in
pounds is thus explained. Take a tube say
35 inches long,
closed at one end, filled with mercury and inverted with its
open end in a bowl containing the same liquid.
The atmosphere on the surface of the mercury

will exert
in the bowl a pressure of about 15 pounds per square inch and
this pressure will be transmitted to that in the tube so that the
upward pressure inside the tube at the level of the mercury in
the bowl will be 15 pounds per square inch.
Below the surface the pressure increases, due to the depth

of mercury, but the weight of mercury inside the tube below
the level in the bowl counteracts the weight of that outside so
that the upward pressure per square inch at the surface line is
15 pounds per square inch inside the tube no matter how much
or little it is submerged. In the upper end of the tube the
mercury has dropped away, leaving a complete vacuum.
—
Note. Moreover it has the advantage over a scientifically graduated
gauge, which would be graded at o for a perfect vacuum and 15, or more
nearly 14.7, for atmospheric pressure, that the inch indication increases as
the vacuum is more complete while the absolute pressure decreases. The
inch of mercury has also the advantage over the pound as a unit for measur-
ing the degree of vacuum or the difference between the pressure in the con-
denser and that of the atmosphere that there are twice as many inches in a
perfect vacuum as there are pounds so that the gauge can be read more
closely without fractional units. It is easier to say 23 inches than eleven
and a half pounds.
The 15 pounds
will force the mercury up into the tube until
the column high enough to balance that pressure. One
is
cubic inch of mercury weighs about half a pound. It would

take two cubic inches to weigh a pound and a column two
inches high to exert a pressure of one pound per square inch
of base, or a column 30 inches high to balance the pressure of
15 pounds.
.*'
MT^T.l
Fig. 835. Fig. 336.
If instead of a perfect vacuum there was a pressure of two

pounds the upper end of the tube the column would have
in
to balance a pressure of 15 —
2 -= 13 pounds and would be 26
inches high. As the absolute pressure in the top of the tube
gets greater, that is to say, as the difference between that pres-
sure and that of the atmosphere or the so-called vacuum gets
less,the column of mercury gets lower, and its height is a
'neasure of the completeness of the vacuum.
Air Pumps. 23
»
Hero's fountain, which derives its name from its inventor,

Hero, who lived at Alexandria, depends on the
120 B.C.,
elasticity of the air. It consists of a brass dish, D, Fig. 335,
and of two glass globes, M

and N. The dish communicates
with the lower part of the globe, N, by a long tube, B and ;
another tube, A, connects the two globes. A third tube passes

through the dish, D, to the lower part of the globe, M. This
tube having been taken out, the globe, M, is partially filled with
water the tube is then replaced and water is poured into the
;
dish. The water flows through the tube, B, into the lower globe,
and expels the air, which is forced into the upper globe the ;
air, thus compressed, acts upon water, and makes it jet out as
represented in the figure. If it were not for the resistance of

the atmosphere and friction, the liquid would rise to a height
above the water in the dish equal to the difference of the level
in the two globes.
The fountain in vacuo, Fig. 336, shows an interesting experi-
ment made with the air-pump, and shows the elastic force of
the air. It consists of a glass vessel, A, provided at the bottom
with a stop-cock, and a tubulure which projects into the in-
terior. Having screwed this apparatus on the air-pump, it is ex-
hausted, and the stop-cock being closed, it is placed in a vessel
of water, R. By opening the stop-cock, the atmospheric pressure
upon the water in the vessel makes it jet through the tubulure
into the interior of the vessel, as shown in the drawing.
—
Note. Reference is hereafter very largely made to the mechanical use of
air as a moving power or rather as a means for transferring power, just as it
^
is transferred by a train of wheelwork. Compressed air can be employed in

this way with great advantage in mines, tunnels, and other confined situa-
tions, where the discharge of steam would be attended with inconvenience.
The work is really done in these cases by a steam-engine or other prime
mover in compressing the air. In the construction of the Mont Cenis
tunnel the air was first compressed by water-power, and then carried through
pipes into the heart of the moumtain to work the boring machines. This
use of compressed air in such situations is also cf indirect advantage in
serving not only to ventilate the place in which it is worked, but also to cool
it ; for it must be remembered that air falls in temperature during expansion,
and therefore, as its temperature in the machines was only that of the
atmosphere, it must, on being discharged from them, fall far below that
temperature. This fall is so great that one of the most serious practical
difl&culties in working machines by compressed air has been found to be the
formation of ice in the pipes by the freezing of the moisture in the air, which
frequently chokes them entirely up.
Pumps and Hydraulics.
ON GASES.
Gases are bodies which, unlike have no independent
solids,
shape, and, unlike liquids, have no independent volume. Their
molecules possess almost perfect mobility they are conceived ;
as darting about in all directions, and are continually tending

to occupy a greater space. This property of gases is known
by the names expansibility, tension, or elastic force, from which
they are often called elastic fluids.
Gases and liquids have several properties in common, and
some in which they seem to differ are in reality only diflferent
degrees of the same property. Thus, in both, the particles
are capable of moving in gases ;
with almost perfect freedom in ;
liquids not quite so freely, owing

to a greater degree of viscosity.
Both are compressible, though in
very different degrees.
If a liquid and a gas both exist
under the pressure of one at-
mosphere, and then the pressure
be doubled, the water is com-
pressed by about the t^^^-^-^ part,
while the gas is compressed by
one-half. In density there is a
Fia.
great difference ; water, which \s
337.
the type of liquids, is 770 times
as heavy as air, the type of gaseous bodies, while under the
pressure of one atmosphere. A spiral spring only shows
elasticity when it is compressed ; it loses its tension when it
has returned to its primitive condition. A gas has no original

volume ; it is always elastic, or in other words, it is always
striving to attain a greater volume this tendency to indefinite
;
expansion is the chief property by which gases are distinguished

from liquids.
Matter assumes the solid, liquid, or gaseous form according
to the relative strength of the cohesive and repulsive forces
A
Air Pumps. 25
exerted between their molecules. In liquids these forces

balance ; in gases repulsion preponderates.
By the aid of pressure and of low temperatures, the force of

cohesion may be so far increased in many gases that they are
readily converted into liquids, and we know now that with
sufficient pressure and cold they may all be
liquified. On the other hand, heat, which
increases the vis viva of the molecules,
converts liquids, such as water, alcohol and
ether or gas into the aeriform state in
which they obey all the laws of gases. The

aeriform state of liquids is known by the
name of vapor , while gases are bodies
which, under ordinary temperature and
pressure, remain in the aeriform state.
In describing exclusively the properties
of gases, we shall, for obvious reasons, refer
to atmospheric air as their type.
Expansibility of Gases. This property
of gases, their tendency to assume con-
tinually a greater volume, is exhibited by
means of the following experiment :
—
bladder, clo d by a stop-cock and about
half full of air, is placed under the receiver
of the air pump, Fig. 337, and a vacuum
is produced, on which the bladder imme- Fig. 338.
diately distends.
This arises from the fact that the molecules of air flying;
about in all directions press against the sides of the bladder.

Under ordinary conditions, this internal pressure is counter,
balanced by the air in the receiver, which exerts an equal and
contrary pressure. But when this pressure is removed, by ex-
hausting the receiver, the internal pressure becomes evident.
When air is admitted into the receiver, the bladder resumes
*
its original form.

2(J Pumps and Itydrauacs,
The compressibility of gases is readily shown by the pneu-

matic syringe. Fig. 338. This consists of a stout glass tube
closed at one end, and provided with a tight-fitting packed
piston. When the rod of the piston is pressed down in the
Lube, the air becomes compressed into a smaller volume but ;
as soon as the force is removed the air regains its original

volume, and the piston rises to its former position.
Weight of Gases. From their extreme fluidity and ex-

pansibility, gases seem to be uninfluenced by the force of
gravity they nevertheless possess weight like solids and liquids.
:
To show this, a glass globe of 3 or 4 quarts' capacity is taken,

I^'g- 339» the neck of which is provided with a stop-cock, which
hermetically closes it, and by which it can be

screwed on the plate of the air-pump.
The globe is then exhausted, and its weight

determined by means of a delicate balance. Air
is nowallowed to enter, and the globe again
weighed. The weight in the second case will be
found to be greater than before, and if the capacity
of the vessel is known the increase will obviously
be the weight of that volume of air.
When the atoms or particles which constitute

a body are so balanced by a system of attractions
and repulsions that they resist any force which
Fio. 839.
tends to change the figure of the body, they will
possess a property, known by the name of elasticity. Elasticity,
therefore, is the property whicJi causes a body to resume its shape
after it has been compressed or expanded.
Pressure exerted by Gases.Gases exert on their own mole-

cules,and on the sides of vessels which contain them, pressures
which may be regarded from two points of view. First, we
may neglect the weight of the gas secondly, we may take
;
account of its weight. If we neglect the weight of any gaseous

mass at rest, and only consider its expansive force, it will be
seen that the pressures due to this force act with the same
Acr Pumps. Vt
strength on all points, both of the mass itself and of the vessel
in which it is contained.
It is a necessary consequence of the elasticity and fluidity
of gases that the repulsive force between the molecules is the
same at all points, and acts equally in all directions.
If we consider the weight of any gas, we shall see that it
gives rise to pressures which obey the same laws as those pro-
duced by the weight of liquids. Let us imagine a cylinder,
with its axis vertical, several miles high, closed at both ends
and Let us consider any small portion of the air
full of air.
enclosed between two horizontal planes. This portion must

sustain the weight of all the air above it, and transmit that
weight to the air beneath it, and likewise to the curved surface
of the cylinder which contains it, and at each point in a direction
at right angles to the surface. Thus the pressure increases
from the top of the column to the base at any given layer it ;
acts equally on equal surfaces, and at right angles to them,

whether they are horizontal, vertical, or inclined.
The pressure acts on the sides of the vessel, and it is
equal to the weight of a column of gas whose base is this

surface, and whose height its distance from the summit of the
column. The pressure is also independent of the shape and
dimensions of the supposed cylinder provided the height remain
y
the same.
For a small quantity of gas the pressures due to its weight
are quite insignificant, and may be neglected but for large ;
quantities, like the atmosphere, the pressures are considerable,

and must be allowed for.
Diffusion of gases. — Liquids mixed together, gradually sepa-

rate, and lie superimposed in the order of their densities, and
the surfaces of the separation of the liquids are horizontal. But
when gases are mixed, they present other conditions of equi-
librium, as follows.
I. —A homogeneous and persistent mixture is formed rap-

idly, so that all parts of the same volume are composed of the
same proportions of the mixed gases.
2. — In a mixture of gases, the pressure (or elastic force),

exercised by each of the gases, is the same as it was when
alone.
3. —
The rapidity with which the diffusion takes place, varies
with the specific gravity of the gases. The more widely two
gases differ in density, the quicker the process of intermixture.
Evaporation. —This is the slow formation of vapor from

the surface of a liquid. The elastic force of a vapor which
saturates a space containing a gas (like air), is the same as in a
vacuum. The principal causes which influence the amount and
rapidity of evaporation are as follows.
1st. Extent of a surface. As the evaporation takes place

from the surface, an increase of surface evidently facilitates
evaporation.
2d. —
Temperature. Increasing the elastic force of vapor,
has a most important influence on the rapidity of evaporation ;
therefore the temperature of ebullition marks the maximum

point of evaporation.
3d. —
The quantity of the same liquid already in the atmos-
phere exercises an important influence on evaporation. The
atmosphere can absorb only a certain amount of vapor, and
evaporation ceases entirely when the air is saturated, but it
is greatest when free from vapor, that is perfectly dry.
4th. Renewal of the air. If currents of air are continually

removing the saturated atmosphere from above the surface of
a liquid, evaporation takes place most rapidly, since new por-
tions of air, capable of absorbing moisture, are presented to it.
Evaporation is therefore more rapid in a breeze than in still air.
Pressure on the surface of the liquid influences evapora-

5th.
tion,because of the resistance thus offered to the escape of the
—
vapor. That is to say water boils more freely in an open
vessel than within a steam boiler under pressure. Hence, the
necessity for having large steam disengaging surfaces to prevent
priming or lifting of the water when the boiler is forced beyond
its rated capacity.
Air Pumps. 29
HAND AIR PUMPS.

The use of compressed air has become very general through
the use of small hand pumps; the cylinder of these must be
smooth, and the plunger is usually packed with a cup leather
packing.
Fig. 340.— Gas Fitter's Proving Pump.
Fig. 340 shows a gas fitter s air proving pump. The gauge
isattached to any opening into the system of pipes to be tested,
with a rubber hose leading to the pump. By working the
pump the air is forced into the pipes ; upon stopping the pump
if the hand upon the gauge remains stationary there are no
leaks in the system. If there are leaks the hand of the gauge
will gradually return to the zero mark.
Fig. 341shows a Portable Tire Air Pump, which can be used
by hand or affixed to a wall or bench it is of the lever type, with
;
2x8 cylinders, fitted with check valve and extra heavy rubber
tubing. As the leverage on the piston-rod increases the re-
sistance on the piston also increases, thereby securing the
NoVE. — Before putting the pressure on customary to put some ether

it is
into the small cup— near the gauge as shown —this has a cock which must
be opened and closed at the proper time so that the ether will be forced into
the pipe system and disclose by the sense of smell the location of the leak.
powerful leverage of the well-known '* toggle-joint " principle

as the piston finishes its stroke thus the best possible results
;
are obtained.
Fig. 342 illustrates a Hand Lever Air Pump with cylinder
3^"x6^"; its capacity — one stroke — 36 cubic inches. The
is
greatest pressure it is intended to operate against is 150 lbs.

to the square inch. In operation this design has the advantage
of the leverage of the toggle-
joint indicated above.
Hand Air
Fig. 343 exhibits a
Pump which has the same di-
mensions as that just described,
screwed to the floor. Its par-
ticular advantage is the fact
that the motion of the lever is
natural and easy being horizon-
tal and still retaining the ad
vantages of the toggle-joint.
Fio. 842. Fia. 843.

AIR AND VACOUM PUMPS.
An air pump is an apparatus for, i, the exhaustion; 2,
compression or transmission of air.
A vacuum pump is an apparatus consisting of, i, a chamber

or barrel; 2, a suction pipe with a valve to prevent return flow;
3, a discharge pipe which has a valve which is closed when the
chamber emptied and, 4, a steam induction pipe provided
is
with a valve that is opened when the chamber is filled with
water and closed when the chamber is filled with steam.

It is not right to call an air pump a vacuum pump, as the
latter docs not move air alone it removes water, vapor and air
;
from the condenser to form a vacuum. An air pump is de-

signed to pump air alone.
A vacuum is a space entirely devoid of matter. That is, it
is a space that contains nothing —
no oxygen, no hydrogen, no
air, no water, no pressure. It is for this reason that a perfect
vacuum in practice is very difficult to obtain, especially as
applied in a steam engine, as a liquid when in the presence of
a vacuum generally gives off some vapor, owing to the fact
that the surface is more or less in tension, besides its usual
evaporative quality. Among all the liquids it has been found
that mercury, on account of its very high specific gravity, can
be best used to produce a vacuum and maintain it, and it is
for this reason that the words "vacuum" and "inches of mer-
cury" are synonymous.
—
Note. The pressure of the atmosphere will also balance a column of
water in a vacuum the same as a column of mercury but the height of the
water column must necessarily be greater on account of the lesser weight of
the water. A cubic inch of water weighs 13.6 times less than a cubic inch
of mercury, so that the column of water which the atmosphere must balance
must be 13.6 higher or 13.6 x 30 = 408 inches which is equivalent to 34 feet.
Awater barometer can be made in a similar manner to a mercury bar-
ometer except that instead of a tube slightly over 30 inches in length, a tube
over 34 feet in height must be used. Advantage of this fact is taken in the
so-called gravity condenserswhich require no air pump, the condensing ap-
paratus being placed about 34 feet above the level of the hot well, the dis-
charge pipe being sealed by always keeping its lower end below the level of
the water in the hot well.
81
The particular feature that makes steam valuable in pro-
ducing a vacuum is the fact that when it is condensed,

it de-
creases 1600 times in volume and except for this small quantity
of water and some vapor which even cool water gives off in a
vacuum, a perfect vacuum would be established and it is only
necessary to draw off the condensed steam and vapor by proper
apparatus to enable the vacuum to be maintained which the
condensation has created. The apparatus for doing this is
called the air pump and the reservoir in which this condensation
takes place is called the condenser.
The condensation of steam in the condenser is effected in

two ways. The exhaust steam either meets in direct contact
the water which is to condense it, or, the steam impinges upon
cool metallic surfaces the temperature of which is kept down by
circulating cool water through them. In the first case the con-
densed steam and the condensing water meet and mingle. The
condenser is an iron pot or shell into which the steam is ex-
hausted and the cooling water enters it in the form of a sheet
or spray. Such condensers are called jet condensers for this
reason, and the cooling water is called the injection. All water
that is used for condensing steam is therefore called the in-
fection water
When the exhaust steam strikes cool surfaces and is con-

densed by those surfaces, such condenser is called a surface con-
denser. The cooling surface is usually a series of pipes or
tubes made of brass or copper to secure a rapid transfer of
heat. These tubes are usually tinned inside and outside to

prevent corrosion and in marine practice are made f" in
diameter. In most cases, condensation is effected by bringing
the exhaust steam in contact with the outside of the tubes, the
circulating water being inside.
In the surface condenser, as the circulation does not mingle

with the condensed steam, the air pump has nothing to do
with this water but is only required to pump out the con-
densed steam and air which enter the condenser; the pump
which takes care of the circulation, is c^lkd the circulating pump.
Air and Vacuum Pumps. 33
When large quantities of water are used and the difference i .
levelthrough which the water must be raised is slight as on

board ship, centrifugal pumps are generally used.
In the jet type of condenser where the water acts directlj-
on the steam, the injection water will cause a lower temperature
^vith less water and less apparatus than a surface condenser.
The amount of injection water varies from 20 to 30 times the
weight of steam to be condensed in cool seasons and from 30
to 35 times the amount in summer season. With fresh water
this can be pumped into the boiler when the oil is extracted
from it. It is for this reason that surface condensers are uni-
versally used for sea-going vessels to avoid salt water. They
are also much used on land in places where the feed water con-
tains mineral salts and is injurious to the boiler.
In places where the cost of hydrant water is excessive,

it is same injection water over and
of importance to use the
over again, but this cannot be done until the water is first
cooled. There are numerous methods by means of which this
is done. All of these methods utilize the principle of scattering
the injection water in the way best calculated to bring the
greatest surface in contact with the largest quantity of air so
that evaporation may take place quickly and effectively.
This is sometimes done by pumping the water through a
number of spray nozzles up into the air, allowing it to fall into
a lake or cold well below, or, as is more usually the case, the in-
jection water is allowed to descend in a tower in a fine state
of division over tiles or wire gauze or corrugated surfaces.
A current of air, either forced by a fan or drawn up through
it, causes a vaporization of the film of warm water pouring over
the different surfaces, and the air cooling and the evaporation
combined withdraw the heat from the water so that when it
reaches the bottom it is in condition to be used again.
Cooling towers are used with either jet or surface con-

densers and can be used either with or without a fan, depending
upon the design. In general these towers usually lower the
temperature of the water from 120 degrees to 80 degrees, which.
Fig. 344.
Ftq. 345.
is sufficient to maintain a vacuum of about 26 inches. As they

depend chiefly upon the results of evaporation to do the cool-
ing, they work better on a dry day than when the air is humid.
The on the opposite page are designed to illustrate
figures
the use of an air ptinip in connection with a jet condenser ; this
combination is properly called a vacuum pump because it not
only pumps air, but water and vapor as well. The steam end
of this apparatus is described in Part One, page 324, of this
':
work.
The air and vacuum end has a. cylinder lined with composi-
tion-brass bored smooth; the piston has square rubber and
canvas packing. The discharge — as shown in cut — is located
sufficiently high, so that the cylinder retains a large portion of
water. This forms a seal and causes the pump to work more
advantageously than it would with air alone. A small pipe
leads from the di.^charge chamber to the piston-rod stuffing-
box. This contains a double packing and the water which
flows through this small pipe forms a continuous seal around
the piston-rod and thus prevents air from entering.
The injection water enters the elbow at the top and is

drawn through an annular cpening into the condenser. This
opening may be regulated by the small hand wheel shown at
the top end of the stem.
The exhaust from the steam end flows into the condenser
through the pipe as may readily be observad or escapes into—
the atmosphere by throwing the switch valve.
Note. — Utilizing hot discharge water In manufacturing establishments

.
where large quantitii.s of water are required, advantage can be taken of the
tact that in condensing apparatus of this and similar pumps, the water, after
performing useful work in the condensing chamber, can be elevated to a
tank in any portion of the building, and used over again for another purpose
6uch as washing, cooling metal plates, rolling-mill rolls, etc. The fact that
the temperature of this discharge water will range from ioo° to 120° will, in
many cases, be advantageous, and effect a saving in the cost of heating other
water for purposes in which this discharge wat;r will answer equally well.
When the water is not required in the tank, the stop-valve may be opened,
and the water allowed to escape into a drain, or any other convenient place.
A ball-float attached to an air valve is located at the right

hand of the condenser so that in case the pump should fail to
operate from any cause, the injection water will lift the ball-
float, which in turn will open the air valve and by discharging
the vacuum will prevent the flooding of the engine cylinder

with water.
It is a well-known fact that the atmosphere exerts what is
usually termed " back pressure " of 14.7 pounds per square inch
upon the piston area of a steam engine, also that water
converted into steam, may be converted into its original sfate
by condensation. Now, if this back pressure, which is, in reality,
the weight of the surrounding atmosphere, be removed from
the piston of a steam engine, the steam on the opposite side of
the piston would have that much (14.7 lbs.) less work to do.
Applying this to steam engines means conveying the exhaust,
or expanded steam, which would otherwise be allowed to es-
cape into the open air, into a closed chamber, where it is met
by a spray of cold water, which so rapidly absorbs the heat
contained in the steam that it ceases to retain its gaseous form,
and is again reduced to its original bulk as water. A great
change has now taken place, and the steam is reduced to fts
liquid form. As this water of condensation only occupies
about y^Vir ^^ *^^^ space filled by the steam from which it was
formed, the remainder of the space is vacant, and no pressure
exists.
The difference in volume accounts for the atmospheric
pressure on the outside of the chamber, and as the vacuum ex-
tends throughout the whole distance which the exhaust steam
originally occupied, it, of course, is made available in the
cylinder of the engine in the shape of a decreased pressure on
the exhaust side of the piston the atmospheric pressure re-
;
mains constant, therefore we have the atmospheric pressure

acting on one side of the piston, and absent on the other the ;
gain being 14.7 pounds per square inch, if a perfect vacuum

could be secured. It amounts in average engineering practice
to from 12 to 13 pounds, or 24 to 26 inches of mercury, as the
graduations usually read on vacuum gauges.
Jet and Surface Condensers are further described and iU

lustrated in a special allotted section of this work. The vacuum
pump is usually of the reciprocating order, although other
methods have been employed for emptying condensers, but not
with equally satisfactory results.
The gain to be secured by using a condensing apparatus

may" be measured in two ways: first, by the decrease in
fuel consumption over that necessary when running non-con-
densing, which will represent a constant decrease in running
expenses or, second, by the increase of power working quite
;
up to its economical limit, in a non-condensing engine.
By Ihe use of a condenser a further increase of power is real-

ized in raising the mean effective pressure of steam within the
engine cylinder without increasing the demand upon the boiler.
The application of a condenser to a steam engine increases

itseconomy from 20^ to 25^ depending upon circumstances,
while by compounding and condensing an economy of 35^ to
40^ is effected.
% INGLE AND CROSS COMPOUND DOUBLE ACTING

VACUUM PUMPS.
The vacuum pump shown in the engraving. Fig. 346, repre-
sents a single cylinder double acting vertical design having but
one set of valves and those used exclusively for the discharge.
The suction port is in the middle of the cylinder, A, shown in

the sectional view, Fig. 347. The piston, E, when it passes this
port imprisons the water beyond it and pushes this water out
of the discharge valves, D
D, if the piston is rising, and out of
the valves, C C, if the piston
is descending. The main discharge
pipe is attached to a flange at B.
1le
This pump is made to work easily and steadily by adjusting
cushioning valves, F. F.
38 Pumps and Hydravlics.
The discharge valves are reached through the holes pro-

vided for that purpose and covered by plates shown in the
engraving, Fig. 347.
The main slide valve
moves horizontally for the
reason that if it moved up
and down the force of gravity
would seriously interfere with
its regular action.
This slide is moved by a
valve piston in the usual way.
The parts of the valve may
be inspected and adjusted by
removing the cover held by
the two studs shown.
The outline engraving,
shows a cross-com-
Fig. 348,
pound double acting vacuum
pump, six-inch high pressure,
nine-inch low pressure cyl-
inders,by eight-inch stroke,
and two air cylinders, ten-
inch diameter by eight-inch
istroke.
Tliey are piped up to run
cither high or low pressure,
also to run independently by
manipulating the cocks, C,
and \)^ as directed in the en-
graving showing arrange-
ment of valves, F'ig. 349,
page 41.
These pipes are simple in
design and run direct to the
Fio. 3}6.
boiler for live steam and
convey the exhaust to the atmosphere or condenser as desired.
On a recent test at a fair rate of speed the capacity of this
:
Air and Vamum Pumps. 39
pump was shown to be equivalent to taking care of a triple ex-

pansion engine of 2,000 I. H. P. On a further test this same
pump on a basis of 20 lbs. weight of steam per I. H. P. per
hour demonstrated its ability
to take care of 3,000 I. H. P.
triple expansion engine.
The advantages claimed
for this pump are briefly as
follows
Unusual light weight and
compactness.
There being NO SUCTION
VALVES, working-beams, rock
shaft and bearings, bâm-
links, etc., this pump is sim-
ple.
It is economical in the
use of steam, by reason of
compounding the steam cyl-
inders; also clearance loss is
reduced to a minimum by the

perfect regulation that is se-
cured by the valve gear de-

scribed. Full stroke at any
and speeds can be readily
all
maintained.
As the air pistons travel
within a distance of less than
}i inch of the air cylinder
heads, a high efficiency re-
sults. Although double-act-
ing, the flow of water and
vapors is always in one con-
Fig. 347.
tinuous direction the same —
in a single-acting air pump. Either side of pump can run
idependent of the other, which means a spare pump to be
5ed in case of accident to the other side of this pump.
Referring to the accompanying table of tests, page 41, it

may be claimed that with an average of 36 double strokes per
minute this pump handled at the rate of upwards of 26,<xx)
COCKO
pounds of feed-water per hour, which on a basis of 20 lbs.

engine economy shows this vacuum pump capable of taking
Air and Vacuum Pumps, 41
care of a 1,300 I. H. P. engine at this very moderate speed.

By comparing the power required to drive this pump (which
aggregated 1.18 I. H. P.) to the I. H. P. of an engine of the
ARRANGEMENT OF VALVES
SYSTEM VALVE A VALVE B gockC cockD
TO RUN
HIGH AND LOW OPEN CLOSED
ASA
COMPOUND
TO RUN
HIGH PRESSURE OPEN CLOSED
SIDE ALONE
TO RUN
LOW PRESSURE CLOSED OPEN
SIDE ALONE
power here represented it is apparent that this pump did its

work on less than one-eleventh of one per cent, of the I. H. P.
of said engine, which is a very excellent showing.
Table No. 4 also shows a very excellent vacuum maintained
under extreme duty.
Table.
Number of Test, No. I. No. 2. No, 3. No, 4.
Steam pressure —high |

70 lbs. 120 lbs, 125 lbs,
steam cylinder
Steam pressure —low steam J
|
20 lbs. 40 lbs 45 lbs. 50 lbs.
cylinder )
Vacuum in condenser rjyi in. 27 in. 26X in- 25 m.

Double strokes per minute "I
—
high side j
37 61 82
Double strokes per minute
—
low side., 35
|
60 82 88
Temperature of hot well —
106 deg.
)
\
105 deg. 108 deg, 112 deg.
Fahrenheit f
Water pumped per hour [ —
13,500 lbs. 22,700 lbs. 30,000 lbs,
high side j
Water pumped per hour — \

12,700 lbs. 22,300 lbs. 30,200 lbs. 36,000 lbs.
low side )
Total water per hour 26,200 lbs. 45,000 lbs. 60,200 lbs.
I. H. P. of high steam )
0.60
cylinder \
I. H. P. of low steam )
cylinder
0.58
\
Total I. H. P 1. 18
4'i Pumps and Hydraulics.
==^
The Deane Vacuum Pump. There are a number of novel

features exhibited in the construction of this pump ; the cylin-
der has four ports, that is to say two steam or admission ports
and two compression or cushioning ports.
Referring to the engraving, page 42, Fig. 6, shows the main

valve to be a plain D
slide, —
directly under it the same valve is
shown in section. The projection on the back of this valve
fits into the valve piston. The secondary valve, 5,surrounds
the main valve and contains two plain slide valves, one on each
side. Referring to be noted that one of these valves
3, it will
admits steam while the other allows the steam to escape after
having done its work of moving the valve piston.
A longitudinal section of this secondary valve and steam

cylinder are shown, in 2.
In the engraving, i, it is shown that the cylinder for each

end of the valve piston is jacketed with live steam so that the
cylinder itself heats up as quickly as the valve piston, hence
the piston cannot stick in the cylinder due to unequal expansion
of valve and seat.
The supplemental valve ports are shown in section 4.
To set the valve of this pump : Remove the steam chest,

place the piston at mid stroke with the lever, plumb, then set
the stem at mid position with the secondary valve in place.
its
See that the tappets measure equal distances either side of the
tappet block.
The water end of this pump consists of a cylinder with valve
chambers as shown. The piston rod has two stuffing-boxes,
which makes a water seal around the rod so that no air can
enter the cylinder, as the chamber between the two stuffing,
boxes is kept constantly filled with water. It will be noticed
Note. —
These small ports are not liable to fill with oil and dirt in prac-
tice,on account of their direct connections. If through leakage or any
other reason the valve piston should fail to throw the main slide valve, the
projection B (see i) on the valve stem (of which it is a part) compels the
valves to move mechanically. So when steam is turned on, this pump is
certain to begin its work.
Fia. 8SL
;
that the suction pipe enters the pump in such a position in re-
lation to the valves that both suction and discharge valves are
perpetually immersed in water.
When this pump is pumping air only, there is sufficient

water left within the valve chambers to provide a water seal
under all working conditions. The valves in this pump are
easily reached for inspection or repairs, a hand-hole being pro-
vided for each valve, with proper covers, which are easily and
quickly replaced.
The Worthingto7t Vertical Beam Vacuum Pump with con-

denser attached is shown in Fig. 351.
This is a pump of great simplicity and strength. The figure

shows a compound engine for using high pressure steam these ;
machines can be built with simple steam cylinders of equal di-

ameters, but they are not recommended except in special cases
for example where the steam pressure is very low. Each side
of the pump end is single-acting, the buckets being of the form
used for years in detached air pumps in marine service. The
two sides are connected together by a beam and links attached
to the cross-heads. As one side comes down and does little
work, the other side makes an up-stroke and does full duty in
emptying the condenser to which the suction is attached.
The condensing chamber is usually placed at the rear and
connects directly with the channel plate at the bottom of the
pump. The opening shown in front is for the discharge water.
The steam cylinders are so arranged that either piston may

be examined by removing its cylinder head, without disturbing
the other cylinders. The valves are of the Corliss, or semi-
rotative, type and the high-pressure cylinders are provided with
cut-off valves to assure the desired ratio of expansion.
The interior of each air cylinder may be inspected by re-

moving the plates shovm in front, near the middle. There are
also two plates at the top for inspection of the discharge valves.
The four machinery steel columns form a light but very strong
frame allowing free access to the working parts.
16 Pumps and Hydraulics,
Fio. 3Q8.
The next four ruts show Dean Brothers' twin cylinder air
pumps with their special steam valve gear. They are itiade for
and supplied with either surface or jet condensers. See Fig. 352.
The arrangement of the valve gear is such that steam will
be applied at the upper end of one piston at the same instant
that it begins to act on the lower end of the other. By this
device steam is so controlled in the steam chests that no pres-
sure comes on the main pistons, until the moment that both are
ready to move, after having reached the full limit of their
stroke, thereby securing an exactly uniform, but opposite, mo-
tion of the pistons. Fig. 354 is a sectional elevation of the
steam cylinder and steam chest; Fig. 353, a front elevation;
Fîg- 35 5> ^ section of the air cylinder, and Fig. 352, an exterior
perspective view of the pump.
Each steam cylinder has its own steam piston, piston rod.
valve movement, steam chest, etc. A sleeve, a, is rigidly at-
tached to each piston rod, and connected to this sleeve is a
lever, b, the outer end of which connects with a link, c, which
in turn is connected to a sleeve, d, loosely mounted upon the
valve rod between collars, e. The valve rod, f, operates the

auxiliary slide valve and admits the steam from above and
below the auxiliary piston. This piston has attached thereto
the main slide valve, which admits and exhausts steam alter-
nately from above and below the main steam pistons. Any
movement of the main piston communicates movement in the
opposite direction to the sleeve, d, which moves the valve rod
only when it strikes one or the other of the collars. ^<= there
is considerable lost motion between the sleeve and th'^ collars,
the main steam piston will be nearing the end of its stroke
when the valve rod begins to move.
Extending through the ends of the steam chests are short
piston rods, g, which are connected to a centrally pivoted
vibrating lever, //, mounted on a pivot. When the main steam
piston has moved from the top to the bottom of the steam
i8 Pumps and Hydraulics.
cylinder, the corresponding valve rod has moved in the opposite

direction and the auxiliary slide valve has moved upward,
opening the port, i, and the port, k, to the exhaust
to steam
port. At the moment the main steam piston has completed
FiQ. 853.
its downward stroke the auxiliary piston is forced upward and
carries with it the main slide valve, /. This opens the main
steam port and exhaust port, which reverses the movement of
the main piston. When the main piston reaches the upward
Air and Vacuum Pumps, 49
limit of its stroke the auxiliary

valve has moved downward,
opening the port, k, to steam
and the port, i, to the exhaust,
causing the auxiliary piston to
move downward, thus reversing
themovement of the main valve
and piston.
By this arrangement the
valve operating piston, in, is
held at all times immovably at

one end of the stroke, except
when the main piston is nearing
the end of its stroke and is ready
to reverse. Supposing the left-
hand main piston has not quite
reached the upper limit of the
stroke, the steam would still be
on the lower side of its auxiliary
or main valve operating piston
and the exhaust open to the
other side. We now have steam
on the bottom side of both
auxiliary pistons, and as they
are of equal diameters and
are connected by the lever, h,
they are balanced and cannot
move the main steam valves.
The right-hand main steam
piston must wait until the left-
hand piston has completed its
stroke before it can reverse, and
consequently the movement of
the main pistons will always be
in opposite directions, and
neither can reverse until both
have completed their stroke. FlO. 8S&
There are three ways that this apparatus may be operated

First, the pumps may be operated in conjunction with each
other, asis hereinbefore described. Second, the lever, h, may
be detached from the auxiHary or main valve operating pistons,
and the two pumps may then run independently of each
other or in the ordinary and well-known manner, each perform-
ing its own independent work. Third, by further detaching
the link, r, on one of the valve gears the auxiliary slide valve,
n, will remain at rest and the corresponding pump will not
move while the other pump continues to operate. These are

important features, because, as in case of .accident, it may be
necessary to use one pump while the other is disabled, and in
some casesit may be desirable to operate the pumps independ-
ently. The engineer will appreciate this feature, as the stop-

page of an air pump is a serious matter.
The piston rods are separable at the crossheads. The cross-

heads are of steel. The steam cylinders and pump cylinders
are connected by six heavy steel stretcher rods. Adjusting
valves are fitted to steam cylinders for controlling motion of
pistons. The valve gear is provided with a special lever ad-
justment by which the length of stroke of pistons may at any
time be changed, even while the pump is running.
In Fig. 356 is shown a form of independent vacuum pump,

with its condenser, built by the Conover Mfg. Co.
This apparatus consists of a jet condenser with air pump,

boiler feed pump, and engine to drive both, combined as one
machine. The air pump is a single acting bucket plunger
pump, driven by a crank shaft, turned by the engine, which is
a single cylinder compound automatic cut-off engine, and
also drives the boiler feed pump it is of the trunk pattern,
;
and the small space around the trunk on the top side of the
piston forms the high pressure cylinder. Steam is admitted to
the high pressure side, at boiler pressure, andis cut off and ex-
panded and exhausted into the receiver, whence it is admitted

under I he bottom side of piston, where it is again cut off and
expanded, finally exhaustina into condenser.
The piston makes the down stroke when the air pump makes
the up stroke; and it will be seen by referring to the cut that
the engine does nearly all its work when making the downward
stroke. When steam is acting on the top side of piston at high
pressure, the vacuum at the same time is pulling on the full

area of the piston under.
neath.
Fio. 356.
When the engine makes the up stroke, the steam at low

pressure from the receiver acts to push the piston up and as
;
the air pump doing no work then, being on its down stroke,
is
the only work of the engine is to keep the machine up to speed.

r.^.
It will thus be seen that the engine is suited to meet the de-
mand of the large power on one stroke, and very on the
little
other, thus adapting itself admirably to its requirements.

The valves are of the Corliss type, and do not trip ; the cut-
off being set by hand, does not require to be changed or
altered, as the speed is controlled by a throttling governor.
Fig- 357 shows a cross section through the steam cylinder
of this vacuum pump.
Fig. 358.
The Edwards air and vacuum pump is shown in Figs. 358,

359 and 360, in which it may be perceived that both foot and
bucket valves are dispensed with the only valves used are those
;
which in other pumps are known as head or discharge valves.

The following brief description of its leading features will
be understood by reference to the illustrations: Fig. 358 is a
sectional view through the center of the air pump, but the
piston and rod are shown as a full view.
The action of this pump is as follows: the condensed steam
flows continuously by gravity from the condenser into the basQ
of the pump, and is there dealt with mechanically by the coni-

cal bucket working in connection with a base of similar shape.
Upon the descent of the bucket the water is projected silently
and without shock at a high velocity through the ports into
the working barrel (see Fig. 359). The rising water is followed
by the rising
bucket, which
closes the ports,
and, sweeping
the air and
water before it,
discharges them
through the
valve at the top
of the barrel.
It may be said
that however
slowly an ordi-
nary air pump
with foot and
bucket valves
maybe running,
the pressure
in the condenser
has to be suf
ficiently above
that in the pump
to lift the foot
valves, over-
Fio. 359. come the inertia
of the water, ajid
drive the water up through the valves into the barrel where the
water is dealt with mechanically. The higher the speed of the
older type of pump the greater is the pressure required to over-
come these resistances owing to the very short space of time
and as any increase of pressure in the condenser is ac-
available,
companied by a corresponding increase of back pressure in the
low pressure cylinder, hence the absence of the valves referred

to allows a higher speed of the plunger. The elimination of the
foot valves it is claimed gives from ^
to i inch better vacuum.
Another advantage claimed for this pump is that clear air
inlets are maintained —
see Figs. 359 and 360. Under ordinary
working conditions, when the bucket descends and the ports
open, there is no obstruction between the condenser and the
pump the air has a free entrance while immediately afterward
;
the water is injected into the barrel at a high velocity. Thus,

instead of obstruct-
ing the entrance of
the air, the water
tends to compress
that already in the
barrel, and to entrain
or carry in more air
wi'th it.
The bucket or
piston is a hollow
casting with water
grooves instead of
packing rings.
The valve seat is
constructed with a Fig. 360.
rib between each

valve and a around the outer edge, so that each valve stands
lip
in its own water and is separated from the others. This forms
a ready means of testing the relative tightness of each valve.
The cast iron working barrel is lined with brass.
The pump rod is Tobin bronze, and valve plate and valves
of composition. These pumps are either single, twin, triplex,
and are steam, electric or belt driven, for stationary, marine
or sugar plantation service.
The steam driven pumps are built with either single or com-
pound steam new and improved valve
cylinders, fitted with
gear,and with their arrangement of fly-wheels, insures smooth
running, making full strokes free from vibration.
«6 Pumps and Hydraulics.
AIR COMPRESSORS.
Compressed air compressed by mechanical force into
is air
a state of more or less increased density. The power obtained
from the expansion of greatly compressed air in a cylinder,
on being set free is used in many applications as a substitute
for steam or other force as in operating drills, shop tools and
engines which are driven by the elastic force of compressed air.
A compressor is a machine usually driven by steam by which
air is compressed in a receiver so that its expansion may be
utilized as a source of power at distances where an ordinary
engine could not be conveniently used.
The compressor proper comprises two sets of valves, usually
designed to be opened automatically by excess of pressure
under them and to be closed by gravity or by the action of
springs when the pressures become equal. The inlet valves
open just after the piston commences its stroke, when the ex-
pansion of the cqmpressed air remaining in the cylinder behind
the piston has lowered the pressure above the valves. They
close at the end of the intake stroke, just as the piston comes
to rest. The lift during the compression stroke, at
outlet valve
about the time the rising pressure in the cylinder becomes equal
to that in the outlet passage above the valves and they close ;
when the flow of air ceases as the piston completes its stroke.
Any of the accurately fitted steam engine valve gears may
be used for compressors, observing only that the compressor is
in every way a reversed steam engine.
Compressed air is already used in the operation of
I. Cranes, hoists and motors of all types and of all capacities.
2. Portable drilling, reaming and tapping machines.
3. Riveters and stay-bolt cutters, calking and chipping

tools.
4. Shop tools of all kinds.
5. Air brakes.
6. Sand blasts.
7. Rock drills and coal mining machines.
8. Pneumatic locomotives and street cars.

57
Air Compressors. 59
and also for the following diversified uses,
I. Pumping water, sewage, oil and acids.

2. Raising sunken vessels.
3. Refrigerating and ice making.
4. Transmitting messages through pneumatic tubes.
5. Cleaning carpets and railroad cars and seats.
6. Sinking caissons and driving tunnels through
silt and soft earth.

7. Tapping iron furnaces.
8. Transmitting power for all purposes.
The office of the air compressor is to store up air under high

pressures, which can be utilized at a greater or less distance,
without sustaining any loss by condensation in the pipes, as
is the case of carrying steam in pipes long distances.
Air stored under pressure in a reservoir can be used ex-

pansively, in an ordinary steam engine returning an equivalent
amount of work that was required to compress it — less the
friction.
The admission of the air being through a single tube, it
creates a constant flow of air in one direction only, thus filling

the cylinder at each stroke with air at atmospheric pressure.
This movement gives a momentum to the air which causes it
to fill the cylinder to its fullest extent at each stroke.

Air compressors may be driven in various ways, but the most
commonly used are those which are directly connected to a
steam engine, thus doing away with intermediate machinery.
When the air piston draws in a charge of air, the air fills the
cylinder at atmospheric pressure, or a little below, and on the
return stroke of the piston it has to be compressed to the same
pressure as in the receiver before it can lift the delivery valve,
and as the valve is held to its seat by a spring, and also by its
own weight, the pressure has to be considerably above that of

the receiver before the valve will lift. To overcome this the
valves are operated by mechanical means, which lifts them
at a point of the stroke, when the pressure in the cylinder cor-
responds with that of the receivei
Air Compressors. 61
This arrangement avoids pounding of the valves as well as

the noise caused by the air when rushing at much higher pres-
sure from the cylinder into the receiver.
For the sake economy, air compressors are compounded,
of
as for example, by drawing the air into a large cylinder and
compressing it to a certain stage, whence it passes into a smaller
cylinder, which compresses it to a much higher pressure.
In a simple compressor, for very high pressures, there is at
the end of the stroke a large volume of air left in the clearance
space, which expands on the return stroke, to atmospheric
pressure, before another charge of air can be drawn in.
But in the compound compressor, the air is delivered from
the low pressure receiver to the high pressure cylinder far above
atmospheric pressure, thus the remaining air need not expand
so much and allows the cylinder to take a larger volume of air.
The load is also distributed more evenly.
The following are valuable " points " relating to the care
and management of air compressors.
As in a steam pipe line, elbows should be avoided in an
air pipe but unlike a steam pipe it should be l.irger.
ii-ie
A mistake is sometimes made in purchasing a compressor
built for a low altitude and trying to run it in a higher elevation ;
the machine then experiences the same trouble that some

people do, in not being able to get breath enough under the
changed conditions.
The use of cheap oils, especially in an air cylinder is a most
serious mistake, as the least tendency to gum will prevent the
valves from properly seating, and even with the best of oils, it
is well to use a small amount of mineral oil at times.

In localities where the water is bad, the water jacket will
require extra attention, as it gets as badly scaled like steam
boilers, principallydue to a very slow or retarded circulation,

which allows the sediment to settle, and should the water
supply be shut ofT, even for a few minutes, the cylinder heat
will bake it so hard as to give considerable trouble. It
is a good plan to put a good boiler compound in the watei
jacket, and run the machine for some time without any cir-
62 Pjimps and Hydraulics.
Air Compressors. 63
culation. In this case good judgment must be used not to run

too long or too fast, as the cylinder will heat very quickly and
is liable to be damaged.
There are many emergency ways of stopping small pipe
leaks any good sticky substance, such as tar, wax, tallow
;
candles, or even chewing gum, melted and applied on narrow

atrips of cloth and wound as a bandage, will be found handy.
It should be remembered that leaks in an air pipe line are as
bad as in a steam pipe line, and should receive as much care.
The theoretical operation of air compressors may be thus
explained :
If a tight cylindrical vessel, containing one cubic foot of
air at atmospheric pressure, be fitted with a piston which is free
to move up and down but yet perfectly tight, the air in the
have no means of escape, and the pressure within
''essel will
*d without the vessel, both being atmospheric, are balanced.

Now, if the piston should be loaded with a weight, the pres-
* sure on the outside would be that due to the atmosphere, plus
the weight, while the pressure from the inside is simply equal
to atmospheric pressure thus the piston is forced to descend,
;
but as the air inside of the cylinder has no means of escape, the
volume it fills being diminished, its pressure rises until the
pressure under the piston balances that above it.
tif, example, the area of the piston should be loo square

for
ches, and the weight with which it is loaded be lOO pounds,
assuming the piston to be without weight, the pressure below
will have to react with an equal force to hold the piston
stationary, which in this case would be pound to the square
i
inch above atmospheric pressure, and the piston would have to

descend sufficiently to cause this increase of pressure, which
descent would be equal to yV ^^ t^*^ total fall of the piston. By
adding another lOO pounds above, the pressure would rise to
2 pounds to the square inch. The cylinder is thus charged
with compressed air.
If now the bottom of the cylinder should be connected by
means of a pipe to another vessel of larger capacity called a
receiver, the pipe having been closed by a valve in it during
Liquid Air is a marvelous result of compression. It liquefies at a

pressure of 573 pounds per square inch, at the reduced temperature of
—22C° F. —
at atmospheric pressure it boils at ,;i2° F., at which tem-
;
perature it can be handled like water. Air is the vapor of a liquid, and
acts in its properties like the vapor of other liquids. Liquid air in color
is like that of a blue sky on a cloudless day.
Fl(i. I]*)-'). (SoopapeVl.)
^' first to propose and make, in 1653, an actual

Denys Papin was the
trial ofthe transmission of power to a distance by compressed air. It
was the fertile and mechanical brain of Papin that first conceived the
idea of the pneumatic tube for transmitting parcels by air pressure."
Historical Note by Hiscox.
Air Compressors. 65
compression, and the valve should be opened, the piston would

at once commence a further descent, the compressed air
escaping into the receiver, until the pressure in the receiver
and cylinder is equalized, or the piston reaches the bottom of
the cylinder, which it will do, if the receiver is large enough.
Then the valve closes, stopping communication between
cylinder and receiver, and the piston is drawn upward at the
;
same time admitted to the cylinder by another

air is again
valve, which closes when the piston reaches the top, and the
same operation is again repeated.
The receiver can thus be charged with compressed air and by
loading the piston very heavy the pressu re can be raised quite high.
Now, if the piston, instead of being loaded by weights, be
connected to the piston rod of a steam engine, or by means of
a connecting rod to a crank (which is rotated by a belt or some
other driving mechanism, and the valves be operated auto-
matically, as the valves on a water pump), the simple apparatus
is converted into a perfect air compressor, which really is
nothing else than an air pump, and the air can be pumped into
the receiver against a high pressure the same as water is forced
into an elevated reservoir by a pump.
As air is a compressible gas, it acts a little different in the
air cylinder from the almost incompressible water in a pump.
To lift the valves of an air compressor by the compressed
air pressure in the cylinder (added to the pressure of their
springs besides the receiver pressure), the air would have to be
compressed considerably above the receiver pressure before it
would lift the valve which allows it to flow from the cylinder
into the receiver, and then the valve would not open freely as
a pump valve, but would chatter, causing a disagreeable noise,
and damaging the valve.
To avoid this, an air compressor are operated
the valves of
by mechanical means. Some
devices operate the valve directly
as soon as the pressure in the cylinder reaches that of the re-
ceiver, while others simply release it of the spring pressure, the
valve itself being lifted by the Such devices generally
air itself.
give the valves a full free opening, without noise.
FlO. 366.
Air Compressors. 67
The blowing engine almost identical with the air com-

is
pressor. The chief difference between them being the ratio

of steam cylinder to air cylinder. While the air compressor
furnishes a comparatively small amount of air at very high
pressures, the blowing engine delivers a very large volume at
lower pressures.
Blowing engines are mainly used in large blast furnace?,
smelting works and foundries, to furnish the air pressure for
cupolas, air furnaces and smelting ovens.
^ In Fig. 366 is shown a blowing engine of very large size;

\'-
the steam cylinder is 42 inches in diameter, the air cylinder 84
inches, and the stroke 60 inches.
The valve gear of the Reynolds-Corliss type. The piston

is
ro(' is attached to a cross-head extending through the guides,
wiiich are formed by the frame, with wrist pins upon each
end, from which the two connecting rods are suspended with
their lower ends connected to the cranks, as shown in Fig. 366.
There are two air piston rods attached to the main piston and
held to the cross-head by nuts at points near the guides.
The crank shaft carrying the flywheels, which also form the
cranks attached to the ends of this shaft,
is located below the
steam cylinder. This construction is of the return connecting

rod engine design, to economize space.
Both the air and steam valve gears are worked from eccen-
tricson an auxiliary shaft, driven from the main shaft by
bevel gears underneath the steam cylinder.
The ''Imperial air compressor is presented herewith in
^ and 368.
Figs. 367
L The ** Imperial " compressor is especially designed for use
in machine shops, foundries and other industrial establishments
I
where it is not convenient to use a steam driven compressor.
The machine has two vertical, single-acting cylinders, each
employing long trunk pistons that act as guides for the lower
ends of the connecting rods. By this design, the height of the
.machine is reduced, stuffing-boxes and crossheads are elim-
^bated, and a minimum number of bearings required. The
cranks are set opposite to each other, so that when the piston
on one side is ascending, the other side is descending.
The machine is made with duplex cyhnders for the low
pressures used in sand blast work and the like, and with either
Fio. aofr.
duplex or compound cylinders for higher pressures. In the

compound type, an intercooler is supplied, through which the
air passes from the low pressure to the high pressure cylinder.
A/r Compressors. 69
The air cylinders are water-jacketed and provided with

hooded heads, so that air may be supplied to them from out*
side the compressor-room the cyhnders are cast in one piece
;
with the frame.
Fig. 368.
The air-valves, both inlet and outlet, are of the poppet

type, fitted with light springs, and work vertically. On account
of their position at the bottom of the cylinder, they are well
lubricated, and, acting vertically, they have little tendency to

"wear out of line with their seats.
The air intake passage tapped to receive a supply pipe
is
leading from out-of-doors, or fromsome place where cool and

clean air is obtainable. The compressed air is discharged into
a passage which is tapped for a pipe to convey it to the air-
receiver.
All parts of the compressor are easily accessible for in-
spection, adjustment, or repair. The air-heads may be re-
moved without disturbing any of the pipe connections. The
valves may be taken out by unscrewing the bonnets.
Table
of parts of the Imperial Compressor.
Number
of Part
Air Compressors. 71
cylinder having an adjustable cut-off. The air valves are

operated by a positive crank motion.
A view of a Pelton water wheel operating a compressor is
shown in Fig. 363. The cut represents a compound air com-
pressor in which the valves are operated mechanically. The
water which drives the wheel enters through the pipe and
nozzle secured in the wheel pit, as represented.
Fig. 364 exhibits a belted duplex air compressor built by
Allis-Chalmers & Co.
Fig. 365 shows a vertical duplex compressor driven by a belt.
FiQ. 369.
may be seen by the engravings, have the

All the latter, as
positive valve motion operated by an eccentric. In selecting
an air compressor the following points
need consideration:
I, Number of cubic feet of
free air required per minute;
2,
Altitude, i.e., the number of feet above the
sea level; 3, Steam'
pressure and air pressure.
The use of compressed air for operating mining
pumps, while
having advantages in some cases, is not to be
recommended in
all, on account of the low efficiency of the plant
particularly
as
a whole. The loss due to leaks is serious,
and the long line of
piping with its numerous joints causes
much trouble, delay and
expense.
n Pumps and Hydraulics.
In Fig. j6g is shown a direct acting steam single air com-

pressor ; simplicity in its construction is a leading feature and
there are few parts in this pump that are liable to wear.
Fig. 370. Fig. 371.
This apparatus is designed for work-

ing pressures up to twenty pounds ; it
is intended for use in oil refineries,

smelting works, blast furnaces and in
all situations where compressed air of
medium pressure is required. They

are variously usedsand blasts,
for
ventilating purposes, and for pneumatic
deliveries.
The steam end and valve motion
are the regular Deane pattern, assuring
positive operation. The air cylinder is
provided with a water jacket.
A power wall or post air compressor
is shown in Figs. 370-372. The ma-
Fig. 872.
chine is single acting and is recom-
mended where little space is available, as it can be bolted to
the wall or to a post, or on the under side of the ceiling. The
crank shaft and connecting rod are of cast steel. The bearings
are babbitted and adjustable. The piston is of the trunk form,
carrying a pin for the connecting rod, and is of extra length to
Air Compressors. 73
act as a guide for the lower end of the connecting rod. The
valves are of the poppet type. These compressors are ex-
tensively used in electric power stations for supplying air for
removing dust from electric machinery, in bicycle shops for in-
flating pneumatic tires, maintaining a supply of air in pressure
tanks, and for various purposes where a limited supply of air is
needed.
These compressors are of tJie ^^ Blake"' design and the fol-
lowing particulars will be of interest.
Table.
(4-1
.
capacities of a given displacement to do work — as through rock

drills or pumps — at varying altitudes are figured in the follow-
ing table :
Capacities at Varying Heights above Sea Level.
Feet above
:
Air Compressors. 75
of a single compressor is by the two-stage process greatly

reduced.
Further compounding, for pressures above lOO pounds, be-
comes quite necessary to secure the advantages named here-
after ; the two-stage has proved advantageous up to 500 lbs.,
three-stage up to 1,000 lbs., and four-stage compression up to

3,000 lbs.
As the pressures increase, however, the machines become

more and more complicated, owing not only to the greater
power required, but also to the heating of the air during com-
pression. The use of water-jackets for cooling the air in the
compression cylinders is general, but this does not effect thor-
FiQ, 374.
ough cooling, as only a small portion of the air in the cylinder

comes in contact with the jacketed parts. This difficulty has
led to the use of compound machines, in which case inter-
coolers are generally used between the different stages of com-
pression, which cause the air to shrink in volume between the
stages.
Briefly summed up, the chief advantages of multi-stage over
single-stage compression are
I. Lower average temperature, resulting in lower average
pressure, and permitting the compression of the same volume
of air with less expenditure of energy.
2. Increased safety and ease of lubrication. When high

final temperatures prevail, part of the lubricating oil vaporizes,
and wear on the piston and cylinder becomes rapid. Under
exceptional circumstances the combination of air and oil vapor
may reach the proportions of an explosive mixture, and if the
compression temperature passes its flash point damage may
result. Such accidents are, however, very rare even in single-
stage work in multi-stage compression, with proper intercool-
;
ing, they are impossible.

3. Greater effective capacity in free air. The final pressure
in the low pressure cylinder is much lower than in a single-stage
machine, and the air confined in the clearance spaces when ex-
panded down to atmospheric pressure occupies comparatively
little space. Consequently the inflow of air through the suc-
tion valves begins at an earlier point in the stroke.
4. The air delivered by a two-stage or mtilti-stage compressor

is dryer than that furnished by a single cylinder. Under con-
stant pressure the power of air to hold watery vapor decreases
with its temperature, and during its passage through the inter-
cooler much of the original moisture in the air is precipitated.
Consequently less trouble is experienced from condensation in
the discharge pipe.
A properly designed inter-cooler should reduce the air in

the cylinders to the temperature of the outside air. The econ-
omy of compressing in several stages — or, in other words,
compound compressors — is shown from the fact that in com-
pressing air up to lOO the heat loss reaches about 30 per
lbs.
cent. By compressing in two stages, this loss is cut down to

less than half ; and in four stages, it is reduced to four or five
per cent. It is evident, therefore, that the higher the pressure
required the more essential is the use of compound machines.
The inter-cooler is the vital feature of the two-stage or multi-
stage machine. In this construction the air is partially com-
pressed in one cylinder ; it is then passed through an inter-
cooler where it is cooled and finally is compressed to the desired
degree in the second or other additional cylinders.
Air Compressors. 77
An inter-cooler is shown in Fig. 373. The cooling surface

consists of a nest of small brass water tubes. These tubes break
up the stream of air entering the cooler, while their thin walls
insure rapid conduction. The receiver volume formed by the
connecting pipes and inter-cooler body results in a nearly uni-
form discharge pressure in the low-pressure cylinder. The air
being outside of the tubes encounters practically no frictional
resistance, and its slow passage allows time for cooling. A
pocket, with gauge glass attached, is so placed as to catch any
precipitated moisture which might otherwise enter high-pres-
sure cylinder.
An after-cooler is shown in Fig. 374. This serves to reduce
the temperature of the air after the final compression.
The heat of compression, as may be judged from the fore-
going, relating to inter and after-coolers is a feature of interest.
The temperature to which
it finally attains depends, i, upon
the initial upon the degree of compression, or in

temperature; 2,
other words, tJie amount of work expended upon the compression.

The extent of this heating is shown in the following table,
for dry air when compression is performed with no cooling.
Temperature of air before compression, 60°
Temperature of air compressed to 15 lbs.
" 30 lbs
" 45 lbs.
" ' " «•
60 lbs.
.i •• .< .. y. iijg
" " " " 90 lbs.
" " •• " 105 lbs.
" " •• •'
120 lbs.
The Norwalk compound compressor is shown in outline by

the cut 375. The large air cylinder on the left determines the
capacity of the compressor for illustration assume its piston at
;
100 square inches area the small air cylinder can have an area
;
of thirty-three and one-third square inches.

The small piston only encoiinters the heaviest pressure; at
100 pounds pressure the resistance 'to its advance is 3,333
pounds. The resistance agaitist the large piston
area is its
multiplied by the pressure zvhich caused by forcing the air
is
from the large cylinder into the smaller cylinder. In this case
thirty pounds per square inch.

it is But as this thirty pounds
pressure acts on the back of the small piston, and hence assists
the machine, the net resistance to forcing the air from the large
into the small cylinder is equal to the difference of the area of
the two pistons multiplied by the thirty pounds pressure. This is
sixty-six and two-thirds by and equals 2,000 pounds.

thirty,
Hence 2,000 pounds, the resistance to forcing the air from
the larger into the smaller cylinder, plus 3,333 pounds, the
resistance in the smaller cylinder to compressing it to 100
pounds, is the sum of all the resistances in the compound cyl-
inders at the time of greatest effort. This is 5,333 pounds.
By thus reducing the woi-k to be done at the end of the stroke,
more work is done in the first part, and the resistance is made
nearly uniform for the whole stroke.
Note. —Arrows on the water pipes show the direction of the water circu-
lation. When the pistons move as indicatedby the arrow on the piston rod,
steam and air circulate in the direction shown by arrows in the cylinders.
A — Inlet Conduit for Cold Air, O—Air Relief Valve, to effect easy
B— Removable Hoods of Wood. starting after stopping with all
C— Inlet Valve. pressure on pipes.
D — Intake Cylinder. I —Cold Water pipe to Cooling
E — Discharge Valve. Jacket.
F— Inter-cooler. 2 —
and 3 Water Pipes.
G— Compressing Cylinder. 4 —Water Overflow or discharge.
H — Discharge Air Pipe. 5 —Stone on end of Foundation.
J—Steam Cylinder. 6 — Foundation
K —Steam Pipe. 7 —Space to get at Underside of
— Exhaust Steam Pipe.
1/ Cylinder.
N — Swivel Connection for Crosshead. 8— Floor Line,
THE AIR LIFT PUMP.
The Air Lift is one of the simplest methods of raising water
from underground sources. The main principle of its operation
may be stated thus: air under pres-
sure is conveyed into the lower end
of the water pipe through a suitable
foot piece.
City and town water works, asy-
lums and hospitals, plantations, rail-
way water tanks, irrigation, private country

houses, pumping mines, ice manufactories,
breweries, cold storage and packing houses,
textile mills, dye works, bleacheries, sewerage
dry docks, seaside water works,
installations,
stock farms ; everywhere that clear and
in fact,
abundant water is needed are opportunities for
the application of the Air Lift System of
pumping water.
Nor is it alone for securing public water
supplies that the Air Lift is of special value.
Within recent years the question of an abun-
—
NoTB. Dr. Julius J. Pohle is admitted to be the original inventor of this
admirable and useful device. At first all systems by which water or liquids
were lifted by compressed air were more or less extravagant, but with large
experience and with improvements in air compressor economy, the Air Lift
has made valuable strides. Dr. Pohle was actively associated with the
Ingersoll Sargeant Co. until his death, 1896, since which time his system has
been further improved and developed by a wider application and broader
experience.
79
dant and pure water supply for manu-

facturing, irrigation and other uses
has become one of equal importance.
After an extensive experience, two
general systems have been devised
for utilizing the water which lies
immediately below the surface of the
ground. One, known as the Deep-
well pump System, for which a work-
ing pump is used, and the other the
Air Lift System, which employs
compressed air to raise the water,
either by means of its inherent ex-
pansive force or the difference in
specific gravity between compressed
air and water.
Theory of the Air Lift. Opinions
differ as tothe true theory of the
Air Lift. A
common Air Lift case
is one where there is a driven well
in which the water has risen ap-

proximately near the surface. In this
well is placed a large pipe for the
discharge of the water, which is
."
known as an *^ eduction pipe
This pipe does not touch the bot-
tom of the well, but is elevated above
it so as to freely admit the water
through its lower

open end. Alongside
of this pipe, either on
the outside or with-
in, is a small pipe
properly proportion-
ed and intended to
^•°-^^- ^°-^«-
convey compressed
air to a point near the bottom of the eduction pipe. It is usual
Air Lift Pumps. 81
to provide a " foot-piece," see Fig. 378, which forms

a nozzle
connecting the air pipe with the water pipe, but in what is
known "central pipe system" this foot-piece is not
as the
used, the air pipe being placed within the eduction-pipe to
a point near the bottom, where it discharges the compressed
air into the water column.
Many neighborhoods are dependent upon well water, and
there are few districts where an ample supply is not to be se-
cured from wells properly made; this water is generally pure and
wholesome. It is also of uniform temperature the year round
cool and pleasant in the summer, because the underground pipe
and earth temperature remain uniformly low. In winter, well
water being warmer than that taken from ponds and rivers, is
not so apt to frcezo, and, from all considerations of temperature
and purity, well water is greatly to be preferred. Many cities
located on rivers having a gravel bed formation find that, by
placing wells of suitable construction far enough back from the
bank, there is a natural filter bed, leaving the water clear, even
when the river itself is muddy. When river or other surface
water is good the wells may be sunk close to the edge, the
water flowing down from the top of the wells.
There are not many underground formations where wells
should be located close together. Such wells may affect or rob
each other, and it is them out on a line
usually best to spread
across what is known underground flow. Some finely
to be the
creviced or tight rock formations have a strong head with but
little capacity, and wells in such formations, if pumped hard,
yield but little additional water. They should be scattered

and pumped moderately, maintaining a low and economical
lift. In other cases, one well in a group will give as much
water as all together, and more territory must be drawn on.
The Pohle system of elevatijig liquids is shown in Fig. 377.
The process " consists in submerging a portion of an open-
ended eduction-pipe in a body of the liquid to be raised and
continuously introducing into the liquid within the lower part
of the pipe a series of bubbles of compressed gaseous fluid con-
taining enough of the fluid to expand immediately across the
'I
3) —
Q !^^^^^^^^yw^^^^s''v^v^^^^^^'-'^^^^^^
^^=1
VXVSSXVV\V\\XSK>VV>>^\VVXVVS\V\VK\\\VV\\\^^^^^
5
J
I
^^s\\\\\\\\\\\^\\^^\^\>^\^^.\\^\\\^x\^^^ _
^^?;j?^?^?^^;!^;:!^?;^^??J5<:jj'j'"C':^^
I
Air Lift Pumps. 83
pipe and fill the same from side to side, forming pipe-fitting
piston-like layers at or just above the point of their entrance
into the pipe, whereby the column of liquid rising in the pipe
after the forcing out of the liquid first standing in the latter is
subdivided by the gaseous fluid into small portions before it

reaches the level of the liquid outside of the pipe, and a con-
tinuously upward-flowing series of well-defined alternate layers
of gaseous fluid and short layers of liquid is formed and forced
up the pipe."
The figures represent the apparatus in a state of action
pumping water, the shaded sections within the eduction-pipe,
W, representing water-layers and the intervening blank spaces
air-layers.
At and before the beginning of pumping, the level of the water is the
same outside and inside of the discharge-pipe, W, — incidentally, also, in the
air pipe. Hence the vertical pressures per square inch are equal at the sub-
merged end of the discharge pipe. When, therefore, compressed air is ad-
mitted into the air pipe, a, it must first expel the incidental standing water
before air can enter the eduction-pipe, W. When this has been accom-
plished, the air-pressure maintained until the water within the eduction-
is
pipe has been forced out, which it will be in one unbroken column, free
from air-bubbles.
When this has occurred the pressure of the air is lowered or its bulk di-
minished and adjusted to a pressure just sufl5cient to overcome the external
water-pressure. It is thus adjusted for the performance of regular aud uni-
form work, which will ensue with the inflowing air and water, which adjust
themselves automatically in alternate layers or sections of definite lengths
and weights. It will be seen in the figures that the lengths of the water-
columns (shaded) and air (blank spaces) i and i are entered at the right of
the discharge-pipe, W; also, that under the pressure of two layers of water
I and 2, the length of the air column 2 is 6.71 feet long, and so on. The
lengths of aggregate water columns and the air columns which they respect-
ively compress are also entered on the right of the water-pipe.
On the left of the water-pipe are entered the pressures per square inch of
these water columns or layers. Thus the pressure per square inch of column
I seen to be 1.74 pounds; that of 2, consisting of two columns or layers
is
I and 2 each 4.02 feet long, to be 3.49 pounds, and that of 10, consisting of
nine columns or layers of water i to 9, inclusive, each 4.02 feet long, and
one of 3.80 feet in length (viz., layer 10) to be 17.35 pounds, and the ag-
gregate length of the layers of water is 39.98 feet in a total length of ninety-
one feet of pipe.
be noted that the length of pipe below the surface of the water in
It will
the well 55.5 feet, and that the difference between this and the aggregate
is
—
length of the water layers (39.98) is 15.52 feet that is, on equal areas the
pressure outside of the pipe is greater than the pressure on the inside by the
weight due this difference of level, which is 47.65 pounds for the end of the
discharge pipe.
head that supplies the water

It is this difference of 15.52 feet, acting as a
pipe, which puts the contents of the pipe in motion,and overcomes the resist-
ance in the pipe. In general the water layers are equal each to each, and the
pressure upon any layer of air is due to the number of water layers above it.
Thus the pressure upon the bottom layer of air 10 in the figure is due
to all the layers of water in the pipe (17.35 pounds), and the pressure upon
the uppermost layer of air i is due to the single layer of water, I, at the
—
moment of its discharges beginning viz., 1.74 pounds per square inch. As
this discharge progresses this is lessened, until at the completion of the dis-
charge of the water layer the air layer is of the same tension as the normal
atmosphere.
The air pipe is connected with an air receiver on the sur-

face, which is at or near the engine room, in which there is an
air compressor. This air pipe is provided with a valve on the
surface. Before turning on the air the conditions in the well
show water at the same level on the outside and inside of the
eduction-pipe. At the first operation there must be sufficient
air pressure to discharge the column of water which stands in
the eduction-pipe.
This goes out en masse, after which the pump assumes a

normal condition, the air pressure being lowered and standing
at such a point as corresponds with the normal conditions in
the well. This is determined by the volume of water which
the well will yield in a certain time and the elevation to which
the water is discharged.
Note. —This extended description of the principles upon which an air

lift operates —with illustrations— drawn almost word for word from the
its is
original patent claims of Dr. Pohle. The occupation of the space in the
work is justified by the increasing importance of this system of water supply
and its practical applications in the industrial world.
Year by year the world's visible supply of coal —

so long stored and hidden
away in the earth's crust awaiting the advent of man— is diminishing, next
will dawn the age of air and water with electric transmission.
Air Lift Pumps. 85
After the standing water column has been thrown off by the
pressure the air rises through the water reduces its weight,
with the result that the water is expelled as fast as the well
supplies it, the water outside the pipe, acting as a head. Hows
into the discharge pipe

by the force of gravity.
The machinery nec- OUTLET
essary for a system of
pumping comprises, i, an air compressor; Z, a
receiver to and
store equalize the pressure
3, the head piece and foot piece for the well
and, 4, the necessary piping for the air sup-
ply and water discharge.
With an available V supply of under pres-
air
sure the pump proper
Fig. 383.
consists of simply a
water discharge and air pipe, the latter arranged
and properly controlled to inject air into the former at the
point of proper submersion. It is readily seen that the ap-
paratus is so simple that as a pump it cannot get out of order

in cases, where mud, sand or is encountered,
gritty material
it will handle such matter xvith the water and without injury
fTo T^t^K , . to the system, as nothing comes
in contact with the moving parts.
Absence of all obstructing
I
— mechanism in the wells allows
Â//i each to be operated to its full
capacity. Production, therefore,
•/<//?
^
1
Fia. 384. FlO. 88S.
does not depend upon the pump, but rather upon the capacity
of the well to yield water the natural yield of wells is often
;
increased by this process of using compressed air admitted

Air Lift Pumps. 87
close to thebottom of the discharge pipe, the water is set in

motion at a considerable depth, and by this action the well is
" cleaned."
Purification is effected by aeration during the process of

pumping, the absorption of air by the water preventing the
formation of unsanitary growths.
Three styles of well heads diXt. shown in Figs. 383, 384 and
385.
The deflector head. Fig. 383, is attached to the well casing

or discharge pipe by standards. This form of head piece is
generally used where the water is to be raised to the surface,

or just below the surface into a tank, where the air is allowed
to separate and the water flows to some central collecting
itself,
reservoir, where it is used or forced by means of an ordinary

pump to a higher elevation. The head piece offers no ob-
struction to the discharged water.
The offset discharge. Fig. 384, is adapted to situations where

the water is to be pumped by air direct from the well to some
elevation above the well.
The elbow discharge, Fig. 385, shows the common form of

well head known as the elbow head, adapted to be used either
as a cap for the well casing itself, or used in connection with a
suitable discharge pipe.
The foot which regulates the admission of

piece, or nozzle,
air to the discharge pipe at the point where the air comes in
contact with the water, thereby makes it possible to carry air
at full pressure to the end of the air pipe, and utilizes the
energy due to the velocity of the discharged air.
After a well is once regulated or balanced there is but little
occasion to move the adjusting wheel or valve, the starting and

stopping of the flow of any particular well being accomplished
by means of an ordinary valve or plug cock on the air pipe at
or adjacent to the well.
One Central Station of suitable capacity will operate several

wells no matter how far apart. The necessity of maintaining
a number of separate pumping plants is thus done away with,
and in taking a supply of water from an underground source
the wells can be located without reference to the power plant,
and at such distances apart as will best maintain the highest
average pumping level.
Although the principle of the action governing all pumps of

this description is so simple, there are a number of factors hav-
ing a direct influence upon the performance of the pump, which
have been expressed in the following terms by a well-known
expert
(a) Depth of submersion of point of air discharge below still water
surface.
(hi) Velocity of water at point of air discharge.
(a) and (^) determine the necessary air pressure. If (a) is constant,
the pressure decreases when (/;) increases.
(tr) Area of main, or water discharge pipe.
{d) Net lift to point of water discharge, including velocity head at that
point.
Volume of air (at atmospheric pressure) discharged per unit of time.
(^)
(y ) Ratio of expansion of air as it rises through the main pipe (f) may ;
be considerably modified by the temperature of the water.

{g) Total volume of air in main pipe at any instant. This determines
the specific gravity of the discharging column.
(A) The volume of each individual bubble within the main.
Letters are for reference only and do not indicate the order of importance
nor of effect.
It was at first supposed that in all Air Lift cases the water
was discharged because of the aeration of the water in the
eduction-pipe, due to the intimate co-mingling of air and water.
Bubbles of air rising in a water column not only have a ten-
dency to carry particles of water with the air, but the column is
made lighter, and, with a submergence or weight of water on
the outside of the eduction-pipe, there would naturally be a
constant discharge of air and water. This is known as the
Frizell System, and where the lifts are moderate that is, where—
the water in the well reaches a point near the surface— it is very
likely that the discharge is due to simple aeration.
Air Lift Pumps. 89
Most air lift propositions are deep-well cases — that is, the
water is lifted a distance greater than 25 feet; and just in pro-
portion as the lift is increased do we get away from the aerated
form idea, and so when the air pressure is greater than the head
of water, a certain volume of compressed air is received into
the eduction-pipe, the water in this pipe is at that time moving
rapidly upward ; that is, its momentum has been established.
Hence the air takes up this velocity and goes upward with the
water from the energy received from the elasticity of the air
due to its compressor.
A practical example of the successful working of an air
compressor for raising water from a driven well 319 feet is
3 "Pipt.
described and illustrated by the Practical

Engineer as shown in the sketch. Fig. 386.
The air compressor forces the air down
Mgjgj^j sL —
the inside pipe, which is i^" in diameter.
The outside pipe, which is 3" in diameter, has its lower end
submerged in the well. The compressed air forces a rising
column of air mingled with water in the outer pipe to the
supply tanks, which are situated at the top of the building.
Direct A ir Pressure Pumps.

This term is applied to that
class of pumps which the liquid is taken into an air tight
in
vessel and then driven out through pipes to a higher level by
the application of compressed air directly on the surface of the
liquid in the
tank, thus dis-
pensing with
cylinders, pis-
tons, valves,
iVAreR glands, etc.,
of the more common class of pumps.
Fig. 387 shows the parts of the pump its ;
operation is as follows Suppose the compressor

:
to be in operation and the switch set as in the

figure ;the air will be drawn out of the right
tank and forced into the left tank, and in so
doing will draw water into the former and
force it out of the latter. The charge of air
in the system is so adjusted that when one
tank is emptied the other is filled, and at that
moment the switch will be automatically
thrown, reversing the pipe connections and
thereby reversing the action in the tanks.
The switch is a simple mechanism
ife^ PU^fpTkNKS placed on the air pipes near the com-
pressor. It can be automatically ooerated in one of
three ways :
First, by means of the suction which occurs in the

intake pipe to the compressor, when water is drawn
above its outside level in one of the tanks. The details
of the mechanism to utilize this suction are very simple.
Second, by a mechanism, that will
^sJVATER SUPPLY throw the switch at some assigned
number of strokes of the compressor,
the proper number being that which
Pjq gg;
will empty one tank and fill the other.
This can be closely computed beforehand and can be determined exactly by
test when commencing operation and the switch adjusted accordingly.
Third, by an electrically controlled mechanism, the circuit bemg made
and broken by a pressure gauge on the intake of the compressor.
The Pneumatic Engineering Co. are the makers of this
apparatus, named the Harris System of raising water by direct
pressure.
THE STEAM
FIRE ENGINE
92 Pumf><i and Hydraulics^
mJJimmimmmiM'mmj ^^"
Fro. 386.
THE STEAM FIRE ENGINE.
The steam fire engine is practically a portable pumping
engine. // is iti a complete water works on a small
all respects
scale, hence, a modern apparatus must, within itself, and each
part working harmoniously with every other part, contain
several complex mechanisms. This will readily appear by a
study of the several succeeding illustrations the first, which in
;
the figure below exhibits a "view " of a complete machine.
Fig. 389.
(See page 109.)
Modern steam fire engines are classified as to "size," as

'
double extra first," etc ; their capacities and weights are given
approximately in the following
Table.
Size of
— ;
The foregoing list of the sizes, capacities, etc., of the fire

apparatus now in general use, affords a very good comparison
between it and that which has, little by little, progressed for
two thousand years to its present high plane. The application
of electric power to the operation of the pumps and the propulsion
of the apparatus is yet in too elementary a stage for present
discussion in a work of this scope for
It is essential that the machinery relied upon for fire pro-
tection should at all times be ready for instantaneous and
effective service this, because both life and vast property
interests are at stake, hence of all machines
made, the modern steam, fire eyigine is
I
produced with a niceness of finish and ac-
J
curacy of fit equaled by no other, when

size is considered it approaches towards
;
the perfection seen in the mechanism of

a fine watch.
This degree of excellence has been
arrived at by successive steps The
illustration on page 92, Fig. 388 exhibits
the fire-fighting tools of the early Romans
and similar apparatus was used in England
as late as the fifteenth century. The
implements shown are a syringe, a sledge
F1Q8. 390. 391.
hammer, two fire hooks and three leathern
buckets conveniently arranged against a wall. The owners of
houses or chimneys that took fire were fined ; and men were
appointed to watch for fires and give the alarm. In 1472 a
night bellman was employed in Exeter to alarm the inhabit-
ants in case of fire, and in 1558, leathern buckets, ladders
and crooks, were ordered to be provided for the .same city
no application of the pump seems to have been then thought of.
Syringes continued to be used in London till the latter part
of the 17th century, when they were superseded by more im-
proved machines. They were usually made of brass and held
from two to four quarts. The smaller ones were about two
feet and a half long, and an inch and a half in diameter the ;
The Steam Fire Engine. 95
bore of the nozzles being half an inch. Three men were re-
quired to work each, which they achieved in this manner one :
man on each side, grasped the cylinder with one hand and the
nozzle with the other while the third man worked the piston
;
!
Those who held the instrument plunged the nozzle into a

vessel of water, the operator then drew back the piston and
thus charged the cylinder, and when it was raised by the
bearers into the required position, he pushed in the piston
and forced, or rather endeavored to force, the contents upon
the fire.*
Figs. 390 and 391 show an early form of syringe. de- A
;ription of ittranslated from the original Greek, written by
FlO. 393.
[ero of the ancient city of Alexandria, reads thus — "A hollow

ûbe of some length is made. A, B into ; this another tube, C, D,
'*NoTE. —We are told that some of these syringes are preserved in one or
ro of the parish churches. can excite no surprise that London should
It
ive been almost wholly destroyed in the great fire of 1666, when such were
le machines upon which the inhabitants chiefly depended for protecting
leir property and dwellings. If the diminutive size of these instruments
considered, the number of hands required to work each, beside others to
irry water and vessels for them, the difficulty and often impossibility of
kpproaching sufficiently near so as to reach the flames with the jet, the loss
^f part of the stream at the beginning and end of each stroke of the piston,
—
id the trifling effect produced the whole act of using them, appears rather
i
a farce. These primitive devices were known as "hand squirts."
is nicely fitted, to the extremity of which is fastened a small

plate or piston ; at, D, is Cover the orifice. A,
a handle, E, F.
of the tube, A, B, with a plate in which an extremely fine tube,
G, H, is fixed, its bore communicating with A, B, through the
—
plate as a vacuum is thus produced in A, B, something
else must enter to fill it, and as there is no other passage but
through the mouth of the small tube we shall of necessity draw
up through this any fluid that may be near."
Fig. 392 is a copy of an old engraving (A. D. 1568) which
shows an " engine " of this type sufificiently enlarged to contain
a barrel or more of water and as a matter of necessity, placed
on a carriage.
To eject the water uni-
formly, the inventor moved
the piston by a screw ; and
when the cylinder was
emptied, it was refilled
through the funnel by an
attendant, as the piston
was drawn back by revers-
ing the motion of the
crank. When recharged,
the stop cock in the pipe
of the funnel was closed Fig. 393.
and the liquid f<'rced out
as before. As flexible pipes of leather, the " ball and socket "
and " goose-neck " joints had not been introduced, some mode
of changing the direction of the jet of this enormous syringe
was necessary. To effect this, it is represented as suspended
on pivots, fastened in two upright posts to tiiese are secured :
(see figure) two semi-circular straps of iron, whose centers coin-

cide with the axis, or pivots, on which the syringe is balanced.
A number of holes are made in each, and are so arranged as to
be opposite each other. A bolt is passed through two of these,
and also through a similar hole, in a piece of metal, that is
firmly secured to the upper part of the open end of the cylinder ;
and thus holds the Litter \\\ any reouircd posiî^" ^'" frc"
:
The Steam Fire Engine. ^t
frame to which the box or female part of the screw is attached,

is made fast to the cyHnder and it is through a projecting;
;
piece on the end of this frame that the bolt is passed. By these
means, any elevation could be given to the nozzle, and the
syringe could be secured by passing the bolt through the piece
just mentioned, and through the corresponding holes in the
straps. When a lateral change in the jet was required, the
whole machine was moved by a man at the end of the pole, as
in the figure. Jointed feet were attached to the frame which
were let down when the engine was at work.
Fig. 393 shows an engine for extinguishing fires, which has
come down to us from the times of Hero, who thus describes it
—
Note. The siphons used in conflagrations are made as follows. Take
two vessels of bronze, abcd, EFGH (Fig. 393), having the inner surface
bored in a lathe to fit a piston (like the barrels of water-organs), k L, M n,
being the pistons fitted to the boxes. Let the cylinders communicate with
each other by means of the tube, x o D F, and be provided with valves, p, R,
such as have been explained above, within the tube, x o D F, and opening
outwards from the cylinders. In the bases of the cylinders pierce circular
apertures, S, T, covered with polished hemispherical cups, v Q, w Y, through
which insert spindles soldered to, or in some way connected with, the bases
of the cylinders, and provided with shoulders at the extremities that the
cups may not be forced off the spindles. To the center of the pistons fasten
the vertical rods, s E, S E, and attach to these the beam a' a', working, at
its center, about the stationary pin, D, and about the pins, B, c, at the rods,
S E, S E. Let the vertical tube, s' E', communicate with the tube, x o D F,
branching into two arms at, s', and provided with small pipes through
which to force up water, such as were explained above in the description of
the machine for producing a water-jet by means of the compressed air.
Now, if the cylinders, provided with these additions be plunged into a
vessel containing water, i j u z, and the beam, a' a', be made to work at its
extremities, a', a', which move alternately about the pin, D, the pistons, as
they descend, will drive out the water through the tube, e' S and the re-
,
volving mouth, m'. For when the piston, M N, ascends it opens the aperture,
T. as the cup, w y, rises, and shuts the valve, R; but when it descends it
shuts, T, and opens, R through which the water is driven and forced up-
wards. The action of the other piston, K I,, is the same. Now the small
pipe, m', which waves backward and forward, ejects the water to the re-
quired height but not in the required direction, unless the whole machine
be turned round which on urgent occasions is a tedious and difficult pro-
;
cess. In order therefore, that the water may be ejected to the spot required,
let the tube, e' S', consist of two tubes, fitting closely together lengthwise,
of which one must be attached to the tube, x o D F, and the other to the
part from which the arms branch off at, s'; and thus, if the upper tube be
turned round, by the inclination of the mouthpiece, '.ii\ the stream of water
can be forced to any spot we please. The upper joint of the double tube
must be secured to the lower to prevent its being forced from the machine
by the violence of the water. This may be effected by holdfasts in the shape
^f the letter i,, soldered to the upper tube, and sliding on a ring which
icircles the lower.
98 Pumps and HydrauHcs.
The Steam Fire Engine. ^^9
Heron or Hero was an Alexandrian mathematician of the

3d Century B. C. He was the inventor of " Hero's Fountain "
in which a jet of water was maintained by condensed air and of
a machine acting upon the principle of Barker's Mill, in which
the motion was produced by steam. Fragments of his works
on mechanics have been preserved for more than 2000 years.
Lack of space forbids following, as could be done, the
growth of the modern steam fire engine from these primitive
beginnings to its present high point of excellence and widely
extended use. Wherever civilized men are gathered into towns
and cities there can be found this admirable mechanism afford-
ing protection to both life and property.
Working Parts,
BThe The Boiler, and
Its facilities for Transportation are the three
essential parts of the one mechanism which combined, form
^he steam fire engine. In brief reference to the last qualification,
^^Bmay be said that these engines are drawn by hand, by one or
more horses, or other animals and are self-propelled by both steayn
and electric power; again the hose carriage can be drawn by
hand, by horses or can be attached to the engine.
I^H The main working parts of the machine can be easily divided
-^mto two parts, the engine and the pump.
The boiler in all its details has been designed to meet the
requirements peculiar to the fire and needs a full ex-
service
planation with illustrations.
The auxiliary appliances found necessary for the operation
of the modern steam fire engine are large in number; this is
owing to the fact that the machine combines within itself so
complete a system for extinguishing fires. The supplies needed
for its maintenance and use are also in proportion, as to quantity
and variety, to its complex make up.
The boiler,which is generally of the upright semi-water
tube type, is combined with the engine by means of a strong
iron frame, which carries all the appliances as well as the

driver's seat, and also forms the body of the truck.
The pumps may

be of the recipro-
cating or rotary
type, and are
generally placed in
front of the boiler.
If of the recipro-
cating type, two
pumps are placed
al ong s i d e each
other, and are
operated either by
a double slide
valve or piston
valve engine.
The pisto7i rods
connect directly
with the plunger
rods and are also
connected to a
crank shaft by
means of either
connecting rods or
yokes, the cranks
being set at right
angles, so that one
pump is always
acting, while the
other passes the
dead center, thus
giving a practically
steady stream.
The engine ex-
hausts into the
stack, which gives
the necessary
VEBTicAii Section,
Fio. 305.
draft. Some en-
The Steam Fire Engine. lOX
gines are equipped with a boiler feed pump, others only de-
pend upon an injector, or feed directly from the main pump.

The coal box, which also forms a platform for the engineer to
stand upon while under way, is placed back of the boiler.
A II engines are equip-
ped with two suctions
and two discharge open-
ings, so that either side
may be connected up.
The tool box and
driver's seat are in front
of the engine. The
frame rests upon springs,
to make the machine
easy running.
The Fox Boiler with
which the Metropolitan
and other engines are
equipped deserves an
extended notice. It is
shown in vertical section
in Fig. 395, the arrows
indicating the steam and
water circulation. Its
design, while simple,
embodies some original
ideas as to the arrange-
ment of the tube surface
method of circulation,
etc. it is a steam gen-
;
erator of tJie water tube

Fig. 396.
type designed to meet
JOTB. —Working pressure can be generated in this boiler in six minutes
cold water, and the provisions for expansion are so near perfect that no
bad from such severe treatment. The manifold tube
effect is noticeable
pounds pressure, and are put together with great
sections are tested to 600
care ;the tnani/olds are counter-bored to admit the full diameter of the
tube, leaving none of the threaded portion exposed.
;
the requirements peculiar to the fire service. The s-team take-

off and sectional view of shell with the tube system removed is
shown in Fig. 397.

The boiler consists primarily of a simple annular shell heav-
ily stay-bolted throughout, and constitutes a water-legged fire-
b X and steam reservoir

the principal heating sur-
face of the boiler consists
of straight water tubes,
manifolded in sectional
form and housed within
the shell, the general
cheme providing arrange-
ments to make all con-
nections readily accessible,
and permitting the with-
drawal from the boiler of
any one or all of the several
tube sections the shell,
;
being practically a perma-

nent feature, need seldom
be disturbed by reason of
subsequent repairs or re-
newals of the tube systems.
It may be noted that
the lower part, or water
jleg, of the shell is con-
tracted for the purpose of
facilitating the rapid gen-
eration of steam, and also
providing the maximum
grate area at a point some-
;
what below the water line
of the boiler, the inner

Top View f)f Empty Shell, showing
manifold Beam.— Fig. .98. shell is flanged inward,
thereby enlarging the annular space between the inner and outer
sheets for the purpose of providing a more copious reservoir.
;
The water being carried in this larger part of the shell,

line
tends to prevent the rapid fluctuation of the water level, and
the increased area of its surface at this point is favorable to the
disengagement of the steam.
When normal point, the water line protects the
held at its
flanged part of the inner shell but no damage can occur, either
;
from a willful or an ac-

cidental drawing down of
the water, as the spray de-
flected through the nipples
of the outer tubes is sufficient
to protect the flange, al-
runain: though the actual water level

is well down in the leg.
The steam in contact with
the upper part of the shell is
by no means dry, and the

heat absorbed at this point is
amply sufficient to protect it.
To insure a delivery of dry
^5J'll/^ steam to the cylinders, a
3
Sectional Unit
peculiar ''take-off''
provided at the highest part
ring is
for Outer-
Tube System. of the steam reservoir, the
Fig. 399.
same encircling the inside
sheet of the shell. The upper c Ige of the
ring is perforated at a distant point from
the throttle, and the steam entering the
ring chamber in small streams is held in
close contact with the hot shell at a point
closely adjacent to the upper line of rivets Sectional Unit for
Inner-Tube System.
the steam by this means is dried during
Fig. 400.
—
Note. The life of both water tubes and fire tubes is generally found
disproportionate to the heavier parts used in boiler construction, and experi-
ence shows conclusively that the cost of subsequent maintenance is measured
directly by, and may be diminished by, the facility with which these indis-
nsable parts may be replaced or repaired in an emergency.
its passage to the throttle, and the heat thus absorbed serves
as a protection to the rivets just referred to.
The principal heating surface of the boiler is contained in
the vertical water tube sections, which comprise and will be
referred to, as an inner and an outer tube system.
The outer system embraces the short manifold sections which
completely encircle the fire-box walls. The top end of each
section is screwed and suspended from the flanged part of the
shell, and the lower end is stayed by direct connection with
the leg of the fire-box. The tubes are ^'staggered'" in their
manifolds, thereby exposing the greatest possible surface to
the fire, and filling out the space due to the difference in the
width of the water-leg and steam space of the shell.

The direct application of heat to the tubes causes a natural
and active upward current therein, which in turn induces a cor-
responding downward movement of the water in the leg of the
fire-box, and promotes the flow into the feed pipes.
The inner-tube system comprises those tube sections which
extend to the upper limits of the boiler, their number and
arrangement being such as to completely fill the interior of the
shell above the space required for the combustion of the fuel.
The construction of the vertical inner-tube system is simple,
and consists of the required number of manifold sections, suit-
ably arranged to conform to the circular space occupied, the
flat inner end of each upper manifold being rigidly bolted to a
heavy transverse beam, which in turn is supported in suitable

pockets secured to the upper part of the shell.
At the top of the boiler, each section has its own connec-
tion with the steam space, and it is easy to remove either one
of the sections separately without disturbing the others; or the
entire inner-tube system can be raised out of the boiler as a whole
after breaking the proper connections, all of which are accessible.
The current of steam and water carried over through the top
connections of the inner system is generally sufficient to keep
the tubes clear of scale ; and the point of discharge and disen-
gagement is brought down low, to prevent its mijjture with the
drier steam contained in the highest part of the shell.
When connected to a stationary boiler, as is now the gen-

eral practice in fire departments, the circulative currents of
water reach all parts of the boiler, hence it§ contents may be
kept uniformly at any desirable temperature.
A stationary heater for

the fire engine consists of a
small boiler, placed at some
convenient point near the
same when in quarters. It
is connected with the en-
gine boiler by means of
suitable circulating pipes,
the entire arrangement
being adapted to supply
hot water through pipe
connections which separate
automatically as the en-
gine leaves the house.
Although the best

types of fire engine boilers
require but a few minutes'
time to generate a working
pressure from cold water,
the general adoption of
many improvements has
made the stationary heater
an essential part of a com-
plete equipment.
Experience proves that

the life of the boiler is
prolonged by being kept

constantly in a state of
Bottom View.— Fig. 402. and the elevated
activity,
temperature of the water
insures prompt and efficient work by the steamer at the \^ry
time when a few moments' delay may breed disaster.
TJie puvips fitted and adapted to steam fire engines comprise

two separate and distinct double acting piston pumps united in
a single body and akin in many details to the duplex pump.
Calling in mind the
well-known fact, that, in
drawing a water supply
Fio. 4031 the only power available
to bring the fluid under
forcing influence of the
pump's pistons is the lim-
ited pressure of the at-
mosj)hcre, therefore the
importance of all details
concerned in first indu-
cing an entry of the water
will be readily conceded.
Easy and unrestricted
"suction ways" in
direct communication
with properly pro-
portioned receiving
valves (and these valves
suitably arranged in
close proximity to the
working barrels of the
pump), are the con-
ditions thatmust always
remain paramount, and
to which all other feat-
ures must give way,
to safely attain the de-
sirable high piston
speeds. The value of
perfect, simple and direct water ways, the passages, and all
which they imply, has been studied in the design of this pump-
ing engine. See Figs. 403-407.
The facilities provided for exposing the interior mechanism
permits all such parts to be quickly reached for examination, or
detached for renewal or repair, and this can be done without dis-
mounting the entire pumps or greatly disturbing their exterior at-
tach.njits. It will bo seen,
by reference to the cuts,
that all of the valves can
be easily and quickly ex-
amined, and also replace d,
by removing the caps that
enclose the chambers; ;.!1
joints required for this pur-

pose are made between
flat surfaces planed true,
as shown in Fig. 404; gun
metal, or other suitable
composition, is used and
no part of the pump body
is subject to wear, either
by friction or corrosion.
All valve seats are screwed
into place, and either these
or the working barrels of
Fig. 404. Figs. 4a5, 406 and 407.
the pump may be readily replaced with new ones, in case the
same should become worn. All stud bolts, nuts, etc., coming in
contact with water, are made of drawn phosphor or Tobin
bronze ; nipples, piping, etc., are of brass.
108 Pumps and Hydratdics.
Suction or hydrant connection may be made at either side

of the engine and, in operation, the central core of the pump
;
body \5 practically a contimiation of the suction hose, and serves

to establish a direct communication with the receiving pump
valves, arranged on opposite sides of the chamber. This
chamber, as shown in the sectional view, Fig, 408, thus becomes
the distributing center, front which the incoming water flows to
the suction valves. The current from the suction is not re-
quired to change its general direction, and but little friction is
encountered by the water in its diversion through the pump
valves.
The position of the suction or receiving valves, in relation
to the water cylinders, may be understood by reference to
Fio. 408.
Fig. 408, which shows the same arranged in a cluster around

the open ends of the barrels. The suction valve area is large,
and the proportions adopted contribute largely to the smooth
running of the pump, under conditions of speed seldom at-
tempted in ordinary practice.
The valves in this pump are controlled by improved springs,
the tension of which is at all times the same and which are;
made of phosphor bronze the force chambers in opposite ends

;
of the pumps are practically equal, and, owing to the close prox-
imity of the valves, the clearance is reduced to a minimum
The discharging outlets are elevated above the highest point of

the valve chambers, and the communicating passages are designee?
to prevent conflicting currents, and also to permit the pump
to free itself promptly of air. The pistons are of a frictionless
type, and accordance with the usual practice of working
in
double pumps in unison, the cranks controlling the movements
of the pistons are placed at 90 degrees.
A
convenient and effective arrangement of suction strainers
is shown in Fig, 409. Perforated cages are introduced into the
suction chambers through the inlets on opposite sides of the
pump. The ends of these cages are open, and a short sleeve,
|Which is permanently secured within the pump, serves to sup-
FlG. 409.
port and also to establish communication from one cage to the

other.
The of both cages is, therefore, available as a
surface
strainer,and any obstruction entering with the water is carried
to the opposite side, to a point where it can be removed, with-
out first detaching the suction hose.
The drivingmechanism supplied with the American Pump
is shown by and 394, which are perspective views en-
Figs. 389
graved from photographs. It may be noted that the design is
practically compact and well balanced, and embodies many ex-
cellent advantages found in no other type of fire engine.
The pumps, steam cylinders and driving parts are built as a

unit, and have no direct connection with the boiler other than
the necessary stays and pipe connections, all of which are
readily accessible and visible for inspection at any time.
The steam cylinders used in connection with the pumps are
of the ordinary slide valve type. The valve chests are easily
opened from either side of the engine for examination, and the
valve rods are made from a special composition and can not
corrode. The valve motion is simple, and there is nothing con-
nected with the steam ends that may not be quickly understood
Fto. 410.
Maximum Dimensions of Stkam Fire Engines.
LENGTH OVER KXX,.

WIDTH HEIGHT
SIZK OF ENGINE. OVER HUBS. OVER DOME.
WITH POLE WITHOUT POLK
Double Extra First 25 ft. 3 in. 10 ft. 6 ft. 7 in. 10 ft.
Extra First 24 ft. 10 in. 9 ft. 10 in. 6 ft. 5 in. 9 ft. 10 in.
First . 24 ft. 5 in. 9 ft. 6 in. 6 ft. 2 in. 9 ft. 6 in,
Second 23 ft. 1 1 in. 9 ft. I in. 6 ft 9 ft. I in.
Third 23 ft. 2 in. 8 ft. II in. 5 ft. 9 in. 8 ft. II in.
Fourth 22 ft. II in. 8 ft. 7 in. 5 ft. 9 in. 8 ft. 7 in.
Fifth 22 ft. 3 in. 8 ft. 5 in. 5 ft. 6 in. 8 ft. 5 in.
The Steam Fire Engine. Ill
Appurtenances. In addition to such special fixtures as may

be necessary for their proper working, the following articles are
a part of each engine ;
Smooth bore rubber suction hose, Try cocks on boiler.

carried in substantial brackets on Brass feed pump for boiler.
the machine and fitted with suit- Auxiliary feed to boiler from main
able couplings, hydrant con- pumps.
nections and interchangeable Churn valve, for feeding boiler
outside suction strainer. when streams are shut off.
Polished copper vacuum and air Necessary air, drain and pet cocks.
chambers. Surface blower from water line of
Fuel pan of ample capacity. boiler.
Detachable footboard, for the en- Blow-off cocks and cleaning plugs
gineer and an assistant. in fire-box leg.
Driver's seat, for either one or Cleaning and "thaw" hose with
two men. connections.
Seat cushion. Regrinding throttle valve, with
Whip socket. drain cock attached.
Blanket holders, when desired. Automatic or sight-feed lubricators.
Foot brake, to operate from front Cylinder oil cups.
or rear. Necessary oil cups and lubricating
Horse pole, with whiffletrees. devices.
Trace and pole chains or straps Hand oil cans.
with patent snaps Three-pint reservoir cans for cyl-
Gong attached to driver's foot- inder and lubricating oil.
board or Keepers, attached to all stuffing-
Locomotive bell mounted over box nuts.
steam cylinders. Poker, shovel and other stoking
Steam signal whistle. tools.
Grate bars, dumping or stationary Fire department hand lanterns,
pattern. carried in brackets.
Stationary sprinkler, for wetting Adjustable screw wrenches.
ashes under grate. Universal spanner for slotted nuts.
Pop safety valves. Hose spanner.
Variable regulator for exhaust Hammer.
nozzles. Tool box, with all necessary mon-
Auxiliary steam blast into chimney. key-wrenches, cold chisels, and
Nickel-plated brass chimney dome files.
and bands around boiler. Two polished play pipes and nozzles.
Two steam pressure gauges. Stop valves next to boiler and flow
Water pressure gauge. and return pipes for use with
Glass water gauge on boiler with stationary Fire Engine Heaters.
extra tube.
112 Pumps and Hydratilics.
Fia. 411.
THE SILSBY ROTARY STEAM FIRE ENGINE.

The distinguishing feature of this engine will be found in
the fact that, in both the cylinder and pump, the rotary type
is substituted for the reciprocating or piston principle.
The larger
sizes of these en-
gines, Fig. 411,
are hung on
platform truck
springs in front
and on half-el-
liptic springs in
the rear, and are
braced and
stayed to with-
stand violent
Fig. 412.
shocks in the
rapid driving over pavements. be drawn by
Although fitted to
horses only, they can be supplied with rope reel and drag rope.
The Silsby steam cylinder consists of two rotary pistons or
cams, mounted on
steel shafts and
working together
within an elliptical
steam-tight case.
Live steam from
the boiler enters
at the bottom of
this case, and in
its passage presses
apart their long
teeth or abut-
ments, causes the
two cams to rotate, FiG. 413.
and exhausts from the top into the tank and feed-water
heater these cams are provided with teeth or cogs, adapted
;
114 Ptimps and Hydraulics.
to mesh with correspond-

ing recesses in each other,
so that a steam tight joint is
maintained between them
and leakage thereby pre-
vented from passing direct-
ly upward into the exhaust.
The sides of these cams
have their arcs turned to
fit the heads
of the case,
and are so ad-
justed that,
e being practically
steam tight, allowance
is made for expansion
and contraction. In the
ends of the longest
teeth of the revolving
cams are placed remov-
able packing strips,
which are forced out-
ward into contact with
the cylinder walls by
means of springs. These
packing strips may be
removed through open-
ings in the sides of the
cylinder, and readjusted
to take up the wear,
which is confined to the
ends of these adjustable
strips. This can be done
without taking the
pump or cylinder apart.
The construction of
FiO. 414.
the pump is similar to
that of the cylinder; in this there are three long teeth in each
cam instead of two. One shaft of the pump is coupled to the
corresponding shaft of the cylinder, there being outside gears
on both cylinder and pump to compel a uniform
motion of the cams and to equalize the pressure.
This construction secures a transmission of
power at once direct and positive in Kig. 412.
The stuffing-boxes, used on both cylinder and
pump, are self-adjusting, reduce friction and
insure tightness. Valves are entirely absent
from the pump and cylinder. The water ways
being large, anything liable to enter the suction
will pass through the pump without injury or
interruption ; the pump requires no priming,
but when started will immediately without the
aid of a check valve lift water vertically any
required distance up to 29 feet.
The constructio7t of the boiler ordinarily sup-
plif^d with this engine is shown in Figs. 4I4-4I5.
In the fire-box hangs a series of circulating

water tubes arranged in concentric circles and
securely screwed into the crown sheet. These
drop tubes are closed at their lower ends by
means of wrought-iron plugs welded in, and
within each of them is placed a much smaller
and thinner tube, which latter is open at both
ends. The cooler water in the boiler descends
through the inner tube and is thus brought
directly into the hottest part of the furnace,
whence, after being for the most part converted
into steam, it ascends through the annular
spaces between these inner and outer tubes.
The gases of combustion pass from the fire
box to the stack through smoke flues, the lower
ends of which are expanded into the crown ^°' *^
sheet, and the upper ends into the top head of the boiler.
s
The Clapp & Jones piston enghie in design has features

peculiar to itself; Fig. 416 represents one of six sizes, adapted
particularly to city service.
The illustrations, Figs.
417 and 418, show the
Vertical pump as built for
the larger engines namely,
:
the sizes known as Extra

First, First, Second, Third
and Fourth. The com-
plete engine corresponding
to the detailed views is
shown by Fig. 416 on the

preceding page.
The principal details
are very clear in this en-
graving. The steam and
water ends, together with
the crank and reciproca-
ting mechanism, are com-
pactly arranged and the
complete structure which
comprises these parts is
rigidly self-contained. The
steam cylinders and valve
chest are cast in a single
piece and while this part
is firmly secured to the
boiler, all steam and ex-
haust connections are en-
independent of these
tirely
fastenings.
The Clapp boiler is rep-
resented in Fig. 419. Ref-
Pio. 4ir.
erence to the annexed il-
lustration makes clear the special features of this boiler, which
consist chiefly of a series of spiral water-tube coils arranged
within the fire-box. The coils are of copper and are produced
by the seamless drawn process. Each coil is connected
separately to the
boiler, and the
spiral form of
these tubes per-
m 1 s
1 freedom
for expansion
and contraction
without strain
on the terminal
joints. The con-
nections and the
ends of the
tubes are made
by means of
threaded nip-
ples, jam nuts
and corrugated
copper washers,
and the joints
thus made in-
sure tightness,
yetadmit of
ready discon-
nection at any
"time.
The lower
ends of the coil
tubes are direct-
ly joined to the
hollow fire-box
walls and the
upper terminals
are arranged to ^°' ^®"
discharge the circulated water over the crown sfieet. This up-
ward movement of the water within the spiral coils is caused
by the application of
heat to the outer sur-
faces of the tubes,
and the circulation
thus set up induces
a corresponding down-
ward action in the
leg of the boiler. The
circulation, therefore,
continues without
interruption so long
as fire is maintained
on the grate. In
operating this boiler
the water should be
carried a few inches
above the level of the
crown sheet, but ow-
ing to the protection
afforded by the con-
stant distribution of
water over the crown
sheet, the limit of
safety is not reached
until the water is
nearly out of the fire-
box leg.
An improvement
in the design of this
boiler is the water-
circulating deflector,
which was devised to
occupy the central
space within the coil
tubes. This deflector
comprises an ad-
Fo. 419.
ditional sectional
unit, and its action coincides with the functions served by the
coil tubes. The prime object of this device is to break up and
direct the gases of combustion in a manner that adds to the
heat-absorbing qualities of the coil tubes. See Figs. 420, 421.
Extending from the crown sheet to the top head are the
smoke flues, which are securely expanded at both ends, and
through which the gases of
combustion pass from the fire
box to the stack.

The Clapp &" Jones Village
Engine. By the illustrations,
Figs. 422, 423, 424, etc., it will
be noted that the cylinders and
pumps are disposed horizontally
and are fitted in a self-contained
manner between bars, which
also serve as the main frame of
the engine. Fio. 420.
The steam cylinders are 8 inches diameter; the pumps 4|-

inches, and the stroke common to both is 7 inches. These
sizes are properly proportioned for effective work and the boiler
power provided is ample to drive the pumping mechanism to
its rated capacity of 400 gallons per minute.
The pumps are fitted with gates permit-

ting two hose to be worked either
lines of
independently or at the same time without
interference. The machine is mounted on
half-elliptic springs, front and rear, and the
weight of the boiler and pumps is distributed
Fig. 421. equally over both axles. The front pair of
wheels turn completely under the goose
necks, and the engine can therefore be turned on either hind
wheel as a pivot. The arch of the main frames under which
the wheels pass in turning is immediately forward of the boiler,
and the advantage to be noted in this connection is the re-
I duction in the over-all length of the entire machine. The front

axle is equipped with a rope reel, and the pole is arranged for
either hand or horse draft. The wheels are fitted with brakes,
which are operated from the rear footboard. The engine
weighs about 4,400 pounds. A
detail description of the pump
and valve gear follows.
The valve gear of the Clapp &

Jones village etigine is simple
yet controls the moving mechanism of the two pumps working
in unison. Each pump is driven
directlyby its own steam cylinder,
and the steam valves are actuated
by the positive movement of the
opposite piston rod. The principle
is substantially the same as prac-
ticed in the " Duplex " pump con-
struction,and may be readily understood by reference to the

detailed views which are given of these parts in other portions
of this work.
The steam cylinders and pump are self-contained, and

aside from the distinctive difference in the reciprocating gear
the design of the steam and water ends does not differ from
the vertical engines of the Clapp & Jones type.
On these engines intended for use in cold climates a " thmv-
pipe " is attached, at the engineer's side, inside the frame, and
is used in extremely cold weather to prevent the feed-pump, as
well as the main pump and connecting pipes, from freezing. It
is operated by means of a small globe valve. If it is desired
to warm the main pump, the two-way cock used in feeding the
boiler should be turned as when feeding directly from the main
pump, when steam have access both to the main pump
will
and the feed-pump but care must be observed not to heat the
;
main pump too warm. When the two-way cock is closed, and
also when it is open as when feeding from the tank, the steam
goes only to the feed-pump.
After using it to warm the main pump, the two-way cock,
.liould be closed otherwise, if the check-valve should happen to
;
stick fast, the water would pass out of

the boiler through the main pump.
Always keep the globe valve
closed zvJien not in use. be It will
observed that the vacuum chamber
upon the suction pipe is located
within the air chamber upon the dis-
charge passage.
The valves of this pump are
|j2L,
formed by heavy rubber rings which
surround the pump barrel, as shown
in Fig. 423, therefore there can be
no hammering of these valves when
the pump is at work.
Fig. 424.
The rubber rings have slots cut
into them at each side of each valve
so that each valve can open and close without stretching the
rubber bands. The steam valve is of the well-known rocker
type. The plungers have no packing excepting water.
lU Pumps and Hydraulics.
NOZZLES.
The sizes of nozzles named below will give the most satis-
factory results, those in italics being the ones best adapted for
fire duty. Also see page 93 for standard sizes of steam fire
engines and page 117 for table of effective Fire Streams.
1, Extra first size engine. —
1,100 to 1,150 gallons capacity.
Through short lines of hose One lY^-inch smooth-bore nozzle,
:
for one stream; one i^-inch ring nozzle, or one 2-inch ring
nozzle ; i^^-inch ring nozzles for two streams. With 1,000 feet
of hose, one ly^^-inch ring nozzle.
2, First size engine. — 900 to 1,000 gallons capacity. Through

short lines of hose: One lY^-inch smooth-bore nozzle , for one
stream; one i^-inch ring nozzle, or one i^-inch ring nozzle;
1%-inch ring nozzles for two streams. With 1,000 feet of hose,
one i^-inch ring nozzle.
3, Second size engine. —
700 to 800 gallons capacity. Through
short lines of hose One i%-i7ich smooth-bore nozzle, for one
:
stream.; one i-|^-inch ring nozzle, or one i^-inch ring nozzle;

lY-inch ring nozzles for tzvo streams. With 1,000 feet of hose,
one i^-inch ring nozzle.
4, Third size engine. —600 to 650 gallons capacity. Through
short lines of hose: Otie lyi-incJi smooth-bore for one tiozzle,
stream; one i^-inch ring nozzle, or one if^-inch ring nozzle i- ;
ijtch ring nozzles for two streams. With i ,000 feet of hose,
one i-inch ring nozzle.
5, Fourth size engine. — 500 to 5 50 gallons capacity. Through
short lines of hose: One smooth-bore nozzle, for one
i-^-^-inch
stream; one ij^-inch ring nozzle, or one i^-inch ring nozzle;

y^-ijich ring nozzles for two streams. With 1,000 feet of hose,
one i-inch ring nozzle.
6, Fifth and sixth size engines. — 300 to 450 gallons capacity.
Through short lines of hose: One i-inch smooth-bore nozzle, for
one stream; one i-inch ring nozzle, or one i^-inch ring nozzle,
y^-inch ring nozzles for two streams. With 1,000 feet of hosQ
p one ^-inch ring nozzle.

The Ahrens steam jire engine is not presented as a whole,

but Figs. 426-428 show parts of this interesting and widely
known apparatus.
Txm,m,
The boiler, Fig. 426, is radically different from others, and

the special features making it so popular in the past are the
absence of a crown sheet and smoke flues, coupled with the

advantageous manner in which the water-tube coil sections can
be withdrawn from the containing shell of the boiler. The
Fig. 427.
peculiar arrangement of the tubes compels a forced circulation

of the water, and for which purpose an independent steam
pump is provided. Water drawn from the fire-box leg is forced
Fig. 428.
through the water tubes, and this relation between the circulat-
ing pump and the other elements of the boiler will be more
readily understood by reference to the illustrations, where Fig.
426 is a sectional, 427 a top, and 428 a bottom view.
e-ia. 429.— Ser page 14L

The Steam Fire Engine. ^^^
INSTRUCTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS.

The fire engine is essentially an apparatus adapted to emer-
gencies, and owing to the intermittent nature of the duty per-
formed, it is quite likely, unless the proper precautions are
observed, that its several parts, more especially its interior me-
chanism, will suffer more deterioration while standing idle than
from actual service.
It is necessary that these interior parts, as well as those more readily-

apparent, be cared for with a view of keeping them constantly in con-
dition to endure the most severe and protracted strains at the shortest notice.
"While standing in the house, the engine should at all times be kept ready
for immediate service, with shavings and kindlings in the fire-box, and as
much kindlings and coal in the fuel pan as can be conveniently carried.
In winter, if no heater is attached to the engine, the room must be kept

warm, to insure against frost.
The machine should be started gradually, but before doing so the en-
gineer ought to satisfy himself that the joints and connections in the suction
hose are air tight, that the discharge gate is open, the churn valve closed,
that the fire has been properly attended to, the cylinder cocks open, the ex-
haust nearly closed, and all the bearings and journals well oiled, and the
wheels properly blocked, especially if the engine is standing on a grade.
The automatic air cocks on the upper pump heads must be opened im-
mediately after starting. They serve to promptly relieve the upper pump
discharge chambers of air, and may be closed as soon as water escapes from
their orifices.
When cylinder condensation has nearly ceased, the engine being warm,
the drain cocks should be closed and the machine speeded up gradually
until a good pressure of steam is obtained.
Until the engineer has had some experience with the machine, and is
familiar with its workings, it is not advisable to use more than 90 or 100
pounds of steam, which is all that is required for ordinary fire duty; the
necessity for more than 1 20 pounds will probably never arise.
The stuffing-boxes of the engine and pump should be carefully packed.
All of the bearings and journals, as well as the oil cans, should be well
supplied with good oil. The best mineral engine oil is recommended for
this purpose, asit does not gum or change its viscosity with variations in
the temperature of the atmosphere, and it will endure a higher temperature

than animal or fish oil without injury.
Fio. 430.— Se* pac* 141.

The engineer should keep all joints tight, the stuffing-boxes properly
packed, and all bearings thoroughly oiled.
If the journal boxes or other working parts require taking up, remember
that a littleplay is preferable to a close adjustment liable to cripple the en-
gine at a critical moment. To insure perfect safety, always thoroughly test
the apparatus after making such repairs, by subjecting the parts affected,
to the strains usually encountered in actual service.
The principal requirement of the steam cylinders and slide valves is

proper and constant lubrication. Let this one item be attended to, and
its mechanism will practically take care of itself for many years.
The joints and connections in the suction must be perfectly tight.
Before laying the fire, see that the grate and fire-box are clean, also that
the grate bars are fast, so they will not be liable to jar out, and that all the
steam outlets of the boiler are tightly closed.
—
Lay on the grate some dry pine shavings not too many spread evenly —
over the grate, with a few hanging down between the bars on the shavings ;
put some finely-split pine or hemlock wood, then some a little coarser, and
finally a quantity coarser still. It is well to put on the top some finely-split
hard wood. These kindlings must all be dry and split not sawed and — —
should be put in loosely, in layers, the layers being crossed,- so that there
will be a free circulation of air between them.
To light the fire: Apply torch (described in page 135) below the grate,
never in the door; and while doing so move the torch around to insure
thoroughly igniting the shavings.
When there is pounds of steam, begin throwing in

a pressure of 40 to 60
broken up in pieces about the size of a man's fist.
coal, a little at a time,
IJituminous coal should be used, the same as that from which illuminating
gas is made. It should be of the very best quality, and very free burning.
Do not put the wood or coal all close to the fire door, but scatter it about
and spread it evenly over the grate.
As soon as the engine is started, coal should be put on often, a little at a

time, and the grate should be kept covered, but not thickly say to a depth —
of three or four inches. Be particular to fire evenly and regularly, taking
care to cover air holes through the fire, and to keep the fire door closed as
much as possible.
The grate bars should be kept well raked out from below, and the fire
and coal occasionally stirred off the grate bars inside the fire-box, using the
flat side of the poker for the latter operation.
FiQ. 431.-See page 138.

Fig. 432— See page 138.

Fio. 48aL—See naare 128

The Steam Fire Engine, 135
The water be carried as high as six or eight inches

in the boiler should
in the glass tube as soon as the engine gets fairly towork and a good pres-
sure of steam is raised. The gauges will indicate more water in the boiler
when the machine is running than it will with the same quantity of water if
it is not at work, owing to the expansion of water by the application of heat.
tendency to foam, the feed should be increased and the sur-

If there is a
face blow-ofF opened quite frequently to relieve the boiler of the scum and
surplus water. If the foaming is unusually violent, it may be subdued by
stopping the engine for a few moments and permitting the water to settle.
During temporary stops the fire should be cleaned, by removing the

clinkers and the moving parts of the machinery examined and oiled.
The boiler is usually fed by force pumps) the plungers of which are se-
cured directly to the yokes of the main engines. Both pumps are arranged
to work in unison; and the supply is generally taken from the discharging
chamber of the main pumps, and is controlled by an ordinary globe valve.
Should the water being delivered by the main pumps be unsuitable for feed-
ing the boiler, this valve must remain closed, and a supply from a barrel or
tank introduced through the connection provided for that purpose.
When feeding the boiler, it is a good plan to occasionally feel the pipe
leading from check to boiler with the hand, as one can tell by this means
whether the pump is feeding properly. If feeding all right, the pipe will be
cool. If the pipe is hot, the pump is not feeding properly, try the pet cock.
Always keep a good torch, ready for use, in the fuel pan. This can be
made by tying some cotton waste on one end of a stick about two feet long
and saturating the waste with kerosene oil.
The kindling should be carefully prepared, and the quantity carried suf-
ficient to generate a working pressure in the boiler before coal is added to
the fire.
Care should be taken not to use too large nozzles if two or more streams
are being thrown.
Owing to the contracted diameter of fire hose, the flow of the water is
retarded ; the loss of power due to friction increases directly with the length
of the lineand nearly as the square of velocity. In other words, if the loss
due pounds for 100 feet of hose, then 24 pounds will
to a given flow be 12
be required to maintain the same rate through an additional 100 feet. To
double the velocity will require four times the pressure, or 48 pounds for
100 feet and 96 pounds for 200 feet.
From this brief explanation,it must be plain that the capacity of anj
engine is diminished as the length of the line of hose is increased.

For this reason, the greater the lift the smaller the stream that can be
thrown eflfectively, and the size of nozzle used should depend upon the
height the water is draughted, reducing it one-eighth inch for every five
feet above a lift of ten feet. If the engine uses a \%-va.<^ nozzle for ordinary
work, it will answer for any lift up to lo feet. If water has to be draughted
15 feet, a i^-inch nozzle should be used if 20 feet, i-inch and if 25 feet,
; ;
^-inch.
Never start a fire unless one full gauge cock of water appears in the boiler.
The suction basket or strainer should always be attached when draught-

ing water, and every precaution taken to insure tight connections in the
suction. The basket must be kept well under the surface, to avoid clogging
if the water be foul.
When the supply is taken from a hydrant, the valve should be fully
turned on if opened before water is wanted through the hose the discharge
;
gates on the pumps must be closed. Unless the pressure is excessive, the
hydrant is usually permitted to remain open while the steamer is attached,
the discharge during temporary stops being controlled by the pump gates.
The apparatus should always be halted, or placed at aproper point, with

reference to the source of the water supply. When attached to a hydrant 01
plug, do not run the engine faster than the water will flow to supply the
pump, and if the supply is not sufi&cient to allow the pump to work to its
full capacity, avoid using too large nozzles.
The safety of life and property is very often dependent upon the skill
and good judgment of the engineer, and as the maximum effect of such ap-
paratus is generally required at the most critical time and under the most
exciting circumstances, it is important that the endeavor by constant and
persistent practice to acquire that confidence and proficiency that will insure
a correct and decisive action in all matters pertaining to the management of
the machine.
From three-fourths to one inch of water should be indicated in the glass

gauge, except when there is a heater attached to the engine, then from four
to five inches should be carried. The bottom of the glass tube being on a
line with the crown-sheet, when one inch of water shows in the tube, the
water-line in the boiler is then one inch above the crown-sheet
It is advisable occasionally — —
say once a month in towns where fires are
not frequent, to fire up and take the engine out for practice and drill, and to
make sure that it is in proper working order, after which the boiler should
be blown off and refilled with fresh water, as hereinafter directed.
Every engine required to pump salt water, or other water unfit for the
boiler supply, should be provided with a fresh-water feed tank.
The purpose of the automatic air cock (if there is one) is to prevent the
rattling of thecheck valves when the pumps are being only partially filled ;
if the supply is to be drawn from a barrel or tank, the entrance of air
through this cock must be prevented.
When draughting the water ^ bear in mind that the greater the perpen-
dicular lift the less the quantity of water which can be pumped remembering
y
that it is the pressure of the atmosphere which forces the water into the
pump, and not any power exerted by the pump itself, which simply pro-
duces the vacuum. Thus, the nearer the surface of the water the greater the
velocity with which it enters the pump, while the higher the pump the
weaker the pressure and the less the quantity of water which enters it, and
at a height of about 30 feet no water at all will go into the pump.
If it is suspected that one of the joints in the suction is loose, the speed
of the engine may be slackened without stopping entirely, until water is
thrown eight or ten feet from the nozzle, when if the pump is taking air the
stream will snap and crack instead of flowing out smoothly. If it is found
that the pump is taking air through the suction, and the leak cannot be
located in any other way, it may be found by removing the suction basket
and turning the end of the suction up higher than the top of the pump, and
then filling it with water. The water will be forced out through the joints
wherever loose, and leaks can be found in this way.
The principal object of the chum valve is to permit the operation of the
pumps without discharging any water through the natural channels; it con-
trols a passage by which the discharging side of the pumps is connected
with the suction chamber. In draughting water, when the pumps are first
started, this valve must remain closed until the pumps are filled with water,
thereby excluding the air which would find its way into the suction chamber
if the same were open. It should also be closed when the pumps are at rest,
to prevent the dropping of the water into the suction pipe.
When the engine is put to suction, acquire the habit of feeling this valve
to assure its complete closure.
If thereanything about the engine that is not fully understood, or if it

is
fails to do work properly from any cause, the maker should be communi-
its
cated with at once inquiries are promptly answered, and usually required
;
information or suggestions are cheerfully furnished.

THE AMERICAN STEAM FIRE ENGINE.

The number of appliances and special devices used on and
about a steam fire engine is not large, as it is the aim of both
designers and builders to simplify the machine as much as pos-
sible without diminishing its efKiciency.
Fig. 434 is an appliance known as the Siamese connection.
It is used for stand pipes attached to the outside of buildings,
etc.,and also as a detail of the fire pump. Its use is to lead
off two lines of hose.
The valve shown in the figure, closes automatically in case

of stoppage of one of the engines or the bursting of the hose.
FlO. 48(.
P*g- 435 exhibits an approved form of strainer for the

bottom of the suction pipe.
The American steam fire engine pump is shown in Figs. 431
and 432.
Fig. 431 being the front view, one side of it shown in
section, exposing the interior parts for explanation, and Fig.
432, representing the side elevation, also in section.
The pumps, which are double acting, are united in a gun-
metal casting, which forms a single body for both, and permits
them to be placed much closer as to centers than could other-
wise be done. This method provides an ample suction-chamber
which is common to both.
In cross section the pump somewhat resembles a box girder.
This peculiarity of the pump's combined form furnishes a rigid
base for the entire structure, simplifies the driving mechanism

and enables it to endure extraordinary strains without vibration.
It will be seen by reference to the cuts that any of the
valves can be easily and quickly examined, and, if necessary,
replaced, by simply removing the caps and heads.
The pump barrels are provided with removable linings,
which can readily be replaced with new ones in case the same
should become worn after years of service. These, as well as
the valve seats, are made of gun metal, no cast iron or other
material subject to corrosion by water being used in any part
I
If of the pumps.
I
I
Both the suction and discharge valves are supplied with im-
proved valve springs, the tension of which is, at all times, the
same and being made of phosphor bronze, the springs retain
;
their elasticity and will not corrode.

The steam cylinders used in connection with this pump are
of the ordinary slide-valve type, with which most mechanics
are familiar, and are thus easily repaired when necessary. The
cylinders and pumps are detached from the boiler, and are
separated therefrom sufficiently to allow every facility for get-
ting at each and every part. All connections, both steam and
made outside of the boiler.
water, are
The La France steatn fire engine pump is shown in outline
in Fig. 433,which consists of a double plain slide-valve engine,
operating a double pump.
The steam piston rod of each side connects with its pump
rod, by means of square bars, two of which are on each side of
the crank shaft. The crank is operated by the cross-head
through a connecting rod the arrangement of these parts can
;
be seen in Fig. 433- The cross-head guide is entirely done

away with, as the stiffness of the connection between the two
piston rods takes the thrust of the connecting rod.
The pump barrel is enclosed by an outer casing. The space
between barrel and casing is always kept filled with water
which is supplied through the suction pipe.
When the pump barrel is being filled with water the suction
^waives are lifted from their seats, which allows the water to
I
The Steam Fire Engine. 14:1
pass into the space between the valve-seat plates and thence
pump barrel.
into the
When the pump barrel is being emptied the suction valves
are closed while the discharge valves are open, which allows the
water to pass into a triangular shaped space between the front
plate and valve-seat plates thence upward to the discharge pipe.
The suction and discharge valve of this pump being all
grouped together, it is only necessary to remove the plates
which can be seen, Fig. 433, bolted to the front of the pumps
and form part of the outer casing these plates are in front of
;
the pump and may be quickly unscrewed by a wrench. T

The Amoskeag steatn fire engine is shown in the views (Figs.
429 and 430 on pages 128 and 130). This world widely known
machine is made by the Manchester Locomotive Works at
Manchester, New Hampshire, U. S. A.
The former cut represents the extra first, first, second, third
and fourth size double steam fire engine of this make. They
have " crane-neck " frames and are arranged for horse draft and
are mounted upon Endicott's patent platform springs. The
effect of this improvement is that the draft strain is transmitted
directly from the horses to the axles, the springs bearing no
part of this draft strain.
"
430 shows the " fifth " size, also with " crane-necked
Fig.
frame and made for either horse or hand draft.
The boiler used is upright and tubular in style, is made of
the best quality of steel plate, with seamless copper tubes,
thoroughly riveted and stayed ; it is simple in its construction,
and for strength, durability, accessibility for repairs, and its
capacity for generating steam, has passed a most critical test.

For engines of the second size and larger, the boilers expand
downwards at the crown sheet of the fire-box, thus increasing
the grate surface and consequently the steaming capacity of
the boiler.
The connections with the steam cylinders are simple, direct
and of good capacity, peculiarly accessible for repairs, and have
the great advantage of being entirely unexposed to the air.
The steamcylinders of the single engines are made in one

casting they are secured to the boiler framing, and covered
;
with a lagging of wood, with a metallic jacket on the outside.

The pump for the double engines is made entirely of com-
position, and its main shell is also in one casting. It is vertical
double acting its valves are vertical in their action the water-
; ;
ways are free and direct, and the valves accessible, so that
examination or renewal of these parts may be quickly made.
The pump is arranged for receiving suction hose on either side,
and has outlets also on either side for receiving the leading
hose.
Self-propelled steam fire engines are well adapted for city
service. In Fig. 436 is shown a double extra, first size self-
propelling engine of the Amoskeag pattern. The road driving
power is applied from one end of the main crank shaft, through
an equalizing compound and two endless chains running over
sprocket-wheels on each of the main rear wheels, permitting
these rear wheels to be driven at varying speeds as when turn-
ing corners.
The driving power is made reversible, so that the engine
may be driven either forward or backward on the road at will.
The steering of the engine is effected by means of a steer-

ing hand wheel at the front, adjusting the front axle through
a system of bevel and worm gearing, so arranged that the con-
stant exertion of the steersman is not required to keep the
wheels in line on the road. By the removal of a key the driv-
ing power may be disconnected from the road driving gearing,
when it is desired to work the pumps when the engine is stand-
ing still.
MISCELLANEOUS
PUMPS
Fio. 137. (See page 146.>

MINING PUMPS.
There are certain well-known difficulties and contingencies
in installingand operating mine pumps: i, The location of the
mine is usually remote from supplies and any renewals or re-
pairs which may be needed, are liable
to be attended with excessive costs and
delays ; 2, The nature of the water in
the mines is so highly acidulous that
corrosion takes place in an incredibly
small space of time. The action of
sulphuric (diluted) acid whichis found
sometimes as high as two parts out of

a hundred begins at once and continues
until the iron or steel is destroyed ; 3,
The dust, grit, mud, etc., becomes mixed
with the oil used to lubricate the pump
these ingredients find their way into
the stuffing-boxes and cut the plungers.
Hence, ample and unusual precau-
tions are made to overcome the forego-
ing conditions. Extreme care has to
be used movable parts
in securing all
of the machine and the connecting^,
pipes. The plungers are generally out-
side packed and handholes are arranged Fig. 438.— See page 148.
to permit free access to the water valves.

When pumps used in mining service assume large pro-
portions, they are almost invariably described as pumping en-
gines ; there is no between the two except the
real difference
proportions. The same combination of engine and pump in the
smaller sizes used for boiler feeding, etc., are called steam pumps.
—
Note. The cost of repairing a half-inch globe valve which " gave out
in a mine in Venezuela, South America, -vras represented in a I45. machine
charge and a mule ride of 35 miles to the shop containing a foot lathe and
the same distance back to the mines. The cost in a more favorable location
would be less than a dollar.
146
The Cataract steam pump, Fig. 437, is largely used in mi-

ning operations. Many years service has proved its peculiar and
curious merits. Large columns of water may be raised to great
elevation or forced against heavy pressures without shock or jar
of any kind and with safety to the machinery and connections ;
abrupt and violent action of the water is also avoided. The

Cataract, it may be explained, is a regulator invented by
Smeaton for single-acting steam engines. John Smeaton, the
inventor, was an English civil engineer born in 1724 and died
in T792. The device derives its name from its similarity to the
optical disease — a cataract — as it is a supplementary or sliding
cylinder with its piston attached very curiously to the main
valve stem, of the engine.
—
This cylinder called the Cataract cylinder is filled with
which flows back and forth through a port connecting its
^7/7
two ends. This port is controlled by a valve which increases

and diminishes the flow of the oil through the port. By means
of the Cataract, the movements of the main steam valve are
automatically graduated and controlled, so the speed of the
piston is reduced as it nears the end of its stroke, allowing the
valves to seat themselves gently and quietly, and the moving
column of water to come to a gradual and easy rest.
The claims of this construction of pumps have been thus
summarized
1st. The speed of the piston is automatically slowed down
at the end of its stroke, giving time for the column of water to
come gradually to rest, and for the valves to seat gently and
quietly, avoiding all concussion, jar, or the slightest tremor.
The speed of the engine can be adjusted and automat-

2d.
icallymaintained as desired under any pressure. Should it be
working under full head of steam and against a heavy pressure,
and the pressure be instantly removed the speed would con-
tinue unchanged.
3d. The piston works end of its stroke under all pres-
to the
sures, avoiding the waste of steam incident to the piston falling
short of its stroke.
Mining Pumps. 147
be understood that there is only a slight waste of oil

It will
—
caused by the use of this apparatus all the waste that there
is, being the small amount leaking through the stuffing boxes.
The term " Isochronal," pump meaning equal spaces in

equal times has been applied to both these pumps and their
valve gear.
The sizes, capacities, etc., of the pump described on the
opposite page are given in the following
Table.
No.
SINKING PUMPS.
These special mining pumps are used to drain water from
the shaft bottom, so that work in deepening or repairing may
be carried on. As shown in the illustration they are made to
be suspended by a chain or bail at-
tached to eye-bolts in the upper cylinder
head at points of support which will
enable the pump to hang vertically and
be raised and lowered at will.
The bail is so constructed that while

the pump is suspended the cylinder
head can, if necessary on the smaller

sizes, be removed and the steam piston
examined and adjusted. As the shaft
gets deeper the chain may be lengthened
out and an extra joint placed on the
end of the delivery pipe.
The sinking pump is subjected to
the hardest usage of any, hence any
steam pump that is to be used in sink-
ing a mine shaft must be strong, certain
in operation, capable of handling gritty
water and require little attention.
Fig. 438 exhibits a hand-poiver mi-
ning pump, designed especially for pros-
and made by the Edson
pecting, etc.,
Manufacturing Co., Boston, Mass. It
is listed for three sizes
No. 6, capacity 1200 gallons per hour,
1 man.
2 men.
Fio. 439.
2 men.
The outfit which usually goes with this diaphragm lift and
force pump includes special suction and conducting hose, brass
Mining Pumps. 149
coupling and strainer ; these pumps will raise and force water
containing gravel, sand, dirt or tailings without choking.
The Deane single vertical sinking pump is shown in Fig. 439;
a table of dimensions and capacities of this pump is also given
below.
The pump double acting and of the differential

illustrated is
plunger type ; the water end

is in three parts and consists of a
water cylinder, a lower plunger and an upper plunger. The

water passes directly up and through the plungers, both of
which are hollow. These plungers are outside packed. The
water valves are reached by hand holes provided for that pur-
pose. Split pins are used in the ends of the bolts to prevent
the nuts from working off.
These pumps are designed to stand a working pressure ol

150 lbs. to the square ir.ch. They have the regular Deane
valve motion and will work under water.
Table.
Fio. 44a
Mining Pumps, 151
Fig. iO.
The Cameron vertical plunger sinking pump is shown in

Figs. 440 and 441.
This is one of the most successful mine sinking pumps de-
signed there are no parts exposed to rust, and instances have
;
occurred when this pump has started off and cleared a shaft of
water when the pump itself had been buried for weeks under a
mass of fallen rock and debris.
This pump has no outside valve gear, arms or levers all ;
movable parts are inside and enclosed, to prevent collision with

the walls of the mine shaft nor is it likely
to receive injury from blast explosions.
^_^^^ Being fitted with special exhaust cut-off,

|1 I ^
Tijp it will continue to run as fast as steam
*i|!
II 1 I III will drive it (with an irregular or intermit-

tent supply of water, or when the water
fails entirely,) not only without danger of
the piston striking the heads, but without
injury to the valves. It is designed and
intended to handle gritty water.
Telescopic pipe joint shown in Figs.
442 and 443, supplies a convenient means
for lifting and lowering a sinking pump,
and is usually made in lengths of six-
teen feet. This enables the operator to
drop the pump that distance without dis-
turbing the rest of the pipe ; by its use
irregular lengths of pipe can be added,
Fio. 442. Fig. 443.
whereas, otherwise when the pump is
lowered the pipe would have to be cut of equal length.

The inside pipe is brass tubing which freely slips through
the packing and is non-corrosive.
Fig. 441 exhibits the sinking pump in practical operation;
it is the same as that shown on the previous page.
Note. —
Mining pumps require to be made " to gauge " and interchange-
able an advantage which commends itself to experienced mining en-
;
gineers. Many " parts " should be provided in duplicate on account of the
rough usage and hard service alluded to above.
Mining Pumps. 163
The ^^
Scranton'" pattern of a mining pump is illustrated by
the cuts shown below (Figs. 444 and ^J45).
The plungers of this machine work through middle, exterior
stuffing-boxes, into four separate and distinct water cylinders.
Fig. 446.
The valve areas and water ways are unusually large in pro-
portion to the displacement of the plunger, so that the velocity
and consequent destructive action of the water currents is
decreased in passing through the pump.
These pumps are designed to withstand safely a working

pressure of 250 pounds to the square inch, and all their attach-
ments are especially strengthened with a view to meeting the

rough usage and hard work to which they are liable to be sub-
jected in mining operations.
^r&^
Fig. 446.
Table.
in
Marine Pumps. 15^
The Worthington Pressure Pump. This pump, presented in

Fig. 446, is specially designed for use in connection with hy-
draulic lifts and cranes, cotton presses, testing machines,
hydraulic riveting and punching machines and hydraulic presses
of all kinds. Also, for oil-pipe lines, mining purposes and ser-
vices requiring the delivery of liquids under heavy pressures.
There are four, single-acting, outside-packed plungers, which
work through the ends of the water cylinders, the latter having
central partitions. The arrangement of compound steam cyl-
inders shown in Fig. 445, or a triple expansion arrangement^
can be applied to these pumps where a saving of fuel is
desired. The water valves are easily accessible and are con-
tained in small independent chambers, capable of resisting
very heavy pressure.
MARINE PUMPS.
These are m.ade both horizontal and vertical; the prims
consideration being in all cases the amount of floor space the
pump will require. This is especially true in reference to small
steam vessels, pleasure craft, etc.
Owing to the unusual corrosion, caused by galvanic action,
saltand various impurities, marine pumps are built of iron with
brass linings, but frequently with the entire water ends of
bronze.
The arrangement of the water valves in the most approved
forms of vertical pumps is such that the pistons are always
submerged, and the water valves sealed, thereby securing im-
mediate lift of water through the suction pipe, and steady, quiet
operation of the pump many horizontal pumps
; of the ordinary
duplex design are also used on shipboard.
The ship" s pump is common to all vessels and used to keep
the " hold " free from water. It is usually worked by hand but
it is the law in certain countries that the " ship's pump," aside
—
from steam vessels shall be driven by windmill power it is ;
said to be an odd sight to see the practical working of these at

sea.
X% rt
Fro. ii7.
Marine Pumps. 157
The illustration on page 156 shows a marine vertical pump

of the Davidson pattern, designed to work against a pressure
of 250 pounds per square inch. The table given herewith will
show the sizes and principal details of these pumps.
Table.
suction. It has no forcing power, the water being delivered

over the top of the pump into the curb surrounding it. It is
single-acting, although the discharge is practically constant, by
Pio. 448.
reason of t!.ie quick return of the piston to the bottom of the
cylinder, during which inactive stroke the water continues to

flow by the momentum already acquired, thus the effect of a
double-acting pump is almost produced.
Marine Pumps. 159
The ordinary slide valve is employed, moved by an arm

striking against tappets on the valve rod. No auxiliary valves
are used in connection with it. The water valves are of rubber,
the lower ones being upon a permanent plate at the bottom of
the pump. The plunger also is covered with valves. These
last open for the passage of water when the piston descends.
On account of its short stroke and large diameter, this
pump is extremely efficient, running on comparatively: low
pressure of steam, and with a very small percentage of loss

from friction or leakage. It is also simple and durable, with
few parts.
The stated capacities of the pumps given in the table can
be exceeded in cases of emergency.
Table.
Diameter of
Steam Cylinder.
The demands for water ballast service are generally met by

the following two sizes, as shown in the table below.
Fia. 449.
Table.
u a
U3
Marine Pumps. 161
The purposes for which pumps are used on shipboard, aside

from the air and circulating pumps for condensers, are
(i.) Feeding the boiler.
(2.) Emptying the tanks and pumping out bilge.
(3.) Supplying water for washing down decks, extinguishing

fires, filling evaporators and sanitary service.
A special pump for each separate purpose is not always sup-

plied, but one pump may have the necessary pipe connections
to serve alternately various duties.
Feeding the boilers is so important an operation that a
supplemental special pump is always required. To make ab-
solutely sure of an ample supply of feed water one of the other
pumps is made strong enough to serve the same purpose, or
sometimes an injector is fitted as an auxiliary feeding mechan-
ism.
A bilge pump has special fittings, for the reason that it
handles very dirty water, undesirable to be transmitted through

any other pipe system. In small ships, however, one pump,
the so-called " donkey," often serves for nearly all other pur-
poses, including auxiliary boiler feeding.
A special form of pump in use on Western river steamers is
the so-called " doctor," an independent pump with a walking
beam, by which one steam cylinder drives a system of pumps
for feed, fire and bilge pumping purposes (Fig. 450).
The feed pump should be of simple construction, great

strength and ample capacity, to secure great regularity and
reliability of service under the severe conditions of high pres-
sure.
The main parts of auxiliary feed pumps are often dupli-
cated. This is a desirable point, as one set of spare parts in
piston, rings, valves, etc., is suitable for both pumps.
The main feed pump
even in the independent type, often
is,
placed in the engine room, while the auxiliary pump, or the

injector, is in the fire room. The feed pumps draw usually
from the hot well, feed heater and feed tanks and discharge
through main feed pipe into the boiler.
This ^^
doctor' pump is a substantial piece of mechanism. The
bases of columns and pump chamber flanges are accurately
planed, the cylinder has spring piston packing and the plain
slide valve is made of gun metal.
The hot water pumps, 3|^" diam. x
lo" stroke, have chambers
bored and are fitted with a copper and tin composition for
valves and scats the latter are driven into their places and
;
riveted over underneath.
Fia. 450.
Note. —Each valve reached by removing the bonnet covering it. The
is
The heaters above
joints under caps are made the insertion of sheet lead.
the frame, as shown, are 22" x 5' o" long, of hard rolled copper, with a cop-
per worm 18' o long by 2>^" diameter in each. There is also a baffle plate
'
above the water line in each lieater to prevent the exhaust from throwing
the water out at the top.
Miscellaneous Pumps. 163
HYDRAULIC GAUGE TEST PUMP.

These gauges are apt to get out of order for vârious reasons
namely, there is no theoretical method of determining the
motion of the pointer due to a given pressure this is done ;
by tests in which known pressures are employed, and accord-

ingly the divisions on the graduated scale are usually unequal,
hence these instruments are tested by attaching them either to
a mercury column, or to a dead weight safety valve having for
its seat an exact square inch surrounded by a knife edge, or a
piston of standard area loaded with weights. This sharp edge

is covered by a fibre washer of leather for moderate pressures,
say 150 lbs. per ^^g^si^ square inch, or vulcanized

fibre or its equiv- ^fei'.Ili''^^ alent for higher pressures.
Fia. 451.
Fig. 451 represents a pump that can be used for pressures

up to 10,000 lbs. per square inch. The Hand-Lever Pump
shown at the right in cut is used for filling the Pressure Pump
cylinder and connections with oil or glycerine, and may also
serve for testing gauges of low pressures up to 15 or 20 lbs.
The suction pipe a is connected with the reservoir containing
the oil or glycerine, which after being used is discharged by
valve d and returned into the reservoir by pipe c.

\\\ filling the pump the cylinder spindle has to be screwed
all the way out, and the valves b and d closed before it is put
under pressure.
]\Iiscellaneous Pumps. 165
'^
SUGAR-HOUSE '^ PUMPS.
The handling of semi-liquids, commercially known as thick
stuff, has always been considered more or If.ss of a serious
problem, and many designs of mechanism in the form of
pumps have been invented for that purpose.
For piunping tar the improved forms of rotary pumps \\2l\q
recentlycome largely into use. These will be described later
under their proper heads. Fig. 212, page 232, Part one, repre-
sents a very satisfactory design of plunger pump for handling
the heavy stuff alluded to.
The Dearie single sugar-house pump is shown in Fig. 452.
These are largely used for pumping molasses, syrup, cane-juice,

melter-pan products, etc., and are fitted with linings, valves,
etc., to best suit the condition of the fluid to be pumped.
The valves are very large and the motion of the pumps is
somewhat slower than for water. By removing one set of
bolts all the valves are uncovered.
These products of the sugar-house when of a high temper-
ature can be pumped nearly as fast as water the following list
;
gives the approved proportions of these pumps.
Table.
SIZE.
1C6 Pumps and Hydraulics,
The Single Magma Pump. The term magma includes any

crude mixture, especially of organic matters in the form of a
thin paste, it also means " a confection," hence, the name given
to the pump illustrated in Figs. 453 and 454 is very ap-
Fio. 453.
propriately applied to a sugar-house apparatus. It is designed

for pumping various thick heavy mixtures and semi-liquids and
for moving massecuite, second and third sugar.
The construction in Fig. 453 is such as to insure strength
and certainty of operation there are no intricate small parts,
;
Fig. 401
and the interior is readily accessible. These pumps are made

with brass-lined cylinders, or cylinders and fittings entirely of
composition when needed to overcome the difficulties apper-
taining topumping acidulous and corrosive liquid substances.
TJie single fiy-wheel magma ptimp as shown in Fig. 454 rep-

resents the highest type of machine for this class of work.
The steam end is of the plain slide valve pattern. It is fitted
with a heavy fly-zvheel, perfectly balanced. The admission of
steam is regulated by a throtting governor of approved design.
The fly-wheel and governor insure a uniform speed of the pump
—
under variations of load hence the fly-wheel pump does not
require adjustment of throttle for every variation in water pres-
sure, as is necessary with direct acting pumps.
The following table applies to the two styles of the magma

pumps — with and without the fly-wheel, as the pump ends are
the same in both. Attention is called to the number of strokes
per minute (thirty) shown in the table as compared with the
number and 125) called for in the previous table.
of strokes (100
This caused by the different viscosity of the stuff to be
is
handled by these machines.
Table.
IG8 Pumps and Hydraulics.
CIRCULATING PUMPS.
definition of the word circulation conveys the best idea
The
of this
—
mechanism " The act of moving in a circle, or in a
course which brings the moving body to the place where its
motion began," hence, a circulating pump is one which causes
the water to flow through a series of pipes or conduits, as for
example, the water in a steam boiler as in the Ahrens Fire
Engine, see page 126, Fig. 426, or in marine boilers, or forces
£
cooling water through a
surface condenser. ^âsOMMT
A centrifugal pump
driven by an independent ^^ I
engine, see page 219, Fig.
497, is generally used for

the latter purpose.
Fig. 454.
The annexed engraving, Fig. 454, represents a circulating

pump attached to a salt water evaporator and distiller for re-
covering fresh water at sea. The pump at the lower right-hand
corner of the engraving takes salt water through the suction at
che bottom and passes it upward through the condenser and
overboard through the circulation discharge. Any steam pump
having a sufficient capacity may be used as a circulating pump.
ATMOSPHERIC PUMPS.
The Bliss-Heath Atmospheric Pumping Engine represented
by Fig. 455 is novel in its construction, consisting of a low-
pressure, upright, tubular steam boiler, having a safety valve
loaded to carry i^ lbs. steam pressure. The large cover lifts
under 2 lbs. pressure, hence explosions cannot occur.
Fig. 455.
The motor is a simple atmospheric engine operating a

plunger pump and a single acting air pump.
The operation of this motor is almost noiseless.
The motive power is the normal pressure of the atmosphere
(14.7 lbs. to the square inch), utilized by the formation of a
vacuum in the power cylinder.
The air is expelled from the cylinder by admitting steam

without appreciable pressure, i.e., to balance that of the atmos
phere, after which the steam exhausts into the surface con
denser, in which a constant vacuum .is maintained. Steam is
then admitted automatically into the power cylinder, breakings
the vacuum and imparting to the piston the required impetus.
This principle is identical with that of the ordinary condensing
Fia. 456.
steam engine, with the exception of the very low steam pres-
sure in this connection.
This engine can be operated satisfactorily in combination
with an ordinary house-heating boiler (low pressure), hence the
expense of running it is very low during the steam-heating
season. During the summer months the boiler connected

with this engine can be used advantageously.
The bearings are self-oiling, and the cylinder condensation
furnishes ample protection for the inside of the engine cylinder.
There are no leather packings to burn out, and this is remarkably
free from the objections to the older types of caloric engines.
These pumps when required will force a proportionate
quantity of water to a greater height than fafty feet, upon
which the following table is based :
Table of Approximate Dimensions and

Capacities.
size
Number
172 Pumps and HydrauCics.
THE WOOD PROPELLER PUMP.

The pump shown herewith lifts the water by propeller
screws or " runners," each consisting of two half-circular in-
clined blades fastened to a shaft at intervals of 3 to 5 feet, and
of slightly less diameter than the casing, so as to revolve freely
within it.
Experiments have demonstrated that more water can be

raised with a given speedby putting the runners close together
near the bottom of the pump.
A
bearing for the shaft is placed immediately underneath
each of the runners, and held in position by a set of spring
" guides " attached lengthwise to the well-casing. These
guides interrupt the whirling motion of the water as it is
thrown upward by the runners, and turns it back in the oppo-
site direction, thereby delivering it into the revolving runners
in a direction opposite their motion. By this method the
whirling motion of the water is utilized and the capacity
of the pump largely increased without a proportional increase
of power to run it.
Withthis pump, water may be raised from several hundred

feet below the surface by extending the shaft and runners
down the well-casing to the desired depth it being always ;
necessary to submerge the lower runner. As the shaft rotates

the lower runner lifts the water up to the runner above it, and
so on to the next, until the water is delivered at or above the
ground if desired the distance depending upon the size and
;
pitch of the runner, the number of runners, and the speed at

which they are driven.
Speed is not increased for additional depth, because more
runners are added, and this compounding of the runners in-
creases the efficiency of the pump.
A ball bearing is placed over the stuffing-box to carry the
entire weight of all the movable parts of the pump, and also the
column of water. In deep wells cone roller bearings are used
in place of the ball bearings.
Miscellaneous Pumpa. ITS
The pumps are made to fit all sizes of wells and of any de-
sired capacity. Runners of various pitches are made for the
different sizes in order to suit the supply of water or the power
available.If, after testing, the supply of water in the well is
found to be limited, the runners are changed to raise the
/, Fig. 457.
amount of water due to a given horse-power, then runners

can be furnished with a pitch suited to lifting that particular
amount of water.
For example, if one runner pounds
at a given speed, gives lo
pressure per square inch, then two runners would give 20
pounds ; three, 30 pounds, and so on. For this reason water

may be elevated higher above the discharge with this pump
than with a centrifugal, for it would require a higher rate of
speed to lift a given amount of water 20 feet with one runner,
than to lift the same amount 5 feet. Hence the advantage of
compounding the runners as the lift is increased. The com-
pounding of runners is one of the main features of success and
efficiency of this pump.
Where the water is beyond the suction limit this pump can
be used to raise the water to the surface, discharging into the
Fia. 458.
suction of the force pump. In this manner, whatever surplus

of power the propeller pump might have in raising the water
to the surface, would be utilized in helping the water through
the force pump.
The speed of rotary pumps is generally high, ranging from
800 revolutions per minute for the small sizes to 250 revolutions
for the larger sizes. In a number of experiments made upon
this form of pump the highest efficiency was obtained with
pressures ranging from 30 to 50 pounds per square inch, and
speeds ranging from 475 to 575 revolutions per minute. The
average efficiency of the rotary pump is from 48 to 52 per cent.
Miscellaneous Pumps, 175
THE SCREW PUMP.

The engraving herewith, Fig. 458, exhibits the general con-
struction of the Quimby screw pump. The four screws that
act as pistons in propelling the water are mounted in pairs on
and are so arranged that in each pair the thread
parallel shafts,
of one screw projects to the bottom of the space between the
threads of the opposite screws. The screw threads have flat
faces and peculiarly undercut sides; the width of the face and
the base of the thread being one-half the pitch. The pump
cylinder fits Space enough is
the perimeters of the threads.
left between the screws and the cylinder and between the faces
of the intermeshing threads to allow a close running fit without

actual contact. There is no end thrust of the screws in their
bearings, because the back pressure of the column of liquid is
m
is
elivered through the suction, S, at the middle of the cylinder,
herefore the endwise pressure upon the screws in one direction
exactly counterbalanced by a like pressure in the opposite
direction.
4 The suction connection opens into a chamber underneath

he pump cylinder. The suction liquid passes through this
chamber to the two ends of the cylinder and is forced from the
ends toward the center by the action of the two pairs of inter-
meshing threads the discharge being in the middle of the top
;
of the cylinder, as shown at D. The power to drive the pump

is applied to one of the shafts, and the second shaft is driven
by means of a pair of gears, shown at G.
The pump has no internal packing, no valves and no small

oving parts. The only packing is in the stuffing-boxes where
i e two shafts pass through the cylinder head.

Whether driven by a belt, an motor, or a steam en-
electric
gine, the driving power is applied directly and without the loss
due to intermediate mechanism as the screws are not in con-
;
tact with the cylinder or with each other, the consequent ab-
sence of wearing surfaces gives the pump great durability.
176 Pumps ana Hydraulics.
These pumps have a high efficiency against a wide range of

pressures: The power being applied direct, the thrust due to
the back pressure of the column of liquid in the delivery pipe is
balanced.
As the action of the screws on the liquid is continuous, the

delivery is from pulsation. By thus keeping the liquid in
free
constant and uniform motion the efficiency of the pump is in-
creased and the pump is made peculiarly suitable for certain
specific purposes as there is no churning effect upon the liquids
handled.
These pumps are much used in connection with hydraulic

elevators by pumping directly into the elevator cylinders, as
there is no pulsation. They are also used to pump oil into
pipe lines and are driven by electric motors as well as by belts.
For circulating pumps for brine and for fire purposes these
pumps have certain peculiar advantages.
Table of Dimensions and Capacities

of the quimby screw pump.
FlO. iSO.
AERMOTOR PUMPS.
Aeris the first element in many compound words of Greek
originmeaning air, the air, atmosphere in this connection it is

;
combined with motor, defined as a machine which transforms

the energy of water, steam, or electricity into mechanical
energy —
in this instance, is meant the changing of the power of
moving air or wind into mechanical energy.
Wind is air put in motion. There are two ways in which
the motion of the air may arise. It may be considered as an
absolute motion of the air, rarefied by heat and condensed by
cold or it may be only an apparent motion, caused by the
;
superior velocity of the earth in its daily revolution.

When any heated it becomes
portion of the atmosphere is
rarefied, its specific gravity is diminished, and

it consequently
rises. The adjacent portions immediately rush into its place

to restore the equilibrium. This motion produces a current
which rushes into the rarefied spot from all directions. This is
what we call wind.
Meteorology is the science which treats of the atmosphere
and its phenomena, particularly of its variations of heat and
cold, of its winds, etc.
This is the great division of science to which one has to turn
when searching for the first principles relating to the operation
of aermotor pumps. The vast volumes of air which flow "hither
and yon " are controlled by physical laws which act as accu-
rately and unceasingly as those which control and hold in check
the seemingly solid substance of the earth itself.
—
Note. The portions north of the rarefied spot produce a north wind,
those to the south produce a south wind, while those to the east and west
in like manner, form currents moving in opposite directions. At the rare
spot, agitated as it is by winds from all directions, turbulent and boisterous
weather, whirlwinds, hurricanes, rain, thunder and lightning, prevail. This

kind of weather occurs most frequently in the torrid zone, where the heat is
greatest. The air, being more rarefied there than in any other part of the
globe, is lighter, and, consequently, ascends that about the polar regions :s
;
continually flowing from the poles towards the equator, to restore the
equilibrium; while the air rising from the equator flows in an upper current
towards the poles, so that the polar regions may not be exhausted.
179
To sum up all observations, it can be said with truth that the

sole forceimmediately concerned in causing the movements of
the atmosphere, is gravitation.
So far as the prevailing winds are concerned it has been
shown that where pressure is high, that is to say, where there
is a surplus of air, out of such a region winds blow in all
directions; and, on the other hand where pressure is low, or
where there is a deficiency of air, towards such a region, winds
blow from all directions in an in-moving special course.
This outflow of air currents from a region of air pressure
upon a region of low pressure is reducible to a single principle,
as already stated, viz., the principle of gravitation.
A regular east wind prevails about the equator, caused in
part by the by the sun in his
rarefaction of the air produced
daily course from east to west. This wind, combining with
that from the poles, causes a constant north-east wind for about
thirty degrees north of the equator, and a south-east wind at
the same distance south of the equator.
From what has now been said, it appears that there is a
circulation in the atmosphere the air in the lower strata flow-
;
ing from the poles towards the equator, and in the upper strata
flowing back from the equator towards the poles. It may be
remarked, that the periodical winds are more regular at sea
than on the land and the reason of this is, that the land re-
;
flects into the atmosphere a much greater quantity of the sun's

rays than the water, therefore that part of the atmosphere
which is over the land is more heated and rarefied than tha^
which is over the sea. This occasions the wind to set in upon
the land, as we find it regularly does on the coast of Guinea and
other countries in the torrid zone. There are certain winds,
called trade-winds, the theory of which may be easily explained
on the principle of rarefaction, affected, as it is, by the relative
position of the different parts of the earth with the sun at dif-
ferent seasons of the year, and at various parts of the day.
A knowledge of the laws by which these winds are control-

led is of importance to the mariner. When the place of the
Aermotor Pumps. 181
sun with respect to the different positions of the earth at the

different seasons of the year is understood, it will be seen that
they all depend upon the same principle. The reason that the
wind generally subsides at the going down of the sun is, that
the rarefaction of the air, in the particular spot which produces
the wind, diminishes as the sun declines, and, consequently, the
force of the wind abates.
From its importance in practical meteorology Buys Ballot's
law may be stated in these two convenient forms, (i) Stand
with your back to the wind, and the center of the depression
or the place where the barometer is lowest will be to your left
in the northern hemisphere, and to your right
in the southern
hemisphere. This is the rule for sailors by which they are
guided to steer with reference to storms. (2) Stand with the
high barometer to your right and the low barometer to your
left, and the wind will blow on your back, these positions in
the southern hemisphere being reversed. It is in this form that

the prevailing wind of any part of the globe may be worked
out from the charts.
WIND POWER.
It is as a source of energy, to be classified with heat, weight
of liquids, electricity, etc., that air in motion (as in a windmill)
has a place as a prime mover.
Prime movers, or receivers of power, are those pieces or
combinations of pieces of mechanism which receive motion and
force directly from some natural source of energy. The point
where the mechanism belonging to the prime mover ends and
that belonging to the train for modifying the force and motion
begins may be held to include all pieces which regulate or assist
in regulating the transmission of energy from the source of
energy.
The useful work of the prime mover is the energy exerted
by upon that piece which it directly moves and the ratio
it ;
which this bears to the energy exerted by the source of energy

is the efficiency of the prime mover.
In prime movers the loss of energy may be divided

all
into two one being the unavoidable effect of the circum-

parts,
stances under which the machine necessarily works in the case
under consideration the other the effect of causes which are,
;
or may by practical im-

be, capable of indefinite diminution
provements. Those two parts may be denominated as neces-
sary loss and zvaste.
The which a prime mover would have under given
efficiency
circumstances the waste of energy were altogether prevented,
if
and the loss reduced to necessary loss alone, is called the max-
imum or the theoretical efficiency under the given circumstances.
In windmills, the air, being in motion, presses against, and
moves four or five radiating vanes or sails, whose surfaces are
approximately helical or screw shape, their axis of rotation being
parallel, or slightly inclined in a vertical plane, to the direction
of the wind.
The velocity of the wind determines its pressure, and the
pressure of the wind against the sails of the windmill determin •
the power developed by the mill. A mill of small diamcicr

acted upon by a high pressure develops as much power as a
large mill working under a lower pressure.
The mean average of the witid for the entire United
velocity
States is However, for large
very nearly eight miles per hour.
areas such as the great plains east of the Rocky Mountains,
the mean average is about eleven miles per hour, and yet in
certain small areas situated in the mountainous districts the
mean average velocity is as low as five miles per hour. There-
fore, in selecting and loading a mill, reference should be had to
the wind velocity prevailing in that particular locality. In
general, windmills loaded to operate in ten-mile winds can be
depended upon to furnish a sufficient supply of water.
The variations in the velocity and pressure of the wind are
considerable even within a brief time, and sometimes sudden
and extreme. Winds of lOO miles per hour and upwards are on
record. A very violent gale in Scotland registered by an ex-
cellent anemometer a pressure of 45 lbs. per square foot. Dur-
ing the severe storm at London, the anemometer at Lloyd's
Aermotor Pumps. 183
registered a pressure of 35 lbs. to the square foot. The gauge

at Girard College, Philadelphia, broke under a strain of 42 lbs.
per square foot, a tornado passing at the moment within a
quarter of a mile. At the Central Park Observatory, a wind
was recorded of 28.5 lbs. pressure per square foot.
If the wind were to blow continuously a very small wind-
mill would suffice to do a large quantity of work and no storage
"
capacity would be required, but when it does blow it is " free
and experience dictates that a mill shall be erected sufficiently
large to pump enough water, when the wind does blow, to last
over, with the assistance of ample storage capacity.
Average hourly velocity of the wind at following stations

of the U. S. Weather Bureau, given in miles per hour
Albany, N. Y 7 Eastport, Me .6 Olympia, Wash 3.8
Alpena, Mich 9 El Paso, Tex 6.3 Omaha, Neb 8.5
Atlanta, Ga 9 Fort Orant, Ariz. .7 . Oswego, N. Y 9.6
Atlantic City, N.J. 10.3 Fort Still, I. T. 10.7
. . . Pensacola, Fla 8.2
Augusta, Ga 4.2 Galveston, Tex. 10.3 . . Philadelphia, Pa. 10 .
Baltimore, Md 6 Grand Haven, KiCll.10.7 Pittsburg, Pa 6

Bismarck N. D 9.4 Hatteras, N. C. . . 14 Portland, Me 8
Boise City, Idaho. 4.2 Helena, Mont 6.7 Portland, Ore 5.3
Boston, Mass. ... 10 2 Huron, S. D II Prescott, Ariz 6.5
Brownsville, Tex.. 7.4 Indianapolis, Ind. .6 Red Bluff, Cal 7
Buffalo, N. Y 10 Jacksonville, Fla..6.7 Roseburg, Ore 5.3
Cairo, 111 7.6 Keokuk, Iowa 8 Sacramento, Cal. . .6.7
Cape Henry, Va. .12.7 Key West, Fla . . .9.8 St. Louis, Mo 10.3
Charleston, S. C. .8 La Crosse, Wis ...73 St. Paul, Minn ... 7.6
Charlotte, N. C 5.6 Leavenworth, Kan. 7.1 St. Vincent, Minn. 9.4
Chattanooga.Tenn. 5.5 Little Rock, Ark.. 3.6 Salt Lake City, Utai 5-3
Cheyenne, Wyo.io.s Los Angeles, Cal, ..47 Sandy Hook, N.J. 14-5
Chicago, 111 10.5 Louisville, Ky 7.3 San Diego, Cal 5.6
Cincinnati, Ohio. . .6.3 Lynchburg, Va. .4 . . San Francisco, Cal. 9.4
Cleveland, Ohio. . .9.6 Madison, Wis.... 10. Savannah, Ga 7
Columbus, Ohio. . .7.6 Marquette, Mich. .8.7 . Shreveport, La 5.6
Davenport, Iowa . .8.5 Memphis. Tenn. 5.8 . . . Spokane Falls,Wasll. 4-7
Denver, Colo 67 Mobile, Ala 67 Springfield, 111 8.7
Des Moines, Iowa. .7 Montgomery, Ala. .5.1 Vicksburg, Miss. .5.8 .
Detroit, Mich 8.7 New Haven, Conn. Washington, D. C..6.5

Dodge City, Kan.. 11. New Orleans, La.. 7. Yuma, Ariz 6
Duluth, Minn 7 North Platte, Neb. 10.3 Yankton, S. D 9
—
Note. Wind-mills are erected to be operated by the lightest winds. A
wind which will carry off smoke will move a wind-mill and the absence of ;
a wind of this force means a perfect calm. Mr. Corcoran says: "My ex-
perience of thirty years teaches that a calm has seldom, if ever, held sway
world for a longer period than three days. Consequently,
in this part of the
with a tank to hold a three days' supply, it becomes possible to pass over
any number of calms."
WIND POWER PUMPS.
Windmills can be divided into two general classes according
to the inclination of the shaft: i, Horizontal mills, in which
sails are so placed as to turn by the impulse of the wind in a
horizontal plane, and hence about an axis exactly vertical and, ;
2, vertical mills, in which the sails turn in a nearly vertical

plane, i. e., about an axis nearly horizontal.
On account of the many disadvantages connected with
the horizontal windmill, it is seldom brought into use, beingf
employed only in situations in which the
height of the vertical sails would be objec-
tionable, and this is liable to occur only in
extraordinary cases. In this kind of mill
six or more sails, consisting of plain boards,
are set upright upon horizontal arms rest-
ing on a tower and attached to a vertical
axis, passing through the tower at its
middle part. If the sails are fixed in

position, they are set obliquely to the
direction inwhich the wind strikes them.
Outside of the whole is then placed
a screen or cylindrical arrangement of
boards intended to revolve, the boards
being set obliquely and in planes lying in
opposite courses to those of the sails. The
Fig. 461.
result from whatever direction the wind
is,
may blow against the tower, it is always admitted by the outer

boards to act on the sails most freely in that half of the side it
strikes, or from which the sails are turning away, and it is
partly, though by no means entirely, broken from the sails
which in the other quadrant of the side are approaching the
middle line. .
^
Note. —The great objections to the horizontal windmill are: first, that
only one or two sails can be effectually acted upon at the same moment
and, secondly, that the sails move in a medium of nearly the same density
as that by which they are impelled, and that great resistance is offered to
those sails which are approaching the middle. Hence with a like area of sails
the power of the horizontal is always much less than that of the vertical miU.
185
The illustration on page 1 84, Fig. 460, is a representation of

the Corcoran windmill: it contrasts most interestingly with
—
the same apparatus shown in Fig. 459 a windmill of the early
Vart of the 17th century.
The figure below, 462, exhibits in detail the rear view of the
Corcoran mill with the governor. As the speed of the wheel
increases it swings the " tail " around, so as to bring the wheel
at an angle with the direction of the wind ; the latter failing to
strike the blades squarely communicates less force, and in con-
sequence the speed is diminished in case of a very high wind
;
the tail turns so as to present the wheel almost edgewise to-

wards the direction of the blast.
Fio. 48S.
Fig. 461 represents a Corcoran double action suction force

pump. The base is hollow and contains the suction and dis-
charge valves ; a flange at the left-hand side receives the suction

pipe while a corresponding flange on the right-hand side con-
nects with the discharge pipe. An air chamber is attached to
—
NOTB. A windmill of this type was erected at a station on the Long
Island R. R. to pump 5,000,000 gallons of water yearly. In order to test the
work of the windmill, a water meter was attached to the pump during six
months, and it was shown that the average work of the windmill had been
22,425 gallons per day, 4,260,750 gallons during the time stated and an aver-
age rate of 8,000,000 gallons per year. The weight of water pumped was
xo, 168 tons gross and was raised to a height of 66 feet, and the work was
done without mishap with little attention given to the pumping machinery.
Aermotor Pumps. 187
the discharge end. The valves may be reached by removing

the bonnets on top of the base.
Fig. 463 is intended to represent an Ideal steel tank tower;
the tank is herein located near the top. K
force pump is used
where water is delivered into an elevated tank as in this
case; a lift pump is employed to discharge water at the spout
and not to elevate above it.

The common term, " Windmill pump^' distinguishes a wind
power pump from a hand pump, the difference being in an ex-
tension of the piston rod above
^^ the upper guide with a hole for

connection with the
from the windmill.
pump rod
Such a pump, with the "pit-

man " extending from the pump
upwards into the tower, is shown
in Fig. 465. This figure is in-
troduced to show the tank con-
nections with a regulator on the
base of a four-post tower. The
float in the water tank throws the
mill in or out of gear according as
the water rises or falls in the tank.
When the tank is filled with
water it pulls the mill out of gear
and stops the pump as a result
;
there can be no overflow or waste.

The tank is thus not allowed to
become empty and permit its dry-
ing apart, inducing leakage. But
through the medium of the float
in the tank, when the water has been lowered but a few inches,
the mill is again put in gear and the tank refilled to the desired
height, at which the float is set.
Note. —These have long been erroneously termed windmill pumps dating
to the time when wind furnished the power for driving the grist mills used
in grinding grain, etc. More properly they may now 1^ named windmotors
or airmotors.
188 Pumps and Hydi'aulics.
The syphon pump here illustrated, Fig. 464, is used to force

water from shallow wells to elevations. The cylinder or barrel
is situated within the standard and very convenient for in«
spectioji. It has an air chamber which is detachable.
The subject of tanks and cisterns is one

almost vital to the successful operations of
ordinary windmills, owing to the irregularity
of the power to be' utilized by the use of aer-
motors.
In another part of this work this important
subject will be further explained and illustrated.
One of the most valuable special features of
this tvindmill is its governor. It is so contrived
that it insures immunity of the mill from in-
juries in destructive storms. It consists of a

steel coiled spring of great resiliency, located
at the base of the vane frame. Its strength is
of such a character as to hold the wheel in the

Fio. 461. teeth of the wind under all ordinary conditions
but is sure to yield under greater pressure.
Fio. 46tS.
A ermotor Pumps. 189
USEFUL DATA
RELATING TO THE SIZES AND CAPACITIES OF PUMPING MILI^
Table I.
Size o[ FMping Kill

Table VII.
GB
:
Aermotor Pumps. 191
TableI gives the maker's number of the pumping mill, and
the number of gallons each will raise one foot high per hour, with
a wind having a velocity of fiften miles per hour. Example
No. 9 pump will raise 24,000 gallons of water one foot high in
one hour. Now if the water is to be raised 50 feet then by
dividing 24,000 by 50 the quantity raised becomes 480 gallons
per hour.
From Table V it will be seen also that a wind velocity of fif-
teen miles per hour develops a power three times as great as

an eight-mile wind, and a twenty-mile wind is twice as power-
ful as a fifteen-mile, or six times that of an eight-mile. Hence,
a small increase in velocity greatly increases the power of the
windmill, while a low velocity gives but little working force.
From Table VI it is seen that a twenty-five mile wind gives
six times as much power as a ten-mile wind, but really gives
twenty-six times the potver of the ten-mile wind^
ftet efficient
therefore it will not be proper to calculate on using a power

windmill in as low a velocity as ten miles.
From Table VII it is seen that the net efficient result is
six times as great in a fifteen-mile wind as in a ten-mile wind,

and sixteen times greater in a twenty-mile wind than in a ten-
mile wind. Th.&xtioxQ, power windniills give best results when
working in fifteen to twenty -five mile winds. A 1 2-foot power
windmill working in a fifteen-mile wind will do more work
than an average horse, and when working in a twenty-mile wind
will do more work than two average horses.
Example. —
A person in Atlanta, Ga. uses 2,600 gallons of water daily.
He has a well in which the water stands 30 feet from ground level. To
obtain pressure, the water is to be elevated into a tank 50 feet above ground*
2,6oo-f.8=325 gallons to be pumped hourly when windmill works.
Average wind velocity at Atlanta is 9 miles per hour, answering to co-
Table II, and total water lift is 30-1-50=80 feet. 325X1.4X80
efficient 1.4 in
=36,400 gallons.
If first estimate of 2,600 gallons daily was liberal, so that for instance
2,400 gallons would be sufficient. Table I shows that a lo-foot mill can be
used, but to keep on the safe side, choose a 12-foot mill. 325 gallons hourly
gives us in Table III 3^-inches cylinder with 2-inches discharge pipe as
proper sizes. If the lo-foot mill is chosen take the 3-inch cylinder.
A 14-foot windmill working in a fifteen-mile wind will do

more work than two average horses, and when working in a
twenty-mile wind will do more work than four good horses,
while in a twenty-five mile wind it will do more work than
six good horses.
tJie above tables a practical application, a
Giving'
littlethought will disclose what a wealth of })ower
stands unappropriated and ready at h md to do
many of the drudgeries of work for which large ex-
penditures are annually made.
The uses of power windmills are so well under-
stood that it seems out of place to elaborate upon
them; the brief space allowed to giving information
as to the power of this class of mills when working
in different wind velocities, is best expressed in
tabular form. Table VI.
Fig. 466 represents the working barrel of a deep
well pump, such as are used frequently in connection
with the larger sizes of aermotors.
The tube is usually made of heavy brass — this is
drawn so perfectly, as to size and smoothness, that

a re-boring is not needed.
The plunger is here shown with four cup leather
packings, with one ball valve ; the bottom valve is
also a Ball with the seat resting within a conical

coupling at the bottom, this with a leather packmg
makes a water tight joint.
Should any accident happen to the bottom valve
it may be withdrawn by lowering the sucker-rod
until the threaded portion comes in contact with the
nut underneath the plunger. By turning the sucker. FlQ. 466.
rod the nut engages the thread on the top of the
lower valve-cage. Then by withdrawing the sucker-rod both
valves may be drawn up for examination or repairs.
JflG. 467.
FlO. 468. (See page 199.)

ROTARY PUMPS.
This class of pumps differs from the centrifugal pump, which
is described and illustrated hereafter, in that it includes a
revolving piston, while in the centrifugal pump there is a set of
revolving blades which acts upon the liquid in the same way
as a fan acts upon the air ; the centrifugal pump receives the
water in the center and throws it outward, while the rotary
gathers the fluid up and leads it tozuards a central discharge.
The pump substantially corresponds to the pressure
rotary
blower, and in many cases is simply the rotary engine reversed;
while the centrifugal pump is analogous to the fan-blower.
The functions of a rotary are almost identical with those of
piston and power plunger pumps.
The rotary pump on account of its been
cleanliness has
quite generally adopted for pumping allheavy liquids, such as
starch, paint, soap, gummy oils, beer and hops, sewerage,
bleachers, etc.
The rotary pump is used also in places where a piston or
steam pump would be objectionable either on account of floor
space occupied or for the reason that steam could not be had
without too much expense for lifting and forcing water and
other liquids which would not nor could not find their way
through the tortuous and narrow passages of the average piston
and plunger pumps.
For low heads of liquids the rotary is also somewhat more
efficientthan direct acting pumps and the absence of close fit-
ting parts rendersît possible to handle water containing a con-
siderable quantity of impurities, such as silt, grain and gravel.
This type of pump is compact and is generally self-contained,
especially in the smaller sizes, and will deliver more water for a
given weight and space occupied than the reciprocating types,
while its simplicity of construction not only lessens the liability
to derangement, but enables persons having a limited knowledge
of machinery to set up and operate these pumps successfully.
195
Rotary pumps are driven by means of belts from line shaft-

ing and by wheel gearing, and also by direct connection to any
prime mover such as a steam or gas engine, hydraulic or electric
motor.
Rotary pumps may be divided into several classes according
to the forms of, and methods of working the pistons or impellers,
as they are usually called, that is, according to the construction

and arrangement of the abutments. The abutment receives the
force of the water when driven forward by the pistons or im-
pellers and also prevents the water from being carried around
the cylinder, thus compelling
it to enter the delivery pipe.
In the construction of the im^
pellers or pistons, and of the
abutments, lie the principal
differences in rotary pumps.
In some pumps the abutments
are movable, and are arranged
to draw back, as shown in
Fig. 469, to allow the piston
to pass. In others the pistons
give way when passing fixed
Fig. 469. abutments, and in others the
pistons are fitted with a mov-
able wing, as in Fig. 472, which slides radially in and out when
passing the abutment.
Pumps of this type having no packing and springs to prevent
leakage and in which the pistons work in cylindrical casings or
cylinders are quite durable and in many instances have been
known months without stopping. The later con-
to run for
struction of this pump is shown in Fig. 470; this design of
pump is more economical, as a rule, owing to the fact that
the strain on the belt is uniform at all points in the revolution
of the pistons.
page 194, represents one of the oldest and most
Fig. 467,
forms of the rotary pump. Cog wheels, the teeth of
efficient
which are fitted to work accurately into each other, are inclosed
Rotary Piimps. 197
in an elliptical case. The

sides of these wheels turn close to
those of the case so that water cannot enter between them.
The axle of one of the wheels is continued through one end of
the case (which is removed in the figure to show the interior)
and the opening made tight by a stuffing box or collar of
leather. A crank is applied at the end to turn it, and as one
wheel revolves it necessarily turns the other, the direction of
their motions being indicated by the arrows. The water that
enters the lower part of the case is swept up by the ends of each
cog in rotation and as it cannot return between the wheels in
;
consequence of the cogs being always in contact there, it must

necessarily rise in the ascending or forcing pipe.
Fig. 468 represents a
pump similarly constructed
to the foregoing, btit having
cams shaped so as to reduce
the wear.
In Eves pump, shown in
Fig. 469, a solid or hollow

drum, A, revolves in a cyl-
indrical case. On the drum
are three projecting pieces,
which fit close to the inner
periphery of the case. The
surface of the drum revolves in contact with that of a smaller
which a portion is cut off to form a groove or
cylinder, B, from
deep to receive within it each piston as it
recess sufficiently
moves past. The diameter of the small cylinder is just one-
third that of the drum. The axles of both are continued
—
Note. In the year 1825, one Mr. J. Rve, an American, took out a patent
in England which was practically the beginning of the modern era of rotary
engines and pumps. His pump consisted chiefly of a revolving cylinder
having three teeth or projections and revolved within a case. A second and
smaller cylinder was also placed within this case. The smaller cylinder had
one side scooped out to permit each of the teeth upon the large cylinder to
pass as they came opposite the small cylinder. The two shafts being geared
together the small cylinder was caused to revolve three times to one of the
large so that the teeth might pass the small cylinder without interruption.
through one or both ends of the case, and the openings made
tight with stuffing-boxes. On one end of each axle is fixed a
toothed wheel of the same diameter as its respective cylinder;
and these are so geared into one another, that when the crank
attached to the drum-axle is turned (in the direction of the
arrow) the groove in the small cylinder receives successively
each piston, thus affording room for its passage, and at the
same time, by the contact of the edge of the piston with its
curved part, preventing water from passing. As the machine
is worked, the water that enters the lower part of the pump
through the suction-pipe is forced round and compelled to rise

in the discharging one, as indicated by the arrows. Other
Fio. m. Fio, 478.
pumps of the same class have a portion of the small cylinder

cut off, so that the concave surface of the remainder forms
a continuation of the case in front of the recess while the
pistons are passing ; and then, by a similar movement to that
in the figure described, the convex part is brought in contact
with the periphery of the drum until the return of the piston.
The next improvement in rotary pumps is shown in Fig. 470,
page 197. This type was used for many years as a fire pump.
The Silsby fire engine of the present day is practically this
pump in design although it has packing strips in the center of
each of the long teeth of the elliptical gears.
Rotary Pumps. 199
Following Eve's invention were a series of claims which

embodied the design shown in the engraving, see Fig. 471,
where a sliding partition or abutment, A, was used to imprison
the steam. As the piston or inside cylinder turned around, the
abutment was pushed up and fell of its own gravity. A strip
of metal supported this abutment and furnished a suitable
wearing surface upon the surface of a revolving cylinder and also
accommodated itself to the tilting motion introduced by the
eccentricity of the revolving cylinder.
In Fig. 472 the sliding abutment has been placed in the
side of revolving cylinders and the axis of this cylinder is in
its center. In this case the abutment is pushed in by its pres-
sure upon the inside of the case and is thrown out by its
centrifugal force assisted by spiral springs.

The engraving, Fig. 468, gives a view of Gould's rotary
pump, with the case removed long practical experience has
;
demonstrated that the revolving cams or pistons are of such-

a shape as to produce the minimum of friction and wear
with the greatest results.
The cases which receive these cams are engine lathe turned
and bored and so true and smooth that the cams when in
operation create almost a perfect vacuum and will " pick
up " water for a long distance and hold it efficiently. The
cams are carefully and accurately planed to mesh into each
other to fit their case.
It is a point worth noting that if a little good oil be put
into the case of these pumps before and after using at first, or
simply to pump air with the oil a few times, the cams become
as hard upon the surface as tempered steel, and are almost un-
affected by long use afterwards. Drip plugs are provided for
draining pumps in cold weather. To do this, turn the cams
backward a single revolution to release all water.
The Taber pump is one of the best known of the rotary
class. It consists of three parts only, that is to say, (i) the
outside shell or case, (2) the piston, and (3) the valves.
Referring to the engravings herewith (Figs. 474 to 481), the
outside case or shell, A, is made either of brass or iron as the

case may be, Fig. 476, bored out at F to receive the piston, C,
Fig. 478, to which power is apphed at G.
Fio. 474.
This cylinder has two heads or covers, BB, Figs. 475 and 477,
which close the cylinder and has journal bearings to carry the
piston combined with packing boxes to prevent leakage of
the liquid passing through the pump. The valves, Figs. 479,
480 and 481, DDD, are plates of composition which slip
through the piston fitting neatly into the slots, EE, Fig. 478.
These valves really perform the work of pumping. It will
be observed that substances which would easily clog up an
ordinary pump with clack valves, will pass through this pump
Rotary Pumps. 201
Fig. 475. Fig. 476. Fig. 477.
Fio. 478.
Fia. 479. Fig. 480. Fro. 481

without difficulty there are no springs in this pump, nor will

;
it get out of order with the average treatment, and it pumps
all kinds of liquids, either thick or thin, such as are found be-
tween the two extremes of water, and brewers grains.

It is designed to handle a large amount of fluids and semi-
fluids under a medium pressure, and being well balanced it
may be run fast or slow as desired.
Directions for setting and operating Taber pumps.
1st. Bolt pump firmly to the floor, and if possible set it so
that the liquid runs into it, which will add very much to the
lifeand duty of the pump.
2nd.See that all parts are well oiled.
3rd. Experience has proved that common candle wick
soaked in tallow is the best material with which to pack rotary
pumps. The wick should be double and twisted into a com-
pact rope and driven into the boxes as tightly as possible with a
piece of hard wood tapered to fit the box. Such a tool as de-
scribed is furnished with each pump. Do not under any circum-
stances use iron calking tools which mar the bearing and causes
them to quickly cut out the packing.
If from any cause the pump should become clogged,
4th.
do not use a lever in starting it. Remove the plug from
bottom and work the pulley back and forth till the pump is
relieved. If this does not free it, remove the outside head and
all parts will be accessible.
—
Note. Many of the modern breweries are built with the hop-jack
situated upon the upper floors of the brewery, to which the beer and hops
mixed are pumped, and the beer allowed to flow directly to the coolers.
This pump has been very successfully installed for the past five years, pump-
ing in some breweries 90 feet in height above the pump. The handling of
wet brewers' grains by use of chain conveyors, which are seldom free from
infection and which are a continual source of annoyance from breakage, is
now overcome by this pump. All styles of these pumps can be washed out
clean after use, thereby overcoming entirely the noxious smell so disagree-
able to this part of the brewery when conveyors are used. There should be
a fall of six to eight feet from the wash-tub into the pump and
as nearly
perpendicular as possible. Right angle bends in the discharge pipe should
also be avoided. By using twenty-four-inch bends wet grains at 70°
moisture can be pumped without adaiticufl vster.
Rotary Pump^. 203
When putting heads back on the pump use ordinary news-

paper for packing, nothing thicker, as thicker packing destroys
the suction.
Prevent all leaks in suction pipe which would impair the
vacuum.
The suction should furnish an uninterrupted supply to the
pump, to enable the pump to throw its full capacity. Never
use pipes smaller than the openings in pump.
Open all drips in cold weather to prevent freezing.
All packing boxes should be kept in order and never allowed
to leak.
The illustration, Fig. 482, page 204, represents a rotary

pump of the Holyoke pattern to be attached by a clutch to a
line shaft — the gears, as shown, are merely to transmit the
power to the impellers. The safety valve with lever and weight,
shown in the cut, are designed to be attached to the discharge
pipe to guard against over pressure, which might occur through
the closing of valves.
Fig. 483 shows an emergency pump of the Holyoke rotary

pattern. It is of the same general design as the one previously
alluded to. It is driven directly from the line shaft by friction
gearing instead of toothed wheels. The hand wheel attached
to the end of a screw is used to press the smaller friction wheel
against the larger and thus transmit the power to drive the
pump.
This mechanism is not liable to injury by being thrown
instantly into gear in case of fire, as would be the case if gear
wheels were used.
These pumps are largely used in mills located in the Eastern

United States, as they may be started up in a few moments at
full speed without slowing down the engine or motor driving
the line shaft.
The shaft bearings are all made of large proportions to

avoid heating and excessive wear when suddenly put under
full load.
Fig. 48^.
fiu. 4»3.
Rotary Pumps. 205
484 and 485 are views of a rotary pump driven by

Figs.
steam and largely used for fire apparatus. These pumps are
in general use in mills and factories, and can be installed wher-
ever the necessary steam and water supply are available.
The pump is built on a rigid iron base plate, and is furnished
with chamber, water-pressure gauge, oil feeders and every-

air
thing necessary to make it complete and ready for permanent
steam and water connections. The discharge outlets can be
adapted for forcing water through either pipe or hose.
A perspective view of this pump is given in Fig. 484 and a
sectional plan of the same appliance appears in Fig. 485.
Both engine and pump are of the rotary type and the con-
struction of these parts is precisely as described in connection
with its adaptation to use in the Silsby steam fire engine.
These pumps can be thoroughly drained and, with their
interior surface well coated with oil and No. 2 pure Graphite,
they can be " laid up " indefinitely and with certainty as to
their starting promptly when wanted in an emergency. Water
accumulated in the steam pipe will pass through this cylinder
without causing damage, and the free action of the pump will
not be defeated by the " sticking " of valves or the corrosion
of exposed parts.
In the operation of rotary pumps trouble is often ex-
perienced through an improper adjustment of the ends of the
case. If the case is too long there will be leaks of water pass the
ends of the impellers and on the other hand if the case is too
short the ends of the impellers will bind and cut, through ex-
cessive friction.Hence great care is necessary in adjusting the
ends of the case so that the pump may run freely yet without
leaks. The packing boxes around the shafts must not be
screwed up too tight otherwise the shaft will be injured.
has been found by costly experience that for emergency
It
fire pumps
leather belts are unreliable, hence these two pumps,
Figs. 482 and 483, are driven by direct connection with the
shaft in the first instance and through cast iron friction gearing
in the second-
206 Pu77tps and Hydraulics.
Fio. 484.
Rotary Pumps. 207
FlO. 485.—See page 205.

208 Pumps a7id Hydraulics.
Rotary Pumps. 209
The engraving, Fig. 487, shows Roofs rotary pump. This

has two impellers which are geared together and each turn at
equal speeds towards one another at the top. The engraving,
Fig. 488. also shows a Root pump with two inlpellers each hav-
ing three wings or lobes. The
r\ pump proper consists of half
circles, A A, with air chambers,
DD, cast with them, the head
plates, B, carrying the bearings,
and the revolvers, CC, together
with shafts, EE. The shaft'-
carry involute gears at each end

which keep the lobes of the
two impellers in their relative
positions, and rotate them.
Either shaft may be made the
FiO. 487.
driving shaft and to deliver
water, as shown by the arrows
in the cross section, the shafts revolve so that the tops move
—
toward one another. Same as in the preceding case.
The actio7i of tJiis pump is as follows : the suction pipe on
starting, being full of air, the first few revolutions of the pump
expel the air until
the required vac-
uum is formed,
which allows at-
mospheric pressure
to raise water into
the pump. It then
flows between the
case and the lobes
into the space, E,
Fig. 488.
and is carried by
the impellers to the discharge edge of the case, point, G, where
it enters the discharge pipe. Each succeeding lobe brings up
an amount of water equal to spaces, EE, thus delivering the
contents of the six at each revolution. The irreg"lar form of
the lobes keeps them in contact at the center line, thus prevent-
ing the return of water into the suction below.
Heads
of water from lo to 250 feet are successfully handled
by type of pump, with a slip of from 5 to 15 per cent.,
this
according to the discharge pressure.
The three-lobe impellersprovide a double lock against the
return of water between the case and impellers, at the same
time allowing a very free inlet and outlet for the water. The
delivery of water from this pump is smooth and continuous.
The shows the ex-
large engraving. Fig. 486, page 208,
terior of this same pump with journal bearings and gears
encased at each end. This pump may be driven by motor or
engine.
Large rotary pumps for dredging purposes with their engine
equipment for salt zvater service, include surface condenser
outfits with air pumps, feed pumps, fire pumps, etc. The
dredges for fresh water are very large cross-compound en-
gines, double-acting air pumps and jet condensers with the
usual complement of vertical duplex feed pumps, fire pumps,
etc. The air pumps are of a very novel arrangement, inasmuch
as it is possible by the manipulation of valves and cocks pro-
vided for the purpose to separate the pumps and run one
side entirely independent of the other side. These dredges
are self-propelling and sea-going; some of them are fitted with
immense bins in which the dredged material is deposited, and
when full, the vessel propels herself out to deep water, dumps
the sand or mud and steams back to repeat the operation.
Note. — The operation of these machines is very interesting. A long
flexible tube 12 to 15 inches in diameter drops down from the side of the
vessel 20 to 30 feet or more to the bottom of the river or harbor upon which
the dredging operation is being performed. The upjjer end of this tube is
connected to an immense rotative centrifugal pump revolving at several
hundred revolutions per minute and capable of handling many hundreds of
tons of water per hour. The lower end of the tube is manipulated from the
vessel against the sand bars and mud banks and as the water is sucked up-
ward by the centrifugal pumps a very large proportion of sand and mud goes
with it. The centrifugal pumps discharge this water with its suspended
material into the tanks on board the vessel or into scows, where the heavy
material quickly settles to the bottom, the water flowing back into the sea.
The mixture of sand and water which is drawn up the suction pipe is
forced a distance of 3,800 feet through a 30-inch pipe to the place where it is
to be deposited ; the water draining off allows the solid matter to remain.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS.
The centrifugal pump raises the liquid to be displaced, by
means of a rapidly revolving fatt having two or more blades
straight or curved, fastened upon a shaft and fitting closely into
a case having an inlet for water at the end center and an out-
let ?t one side or on top of the case tangent to the circle de-
scribed by the fan.
Most people are practically acquainted with the principle
of the centrifugal pump, viz., that by which a body revolving
round a center tends to recede from it, and with a force pro-
portioned to its velocity thus mud is thrown from the rims of
:
carriage wheels, when they move rapidly over wet roads a ;
stone in a sling darts off the moment it is released; a bucket of

water may be whirled like a stone in a sling and the contents
retained even when the bottom is upwards.
The earliest history of the centrifugal pump cannot be
traced, but it is known that centrifugal machines for lifting
liquids were in use during the latter part of the seventeenth
century. About 1703, Denis Papin, the famous French en-
gineer, designed his " Hessian Suck," a form of centrifugal
punip embodying nearly all of the essential features of the
present-day machine. Drawings of this pump are in existence
which show that Papin was not only a designer of no mean
ability, but that he had a good comprehension of the principles
with which he was dealing. After Papin there seems to have
been no further development of his ideas until 18 18, when the
earliest prototype of the present form of centrifugal was
brought out in Massachusetts and has since been known as the
" Massachusetts pump'' This pump was of the type designated
" volute," and was provided with double suction openings and
an open impeller. It was re-invented by Andrews and others
in 1846,and was shortly afterwards introduced into England
by Mr. John Gwynne.
—
Note. The term " volute " so frequently used in connection with these
means a spiral scroll ofplate.
'
'
'
211
Centrifugal pumps have now attained a degree of perfection,

which makes them a serious rival of the -plunger pumps. The
high-class turbine pumps of to-day are simply machines in
which the water is given a velocity which is partially changed
to pressure before discharge, and the pump is designed so that
the well-known actions, outlined above, proceed along natural
lines,which are, to use the common phrase, lines of least
resistance. simply a question of careful design.
It is
The modern pump causes the water to flow along paths
naturally due to the forces acting and to guide the stream in
such a way as to avoid the production of eddies and whirls with-
in itself which so enormously
cut down the efficiency.
The blades now take the
form of " impellers " which
have warped surfaces whose
form is the result of careful
calculation, and the water,
after leâving the impellers, is
guided by vanes of equally

and carefully calculated form.
// is owing to the correct
form of the guide vanes
that the nearly perfect con-
Fig. isi).
version of velocity into pres-

sure head is possible, and this is the principal factor which pro
duces the high efficiency shown in tests.
When pumping against high heads, the units are arranged
in stages or series. The discharge from one is led to the inlet
of the next in series, the separate units being usually mounted
on one shaft, and the whole really forms one machine. In this
manner heads approaching 2,000 feet are worked, still pre-
serving the high efficiency which in some cases reaches be-
tween 80 and 90 per cent.
The ability to generate such pressures enables them to be
used for feeding boilers, and their efficiency particularly com-
mends them for this purpose.
;
Centrifugal Pumps. 213
The centrifugal pump is tJie
converse of the ttcrbme water-wheel.

Its development has been analo-
gous to that of the steam turbine
in that both were abandoned in
favor of reciprocating machines
before having been thoroughly
exploited; the pump because the
principles of its action were not
clearly understood, and the steam
turbine because of mechanical
difificulties in its construction.
Fio. 49,J.
Fig. 491.
Opposite the title page of

this book can be seen a repre-
sentation of a centrifugal wheel
of ten thousand horse power
it will repay the careful student
to consult also page 133 of part
one of this work for the details
of this enormous machine the ;
curious will also be interested

in an early form of the centrif.
ugal pump to be seen in Fig.
489 and its description in the
Note on page 214.
'
214 Pumi>s and Hydraulics.
Where large quantities of water are to be moved quickly

and more where the water is impure and
especially in cases
contains floating matter, as well as sand, mud, coal and the like,
as in wreckage, the centrifugal pump has its peculiar advantages.
It is suited particularly for use in tanneries, paper mills, dry
docks, corporation work such as building sewers, sand dredging,
and with water that contains large quantities of solid matter held
in suspension. Pumps used for these purposes have to be primed
on starting, and the suction pipe should be as short as possible.
Long suction pipes very much type
impair the eflficiency of this
of pump. They will draw water upwards of twentybut feet
nothing like the full capacity of the pump can be realized under
such circumstances. It is always better to lower the pump as
much as possible and force the water instead of trying to suck it.
Centrifugal pumps designed to raise clean water alone
should not be used for any other purpose, that is to say, pumps
for handling more or less solid matter mixed with the water
have much more clearance in the case than those for pumping
—
Note. Upon page 212 is represented one of the very earliest types of a
turbine pump, an account of which is left by Rwbanks, to whose book on
hydraulics credit should be given for the figure. "This pump consists of
tubes united in the form of a cross or letter T placed perpendicularly in the
water to be raised. The lower end is supported on a pivot perforations are;
made to admit the water, and just above them a valve to retain it when the
pump is not in motion. The ends of the transverse part are bent downward
to discharge the water into a circular trough, over which they revolve. To
charge it the orifices may be closed by loosely inserting a cork into each and
then filling the pump through an opening at the top which is then closed by
a screw-cap. A rapid rotary motion is imparted to the machine by a pulley
fixed on the axis and driven by a band, from a drum, &c. The centrifugal
force thus communicated to the water in the arms or transverse tube, throws
it out and the atmosphere pushes more water up the perpendicular tulê
;
to supply the place of that ejected. These pumps are sometimes made with
a single arm like the letter L inverted ; at others quite a number radiate
from the upright tube. It has also been made of a series of tubes arranged
round a vertical shaft in the form of an inverted cone. A valuable improve-
ment was submitted by M, Jorge to the French Academy in 1 816. It consists
in imparting motion to the arms only, thus saving the power consumed in
moving the upright tube, and by which the latter can be inclined as circum-
stances or locations may require. '
clean water. The fan is also made differently so that it can-

not be clogged up by lumps of coal, gravel, and sticks of wood.
The accompanying engravings, Figs. 490, 491 and 492, illustrate
these ideas, showing the three progressive grades of fans for
the kinds of work alluded to.
Fig. 490 shows a fan with hollow arms for clean water only.
Fig. 491 shows the disc type of fan for water containing
grit, pulp, etc.
Fig. 492 exhibits a fan used in dredging pumps used for all
sorts of stuff that will pass through the connecting pipes.
mn s^
mm//}^?//^y//ymmwM'^^^^^^^
Fia. 493.
There are two general types of centrifugal pumps, viz.,

I, which the suction pipe enters the
single suction. Fig. 493, in
end of case parallel to, and in line with its center 2, the double ;
suction, Fig. 494, in which the suction pipe is divided forming

a U shape and enters the case at both sides of the center.
The single suction is used for clear wat-r only, while the
double suction will pass everything that enters the suction
pipe — see engravings.
216 Pumps and Hydraulics
When the pump is located above the water, it has to be

primed before it will raise water. For these purposes an ejector,
or exhauster, frequently employed, which will exhaust the
is
air and draw water up from the required depth. The arrange-
ment of the ejector is illustrated at A, in Fig. 496, and is
the smallest and most convenient contrivance that can be used
for this work. It is screwed into the highest part of the pump,
and is connected by a separate steam pipe to boiler. In a short
time after turning on steam, the
pump will be primed, the pump
remaining stationary during the
operation of priming.
To prevent air returning
through the discharge pipe, a
check valve, B, is used. For
larger pumps a gate valve is
generally employed here.

A foot valve fitted with a
strainer to keep out obstructions
likely to clog the pump should
be used as it keeps the pump
primed and ready for immediate
use.
The general form of the
blades is of great importance in
this type of pump, because the
water is driven through the fan
partly by the pressure of the Fio. 494.
blades on the water and partly

by centrifugal force. The ratio which each of these forces bears
to the other varies in the same pump, depending upon the
proportion the speed bear? to the height of it. With low lifts
and high speed the water is discharged with but little rotary
motion, the resistance to the outward motion of the water
being so small that the oblique action of the blades is sufficient
to effect the discharge without imparting to the water the same
speed of rotation as is given to the fan. The principal object in
Centrifugal Pufnps. 217
this type of pump is to effect the discharge of as large a volume

of water as possible with the least rotary motion. The power
absorbed in imparting the latter motion is not given up later
on and consequently is lost, while the rotary motion tends to
impede the flow of water.
riG. 495.
^^B The passage through the pump should be so timed as to

^^^roduce a gradually increasing velocity in the water until it
reaches the circumference of the fan, then a gradually decreas-
g velocity until it is discharged from the pipe. These con-
ditions are met by having a

conical end to the suction pipe,
and a surrounding the fan. The form of the cas-
spiral casing
ing should be such that the water flowing round the casing will
move with the same velocity as that issuing from the fan the ;
casing enlarges from that locality into the discharge pipe.

A small increase in the number of revolutions of the fan
after the pump commences to discharge produces a large in-
crease in the volume of water delivered.
Fio. 496.— For description see page 216.
Fig. 495, upon the previous page, is intended to show a

Boggs & Clarke hydraulic dredging or sand centrifugal pump.
This is a heavy strong pump fitted with flap valve, without
close fitting joints, but with ample room for the water to wash
away the sand from the working parts. The cut shows the
pump with ejector for priming and large elbow to discharge
Table.
Pipe Size of Flanges Capacity per Hour
size of Pump Discharge Suction
sire of Pulley
Cubic Yards Sand
4 4 5 12X lO 30 to 40
5 5 6 12X lO 40 to 60
6 6 8 l8X 12 60 to 80
8 8 lo 24 X 12 80 to 125
lo lO 12 30 X 12 150 to 250
13 12 14 36 X 14 250 to 400
through. The pump is lined with sheet steel fitted so that it
can be easily and cheaply replaced. The diameters in which

these pumps are made run from 4 to 12 inches inclusive.
Smaller sizes for pumping sand and gravel are made with
cast chilled linings with chilled piston,and brass covered shaft
especially adapted for stone and marble mills to carry the sand
the saws, or for mining where there is a large quantity of

md to be pumped with water.
The table will convey an idea of the capacity, sizes, etc.
For pumping sand or heavy material the speed of pump
lould be increased 25^ more than for water.
;i20 Pumps and Hydraulics.
Fia. 498.
The engraving Fig. 497 exhibits a steam-driven centrifug'il

ptimpoi an approved design constructed hy \.h.Q Morris Machine
Works.
This pump is directly connected to the engine and has a
double suction. Pumps directly connected to engines are to
be preferred over belt-driven pumps when conditions of ele-
vation, etc., will allow, as they are self-contained, take up less
space and are more economical.
The figure 498 shows a 20-inch hydraulic dredge, directly

connected to a 450 horse-power triple-expansion engine. hy- A
draulic dredge consists mainly of a centrifugal pump with its
driving engine and boiler, and hoisting machinery for handling
suction pipe and boat the pump in operation creates a strong
;
suction flow in the suction pipe, sufficient to pick up the

material and draw it into the pump, from which it is again de-
livered through the discharge pipe any distance to point of de-

livery, and can at same time be elevated to reasonable heights.
Sand, mud, silt, etc., are readily picked up by the suction force
only, but where material is packed it must first be agitated.
Table.
Diameter
The steam shovel, bucket or elevator dredge will do efficient

service in raising material, but none are capable of delivering
the material except within a very short radius of the dredging
operation. The centrifugal dredge not only raises the material,
but also delivers it at the place wanted, at one operation.
Besides, it is practically impossible to build any other type with
the enormous capacity that some hydraulic dredges have.
Fig. 499 is a perspective
view of a centrifugal vertical
pump of the submerged type.
This pump is used largely by
contractors in excavations
and coffer dam work and for
keeping pits drained.
Fig. 499.
A double suction centrifugal pump, driven directly by a

steam engine, is shown in Fig. 497 ; these are generally and
very satisfactorily used for circulating water through surface
condensers and the cooling pipes in refrigerating systems. The

engine and pump thus combined occupy small floor space and
consequently little masonry is required for a foundation.
The Buffalo centrifugal pump is shown in Fig. 500. These
are built by the Buffalo Forge Co. in two types, viz., the sub-
merged and the suction the latter is the one shown in the cut.
;
The suction type is employed for pumping from mines, pits,

etc., and all places where the supply will not allow of a hor-
FlQ. 500.
izontal pump to be used, or in others where the supply is either

below the pump, or sometimes above and at other tifnes below.
This type possesses merit above the submerged design in that it
will work equally well, when set either above or below the
liquid to be pumped.
Multi-stage centrifugal pumps. Experience has demon-

strated that by placing several pumps together and discharging
from one into the other, water can be delivered to almost any
height. For a long time after the introduction of centrifugal

pumps, it was supposed that about sixty feet was the limit for
their economical working, owing to the high speed at which
they had to be run to accomplish the results desired.
It was a discovery of importance, that by coupling two or
more pumps in series, so that each pump worked against only
a part of the total delivery head, water could easily be raised
to even two thousand feet or any reasonably high head with
satisfactory efficiency. Pumps connected in this way will
throw more water at a given speed than when operated sepa-
rately, and are therefore attended by less wear and tear.
Fig. 501.
Pumps worked in series are built compound, triple or

quadruple as required by service either belt driven or directly
connected to engines. Owing to the fact that they have no
valves or absolutely close-parts, they are able to pump muddy
or gritty water with sand in suspension, and are, therefore,
especially in the vertical type, the only ones that can be success-
fully used for draining deep mines.
Fig. 501 is designed to illustrate a four stage centrifugal
pump, or a quadruple compound pump capable of lifting water
250 feet.
CentrifugaC Pumps. 225
RIGHT HAND
PUMP.
RIGHT HAND
PUMP.
RIGHT WAND
PUMP.
RIGHT HAND
PUMP.
LEFT HAND
PUMP.
LEFT HAND.
PUMP.
LEFT HAND
PUMP.
LEFT HAND
PUMP.
FlO. 50&
IB
;
Explanation of diagram page 22^. In determining the re-

quirements best suited as regards rotation of shaft and con-^
nection with the suction and discharge pipes, in instalHng a
pump, the figure 502, will be found a convenience. It is im-
portant to run the most direct pipes with the least number of
elbows or bends.
The diagram relates particularly to the centrifugal pumps
made by the Morris Machine Works of Baldwinsville, N. Y.
the principle is, however, of general application. In making use
of the diagram each number represents a particular design.
See Note.
How to determine right or left-hand pumps. If, when stand-
ing at the suction end of pump, looking over the pump shell
toward the pulley, the top of the shaft revolves from right to
left, or against the Jiands of clock, the pump is right-hand^ and
from left to right, or with the hands of clock, it is left-hand.
Directions for erecting and running centrifugal pumps.

Place the pump as near suction water as possible, and limit
suction lift to 20 feet or 25 feet.
Erect the pump so that the pump shaft is level in bolting ;
to foundation be careful that the frame is not sprung. See

that the bearings are clean and well oiled. The suction pipe
and stuffing-boxes must be air-tight.
Never use pipes smaller than those represented by the

flanges on the pump avoid elbows or bends as much as pos-
;
sible ; if discharging long distances, use pipes one or two sizes

larger than ordinary.
Whether a foot valve is used or not, a strainer should be
attached to the suction pipe to prevent large substances from
entering, that might choke or clog the pump, but be careful
that suction area is not contracted.
—
Note. In viewing diagrams on page 225 you are supposed to stand at
the outer half of pump shell looking over pump towards the pulley or
engine, if directly connected. The pump can be swiveled around ihefrmme,
so that, for instance, if you order pump per diagram No. 50, it can
after
receipt be made Nos. 5I1 5^ or 53.

—
*
Run the pump in proper direction, as indicated by arrows cast

on the pump shell.
If the combined length of suction and discharge pipe is
more than 50 feet, the speed must be increased to overcome

friction.
Before starting, prime the pump so that suction pipe and
pump are filled with water.
Warm water can only be raised by suction to moderate
heights, if very hot it must flow to the pump.
and To prevent
freezing in cold weather, drain by unscrewing plug provided in
the bottom of the pump shell.
Sometimes a pump when first started will deliver a good

stream of water, which gradually diminishes in volume until it
stops entirely. One reason for this is a leak in suction pipes
or stuffing-box of pump, or, when suction primer is used, in the
hand pump stuffing-box. Another reason might be that the
pump lowers the suction supply, thus increasing the lift until
there is not sufficient speed for the elevation. If the pump
works indifferently, delivering a stream obviously too small, it is
generally because the pump was not properly primed and some
airremains in the top part of pump
shell. Unless primed by
steam ejector, the pet cock or plug found on top of pump shell
should always be open while priming, and the pump must not;
be started until water flows out of same.
A
pump with horizontal top discharge and short length of
discharge pipe is sometimes difficult to start, especially if
suction lift is high, owing to the fact that the water is thrown
Note. — "One feature or fact in centrifugal pumping that is overlooked
or not known to many makers, is that water will not enter a pump whea
the impeller vanes sweep over the inlet way and are driven at high speed.
To illustrate this, one can not thrust a cane or lath through the spokes of a
rapidly revolving wheel. European centrifugal pumps with their small im-
pellers and consequent high speed of rotation, are especially liable to this
repelling action, and very often are wholly ineflBcient from this cause. One
maker who claims a high duty for his pumps, attaches a screw at the sides
of the impeller to coax the water into the pump, and the idea is a good one
if the diflSculty is not otherwise provided for. In this way a pump can be
made of smaller diameter for a given duty, but it is commonly inferior to a
larger one for the same work," Industries.
22S 'Pumps and Hydraulics.
out of the pump shell before the water in the suction pipe has
got fairly started, thus allowing air to rush back into the pump.
If the pump is to work under this condition, it is better to use
a pump with a vertical discharge and deliver through an elbow,
or else lead the discharge pipe upward for a short distance so
as to keep a slight pressure, or head on the pump, and after
priming as high as possible start quickly.
Generally nothing is gained by running a pump above the

proper speed required for a given elevation.
In addition to what is said in connection with the priming
device illustrated on page 218, numerous other methods have
been adopted to suit pumps of various designs. The accom-
panying engravings represent those largely used.
Fig. I illustrates a multi-stage turbine pump with ejector for
priming. The ejector is connected to the highest point on the
pump casing, and either steam, air or water under pressure may
be employed in it to produce a vacuum.
Fig. 2 shows an auxiliary hand pump mounted on top of
the discharge casing. When the pump is ready to start, the
gate valve on the discharge is and by operating the
closed,
hand pump a vacuum is produced and water drawn in, filling the
suction pipe and casing.
The method of priming shown in Fig. 3 may be resorted to
where a foot valve is used on the suction pipe. Water is
allowed to run into the pump until it reaches the discharge
flange, when the supply is shut off, and the pump may be
started.
After the pump has been properly primed, it should be

started before the gate valve on the discharge is opened. When
full speed is reached, the discharge gate may be slowly opened,
and the pump will perform its work.
Note. — The Worthington centrifugal pumps are divided into three

classes, viz. : Conoidal, Volute and Turbine.
The Conoidal Centrifugals {named from the cone-shaped impeller) are
designed especially for low lifts and large deliveries and are adapted to ir-
rigation work, the handling of sewage and similar purposes. They are
It is always best to use a foot valve in connection with

centrifugal pumps where the lift is more than three to four feet,
iS ^ and even under these low
lifts where long suction
f pipes are used to conduct
water long distances, foot

valves should always be
used to keep the pump
and suction pipe charged. Fig. 3-
comparatively inexpensive and operate at high rotative speeds, making pos-

connection to electric motors. For heads up to 30 feet they are
sible direct
unexcelled in the pumping field.
The Volute Centrifugals (illustrated on page 232) are built for medium
lifts, but for all capacities. Since they run at moderate speeds, diffusion
vanes are not needed, but the volute casing has been carefully designed to
obtain high efficiency and 86^ has been shown under test. These pumps are
recommended for heads up to jo feet, although they will safely withstand
150 feet.
Fio. 506.
TURBINE PUMPS.
The Turbine Pump is suited to very high lifts, even exceed-
ing 2,000 feet. An admirable example of this class of pumps
is described in the following paragraphs :
The Worthington turbine pump has been developed by a

long series of experiments. The diffusion vanes which form
the distinguishing feature, take the place of the usual whirlpool
chamber and assist in bringing the water to rest without inter-
nal commotion or shock. They correspond in function to the
guide vanes of turbine water-wheels. One of the difficulties
presented by high-lift centrifugal pumps has been the great
peripheral speed required when only a single impeller is em-
ployed. This has been overcome by mounting a number of discs
or impellers, each operating in a separate chamber^ upon a single
shaft and passing the water through the impeller chambers in
succession. The lift can thus be multiplied three, four or five
times, while the number of revolutions is kept within bounds.
It has been demonstrated that on the same work and within
reasonable limits, multi-stage centrifugals are more efficient
than single-stage pumps, the increased efficiency being due to
a decrease in the frictional losses coincident with the reduced
peripheral speed of the impeller.
It is well known that the turbine water wheel was perfected
less by mathematical processes than by intelligent cut and try
methods. It has been the same with the turbine pump, where-
by the vanes and passages have been shaped and tested by
practical experiments, followed in each case by comparison of
results. The constant aim has been to avoid eddies and secure
a favorable discharge of the water.
The on the opposite page (Fig. 503), which repre-
ills,
^ênts in outline a Worthington turbine pump, indicates the

Hbifficulty of exactly and mathematically designing such a
^r Note.—At the St. Louis World's Exposition three of the 36-inch

Worthington turbine pumps, each of a capacity of 35,000 gallons per minute
against 160 feet head, supplied the Grand Cascade.
Fio. 80i.
Turbine Pumps. 233
mechanism. In the system shown only suction and discharge

pipes are employed, the water entering axially and issuing
radially. The impellers remain in perfect longitudinal balance
regardless of their number or the head against which the pump
is operated, this balancing of the impeller being secured by an
ingenious system of " triple vanes."

The diffusion vanes. In the Worthington turbine pump the
efficientconversion of energy is assured by an original system
of diffusion vanes disposed in the throat opening between the
periphery of the impeller and the annular casing, in much the
same manner that guide vanes are placed in a reaction turbine
water-wheel. These vanes form tangential, expanding ducts
from which the fluid emerges at about the velocity existing in
the chamber. They also eliminate all drag and friction between
the periphery of the rapidly revolving impeller and the slowly
moving water in the discharge chamber.
The turbine pump has created an entirely new field of ap-
plication for pumps, embracing mine drainage,

centrifugal
water-works, and numerous other services where rotary pumps
are desirable but have not been employed, owing to their
former limited efficiency at high heads.
As a pump for mine service, the turbine
sinking or station
pump is There are no valves, guards or springs, no re-
ideal.
ciprocating parts, and, most important of all, there is no con-
tact surface in the machine except the shaft and its bearings.
The design is such that parts subjected to the action of mine
water may be made of acid-resisting metal, and, when desired,
lead-lined.
Note. —The space occupied by the turbine pump is less than one-third
of that required by a reciprocating pump of equal capacity, and the first
cost, including the motor for driving, is only about one-half. Since there
are no rubbing surfaces exposed to the water, the pump will run for years
without renewal or repairs. In case of accident, the parts are so few and
the construction so simple that any part of the machine can be replaced in
less than one hour. The cost of attendance is reduced to the minimum,
since the only necessary attention is to see that the pumps and motors are
properly lubricated. The simplicity and reliability of the centrifugal pump
make it especially suitable for isâted stations.
Fio. 605.
Turbine Pumps. 235
Fig, 506.
Fig. 507.—See page 241.

Turbine Pumps. .237
Turbine pumps of excellent design (Fig. 507) of high

efficiency are builtby the Byron Jackson Machine Works of
San Francisco, California. The operating elements of these
pumps are rotating impellers containing spirally-curved water
passages, and fixed guide passage between successive impellers.
The water enters the passages of each impeller at the center
and by the rotation is forced out into a collecting chamber sur-
rounding the periphery of the impeller. The ducts which lead
the water from there back to the center of the next impeller
are suitably curved to act as guide passages, similar in action
to the guide buckets of a turbine. The water then enters the
next impeller parallel with the shaft, its rotary motion having
been transformed by the guide passages into rectilinear motion.
drawing of a vertical pump in section, shows the
Fig, 509, a
relativearrangement of impellers (marked A) and guide pas-
sages (B). This pump has the suction entrance at the top
the discharge leaves the collecting chamber of the last (lowest)
impeller tangent to the circle. The shaft rests in a thrust
bearing at the top, and is further held by bearings formed in
the successive sections of the case. At the bottom it is pro-
vided with a special balancing arrangement, described here
after.
Each impeller, where it joins the guide passages of the pre-

ceding case section, is fitted into the case so as to form a?
tight a joint as possible without introducing any great frictionaJ
resistance to rotation. With the exception of the entrance
opening, the external surface of the impeller is exposed to the
delivery pressure, so that there a resultant upward pressure
is
on each impeller, equal to the area of its entrance multiplied

by the between the entrance and discharge pressures
difference
of that stage. If all the impellers are alike, the total upward
thrust is equal to the product of entrance area multiplied by
e total head on the pump. The pumps are so proportioned
at this upward thrust slightly exceeds the weight of the
tating portion, consisting of impellers and shaft. The excess
upward pressure, however is relieved by the balancing device
,
xated at the lower end of the shaft, with the result that the
238 Pumps and
. Hydraulics.
Fia. 606^
Turbine Pumps. 239
rotating part is precisely balancedy thus relieving the thrust

bearing of all load while the pump is running.
The balancing device referred to consists of two chambers,
C and D, formed centrally in the bottom of the lowest section
of thepump case. The large chamber, C, encloses a projecting
hub, E, on the lower surface of the impeller. This hub of
course rotates with the impeller, and the joint between the hub
and the walls of the chamber is, therefore, loose enough to
allow water from the delivery side of the last impeller to leak
into chamber, C, and establish the full discharge pressure in
that chamber. The small lower chamber, D, contains a plug,
H, which may be adjusted endways by means of screws. The
forward end of this plug fits closely into a recess in the
face of the hub, E, which recess, communicates, by way of the
hollow central part of the hub and the passage, g, with the
entrance side of the last impeller.
The action of the device is as follows: when chamber, C,
becomes filled with water, or rather when leakage through the
joint around the tube, E, has raised the pressure in the
chamber, C, to the r'elivery pressure, the total upward pressure
on the impellers is greater than the total weight of the rotating
part of the pump. The rotating element is therefore lifted
until the recess in hub, E, is raised clear of the plug, H. In
this position the pressure in chamber, C, is relieved through
the passage, g, with the result that the rotating element again
settles down over the adjusting plug, H. As this action tends
to recur, a position of equilibrium is established near the point
where the plug just enters the recess in the hub, E. The
precise position of this point may be altered by the adjusting
screws of the plug, H, thereby adjusting the endwise position
of the impellers in the casing. When the pump is not in
operation, of course the upward pressure of the water does not
act, and the weight of the rotating part must be carried by the
thrust bearing.
When these pumps are built with horizontal shaft, the un-
balanced pressure which is thus turned to account in the vertical
pump becomes harmful and must be avoided. The arrange-
ment by which this is accomplished is shown in Fig. 510, where

the letters, A and B, designate respectively the impellers and
the guide passages as before. The rear of each impeller, that
is, the side opposite the entrance opening, bears a short annular
Suction
Fio. 509.
projection, S, fitting within a similar ring, t, projecting from

the casing. The chamber formed by these two rings
circular
communicates, through holes, V, in the web of the impeller,
with the entrance side of the impeller. The chamber being
Turbine thumps. 2*1
slightly larger than the entrance opening of the impeller, it

serves to eliminate all thrust on the impeller in the direction
of the suction (since the remainder of the external surface is

exposed to the discharge pressure), and produces instead a
small thrust directed toward the discharge end.
This small resultant thrustis taken up by a balancing device
at the end of the shaft precisely similar to that used in the

vertical type of pump, as previously described. The balancing
action thus secured serves to fix the endwise position of the
rotating part ; moreover, it affords sufficient margin to com-
pensate for longitudinal thrusts which may result from causes
such as slightly non-central position of the impellers in their
casing.
Pumps of this design are built for heads of from loo to
2,000 ft., the number of separate impellers or "stages" being
properly proportioned to the head. About 100 to 2^0 ft. head
per stage appears to be allowed. A
high efficiency of working,
from 70 to 80^, is said to be realized.
The horizontal two-stage pump shown in Fig. 507 is one
built for the water-works of the city of Stockton, Cal., to deliver
1,500 gallons per minute against a head of 140 ft., at 690 r. p.
m It is driven by a 75-HP, induction motor of the Westing-
house Electric & Mfg. Co. type, of Pittsburg, Pa. Pump
and motor are mounted on a common base, and their shafts
are solidly coupled. This pump was guaranteed to have an
efficiency of at least 75^, but we are informed by the manu-
facturers that the official test showed it to have an efficiency
of 82%.
The vertical pump of four stages, shown in Fig. 508, has
a discharge capacity of 450 gallons per minute and delivers
against a head of 500 ft. The same type of pump, however,
will work against heads up to 800 ft. The mounting of the
pump in the present instance is at the bottom of a 200-ft. pit;
the pump shaft leads vertically to the surface, where it is driven
by belt. A closely similar installation has been made, where
two vertical three-stage pumps operate under a head of 310 ft.
The pumps are located in a 30-ft. pit, and their shafts are ex-
tended to the surface, where they carry each a 200-HP. in-

duction motor mounted directly on the shaft. The balancing
Fio. 610.
action of the pump was in this case designed to be sufficient to

carry the entire weight of the rotating part, that is, motor, shaft
and pump impellers.

INJECTORS
AND
EJECTORS
STEMf
Fio. 511.— See page 251.
STEAM
WAT£a
FlO. 612.— See page 25L
THE INJECTOR.
This consists, in its most simple form, of a steam nozzle the ^
end of which extends somewhat into the second nozzle, called the
combining or mixing nozzle; this connects with, or rather ter-
minates in, a third nozzle or tube, termed '* the forcer'' At the
end of the combining tube, and before entering the forcer, is an
opening connecting the interior of the nozzle at this point with
the surrounding space. This space is connected with the outside
air through a check valve, opening outward in the automatic
injectors, and by a valve termed the overflow valve. The in-

jector nozzles are tubes, with ends trumpet mouthed to receive
and deliver the fluids with the least possible loss by friction
and eddies. :
As a thermodynamical machine, the injector is nearly per-

fect, since all the heat received by it is returned to the boiler,
except a very small part which is lost by radiation con- ;
sequently its thermal efficiency should be in every case nearly
lOO per cent.

All injectors are similar in their operation. They are de-
signed to bring a jet of live steam from the boiler in contact
P
—
Note. ^The operation of the injector is based on the fact, first demon-
stratedby Giflard, that the motion imparted by a jet of steam to a surround-
ing column of water is sufficient to force it into the boiler from which the
steam was taken, and, indeed, into a boiler working at a higher pressure.
The steam escaping from under pressure has, in fact, a much higher velocity
than water would have under the same pressure and condition. The rate
—
of speed at which steam travels taking it at an average boiler pressure of
—
sixty pounds when discharged into the atmosphere, is about 1,700 feet
per second. When discharged with the full velocity developed by the _
boiler pressure through a pipe, say an inch in diameter, the steam encoun-
ters the water in the combining chamber. It is immediately condensed and
'
its bulk will be reduced say 1,000 times, but its velocity remains practically
undiminished. Uniting with the body of water in the combining tube, it

imparts to it a large share of its speed, and the body of water thus set in
motion, operating against a comparatively small area of boiler pressure, is
able to overcome it and flow into the boiler. The weight of the water to
which steam imparts its velocity gives it a momentum that is greater in the
small area in which its force is exerted than the boiler pressure, although its
force has actually been derived from the boiler pressure itself.
245
U6 Pumps and Hydraulics.
FiQ. 513.— See page 252.
STCAM
WAT£/t
Fio. 614.— See page 861.
Injectors. 247
with a jet of water so as to cause it to flow continuously in the

direction taken by the steam, the velocity of which it in part
assumes, back into the boiler and against its own pressure.
There are three distinct types of live steam injectors, the

" simple fixed nozzle,** the " adjustable nozzle," and the
"double." The first has one steam and one water nozzle
which are fixed in position but are so proportioned as to yield
good results. There is a steam pressure for every instrument
of this type at which it will give a maximum delivery, greater
than the maximum delivery for any other steam pressure either
higher or lower.
The second type has but one set of nozzles, but they can
be so adjusted relative to each other as to produce the best re-
sults throughout a long range of action that is to say, it so
;
adjusts itself that its maximum delivery continually increases

with the increase of steam pressure. The third type, double
injectors, are those in which the delivery from one injector is
made the supply of a second, and they will handle water at a
somewhat higher temperature than single ones with fixed
nozzles. The double injector makes use of two sets of nozzles,
the " lifter " and ''forcer." The lifter draws the water from the
reservoir and delivers it to the forcer, which sends it into the
boiler. All double injectors have fixed nozzles.
The action of the injector is as follows : Steam being turned
on, it rushes with great velocity through the steam nozzle into
and through the combining tube. This action causes air to
flow from the suction pipe, which is connected to the combin-
ing tube, with the result that more or less vacuum is formed,
thus inducing a flow of water.
Note. — The motive force of the injector is found in the heat received
front the steam. The steam is condensed and surrenders its latent heat and
some of its sensible heat. The energy so given up by each pound of steam
amounts to about 900 thermal units, each of which is equivalent to a mechani-
cal force of 778 footpounds. This would be sufficient to raise a great many
pounds of water agamst a very great pressure could it be so applied, but a
large portion of it is used simply to heat the water raised by the injector.
The above explanation will apply to every injector in the market, but in-
genious modifications of the principles of construction have been devised in
order to meet a variety of requirements.
MTES
Fig. 515.— See page 252.
WATER
FlO. 516.—See j)age J

Injectors, 249
After the water commences to flow into the injector it re-

ceives motion from the jet of steam it absorbs heat from the
;
steam and finally condenses it, and thereafter moves on through

the forcer tube simply as a stream of water, at a low velocity
compared with that of the steam. At the beginning of the
forcer tube, subjected only to atmospheric pressure, but
it is
from this point the pressure increases and the water moves
forward under a diminished velocity.
That the condensation of the steam is necessary to cpmplete
the process will be evident, for if the steam were not condensed
in the combining chamber, it would remain a light elastic body
and, though moving at high speed, would have a low degree
of energy.
Some injectors are given special names by

their makers,
such as ejectors and inspirators, but the term injectors is the
general name covering the principle upon which all these devices
act. The exhaust steam injector is a type different from any
of the above-named, in that it uses the exhaust steam from a
non-condensing engine. Exhaust steam represents fourteen and
seven-tenths (14.7) pounds of work, and when the steam enter-
ing the injector is condensed the water is forced into the boiler
upon the same general principle as in all injectors.
The injector can be, and frequently is, used as a pump to
raise water from one level to another. It has been used as an
air compressor, exhauster and also for receiving the exhaust
from a steam engine, taking the place-in that case of bbth con-
denser and air pump. .' .^
The injector is not an economical device, but it is simple

and convenient it occupies a very small space, is not ex-
;
pensive and entirely free from severe strains on its durability

moreover, where a number of boilers are used in one establish-
ment, it is very convenient to have the feeding arrangements
separate, so that each boiler may be a complete generating
system in itself and independent of its neighbors.
The following text is intended to describe the instru-
ments illustrated on pages 244, 246, 248 and 250.
PiO. 617.
Fio. 618.
Injectors, 251
The " Manhattan ** automatic injector is shown in perspec-

tive and outline upon page 244. This instrument is made by
Messrs. Schaeffer & Budenberg of New York City.
This injector is designed for portable and semi-portable
engines and boilers, and is also adapted for stationary boilers
requiring no high lift. Its main features are simplicity and
positive automatic action. It works under pressures ranging
from 30 to 150 lbs., either lifting or non-lifting.
The letters in the outline cut refer to the parts
a. Steam Nozzle. e. Cap Screw for Overflow.

b. Combining Nozzle with Flap. f. Overflow Valve.
c. Delivery Tube» g. Tail Pipe.
d. Screw Cap. h. Tail Pipe Nut.
The " Peerless " automatic injector is shown on page 246.
This is, in effect, the same instrument as the " Manhattan " ex-
cept it has a steam spindle with handle to regulate the flow of
steam. See figure 514.
Two classes of Peerless injectors are made, viz.
Class A— for high pressures ranging from 50 to 200 pounds.
*'
B— " low " " " 20 to 80
and they stamped accordingly.
are
They are adapted for any service requiring the lifting of
water.
Class A is made for lifts up to 12 feet.
<( T) (( <( << O <<
but if so ordered, they can be arranged for higher lifts. They

may be used as non-lifting injectors.
also
The temperatures of feed water taken by these injectors, if
non-lifting or at a low lift, can be as follows
Pressure.
35 to 45 50 to 85 90 105 120 135 150 lbs.
Temperature.
144 to 136 133 to 130 129 122 118 to 113 109 to 105 104 to 100° F.
The spindle acts as a valve for the steam inlet an extra ;
steam valve is therefore not absolutely required, but recom-

.mended for convenience of detachment.
The letters in Figs. 520-533, page 254, relate to the names

of " the parts " of the Peerless injector.
steam Nozzle. Screw Plug with StufEng-Box.
;'.
Combining Nozzle with Flap. Follower Nut on Plug j.

k.
Delivery Tube. /. Packing Sleeve to j.
Cap Screw for Overflow. m. Steam Spindle.
Overflow Valve. n. Crank to Spindle m.
Tail Pipe. o. Screw Nut to Spindle m.
Tail Pipe Nut. p. Handle to Crank n.
The Monitor injector. Fig. 5 1 3» page -246, was designed
originally for locomotive work. mainly of two parts>
It consists
viz., I, the lifting device which raises the water into the injector
and, 2, the forcing device which " picks up " the water and
causes it to flow into the boiler.
The Metropolitan double tube injector is shown in the two
figures on page 248.
These are made by the Hayden & Derby Mfg. Co. This
instrument is of the double-tube design and in that particular
resembles the Korting injector described on page 264. Both
the lifting and forcing, as well as the overflow valves are con-
trolled by one handle.
The Metropolitan single tube injector is represented by the
Figs. 5 17 and 518, page 250. The internal parts of this injector,
as may be seen from the sectional engraving, are stationary.
The steam is regulated by the handle, K, which is attached to
the stem, M the water supply adjusts itself automatically.
;
The capacity of the leading injectors is nearly the same

under similar working conditions as represented by the following
Table.
Size of Pipe Con-

Injectors. 253
The figure below shows how the connections or piping

should be made in attaching the Manhattan and Peerless injec-
tors.
The dotted lines indicating pipe and fittings in connection
with the suction represent the way the water supply is to be
received from a tank located above the level of the injector.
Fig. 519.
The maker? of these two instruments have kindly furnished

the follow'iig general rules to govern their connection with
steam supply
I. Place injector in a horizontal position. (See illustrations

512 and 514.) The flap nozzle must in all open upward
cases
in direction of air valve. In taking injectors apart be careful to
replace it in that position.
2. Take steam front the highest part of boiler; never connect

to pipes furnishing steam for other purposes.
3. Have all joints perfectly tight, especially the suction

pipe, as no injector will lift water unless atmospheric air is
excluded.
4. Have all pipes thoroughly cleaned from red or white lead

and scale before the injector is connected it will save trouble
;
afterwards.
5. All pipes must be of the same or larger diameter than

the corresponding parts of injector.
6. Avoid all short

bends, and have all pipes
as short and straight as
practicable.
7. Use a strainer at
the end of suction pipe;
the holes in the strainer
should be small, but
their total area larger
than the area of the
supply pipe.
8. Insert stop valves
in suction, steam and
delivery pipes, to facil-
itate disconnection in
cleaning injector and
check valve in delivery
Fias. 620-533..
pipe.
9. Have valve stems packed well ; they often leak.
10. To remove incrustations caused by water containing

lime or other impurities, place parts for a reasonable time in a
—
Note. The lettered parts "hown above apply to both the " Manhattan "
and the " Peerless " injecton See page 252 for the names of the parts cor-
responding with the letters.
Injectors. 255
bath of mineral oil or diluted muriatic acid consisting of 4 parts

of water to i part of acid.
The exhaust steam injector utilizes the escaping vapor from
the engine cylinder, hence the saving in fuel and water is very-
marked where certain conditions are favorable.
It condenses by means of the smallest possible quantity of
cold water the largest possible quantity of exhaust steam and
puts it into the boiler without the aid of any other power than the
exhaust steam itself. It can be attached to any class of non-
EXHAUST STEAM
FlO 534. Fig 635.
condensing engine, and its use increases the power both of the
engine and boilers.
It is worked by waste steam, just as ordinary injectors are
worked by live steam from the boiler.
The first cost and subsequent wear and tear of pumps are
avoided. The power required to work pumps, of whatever
construction, is saved the exhaust injector doing the same
:
work by the condensation of waste steam.

The waste steam, in passing through the injector, heats the
feed-water to a temperature of about 190° F. The condensa-
tion in the injector of so large a quantity of waste steam re-
duces back pressure considerably, and necessarily increases the

power of the engine.
It is not uncommon for these injectors to form a vacuum of
a half-inch of mercury within the exhaust pipe, which of course
helps the engine to that extent.
FlO. 536.— See page 280.
These injectors work with great success on stationary en-

gines and boilers, also on steamers, tugs, dredges, etc., as their
operation during the roughest weather is not affected by the
motion of the vessel.
Injectors. 267
The high pressure exhaust steam injector is shown in Figs. 537

—
and 538 the last being an outline exhibiting the internal ar-
rangement of the instrument these injectors are made to work at
:
all pressures up to and not exceeding 1 50 lbs. to the square inch.
The high pressure exhaust steam injector is worked by waste

steam up to 75 lbs. pressure only, and a little live steam is in-
troduced at the top of the injector to force water against
pressures higher than 75 lbs. It will be noticed from sectional
cut that the live steam does not come in contact with the water
until after the exhaust steam has been condensed and has done
tlLWAVJ^T SItMA
Fig. 537. Fio. 538.
its work. The exhaust steam alone gives an impetus to the

water equal to 75 lbs. it also heats it up to about 190° F. Its
;
advantages are the same as those of the plain exhaust injector,

the heat of the small jet of live steam which is used to overcome
lie excessive pressure being brought back into the boiler.
It raises the temperature of feed-water up to 90° Fahr. if
I rorking against a pressure of 105 lbs., and up to 86° Fahr.

gainst 120 lbs. boiler pressure.
manner as the plain exhaust
It is regulated in the same
steam injector.
^Kk It is not necessary to use live steam while working against

^Bmny pressure below 75 lbs., when exhaust steam alone will suffice.
Fig. 539 represents the piping of the high pressure exhaust

steam injector, the operation of which is described in the fol-
lowing paragraphs
This injector can be worked under various conditions.
If boiler pressure does not exceed 75 lbs. per square inch,
I.
exhaust steam only is required. In this case steam is ad*

mitted by valve A.
Fig. 539.
2. For pressures exceeding 75 lbs. exhaust steam is admitted

as before, also a little live steam, slowly, by valve C.
3. If engine is not running, live steam is gradually admitte<l

by valve B, so that it may expand in pipe F. In case of high
boiler pressure additional live steam is introduced by valve C.
Injectors. 359
To start this injector.

1. Open steam valves as described.
2. Then open water valve.
Regulate water valve, and, if necessary, screw up or down
3.
nut R
at the lower end of injector until overflow ceases.
If desired, a gauge indicating both pressure and vacuum (a
compound gauge) can be furnished with exhaust steam injectors.
Table of Sizes. — Pipe Connections.

The accompanying Figs. 540 and 541 represent an ejector

with a foot strainer. The table, page 259, gives an idea of its
pipe sizes and capacities.
Application of ejectors. The Fig. 536, page 256, »hows two
ejectors applied in different ways. One is mounted ie lift and
force water, and the other to force
only ; the latter is submerged in
the water to be elevated, and
placed in a vertical position to
reduce the condensation of opera-
ting steam to a minimum. In both
of these examples of the use of the
device it will be noted a strainer is
attached to the suction pipe. The

arrows show the direction of the
flow of both the steam and water.
Certain ejectors will not work
well when the steam pressure is
too high. In order to work at all
the steam must condense as it

flows into the combining tube.
Therefore, when the steam pres-
sure is too high, and the heat is
very great, it is difficult to effect
complete condensation so that
;
for high pressure steam good re-

sults can only be obtained with
cool water. It would be well when
the feed water is too warm to per-
mit the ejector to work right, to
F1G8. 540 and Wl.
reduce the pressure, and con-
sequently the temperature of the steam supply, as low pressure
steam condenses quickly, and therefore can be employed with
better results than high steam.
Note. —This instrument is marketed as " Van Duzen's steam jet pump
"
(Cincinnati, Ohio), and credit should be given the makers for the useful
table ou page 259
Injectors. 261
For high elevations and high temperature of liquids, ejectors

should be submerged from three to six feet ; the suction pipe
should always be provided with a strainer and the makers of
the instruments recommend the placing of a check valve in the
force pipe to facilitate the cleaning of the suction pipe by
steam, when made necessary through the raising of impure sub-
stances.
To start the ejector open the steam valve slowly until the
suction works satisfactorily, when full amount of steam should
be quickly admitted.
A double tube ejector is
represented in Fig. 542. This

is calculated to use steam
economically by reason of its
having two tubes, besides it is

well made and properly pro-
portioned to raise water to
high elevations.
Fig. 543 a cheaper form
is
of apparatus and is designed

to elevate water to very
moderate heights and where Fig. 643.
a saving of steam is not of so

much consequence as in lo-
calities where the price of
coal is high.
The jet pump presented in
Fig. 544 is another compact
form of this style of ejector ^^^' ^***
and is adapted for its own particular class of work which is but
little known to those unaccustomed to use these appliances.
When working either an injector or ejector from a long lift

or with a long pull through horizontal piping, it takes several
minutes to exhaust the air from the pipe when steam is turned
on, resulting in a considerable waste of steam each time the
injector is started. This waste can be done away with by the
use of a foot valve.
•362 Pumps and Hydraulics.
Fio. 5i5.
Fia. 616.
Inj. L lors. 263
Pieces comprising the
Universal Double Tube Injector.
filII]8
^^\»^f^
WDS l 3T fl^^ PICCIS WITHIN THIS BOnOCR. INCLUOINa
'
.3S_a/-^Bi Horn. 34 To AA, APPLY TO THK
ll^Bo. LOCOMOTIVK
J40 38^"—^==^ 39 AMD THEV Replace PiKcca 10 *HDia.
FiQ. 547.
Universal double-tube injector (original Korting injector).

This instrument is the combination of two jets (see Figs.
545
and 546) it is proportioned for extreme temperature and for
;
quick and strong action, which includes maximum high suction.

The discharge is into the upper jet, where the water receives
the additional strong impulse to carry it into the boiler. The
pressure and volume from the lower jet corresponds to the steam
pressure, and this is as it should be to answer the requirements
of the upper or forcing jet. The varying volume insures the
proper working at high steam pressure as well as at low, and
an increased pressure admits of increased high temperature.
The action of the injector is thus explained ; its favorable
operation due to the double-tube principle the pieces com-
is ;
posing the Korting injector are shown in the numbered cuts,

page 263, and the names of the parts are given below.
Number and name of piece, i, Body; 2, handle lever; 3, side rods; 4,
connecting fork; 5, cross head for shaft; 6, nuts for cross head; 7, starting
shaft; 8, nuts; 9, yoke bar; lo, lower steam valve; ii, upper steam valve; 12,
lower steam nozzle; 13, upper steam nozzle; 14, lower water nozzle; 15, upper
water nozzle; 16, front body caps; 17, side body caps; 18, overflow nozzle;
19, check valve compressor; 20, overflow valve compressor; 21, stuffing-box;
22, fol. for stuffing-box; 23, nuts for stuffing-box; 24, cross head for over-
flow; 25, links for overflow; 26, pin for links; 27, screws; 28, bell cranks;
29, coupling nuts; 30, pipe unions; 31, spanner wrench; 32, sokt. nozzle
—
wrench; 33, un. for cop. pipe. Regulator complete replaces pieces 10 and 16.
Table.
Injectors. 265
The acid syphon pump, shown in Fig. 548 below, is used

by many chemical works, in lifting their acids and other chemi-
cals tobe conveyed to any part of the building. The machine
is made of lead, encased in an iron shell for strength, and fitted
with a platinum steam nozzle to give that part durability.

This device is named a syphon pump because it becomes a
syphott by turning down the delivery pipe and making that end
longer than the suction end. The apparatus, shaded in the
Fig. 548.
figure, is really a jet pump and it is simply used to operate the

syphon, i. e., by turning on the steam the acid will flow through
the syphon. At this point the steam should be shut off and
the flow of acid will continue.
Water Heater. This instrument, Fig. 549, is used

Noiseless
for warming of liquids it avoids the noise that is otherwise
;
lused by the action of steam led for that purpose direct 'into
cold liquids
In operation, the liquid is drawn through the holes in body

and discharged through shank, causing a circulation of the
liquid in tank.
Table of Dimensions.
Number of Noiseless Water Heater
Fia. 552.
THE PULSOMETER.
T/ie original puhometer was an instrument called by that
name measuring the force and frequency of the pulse it
for ;
was invented in 1626 by Santovio of Padua, Italy. The term

has been largely applied to a form of vacuum pump, soon here-
after to be described this has a pulsative action
; — like a heart
beat. The pulsometer, the aqua-thruster, the pulsator, and
other regular double acting two oval reservoirs (one filling while
the other is discharging) automatic condensing steam vacuum
pumps are all patterned after the Thomas Savery pump shown
in Fig. 552 this was patented in England in 1698.
; It is thus
described :
" The upper end of the suction pipe shown at the mouth
of the pit consists of two branches, which are connected to
similar branches on the lower part of the forcing pipe N. The
suction valves are at B A and the forcing ones at E F, all
opening upwards. Between these valves two short curved
tubes connect the bottoms of the receiver I M with the branches,
as represented, and two other bent tubes, P Q, unite the top
of the receivers with the boiler H. On top of this boiler, and
forming a part of it, is a stout round plate, having two openings
f the same size as the bore of the tubes last mentioned. In
ihese openings the two steam tubes P Q terminate. Between

he openings, and on the under side of the plate, is a movable
disk, which by a short arm is connected to an axle and moved
by the long lever shown on the top of the boiler so that by
;
moving this lever the disk can be made to open or close either
opening, so as to admit or exclude steam from the receivers,
and answering every purpose of a three-way cock.
" The face of the disk is ground smooth, so as to fit close
the under side of the plate, against which it is pressed by

he steam. The perpendicular axle by which the disk is turned
passes through the plate, and the opening is made tight by a
stuffing-box.
s (The plate and movable disk are represented in
he small figure at the top, one of the openings, Q, being cov-
I 269
ered by the disk and the other, P, exposed.) small cistern,A

U, is placed over the receivers, and kept supplied with cold
water from the forcing pipe by means of a ball cock, viz.: a
cock that is opened and shut by a ball floating in the cistern.
From the bottom of this cistern a short pipe, T, proceeds ; and
to it is connected, by a swivel joint or stuffing-box, another
one at right angles. This
pipe furnishes water to con-
dense the steam in the re-
ceivers, over both of which
it can be moved by the rod
attached to the plug of the
cock as shown in the figure.
The upper cistern denotes
the place where the water
raised by the engine is to be
discharged.
" A communication is
made between the boilers by

a syphon or bent tube, R,
whose legs extend nearly to
the bottem of the boilers.
In the leg within the small
boiler is a valve opening up-
wards, which
permits the
water of G to pass into H,
but prevents any returning
from the latter. When the
attendant wishes to inject
into H a fresh supply of
water, he increases the little
PlO. 553.
kept up under the boiler
fire
G (which is always kept supplied with water by the pipe S),

and as soon as the Hquid boils and the force of the steam
exceeds that in H, the contents of G, both steam and hot
water, are forced through the valve and thus H is kept sup-
;
plied without the action of the machine being stopped.

The Pulsometer. 271
" The cock on the pipe S is then opened, the small boiler
again charged, and the water becomes gradually heated ; so
that by the time it is wanted in the other boiler, a small addi-
tion to the fuel quickly raises its temperature, and it is again
forced in as before. The quantity of water in the boilers was
ascertained by gauge cocks. These were inserted at the top
(see figure) and pipes soldered to them descended to different
depths."
I Fig. 554.
The modern pulsometer is a low-service pump, and is not

recommended for duties exceeding about eighty feet total
vertical service. With this limitation, its uses are many and
ya
various and for some purposes it is particularly adapted. Years
i practical work with the pulsometer, under widely different
t nditions, have demonstrated the merits claimed for it.

Fui.
The Pulsometer. 273
Its advantages are: i. Its does not require an

low cost, as it
engine or other machinery to operate steam pipe connect-

it. A
ing it ivith the boiler that is to furnish steam supply is all that
is necessary, and after the pump is once adjusted, it will always
be in order with free power when the steam is turned on. 2.

It is absolutely noiseless in its operation ; the slight click of the
steam ball-valve in the neck-piece, as changes its position, is
it
the only evidence that it is working. 3. In its capability of
operation zvhile in suspension, and of being lowered or raised

and swung about without at all interfering with its working.
The pulsometer does not require oil, having no pistons,
glands, stuflfing-boxes, eccentrics, beams, levers, supplementary
valves, complicated mechanism, etc., which need attention and
adjustment.
The Pulsometer Steam Pump Co., New York, makers of
the pump and owners of the word-symbol, " Pulsometer," em-
phasize the importance of its proper installation, and ask that
the questions given in the note below be answered when sug-
gestions relative to the placing of the pump are desired.
The body of the pulsometer is shown in Fig. 555, and a
\ectional view in Fig. 556. It is a single casting consisting of
'o bottle-shaped chambers. A, A, placed side by side. These
ire called working chambers. They taper toward each other
it their upper halves and meet at their upper ends at a point
it which is situated the steam valve-ball, C. This oscillates with

a slight rolling motion between the seats, with which it makes
a steam tight joint, formed at the upper entrance to each of
the working chambers. A, A.
—
Note. For what purpose is the pump to be used ? How many gallons
per minute or hour are to be pumped ? Is the liquid hot, cold, clear or
gritty— fresh, salt, alkaline or acidulous ? What will be the required vertical
of delivery ? What will be the horizontal length of delivery ? What
I^Bheight
^Brill be the required vertical height of suction ? What will be the horizontal
^Bength of suction ? Does the level of the liquid vary ? If so, how much ?
^*How many bends or elbows will there be in delivery ? How many bends or
elbows will there be in suction ? What horse-power is the boiler? What is
the average steam pressure at the boiler ?
A rough sketch showing how and where it is desired to place the pump
will be of considerable assistance in furnishing information.
The portion, B, of the pump, containing the steam ball-

valve, C, is called the neck-piece, and is a separate casting bolted
to the main body of the ])ump, so that it can be readily re-
moved for renewal when necessary. To the top of this neck-
piece, B, the neck-cap is bolted, into which the steam supply
pipe is screwed.
Fio. 656.
The openings communicating between the chambers, A, A,

and the induction, or foot-valve chamber, D, are covered by
suitable valves, E, E, called suction valves, the valve seats, F,
F, and valve guards, I, I, which latter prevent the valves from
opening too far.
The Pulsometer, 275
A third chamber, J, called the vaciiiun chamber, is situated

behind the chambers, A, A, at their lower halves, and between
them at their upper, or tapering halves, and communicates with
them through the round opening in the induction, or foot-valve
chamber, D.
A fourth chamber, called the discharge chamber, situated on

the lower side of the working chambers. A, A, opposite to the
vacuum chamber, y, and represented by the dotted lines in the
sectional view communicates with each of the working cham-
bers, A, A, by passages at the lower half of its intersection with
these chambers. This discharge chamber contains the discharge
valves, E, E, their valve seats, G, G, and the valve guards, /, /,
which cover the passages leading from chambers. A, A.
The delivery pipe, H, connects with the discharge opening
in the top of the discharge chamber by means of a flanged
joint.
The induction, or foot-valve chamber, D, contains the valve,,

E, its valve seat, F, and the guard, /,which serve the purpose
of holding the charge of water in the pump. The lower end
of this chamber is connected to the suction pipe by a flanged,
joint.
Parts,K, K, are oval plates covering the openings through

which the seat, valve and guard are inserted, to their respective
chambers, and are fastened in position by means of clamps and
bolts, N, N. The ends of these clamps fit loosely into suitable
recesses and are thus held in position while the cover plates are
being applied. Another set of similar clamps and bolts serve
in a like manner, to fasten the seats, valves and guards in place..
The pump, in-

object in employing four openings to the
stead of two, is to make and
it convenient
possible to get at
the interior for examination, and easy to remove all deposit
that may form on the walls of the chambers Avhich could not
be reached otherwise.
Vent plugs are inserted in the cover plates for the purpose
oi draining off the water in the pump to prevent freezing.
Near the top of each of the working chambers, A, A, and

of the vacuum chamber, y, is a small tapped hole, into which
is screwed a brass air
check-valve, so that its
check hangs downward.

The air check-valves in
the chambers, A, A,
allow a small quantity
of air to be automatically
admit t cd above the
water, and ahead of the
steam, separating the
steam and the water
upon their first entrance,
thus preventing con-
densation, and forming
an air piston, which is
always new and tight.
The air check-valve in
the chamber, y, likewise
admits air automatic-
ally, which serves to
cushion the ram action
of water consequent
upon the alternate filling
of the chambers, A, A.
The action of the
pulsometer is as follows:
When chambers and
all
pipes are empty, the air-

check valves have to be
closed, and the globe
valve opened for an in-
Fio- 560. stant then steam will
;
enter one of the chambers, expel the air, and condense,

forming a vacuum. This operation being repeated several
times, both chambers will be filled with water through the in-
The Pulsometer. 277
duction pipe. Each air-valve in the chambers must now be

opened a little, to secure a regular and successive action,
which will be recognized by the regular pulsations and smooth
working of the steam-
ball without rattling.
Steam, being now
admitted, continuously
enters the chamber not
closed by the ball, and
forces out the water
through the discharge-
valves, until its surface
is lowered below the
discharge-orifice. At
that instant the steam Fig. 561.
begins to escape into

the discharge-pipe, and
condenses; thus a partial
vacuum is formed in the
chamber. The water in
the other chamber now
presses the ball, which
rolls over and closes the
first chamber, when
water enters through
the induction-valves to
fill the vacuum. This
operation alternately
changes from one cham-
ber to the other.
The principal parts
of a pulsonieter are
shown in the seven
figures upon this and Fig, 563.
the preceding pages.
Fig. 557 represents the regular flat valve, seat and guard,
Fig. 558 the guard detached, while Fig. 559 is the plain flat
rubber valve. The valve seat for clean water is shown in

Fig. 560.
In pumping muddy water or other liquids containing matter
which would obstruct the valve seat shown in Fig. 560 the ball
valve, Fig. 561, is used. The engraving illustrates this valve
Fio. 664.
—
Note. For emptying vats or tanks and for distributing the liquors from
one tank to another or throughout the building, the pulsometer arranged as
per accompanying ills., Fig. 564, will 1)e found to be of great usefulness.
At convenient intervals along the .steam main and discharge main, suitable
couplings can be provided for quickly attaching a .short section of steam
iiid discharge hose, as the pump, suspended from a trolley, is moved along
trom tank to tank.
'
The Pulsometer. 279
with its guard and seat. Fig. 562 represents the neck-piece
containing the ball steam valve, while Fig. 563 conveys the
idea of the manner of covering the ball by the cap after which
the neck-piece is ready to be bolted to the top of pump.
The Maslin automatic steam vacuu7n pump is presented in
Fig. 554, page 271. Its principle is identical with that of the
pulsometer but it differs somewhat in detail, as for example,
the three valves with their seats, H, H, H, are introduced
through one opening or hand-hole. The two suction valves,
E, E, are secured by one bolt, I, likewise the two discharge
valves, K. The combination of the foot valve, G, in the pump
requires no bolting on being held by the bolt, I.
The plain cover is of such a shape that no nuts are removed
to afford access to the valves ; all that is necessary is to slack
up one nut and swing the cover to one side.
The valves are of very thick rubber but are cut away near
the center so that they readily yield to the pressure under-
neath, giving a full area of opening. The two air valves are
attached at the end of the neck-piece.
There are no projecting set screws or bolts running through
the main body of this pump attended as they often are with
more or less leakage. A hook is provided to suspend the pump
in a shaft or over sewer work. The two drip cocks at the bot-
tom drain the chambers when necessary to prevent freezing, etc.
Note. — " One of the most important points to be attended to, and which
is so often overlooked, is that dry steam should be supplied to the pulso-
meter. Take steam from the highest part of the boiler. Do not connect
steam pipe to a pipe furnishing steam for any other purpose but if you ;
have to take steam from a large steam pipe, tap it on the upper side so as to
avoid the drip caused by condensation in the large pipe. When the boiler
is some distance from the pulsometer the steam pipe to it should be larger
than is needed at the pulsometer, and be protected by some non-conducting

substance. Reduce to size required at the pulsometer and provide a pet cock
to draw off condensed steam before starting it. Be sure and blow out steam
pipe thoroughly before connecting the pulsometer so as to remove any dirt,
rust or scale that may have accumulated in pipes, also remove all burrs on
ends of the pipe caused by cutting, and which in most cases greatly decreases
their capacity and effectiveness.
'
The illustration, Fig. 565, represents the pulsometer and

boiler in portable form. This
be found a very convenient
will
outfit for certain classes of irrigation, and for pumping out
flooded cellars, excavations, etc. Also for sewer-trench ex-
cavating operations, where water accumulates at different
sections of the work, and where it is desired to move the
pump and boiler frequently.
The pump is suspended from a strong framework and is
controlled by a chain hoist, by means of which it can readily
be lowered or raised. When the trench or ditch is too deep for
the pulsometer
to lift the water
to the surface
of the ground
by suction, the
truck can be run
out on planks
over the ditch,
Fig. 665.
when the pump can be lowered to the necessary suction distance

from the water. Suitable lengths of steam hose, with universal
couplings, suction hose, also suitable lengths of light flanged
galvanized pipe for the discharge, which can be readily con-
nected may be carried on the truck, proper brackets being pro-
vided for their reception. As the suction and discharge con-
nections are flanged, they can be connected or disconnected in
a few minutes ;
provision is made to prevent the pump from
swinging.
PUMP SPEED GOVERNORS.
The speed at which a pump is operated is a matter of more
or less importance, according to its widely varying conditions.
In allcalculations regarding the capacity of a pump the
regularity with which it makes its " stroke " is taken into con-
sideration ; the uniformity of the supply of water to a boiler is
always a subject of anxiety to the attendant. The capacity of

a pump is usually determined by its number of strokes in a
given time, hence the need of a pump regulator or governor.
Pig. 566.
The governor is not only intended to maintain a uniform

water pressure in the mains, but to prevent the pump from
racing whenever a greater quantity of water is demanded than
the pump is capable of delivering, as in the case of bursted
mains or hose, or any other contingency whereby the pressure
upon the discharge pipe is suddenly relieved.
Examples of pump governors or regulators follow.
288
The Mason Pump Governor. This pump governor, shown

in Figs. 566 and 567, is attached directly to the rock arm
of the pump, and operates a balance valve placed in the steam
pipe, thereby exactly weighing the pressure of steam to the
n-êds of the pump. As all the working parts are immersed in
oil, the wear is reduced to a minimum.
The Mason governor consists mainly of a cylindrical shell,

or reservoir, as shown in sectional view, filled with oil or
Fig. 567.
glycerine. The plunger, A, is connected with the arm, /, to

some reciprocating part of the pump and works simultaneously
with the strokes of the pump, thereby drawing the oil up
through the check valve, DD, into the chambers, JJ, whence
it is forced alternately through the passages, BB, through an-
other set of check valves into the pressure chamber, EE. The
oil then runs through the orifice, C, the size of which is con-
trolled by a key inserted at, N, into the lower chamber, to be

Pump Speed Governors. 286
re-pumped as before. In case the pump or engine works more

rapidly than is intended the oil is pumped into the chamber,
EE, faster than
it can escape through the outlet at, C, and the
piston, GG^ forced upward, raising the lever, Z, with its

is
weight, and throttling the steam. In case the pump runs more
slowly than was intended, a reverse action takes place, the
weight on the end of the lever, L, forces the piston, GG, down
and more steam is admitted. As the orifice at, C, can be in-
creased or diminished by adjusting the screw at, A^, the governor
can be set within reasonable limits to maintain any desired
speed. The piston, GG, fits over the stationary piston, form-
ing an oil dashpot, thereby preventing dancing of the governor.
This dashpot is fed from the pressure chamber, E, through a
passage which is controlled by an adjusting screw, K^ which is
set with a screwdriver, after removing the cap screw, T. It
requires no further attention after being once adjusted.
For duplex pumps up to 2-inch steam pipe, inclusive, this
governor is fitted with a duplex valve, which prevents the
escape of oil from the pressure chamber through the orifice. C
and thereby prevents the steam valve from opening wide dur
ing the momentary pause of the pump piston.
This governor should be placed on the pump at some point
where the requisite motion can be obtained for operating it,
and also in such a way that a rod can be run from the knuckle
joint on the top lever, /, to the valve in the steam pipe, as
shown in the engraving. Place the valve in the pipe, so that
the stem shall be in a direct line with the knuckle joint on the
lever, and pull out the valve stem to its full extent. With the
ball on the governor in its lowest position, connect the valve
rod to the lever. The governor is then ready to be filled with
oil. Remove the plug on top of the gauge glass, and fill the
governor about half full with a good, clean, light grade of
mineral oil. The governor is then ready to work.
Start the pump at about its maximum speed place the ;
key in the keyhole on the side of the governor and turn to

the right until the speed of the pump has diminished slightly.
t>pen the throttle valve wide, and the pump will be under full
control of the governor. Should there be much dancing or

fluctuation of the ball, remove the screw, 7", insert a small
screwdriver, and screw the adjusting screw in, at K, until the
irregular motion ceases. After the governor has run a little
while, it willlse found that the oil in the glass gauge has dropped
considerably. It should then be refilled, so that the glass will
be about half full when the governor is at work. Under no
circumstances should the gauge be full, as too much oil will
prevent the ball from coming down and opening the valve
when the steam pressure falls. As there is no glass pressure
upon the glass gauge the governor may be filled while in motion
by removing the plug on the top of the gauge.
PlO. 568.
TJie Mason elevator pump pressure regulator. This regu-

lator, illustrated in Fig. 569, designed for use in connection
is
with the larger sizes of steam pumps operating hydraulic

elevators. Its important feature is in operating on the slightest
change of pressure opening to its fullest extent and closing
the steam valve promptly and positively.
Referring to sectional view. Fig. 570, the operation of this
valve is as follows steam from the boiler enters the regulator at
:
the inlet, indicated by the arrows and passes through into the
pump, which continues in motion until the required water pres-

sure is obtained in the system, and through a ^-inch pipe con-
nected to, A, acts upon the diaphragm, B. This diaphragm is
raised by the excess water pressure, and carries with it the
weighted lever, F, opens the auxiliary valve, D, and admits the
water pressure from the connection, E, to the top of the piston,
at the same time opens the exhaust ports under the piston,
and allows the water under the piston to escape into the drip
pipe, thereby pushing the piston down, closes the steam valve
and stops the pump.
Fio. 569,
As soon as the pressure in the system is slightly reduced,

the lever, F, on account of this reduced pressure under the
diaphragm, is forced down by the weight, carries with it the
auxiliary valve, D, opens the exhaust to the top of the piston,
and also admits water pressure under the piston, which is forced
up and opens the steam valve, and starts the pump.
The speed controlling device of the style A governor shown

in Fig. 571 is simple and can be so set as to prevent the
pump from racing, regardless of the drop in water pressure.
Surrounding the upper end of the valve stem is a coiled spring,
which acts as a cushion for the valve and stem, and by the use
of a spring, the stem can be quite small thus reducing the
friction in the stuffing-box to a minimum. The tension of this
IP^^TI
Fig. 570.
spring is sufficient to firmly seat the valve, but if excessive

pressure is exerted on the piston, which is often the case when
two or more pumps are connected to the same mains, the
spring will be compressed and will allow the sleeve to slide
down on the stem, thus relieving the valve of the increased
strain, which would be liable to injure it or buckle the stem.
The regulating hand wheel remains cool, and can be manip-
ulated without injury to the hands. The regulation is very simple,
and is quickly adjusted by simply turning the wheel to the

right or left, to increase or decrease the pressure. No locking
device is necessary, as the wheel will remain in any set position.
The cylinder will not become coated with lime, but will re-
tain itssmooth surface over which the piston travels, insuring
free action, with no leakage around the piston. The drip is
located at the extreme upper travel of the piston, so as to re-
tain sufficient water in the cylinder to prevent any air from
coming in contact with leather piston packing. This arrange-
Fig. 571.
:
ment insures a tight piston as the leather packing will remain
soft pliable and at the same time the water serves as a
and
«bricant for the interior of the cylinder.
The hand wheel can be placed in different positions and all
at is necessary to make the change is to take out the bolts
and move the regulating hand wheel to the desired position.
By this arrangement the engineer can set the hand wheel re-
gardless of the arrangement of the steam piping.
290 Pumps and Hydratilics.
All sizes, made as shown

including i)^-inch and smaller, are
in style B, and are not provided with an auto,
Fig. 572,
matic speed controlling device. This style is made especially
for boiler feed pumps and for supply pumps for the street
system of hot water heating. They are also fitted with a special
valve for pumps working under very high steam and low water
pressure.
FlO. 572,
The finished parts of these Carr steam pump governors,

Figs. 571 and 572, are nickel plated.
Thevalves and seats in these governors and regulators
are renewable. Fig. 573. The tools necessary to remove the
seats are a wrench and a flat piece of iron wide enough to span
the lugs on top of the upper seat. The upper seat is threaded
and screwed into the upper opening in the valve chamber.
:
The lower valve seat is fitted into the lower opening, a steam-
tight fit, but is free to move sufficiently to compensate for the
expansion of the valve.

The which unite the valve seats, contain about
bridges,
an equal quantity of metal, and are of equal length with the
post that binds the valve discs, thus compensating for the ex-
pansion and contraction of the metal and insuring a perfectly
tight valve, regardless of the temperature of the steam.
The Holyoke Improved Speed Governor for water wheels is
shown in Figs 574 and 575. The following is a description of

the two figures where the same letters are used to designate
the parts appearing in both illustrations
The pulley, A, is the receiving pulley, and
is designed to run at 400 revolutions per
minute, receiving its power from the water-
wheel shaft, or countershaft belted from the
same.
Contained in the pulley, A, are the two gov-
erning weights, BB, of which the centrifugal
forces are overcome by the springs, CC. The
varying motions of the governing weights,
BB, are transmitted through racks and pinions
Fig. 573.
in the hub of pulley. A, to levers, and L, K
which operate the valve, N, admitting water
under a light pressure to the cylinder, O. The water is admitted
to the cylinder, O, through ports at either end, causing the
piston to move forward or backward, governed by the movement
of the governing weights, BB.
The is keyed to the main shaft, and at the op-
pulley, A,
posite end keyed a bevel pinion running in mesh with a bevel
is
gear on either side, all of which are contained in the gear-case,

P. These gears cause the clutch discs, D, to run in opposite
directions. In each disc is a clutch, E, keyed to a shaft, trans-
mitting power to the pinion, S, running in mesh with the spur
gear, R, which is loose on the shaft, J, and transmits its power
through the pin clutch, T, to gate shaft, J. The gate shaft,
J, is connected by a pair of bevel gears to the shaft and hand

wheel, Q.
The motion of the piston rod, I, caused by the movement of
piston in cylinder, O, is carried by the lever, G, to the clutch
shaft, F, by means of the pivoted nut at V. The clutch shaft,
F, operates either clutch, E, corresponding to the movement
of the governing weights, BB, caused by the variation in speed.
Fig. 576.
From the clutch thus engaged, the power is carried by llie
clutch shaft, F, through the gears, S and R, and the pin clutch,
T, to the gate shaft, J.
The makers of the' machine here desTibed, say : "In the year 1902 our
attention was called to a uen' governor invented by Nathaniel Lombard, and
after finding by actual governor possessed advantages over all
tests that this
others then in use, we were induced make arrangements for its manufac-
to
ture and sale. Two years have been cpent in improving and perfecting this
"
machine, hence the name The Improved Governor.'
'
The governor is provided with a steadying device operated

by the chain, H. The gate shaft, J, is designed to make four,
six or eight turns to open the gate, four being the regular
number.
The receiving pulley and governor gate shaft may revolve
in either direction, as desired.
The receiving pulley is designed to run at 400 revolutions
per minute, and is driven by a 4-inch double belt.
The governor gate shaft may be arranged to open the gates
in four, six or eight turns, and may be extended on either or
both sides of the governor to meet the necessary requirements.
The governor is capable of exerting a pressure ranging from
25,000 to 50,000 foot pounds on the governor gate shaft.
The advantages claimed for this improvement on the
Lombard governor are thus stated :
1. It requires only a light water pressure to handle the

heaviest gates.
2. It is simple in construction. All parts are easy of access.
3. There are no pumps working under high pressure.
4. There are no dash pots to get out of adjustment, due
to the change iu temperature of oil, etc.
5. There is but one belt on this machine.

6. All parts which are constantly in motion are equipped
with ring-oiling bearings.
Fig. 576 is an illustration of the mechanism necessary to
raise and lower the head gates which are used to admit and
regulate, also to shut off the water supply from pond or lake
to the fiiitne conveying it to the wheel. In this case there are
two head gates having racks upon the upright timbers connect-
ing with the gates. Two shrouded pinions engage these racks,
which are keyed upon a shaft having a large spur wheel at its
end, as represented. A pinion upon a second shaft engages
this spur wheel which in turn has also a spur wheel which
engages a pinion upon the crank shaft having two cranks op-
posite one another. By means of these cranks with two to four
men upon each crank the gates are operated very satisfactorily.
These shafts and gears are mounted upon heavy cast iron
brackets bolted to the floor. Altogether it forms a very mas-

sive piece of mechanism.
The Utility combinationpump governor is shown in the
figure below. This mechanism may be bolted on any tank or re-
ceiver where the water level is to be automatically maintained.
It consists of a closed pocket containing a float, A, which rises
and falls with the water level inside the tank.
When the water rises above the desired level the float
opens the throttle valve and starts the pump, and when it sub-
sides the float falls and shuts off the steam.
Fio. 677.
CONDENSING APPARATUS.
A condenser is an apparatus, separate from the cylinder, in
which exhaust steam is condensed by the action of cold water;
condensation is the act or process of reducing, by depression

of temperature or increase of pressure, etc., to another
and denser form, as gas to the condition of a liquid or steam
'*
to water. There is an electrical device called " a condenser
which must not be confounded with the hydraulic apparatus of
the same name there is also an optical instrument designated
;
by the same term, which belongs to still another division of

practical science.
A vacuum is defined very properly as an empty space ; a

space in which there is neither steam, water or air — the ab-
solute absence of everything. The condenser is the apparatus
by which, through the cooling of the steam by means of cold
water, a vacuum is obtained.
The steam after expelling the air from the condenser fills it
with its own volume which is at atmospheric pressure nearly
1700 times that of the same weight of water.
No\y when a vessel is 'filled with steam at atmospheric
pressure, and this steam is cooled by external application of
cold water, it will immediately give up its heat, which will pass
off in the cooling water, and tJie steam will again appear in a
liquid state, occupying only yyVir P^''^ ^^ ^^^ original volume.
But if the vessel be perfectly tight and none of the outside
air can enter, the space in the vessel not occupied by the water
contains nothing, as before stated. The air exerting a pressure
of nearly 15 pounds to the square inch of the surface of the
vessel tries to collapse it ; now if we take a cylinder fitted with
a piston and connect its closed end to this vessel by means of
a pipe, the atmospheric pressure will push this piston down.
The old low pressure engines were operated almost entirely
upon this principle, the steam only served to push the piston
up and exhaust the air from the cylinder.
299
:
In Fig. 578 is exhibited the effect of jets of water from a

spray nozzle meeting a jet of steam the latter instead of filling
;
the space with steam is returned to its original condition of

water and the space as shown becomes a vacuum.
Briefly stated condensation and the production of a vacuum
may be used to advantage in the following ways
1. By increasing the power without increasing the fuel con-
sumption.
2. By saving fuel without reducing the output of power.
3. By saving the boiler feed water required in proportion to
the saving of fuel.
4. By furnishing boiler
feed water frc c from lime and
other scaling impurities.
5. By preventing the
noise of the escaping exhaust
steam.
6. By permitting the
boiler pressure to be lowered
ten to twenty pounds with-
out reducing the power or
the economy of the engine.
The discovery of the ad-
vantages from the
arising
condensation steam by
of
direct contact with water was
Fig. 578.
accidental.
In the earliest construction of steam-engines the desired
vacuum was produced by the circulation of water through a
jacket around the cylinder. This was a slow and tedious pro-
cess, the engine making only seven or eight strokes per minute.
"An accidental unusual circumstance pointed out the remedy,
and greatly increased the effect. As the engine was at work,
the attendants were one day surprised to see it make several
strokes much quicker than usual and upon searching for the
;
cause, they found, says Desaguliers, a hole through the piston

'
which let the cold water [kept upon the piston to prevent the
Condensiup Apparatus. 301
entrance of air at the packing) into the space underneath.'

The water faUing through the steam condensed italmost in-
stantaneously, and produced a vacuum with far less water than
when applied to the exterior of the cylinder. This led New-
comen to remove the outer cylinder, and to insertthe loiver end
of the water pipe into the bottom of the cylinder, so that on
opening a cock a jet of cold water was projected through the
vapor. This .beautiful device is the origin of the injection pipe
with a spray nozzle still used in low-pressure engines."
The apparatus described above is called the jet-condenser
and is in use up to the present day in various forms. In
the Fig. 577, page 298, the jet is shown at C. It will be
understood that steam enters through the cock D and comes
in contact with a spray of cold water at the bottom, where
it is condensed and passes into the air pump through which
it is discharged.
By this diagram, Fig. 577, may be understood in a simple
yet accurate manner the course of steam from the time it leaves
the boiler until it is discJiarged from the condenser.
Referring to the upper section of the plate, a sectional view
of a steam cylinder, jet condenser, air pump and exhaust pi-
ping shown. The high pressure steam " aa " is represented
is
"
by dark shading, and the low pressure or expanded steam " bb
by lighter shading.
The steam enters the side "aa," is cut off, and expansion
takes place moving the piston in the direction of the arrow to
the end of the stroke. The exhaust valve now opens and the
piston starts to return. The low pressure steam instead of
passing direct to the atmosphere, as is the case of a high
pressure engine, flows into a chamber "C," and is brought in
contact with a spray of cold water. The heat being absorbed
by the water, the steam is condensed and reduced in volume,
thus forming a vacuum. It is, however, necessary to remove
the water formed by the condensed steam together with the
water admitted to condense the steam, also a small amount of
air and vapor. For this purpose, a pump is required, which is
called the air pump.
302 Pumps and HydrOtilics.
Condensing Apparatus. 303
Fig. 581.
Condensers are classified into surface con-

densers and jet condensers, both again being
divided into direct connected and indirect con-
nected condensers.
Thesurface condenser (see Fig. 579) is mainly
used marine practice because it gives a better
in
vacuum, and keeps the condensed steam separate
from the cooling water; it consists of a vessel,
of varied shapes, having a number of brass tubes
passing from head to head. The ends of this vessel
are closed by double heads, the tubes are ex-
panded into the inner one on one end, while
their other ends pass through stuffing-boxes in the
other inner head.
The " admiralty " or rectangular surface con-
denser is represented in Fig. 579. This form oc-

Fig. 580. cupies less floor space than the round shell, and
is preferred upon steam yachts and small vessels.
Steam is condensed on its introduction at the top of the

apparatus where comes in contact with the cool
it surfaces of
the tubes. Through these water is circulated by a centrifugal
pump driven usually by a separate engine.
—""""iîi^fe^
The water of condensation leaves the condenser at the bot-

tom and is drawn off by the vacuum pump. The water from
the circulating pump enters at the bottom right-hand end fol- ;
(owing the direction indicated by the arrows, it flows through

—
the lower half of the tubes towards the left whence it returns
through the upper half of the tubes towards the right and
escapes overboard through the water outlet pipe.
It will be observed that the coolest water encounters the

lowest temperature of steam at the bottom, hence the best re-
sults are reached. There is also a baffle plate just above the
upper row of tubes to compel a uniform distribution of exhaust
steam among the tubes, as shown in the engraving,
These tubes are
usually small \"
outside diameter — of
brass and coated with
tin inside and outside
to prevent galvanic
action which is liable
to attack the brass
tubes and cause them
to corrode.
Fig, 581 shows an
end view of the right-
hand head of the sur-
face condenser here
described.
A single tube is
Fig. 583. shown in detail in
Fig. 580. One end of
the tube is drawn upon it deep screw
sufficiently thick to chase
threads, while a slot facilitates removal by a screw-driving
its
tool. The other end is packed and held in place by a screw

gland, which is also provided with a slot. In this way the tube
is firmly held in one head, and, though tightly fitted in the
other, is free to move longitudinally under the influence of ex-

pansion or contraction, due to the varying heat.
In some cases engineers prefer the ordinary arrangement of
screw glands at both ends of the tubes, with the usual wick
packing.
The mechanism illustrated in Figs. 582 and 583 shows a

combined condenser and feed-water heater. A compact and
efficient method of heating the feed-water from the hot well is
of great importance ; this is the case in cold weather when
the circulating water is at a low temperature.
The Volz apparatus is a combined condenser and feed-water
heater the shell or exhaust steam chamber contains a set of
;
tubes, through which the feed-water passes, while the lower part
contains the condensing tubes, both parts being in proper com-
munication with their respective water chambers. The heater
tubes being located immediately adjacent to the exhaust inlet,
are exposed to the hottest steam, and the feed-water becomes
nearly as high temperature as that of the vacuum. Pages 304
and 305 show the sectional and outside views. The enclosing
shell containing the combined heater and condenser is a well
ribbed cylindrical iron casting free and independent access is
;
provided to either set of tubes by removing corresponding heads.

The illustration. Fig. 584, is a longitudinal section of one side
of the condenser pump, and also a section of the condenser
cone, spray pipe, exhaust elbow and injection elbow. " A " is
the exhaust to which is connected the pip£ that conducts to
the apparatus the steam or vapor that is to be condensed. The
injection water is conveyed by a pipe attached to the injection
opening at " B.'' " C" is the spray pipe, and has, at its lower
extremitj', a number of vertical slits through which the injec-
tion water passes and spreads out into thin sheets.
The spray cone " D " scatters the water passing over it,
and thus ensures a rapid intermixture with the steam. This
spray cone is adjustable by means of a stem passing through
a stuffing-box at the top of the condenser, and is operated by
the handle " E." The cone should be left far enough down to
pass the quantity of water needed for condensation.
All regidation of the injection water must be done by an
inji ction valve placed in the injection pipe at a convenient point.
—
Note. The surface condensers, Figs. 579-581, are made by the Wheeler
Condenser and Engineering Co., New York, as are also the Volz combined
surface condenser and feed water heater, shown in Figs. 582 and 583.
The operation of this condensing apparatus is as follows :

steam being admitted to the cylinders " K," so as to set the
pump in motion, a vacuum is formed in the condenser, the
engine cylinder, the connecting ex-
haust pipe, and the injection pipe.
This causes the injection water to
enter through the injection pipe at-
tached at " B " and spray pipe " C"
into the condenser cone " F." The
main engine being started, the ex-
haust steam enters through the ex-
haust pipe at " A," and, coming in
contact with the cold water, is rapidly
condensed. The velocity of the
steam communicated to the water,
is
and the whole passes through the

cone " F " into the pump " G " at
a high velocity, carrying with it, in
a comingled condition the air or
FlQ. 584.
uncondensable vapor which enters the condenser with the

steam. The mingled air and water is discharged by the pump
through the valves and pipe at " J " before sufficient time or
space has been allowed for separation to occur.
77;!^ exhaust steam induction condenser is based upon the

same principle heretofore explained under the section relating
to injectors. See Fig. 585.
The exhaust steam enters through the nozzle, A. The in-
jection water surrounds this nozzle and issues downward through
the annular space between the nozzle and the main casting.
The steam meeting the water is
RELIEF VALVE
condensed, and by virtue of its
weight and of the momentum
which it has acquired in flowing
into the vacuum the resulting water
continues downward, its velocity
being further increased, and the
column solidified by the contraction
of the nozzle shown. The air is in
this way carried along with the
water and it is impossible for it to
get back against the rapidly flow-
ing steam in the contracted neck.
The condenser will lift its own
water twenty feet or so. When
water can be had under sufficient
head to thus feed itself into the
system, and the hot-well can at
the same time be so situated as to
drain itself, it makes a remarkably
v^* ^ simple and efificient arrangement.

<si
I I
In case the elevation is so great
Flo. 585.
that a pump has to be used to
force the injection, the pump has
to do less work than the ordinary air pump, and its exhaust
can be used to heat the feed water.
The Bulkley '^ Injector'' condenser is shown in Fig. 586, ar-
ranged so that the condensing water is supplied by a pump.
The condenser is connected to a vertical exhaust pipe from the
engine, at a height of about 34 feet above the level of the
**
hot-well." An air-tight discharge pipe extends from the
fiEUEFWUVE
condenser nearly to the bottom
of the " hot-well," as shown in
the engraving.
The condenser is supplied
by a pump as shown, or from a
"
tank, or from a natural " head
of water ; the action is continu-
ous, the water being delivered
into the " hot-well " below. The
area of the contracted "neck"
of the condenser is greater than
that of the annular water inlet
described above, and the height
of the water column overcomes
the pressure of the atmosphere
without.
The supply pump delivers
cool water only, and is therefore
but one-third of the size of the air-pump. The pressure of the

atmosphere elevates the water about 26 feet to the condenser.
The accompanying diagrams, Figs. 587 and 588, are worthy

of study. They represent a condenser plant designed by the
Schutte & Koerting Co., Philadelphia, and placed on steam-
vessels plying on fresh water. In these drawings the parts are
designed by descriptive lettering instead the ordinary way of
reference figures; this adds to the convenience of the student
in considering this novel application of the condenser-injector,
the action of which is described in the following paragraphs.
For steamers plying on fresh water lakes, bays and rivers it
is unnecessary to go to the expense of installing surface con-
lOTTOM INJCC1I
ria. 687.
densers such as are used in salt water ; keel condensers, how-

ever, are used in both cases.
The keel condenser consists of two copper or brass pipes
running parallel and close to the keel, one on each side united
by a return bend at the stern post. The forward ends are con-
nected, one to the exhaust pipe of the engine while the other
end is attached to the suction of the air pump.
In other cases both forward ends are attached to the ex-
haust pipe of the steam engine while the water of condensation
» is drawn through a
smaller pipe connected
with the return bend at
the stern post which is
the lowest part of the

keel condenser.
Fig. 587 is much
used for vessels running
in fresh water. The il-
lustration is a two-thirds
midship section of a
vessel with pipe con-
nections to the bilge
bottom injection — side
injection into the cen-
pump, thence
trifugal
Fig. 588.
upward through suction
pipe into the ejector condenser where it meets and condenses
the exhaust steam from the engine and so on through the dis-
charge pipe overboard. The plan of piping with,valves, drain
pipes and heater are shown in Fig. 588.
In case of the failure of any of the details of this mechanism
to perform their respective functions a free exhaust valve and
pipe is provided which may be brought instantly into use. The
discharge pipe has a " kink " in it to form a water seal, as rep-
resented with a plug underneath to drain in case of frost, or
in laying up the vessel in winter. A pipe leads from globe
valve (under discharge elbow) to feed pump for hot water.
Condensing Surface Required. In the early days of the sur-

face condenser it was thought necessary to provide a cooling
surface in the condenser equal to the heating surface in the

boilers, the idea being that it would take as much surface to
transfer the heat from a pound of steam to the cooling water
and condense the steam as it would to transfer the heat from
the hot gases to the water in the boiler and convert it into steam.
The difference in temperature, too, between the hot gases and
the water in the boiler

is considerably greater than that between
the steam in the condenser and the cooling water.

Steam, however, gives up its heat to a relatively cool surface
much more readily thaî do the hot furnace gases, and the
positively circulated cooling water takes up that heat and keeps
Note. —The numbers and names of parts in the above figure, represent-
ing in outline a.Jet condenser, are as follows i, condenser body 2, exhaust
: ;
inlet ; 3, discharge 4, injection valve 5, spray pipe 6, spraying device.

; ; ;
;
the temperature of the surface down, while in a boiler the ab-

sorption depends in a great measure upon the ability of the
water by natural circulation to get into contact with the sur-
—
Note. The following list gives the numbers with the corresponding
names of the parts of the surface condenser, shown in the above outline
sketch i, condenser shell
: ; 2, outside heads
; 3, exhaust inlet; 4, exhaust
outlet 5, water inlet
;
; 6, water outlet
; 7, peep holes
; 8. tube heads
9, partition ; 10, rib ; 11, tubes
; 12, stuffing-boxes.
face and take up the heat by evaporization. It has been found,

therefore, that a much smaller surface will suffice in a condenser
than in the boilers which it serves.
The Wheeler Condenser and Engineering Company, who

make a specialty of surface condensers, say that one square foot
of cooling surfaceis usually allowed to each lo pounds of steam
to be condensed per hour, with the condensing water at a

normal temperature not exceeding 75°. This figure seems to
be generally used for average conditions. Special cases require
special treatment.
For service in the tropics the cooling surface should be at
least ten per cent, greater than this estimate. Where there is
an abundance of circulating water the surface may be much

less, as with a keel condenser, where 50 pounds of steam is
sometimes condensed per hour per square foot of surface or a ;
water works engine, where all the water pumped is discharged

through the condenser and not appreciably raised in tempera-
ture, probably condensing 20 to 40 pounds of steam per hour
per square foot of surface.
Under the division of this volume devoted to " air and
vacuum pumps," much information has been given relating to
the principles of the condensation of steam and also some
illustrations of working machines. Still it may be well to say
this, in addition, that
All questions in regard to a vacuum become plain when we
consider that the atmosphere itself exerts a pressure of nearly
ic pounds, and measure everything from an aosolute zero, 15
pounds below the atmospheric pressure. We live at the bot-
tom of an ocean of air. The winds are its currents; we can
heat it, cool it, breathe and handle it, weigh it, and pump it as
we would water. The depth of this atmospheric ocean cannot
be determined as positively as could one of liquid, for the air
is elastic and expands as the pressure decreases in the upper
layers. Its depth is variously estimated at from 20 to 2 12 miles.
We can, however determine very simply how much pressure it
,
exerts per square inch.

UTILITIES AND
ATTACHMENTS
UTILITIES AND ATTACHMENTS.
Utility is a Latin word meaning the same as the Saxon
word usefulness, hence a utility is something to be used to ad-
vantage.
Anattachment is that by which one thing is connected to
another; some adjunct attached to a machine or instrument to
enable it to do a special work ; these are too numerous to be
described in this work; moreover their number is being so con-
stantlyadded to that it would be vain to make the attempt. A
few examples only follow.
The Receiver one of the most important and useful parts
is
or connections of a steam pump.

This apparatus, frequently called " Pump and Governor,"
and 590 and 591, is designed to auto-
illustrated in Figs. 589,
matically drain heating systems and machines or appliances
used in manufacturing which depend upon a free circulation of
steam for their efficiency. It furthermore is arranged to auto-
matically pump the water of condensation drained from such
systems back to the boilers without loss of heat.
By this operation it serves a double purpose : first to auto-
matically relieve the system of the water of condensation con-
stantly collecting therein, thus insuring a free and unobstructed
circulation, and, incidentally, preventing snapping and hammer-
ing in the piping, which in many cases is due to entrained
water ; and second, to automatically deliver this water, which
in many cases is at the boiling point, directly to the boilers
without the intervention of tanks or other devices commonly
used. Not only does it relieve the system of a troublesome
factor, but it introduces a supply of feed water to the boiler at
a temperature impossible otherwise without the use of a special
water heater.
The economy resulting from its use is unquestionable, and
the satisfactory and increasing use of this machine leaves no
doubt as to its efficiency.
317
318 Pu7nps and Hydraulics.
As will be seen by the illustrations, the apparatus consists

of a cylinder or oval closed receiver, which, together with the
pump, is mounted upon and secured to a substantial base, mak-
ing the whole machine compact and self-contained.
The automatic action of the pump and its speed are con-
trolled by a float in the receiver operating directly, without the
use of intervening levers, cranks and stuffing boxes, to open or
close a governor valve in the steam supply pipe to the pump,
tluis making the action of the pump conditional upon the rise
and fall of the float in the receiver.
Fig. 589.
In each of the three receivers shown there is a ball float

which appears through the side of the receiver. Fig, 590 these ;
depend upon the principle of specific gravity fur their opera-

tion. The lever fastened to the ball float operates the throttle
valve of the pump ; as the vessel fills with water the float rises
opens the throttle valve, and starts the pump.
In Fig. 589 is shown the Deane automatic duplex steam
pump and rr^^zWr fitted with valves for hot water; it is also
provided with three separate inlets for convenience in connect-
ing the returns.
In ])lacing the apparatus, it is only necessary to so locate it
that all returns will drain naturally towards receiver and that
there are no pockets in the piping.
Utilities and Attachments. 319
When it is desired to use the automatic receiver as the sole

means it will be necessary to introduce
of feeding the boilers,
a small supply of water from some outside source to equalize
the loss which occurs. It is desirable that this water should
flow into receiver rather than into discharge pipe.
Fig. 590.
Fig. 591.
Fig. 590 shows a Mason steam pump with receiver attached.

This pump is described elsewhere at length. Fig. 59T repre-
sents the Worthington duplex steam pump with its specially
designed receiver.
The ball cock is a faucet which is opened or closed by means

of a ball floating on the surface of the water as it rises and falls
in the vessel.
In the illustration, Fig. 592, to be seen below the principle

of its operation may be discerned. The fall of water in the
tank lowers the float and opens the valve (which has in this
case a rubber seat) and a rise of water in the tank closes the
valve, hence this ball float controls and maintains a constant
water level in the tank.
The float is a hollow ball of copper attached to one end of
a lever while the other end is pivoted by a pin through it and
Fig. 592.
the side of the shell of the valve. The valve itself is held by
a screw to the lever and resembles very much an inverted lever
safety valve.
This principle of construction and operation is applied to

many devices among which is that described on page 318 relat-
ing to pump receivers.
The apparatus constitutes an automatic arrangeiient for

keeping the water at a certain height. It is useful in cisterns,
water backs, boilers, etc., where the supply is constant, the
demand intermittent.
TANKS AND CISTERNS.

A tank is an artificial receptacle for liquids, thus : a tank
engine is one which carries the water and fuel it requires, there-
by dispensing with a tender tank-iron or
; steel is common plate
used in buildi;?g tanks. Steel is cheaper than sheet-iron. A
cistern is primarily a natural reservoir —
a hollow place contain-
Fio. 593.
ing water; more commonly an underground reservoir or tank.

Closed pressure tanks are usually cylindrical shells similar to a
horizontal steam boiler, having bumped or rounded heads to
save bracing. Closed pressure tanks are used extensively in
connection with hydraulic elevators the requisite pressure for
;
these was formerly derived from an open tank installed upon

the roof of the build-

ing, but the closed
pressure tank, located
in the engine room,
now very generally
takes the place of the
open tank.
A closed pressure
tank is shown in Fig.
596 in use with a

hydraulic elevator.
A reservoir is a
place where water is
collected and kept

for use when wanted,
so as to supply a foun-
tain, a canal or a city
by means of aque-
ducts or to drive a Fia. 594.
mill-wheel or the like.
A receiving reservoir is a principal reservoir into which an

aqueduct or rising main, delivers water and from which a dis-
tributing reservoir draws its supply.
> A graduated tank is one
fitted with water gauges and
indicating marks, at different
heights, between which, the ca-
pacity of the tank is shown.
A ship's ballast tank is the

compartment for water to be
pumped in and out for the pur-
pose of insuring the proper
stability of the vessel, to- avoid
capsizing and to secure the
greatest effectiveness of the
propelling power.
Fia. 5U6.
A vat is a cistern or tub, especially one used for holding

liquors in an immature state, as chemical preparations and
tanning liquor for leather. Fig. 594.

A tub is an open wooden vessel formed with staves, bottom
and hoops a kind of short cask, half barrel or firkin, usually
;
with but one head. Fig. 595.

A gallon (U. S.) 13 equal to 231 cubic inches or 0.13368 cubic
feet and weighs 8^ lbs. nearly,(i. e. 8.3356). This is almost
exactly equivalent to a cylinder 7 inches in
diameter and 6 inches in height.
The imperial gallon of England contains
277.274 cubic inches, and is equivalent to 1.2
U. S. gallons and at 62° Fah. weighs 10 lbs.
A cubic foot con-
tains7îi-h (7i near-
-iî»yi*ii-=^
ly)U. S. gallons, and
weighs 62yVA (62^
nearly) lbs.
A barrel=2,i\ gal-
lons. I hogshead=
2 bbls.=63 gallons.
The strength of a
tank is of the first im-
portance;
235^ gal-
lons of water weigh
Fio. 596. as much as a ton of
coal, but unlike the
latter, it presses in all directions. Immense losses both of life
and property have been caused by the "bursting" or giving
way of tanks particularly of those of a considerable size and
;
elevation.
—
Note. Tank Valves. The " Corcoran " valve is made for either side or
bottom outlet and for i 1%, 1%, 2 and 2 yi inch pipe its action is auto-
, ;
matic the pull by which it is operated is controlled by a ratchet. This

;
valve closes the pipe inside the tank. It thus becomes easy to empty the
pipes in order to prevent freezing. The hoops, lugs and lock nut nipples
are important parts of a well constructed tank. The foundations upon
which tanks are supported should be carefully considered, as the average
weight of a well made tank, when full of water, is about five tons to 1000
gallons.
3*^4:
The following table gives the capacity of round tanks or

cisterns for each 12 inches in depth, if the tank is 24 inches
deep instead of 12 inches, the result would be, twice the
number of gallons.
Table.
DIAM. GAIylv. DIAM. GAI,!,.
25 feet 3671 8 feet 376
20 " 2349 2 " 387
15 " 1321 6>^" 247
14 " 1150 6 " 211
13 " 992 5 " 147
12 " 846 4 " 94
II " 710 3 '• 53
10 " 587 2>^" 36
9 " 475 2 " 23
The contents of cisterns and tanks are estimated either in

gallons or in cubic feet. The weight of water in any cistern or
tank can be ascertained by multiplying the number of gallons
by the weight of one gallon, which is 8^ pounds, 8.333. For
instance, taking the largest cistern in the above table contain-
ing 3671 gallons: 3671X8.33=30579.43 lbs. (nearly).
If the number of gallons and
cistern is rectangular, the
weight of water are found by multiplying the dimensions of
the cistern to get the cubical contents. For instance, for a
cistern or tank 96 inches long, 72 inches wide, and 48 inches
deep, the formula would be 96x72X48=331,776 cubic inches.
:
As a gallon contains 231 cubic inches; 331,776 divided by

231 gives 1,436 gallons, which multiplied by 8.33 will give the
weight of water in the cistern. Fig. 594.
For rou7id cisterns or tanks, the rule is : Area of bottom on
inside multiplied by the height, equals cubical capacity. For
instance, taking the last tank or cistern in the table : area of
24 inches (diameter) 452.39, which multiplied by 12 inches
is
(height) gives 5527.6 cubic inches, and this divided by 231

cubic inches in a gallon gives 23 gallons. Fig. 595-
Rule for obtaining the contents of a barrel in gallons. Take
the diameter at the bung, then square it, double it, then add
square of head diameter multiply this sum by length of cask,
;
and that product by .2618 which will give volume in cubic

inches; this, divided by 231, will give result in gallons.
Utilities and Aitachments. 325
STRAINERS FOR SUCTION PIPES.
It is very desirable to place an efficient strainer on the suc-

tion pipe of a pump where there is the least suspicion that the
water contains any sediment or floating matter.
Several of these useful pump attachments have been already
shown, connected with pumps, in previous sections of this
work, but a few more are here added.
Fig. 597 exhibits a cross section of a strainer of large
capacity of long and satisfactory use. It has a semi-cylindri-
cal vessel located in one side of the side pipe. Holes are drilled
?o?o2o°o2o2o?
8 O 1 O OO O O !
tia. 597. Fig. 598.
through the flat side extending across the diameter of the side
pipe ; any floating matter which will not pass through the
holes collects in this strainer vessel and may be easily removed.
Fig. 598 represents a longitudinal section of this strainer.
The top of the chamber is covered by a bonnet secured by a
claw having one bolt, so that by unscrewing this bolt the claw
arid bonnet may be unfastened and the settling chamber with
perforated plate withdrawn.
A suction valve with double strainer is represented by Fig.
599, in which the outer screen is raised for cleaning. In lower-
ing, it is guided to its place by the cage around the foot valve
chest, as will be seen in Fig. 600, which is a sectional view of
this same valve. The suction pipe extension enables the pump
to draw water when its surface has fallen below the top of
strainer and also below the foot valves. This is often a great
advantage where water is scarce and every gallon is needed.
This foot valve is a " double clack " hinged in the center.
There are no openings or perforations in the bottom plate.
Fig. 6oi is a very convenient form of strainer for large pipes
and where it is an advantage to have the strainer in the engine-
room or near the pump. This strainer,
like Fig. 597, can be lifted out for clean-
ing by removing the claw and bonnet.
The chamber may be washed out by
removing the plug at the bottom.
Fio. 509. Fio. eoa
A most convenient vacuum chamber and strainer is repre-

sented in Fig. 602 ; it is located near the pump. By removing
the suction chamber the basket or strainer may be Ufted out by
the handle under the arrow. The outlet is generally attached
directly to the pump. The pump may be charged by remov-
ing the " priming plug " and inserting a hose, with water
turned on.
Steam boiler feed water impurities consist mainly of chemical

—
substances which are unaffected as may be readily supposed
by mechanical devices just described; these impurities are largely
invisible being dissolved in the water and hence, also, consider-
ing their variety, are most difficult to contend with. How to
avoid the actual evils arising from the presence of foreign
matter in feed water is of the first importance in steam economy;
enormous losses of money, danger to life and
property are involved in it. It has been said
that there are more millions of treasure to
be made by properly " treating " the water
which enters the steam generators of the

world than can be extracted from its gold
mmcs.
i^Ht
Fig. 601. Fig. 602.
To deal properly with this subject the science of chemistry

must be largely drawn upon chemically pure water is that
;
which has no impurities, and may be described as colorless,
—
Note. Strangely, investigation has proved that water of this purity
rapidly corrodes iron, and attacks even pure iron and steel more readily
than " hard " water does, and sometimes gives a great deal of trouble where
the metal is not homogeneous. Marine boilers would be rapidly ruined by
pure distilled water if not previously "scaled " about 1-32 of an inch.
3^8 Pumps and Hydraulics.
tasteless, without smell, transparent, and in a very slight degree

compressible, and, were a quantity evaporated from a perfectly
clean vessel, there would be no solid matter remaining. Now,
in dealing with the impurities inside a boiler, it is to be ob-
served that in no sense do they change the essential nature of
water itself. The impurities are simply foreign bodies, which
have no legitimate place in the boiler, and are to be expelled
as thoroughly as possible.
The chemical substances to be eliminated are indicated in
the note below. Water, on becoming steam, separates from
the impurities which it may have contained, and these form
sediment and incrustation. This is an important fact.
Corrosion is simply rusting or wasting away of the surfaces
of the metals. Incrustation means simply a coating over.
Several approved recipes and " notes " of instruction for re-
moving sediment and incrustation from steam boilers will be
found near the close of this volume.
Note.—Analysis of average boiler scale. Parts per loo parts of deposit.

Silica 042 parts
Oxides of iron and aluminium 044
Carbonate of lime 30.780 "
Carbonate of magnesia 5 '-733.
Sulphate of soda Trace
Chloride of sodium Trace
Carbonate of soda 9-341 '|
Organic matter 8.060
Total solids loo- parts
The percentage only of each ingredient the scale is composed of is given,

leave this amount of
as it cannot be told how nmch water was evaporated to
solid matter.
Utilities aifd Atfachments. 3':0
THE WATER METER.

Water meters, or measurers, are constructed upon two general
principles: i, an arrangement called an *^ inferential meter"
made to divert a certain proportion of the water passing in the
main pipe and by measuring accurately the small stream di-
verted, to infer, or estimate the larger quantity ; 2, the positive
meter; rotary piston meters arc of the latter class.
Fig. 603.
The between the two is, that the

distinctive difference
positive meter measures water by means of a chamber alter-
nately filled and emptied. In most of these the flow of water
ceases when, by any derangement, the motion of the piston is
interrupted. But neither the motion nor the stoppage of the
inferential meter has any effect upon the water delivery, so
FlOS. 604.605.
;
that at times a large amount of water may pass unrecorded.

Another important mechanical difference is that the motion of
a piston meter should be slow, while that of the inferential
wheel is, and must be, rapid this has much to do with their
;
relative durability.
Fig. 603 is a perspective view of the Worthington water
vteier, the details of which are shown in the Figs. 604 and
605, the recording or "dial" mechanism is also shown in
Fig. 606.
The internal arrangement of the meter is shown in longi-
tudinal section, Fig. 604, and the transverse section. Fig. 605,
Dn the opposite page.
The plungers, AA, are closely fitted into parallel rings. The
vvater passes through the inlet and port I, and is admitted
under pressure into chamber, D,
at one end of each plunger alter-
nately, while the connection is
made between the chamber at the

other end of the outlet. Thus,
the plunger in moving displaces
volume, discharging it through
its
outlet.
its The arrangement is
such that the stroke of the two
plungers alternates, the valve act-
uated by one admitting pressure
Fio. 606.
to the other. The plungers are
brought to rest at the end of the stroke by the rubber buffers,
EE. One plunger imparts a reciprocating motion to the lever,
F, which operates the counter movement through the spindle
and ratchet gear as shown. Thus, it will be seen that the
counter is arranged to move the dial pointers once for every
four strokes or displacements, and that water cannot pass
through the meter without registration, for, in order to pass
through, it must be displaced by the plungers, and, therefore,
recorded by the movement of the lever and counter mechanism
nor can there be an over-registration, because the plungers
cannot move without displacing the fluid.
To read the dial. The counter usually registers in cubic

feet, one cubic foot being 7.48 gallons U. S. standard. When
desired for special services, counters are furnished reading in
U. S. gallons, Imperial gallons, and Hectolitres. This counter
is read in the same way as the registers of gas meters.
The following example and directions may be of use to
those unacquainted with this method :
If the pointer is between two figures, the smaller one must

invariably be taken ;suppose the pointers of the dial stand, as
Fig. 607.
shown in Fig. 606; starting at the dial marked 10 cubic feet,

we get the figure 4 from the next marked 100 cubic feet, the
;
figure 7 from the next marked 1,000 cubic feet, the figure 8,
;
and from the next marked 10,000 cubic feet, the figure 6 the ;
reading is 6,874 cubic feet. The pointer on the 100,000 cubic

foot dial being between the o and the i indicates nothing.
By subtracting the first reading taken from that taken at the
next observation, the consumption of water for the intermediate
time is obtained.
A steam trap is an apparatus to remove the water of con-

densation from steam pipes for heater coils and radiators with-
out permitting steam to escape ;
the steam trap is also used to
remove the water of condensation or entrained water caught in
steam separators, located near the steam engine in the con-
necting pipes between the engine and boilers.
The problem of saving the water of condensation without
allowing the escape of steam is a difficult one, in view of the
early wear of the valves and the valve seats.
Fig. 607 represents the Anderson improved steam trap.
This trap shows at all times what it is doing by the position of
the water in the glass gauge attached to the side of the trap
and in front. The water of condensation enters at the upper
right-hand side, A, Fig. 608,
where all scale and dirt from
the pipes are caught in the set-
tling chamber which contains a
strainer. This strainer can be
lifted out with its contents of
dirt and scale and replaced in a
few moments by unscrewing
the plugs, shown in Fig. 607
just above the inlet. The dis-
charge connected at the lower left-hand side. The bonnet
is
which contains the valve float and lever can be removed without
breaking any pipe joints, or the valve and seat may be removed
by simply unscrewing the cap, H, at the lower left-hand side
without disturbing the bonnet at all. It will be understood
that this trap does not dump, but the discharge of water is
regulated by a ball float and valve, hence there are really but
two working parts to this trap, viz. the ball float and valve.
:
Water is permitted to pass this trap as fast as it comes along,

and no considerable quantity ever accumulates within this trap
at any one time.
The sectional view. Fig. 608, gives a fair idea of the interior
of this trap, being a longitudinal section on center line. The
by-pass valve, C, so-called, is not a valve, but is simply a
threaded stem and is used to hold up the float in emptying the

trap. To blow out the trap this by-pass is screwed in as far as
it will go without forcing, same motion as in closing a globe
valve. When the water has been discharged, this by-pass is

unscrewed to its former position, which permits the float to
drop, closing the valve when the reservoir fills with water, to
its normal position.
With three inches of water in the glass the valve is closed
and sealed so that no steam can escape. The dotted line
represents the water level. The sediment chamber, E, prevents
dirt and from getting into the valve.
scales in the pipes
The ball float is made of seamless copper with
heavy bands
to prevent the ball from collapsing under high pressure. These
traps work on all pressures from 1 50 pounds pressure down,
and are also made for higher pressures in special cases will —
work against back pressure and with exhaust steam alone are —
made in seven sizes, i. e., from ^ inch to 2\ inches, inclusive.
TOOLS
VALVES
AND PIPING
FlO. 609,- See piiue M&

TOOLS.
"
The implements described hereafter are called " hand-tools
to distinguish them from machine-tools. A portable tool is a
tool or machine-tool which can be taken from place to place,
for example a riveting machine.
Tool, the word, comes probably from toil, signifying the thing
with which one toils or labors, a hammer, file or wrench a tool ;
never ceases to be a tool, i. e., something which is applied

directly to the work; generally tools in machine practice cut,
abrade, like a
file, or strike —
as a hammer a tool is that which
;
isbrought to bear directly on the work again, it is any imple-

;
ment used by a craftsman at his work it is any instrument

;
employed for performing, or aiding to perform, mechanical

operations by means of striking, penetration, separation, abra-
sion, friction, etc.
Again in practical mechanics the word tool has a restrictive

meaning a single device, as a chisel, crowbar or saw, or a very
;
simple combination of moving parts, as tongs, shears, pincers,

etc. These latter for manual use, are always called tools,
although embodied in the strict technical definition of machine.
Such machines as are used in shaping materials in the con-
struction of the parts of other machines, and also many of those
which perform work, such as boring, planing, riveting, etc.,
formerly only done by hand, and still performed manually to a
greater or less extent, are nearly always called machine tools ;
*
'^K.
the term, engine tool, is more in accord with general usage
hen referring to large and complicated machines.
knowledge of the application of hand-tools and
It Is by his
^ pump attendant is judged by those

their practical use, that the
round him. The skillful mechanic, who with many others,
constructs a machine, may be neglected, but one who skillfully
operates the apparatus, seldom fails of due credit and reward,
hence these paragraphs are intended to emphasize the impor-
tance of these more humble implements.
837
6io represents a pipe cutter a hand tool specially

Fig. —
used for cutting of wrought iron, steel or brass pipe. This tool
consists of a cast steel body, tapped in
one end to receive the adjusting screw or
handle which also serves to rotate the
tool when applied to a pipe. The cutting
is generally effected by a hardened cast
steel with cutting edges having
cutter
angles of about 60° like a V thread an en- ;
larged form of this cutter is shown in the

engraving.
Fig. 611 shows a ratchet drill; this is
a tool in which the rotary motion of the
drill is derived from a ratchet and pawl
actuated by a lever or handle. There are

various forms of this class of tools. This
one is the " Packer ratchet." The thread
for adjusting or feeding the drill is pro-
tected from chips and dirt by a sleeve
which covers the shank.
The center is of tempered
tool steel as well as the
ratchet and pawl The socket
is usually made square.
In cutting larger sizes of
pipes sometimes a special cut-
ting-tool is introduced in
place of the circular cutter to
rio. 610.
=:;-«a^ fB»BR l| jilMWIWyL aimiP

i i
i
ii
, i WMWW«ll*^^
Fia. 611.
accomplish the more difificult work in shop practice it is cus-

;
tomary to cut the large sizes of pipe in a lathe or screwing machine.

Hand Tools for Pump Attendants. 339
The three tools shown on this page are designed to prepare

the pipe for the reception of the threaded end of the pipe to
be joined. The upper one, Fig. 612, is ^ reamer used to enlarge
a hole, or to round up one that has been drilled or cut with a
chisel, to prepare it for tapping. The lower, Fig. 614, is the tap
which cuts the thread. The middle, Fig. 61 3, is a combined drill
and tap which is operated by a ratchet and is used to drill and
tap a hole in water pipe, etc., at one operation.
" Tapping'' is the process by which the thread is formed in
the interior of a hole, and is done with a tap ; screiving is the

reverse process by
which the thread
is formed on the
outside of a cyl-
indrical surface, as
Fig. 612.
a pipe or round
bar of iron.
A tap consists
of an external
scretv of the re-
Fig. 613.
quired size, formed
of steel and more
or less tapered,
part of the thread
being cut away by
Fig. 014.
longitudinal
grooves in order
to present a series of cutting edges. By screwing into a nut
in the manner of an ordinary bolt this tap forms the thread
required.
Plug-taps are usually made in sets of three. The first, called
the entering tap or taper tap, generally tapers regularly through-
out its length ; the second, or intermediate tap, sometimes
tapers, but is usually cylindrical with two or three tapering
threads at the end ; the third, called the plug-tap or bottoming-
tap, is always parallel, with the full thread carried to the end.
Fia. 615. Fio. 618.
Fig. 615 shows a crow.

This is used to hook under-
neath a pipe and to support
and feed a ratchet drill in
cutting a hole. The sliding
head is fastened by a double
ended gib key which secures
it in any desired position.
A swivel bench vise is shown
in Fig. 616. This tool has
cast steel jaws with a wrought
iron slide and is attached to
the bench with a screw so
that it may be turned in any
position.
A pipe vise is shown in
Fig. 617. This is mounted
on a journal bearing so that
itmay be clamped in any
position from a horizontal to Fig. 617.
a perpendicular.
Hand Tools for Pump Attendants, 341
The pipe vise is especially a bench tool ; it is designed to

'*
grip " pipes of various sizes while they are being threaded,
cut off or otherwise operated upon.
A parallel or ordinary bench vise will only grip a pipe on
two opposite sides, and, if tightened, the strain will easily col-
lapse it, owing to its hollow form but a pipe vise is so made
;
that it presses upon four points, as the jaws or holding portions

are formed V shaped, instead of parallel.
Some pipe vises are formed of two pivoted discs instead of
jaws, having semicircles or recesses, which fit all diameters of
pipes up to two inches, and bear on the outside of the pipe all
around.
It is an improvement to have the upper portion of the vise
hinged at one side, and fixed with a pin or collar at the other,
as by opening the jaws it renders more convenient the removal
or insertion of the pipe to be operated upon.
The upper Fig. 6i8 on page 342 represents an indispensable
tool for cutting pipe threads by hand one handle of which
; —
there are two —
is shown in the figure immediately beneath tJie
pipe stock and die, which is the familiar name of the com-
bination. The guard in the illustration is thrown open to
allow the die to be removed or exchanged. Fig. 620 represents
the latter solid steel dies are commonly used, but adjustable
;
dies are made. Figs. 621 and 622 are bushings to fit in the end
of the stock to guide the pipe there is one bushing for each
;
size of pipe.
shows a nipple-holder which is used to hold short
Fig. 623
pieces of pipe by the thread upon one end, while the die is
applied to cut a thread upon the other end. This tool is
generally used in a pipe cutting machine, which is operated by
power, but it can also be held in a common vise.
—
Note. The die may be centered on the nipple described above by f)lac-
in the die slock a guide bushing that will easily ride over the nipple
ifif^
holder. The thread can now be cut until the die just touches the nipple
holder, and there will be practically no bl mk space between the threads on
the ends. After the die has been backed off the nipple can be removed from
the holder by unscrewing the center with a monkey wrench. A nipple
holder should be made for each size of pipe that is cut and threaded by hand.
A piece of pipe with a coupling on its end may be used as an improvised
nipple holder.
34!^ Pumps and Hydraulics.
Fig, 618.
iMMiiiMiiiii
FiQ. 619.
Fig. 620. FiQ. 621 Fio 622.

Fig. 624 shows an extension///^ tongs ; this tool may be ad-

justed to fit a number of different sizes by manipulating the
thumb screw, shown in the cut.
Trimo pipe wrench. This name is
Fig. 625 represents the
an abbreviation of the word Tremont from the street in Boston
Fig. d24.
of that name. It is adjusted to its work by a milled nut in

the pivoted jaw; the latter is brought into position at
each
stroke by a leaf spring attached to the main lever. In the
Fig. 625,
larger sizes the steel jaws are removable or can be detached

and replaced after being repaired. The lower engraving, Fig.
626, is a chain tongs with removable, tool-steel jaws. The
FlO. 820.
hard scale on the piping rapidly destroys the sharp edges on

these jaws so that they require frequent sharpening. The links
of the chain have a peculiar hook form so that they cannot slip.
344 Pumps and HydraMlics.
A spanner, shown in Fig. 627, is a special form of wrench,

which circles or spans around : generally used for twisting a
circular-shaped portion, provided with holes in its circumference.
Fio. 687.
Screw or monkey-wrenches are those which have a movable

jaw, so that the tool may be adjusted to fit any sized nut with-
in its compass as shown in Fig. 628.
; There are many de-
Fro. 628
signs of monkey-wrenches. The one here represented is known

as the " knife-handle " on account of the identical construction
of the handle of this wrench and that of a pocket knife. It is
Fig. 829.
strong and the shank is extra heavy so that it is hardly possible

to spring the jaws in fair use.
An interchangeable socket wrench is shown in Fig. 629. The
handle is much like a ratchet drill, having a pawl and ratchet
wheel attached to the sockets these are for use upon various
;
sizes of hexagon or square heads, as represented by figures

underneath the handle. Some of these socket wrenches have
forms of steel for insertion into the hole in the ratchet by which
different shaped and sized bolt heads and nuts may be turned
without changing the main socket.
The word wrench which gives this term to the tools here
described is one of the strong words of the English language
wrench means, primarily, " a violent twist or turn given to
something," hence, as derived, almost any instrument that
causes a twist or torsional strain comes under this heading. A
wrench is a tool used by hand to turn or rotate other tools,
nuts or bolts.
A wrench is specially designated according to its shape and
of the jaws or openings, as an open-end box-wrench, etc. If
the opening through one end, it is termed a single-ended
is
wrench ; if it is in the middle, a double-ended or tap-wrench.

If the recess is open, it is termed an open-ended wrench ; if
closed, forming a square or hexagon opening through the metal,
a box-wrench. A
solid wrench having a notched angular recess
in its end, so that any nut or bolt which will enter the jaws
can be grasped, is called an alligator-wrench.
The hammer was probably the first tool used by mankind ;
hammers of stone are found among the remains of antiquity,

and these are still in common use among barbarous races. The
hammer is made in such a variety of forms that it is almost im-
possible to classify it it is named not only for the use to
;
which it is put, but after the trade-class which uses it, as the
machinist hammer, the blacksmith-hammer, etc.
The hammer is made of high-grade steel, carefully tempered
head and peen the head is usually made cylindrical with slightly
;
rounding face the eye of the hammer is the center opening

;
through which the handle is inserted. The peen of a hammer

is the opposite end to the face, and terminates in a rounded or
wedge-shaped point.
Note. — in its use the hammer should be grasped near the end of the
handle, giving it a fret arm swing, and carrying the head through a nearly
vertical plane. It the plane of the swing approaches a horizontal the weight
of the hammer will produce a twisting effort on the fore-arm, which will be
veiy tiresome. The handle should be grasped with only sufficient force to
Kafflv mnfirnl ihp hlmii^
FlQ. 630.
Fig. 631.
Fia-632.
VALVES AND COCKS.
The word valve comes from the Latin valva —a leaf, fold
or valve of a door (as of a folding door).
A valve may act automatically so as to be opened by the
effort of a fluid to pass in one direction and closed by its effort
to pass in the other direction, as a clack valve ; or it may be
opened or closed by hand or mechanism, as a screw valve or a
slide valve, hi the glossary at the beginning of this work, the
word has been carefully defined and several illustrations have
been given of various designs of the device which have come
into general use.
Valves are of several classes.
1. Rotary; such. SiS cocks, faucets, plug throttle-valves.
2. Lifting; raised clear from the seat by power beneath
such as ball, conical, cup, safety, poppet.

3. Hinged; such as clack, butterfly.
4. Sliding ; such as the slide, D> B and box.
5. Spring ; such as some forms of safety-valves, Snifting
'iand Relief valves.

6. Inverted-cup ; such as quicksilver valve, air trap, etc.
p 7.Key ; such as those of the organ, flute, etc.
Other names are derived from peculiar shape, application,
mode of actuation, etc.
A cock is a faucet or rotary valve usually taking its name
from its peculiar use or construction, as :
Blow-off cock, Self-closing cock,

Cylinder-cock, Steam-cock,
Feed-cock, Stop-cock,
Four-way cock, Three-way cock.
Gage-cock, Try-cock,
Oil-cock, Water-cock, etc.
—
Note. The above classification is that made by E. H. Knight, Civil and
mechanical Engineer, etc., and author of Knight's Mechanical Dictiona*-'
He adds: "The heart is created upon the principles of hydraulics, and 1»
furnished with a valve. Har\'ey deduced the circulation of the blood from
Aquapendente's discovery of the valvis in the veins."
—
As may be judged by the preceding paragraphs, giving the

names derived from their mechanical and other uses of several
only, of a great many varieties of valves, it were vain to at-
tempt a complete list of these devices it may be said however
;
that the whole system of modern mechanism would be, almost,

if not quite, a failure, if they were not used.
Hence, the student do well to familiarize himself with

will
the valve movements sure to be found in every combination of
industrial and mechanical forces.
A few illustrations of the adaptation of valves of various

designs to useful purposes now follow.
Acombined throttle and quick closing trip valve is shown

in Fig. 609, page 336 this is made by Schutte & Koerting Co.,
;
Philadelphia this apparatus is designed to fill the requirements

;
of an emergency shut-off; the valve is balanced and operates as

stop and throttle. The object of balancing the valve is to re-
move the strain from the spindle, so that its operation can be
effected quickly and with the least effort. The piston above the
valve is not tight fitting, and contains a small auxiliary or
pilot valve attached to the spindle, which opens in advance of
the opening of the main valve thus the pressure above the
;
piston and below the valve is equalized little effort is now

;
required to lift the main valve, at the same time the pilot valve,
E, answers the purpose of a by-pass.
The several proportions are such that a slight over-pressure
ismaintained above the piston to give the valve, at all times,
a tendency to close. This over-pressure should be but slight,
and to regulate it at will there is (besides the leak around the
piston) a separate steam admission above the piston, regulated
by the plug, C.
Depending on the fit of the piston, this plug is opened
more or less, or entirely closed, when valve is first put in oper-
ation, and then locked in that position.
Ordinarily the construction of this valve demands the ap-

plication of a screw-spindle to actuate it it is also made in
;
angle form and can be placed ivith spindle upward or horizontal.

Too^s, Valves and Piping. 349
In all positions, globe, inverted and angle valves, steam must

always enter above the disc, viz., in the direction of the arrows.
The operation by lever is demanded when a valve is used
as a gjiick emergency shut-off, either by hand or in connection
with automatic appliance of governor, electrical cut-off or
auxiliary, steam, air or hydraulic cylinder.
The valve itself is of the balanced form, except that in this
valve the spindle carries at the bottom a small piston or sleeve, Fy
shown in the figure. The valve is
locked open by moving hand lever

up till the catch on same engages
with the lever, G, supported on the
upright bar.
The valve being then open, steam
pressure acts on the area of the
piston, F, with continuous downward
force, which will cause the valve to
close as soon as the latch is released.
Thus, by connecting the rod on the
outer end of lever, G, with a hand
lever, at any desired location, the
operation is had without effort and
promptly.
A pressure reducing valve is shown
in outline and a side view in Figs. 633
and 634; this is in effect a (Mason)
pump pressure regulator and it is
applicable for fire, tank, elevator, air

Fig. C33.
and water works pumps, or any class
of pumping machinery where it is necessary to maintain a coi\
stant pressure. The regulator may be quickly adjusted to any
pressure desired by turning the key as shown in Fig. 633.
The especial feature of this regulator is that the pressure
chamber which the water enters is entirely removed and
into
separate from the steam and all working parts.
The long cylinder at the bottom of the regulator is a dash-

pot, the piston of which is connected with the main valve of
350 Pumps and ITydrau/us.
the regulator, thereby preventing sudden and violent "jump-

ing" of the pump when the pressure suddenly changes. These
valves are made in all the pipe sizes those up to and including
;
2-inch of the best steam metal ; the largest sizes of cast iron,
lined with steam metal. The springs are made of tJie finest tool
steel, tempered.
The Mason RegulatorCo.,
Boston, are to be credited
with the following directions
The regulator is placed in the
steam pipe leading from the boiler
to the steam pump and as near the
pump as possible. The connection
with the water system is made
either from the tank or from the
water system, at some little distance
from the pump. Brass pipe should
be used if possible, for this connec-
tion. The drip should be con-
nected to some pipe where there is
no back pressure. The steam from
the boiler enters at the point
marked steam inlet from boiler,
'
'
'
and thence through the passage, X,

through the port, which is kept
open by the tension of the spring,
79i upon the auxiliary valve, 80.
It continues down through the pas-
sage, Z, to the under side of the
differential piston, 70, and raises
the valve, 16, so that the boiler
pressure admitted to the pump
is
through the passage marked "steam

outlet to pump." This starts the
pump, which continues in motion until the required water pressure is ob-
tained in the system and acts through the connection marked "water
pressure inlet " on the diaphragm, 74. This diaphragm is raised by the ex-
cess of water pressure, and carries with it the auxiliary valve, 80, which
closes the port for steam pressure. By the closing of this valve, the boiler
pressure is shut off through the passage, Z, from the differential piston, 70,
and the steam pressure from the boiler immediately closes the main valve.
16, so that no more pressure is admitted to the pump, which remains inact-
ive until the water pressure in the system drops below the normal point and
Tools ^ Valves and Piping. 351
relieves the water pressure in the chamber, O, which causes the auxiliary
valve, 8o, toopen again, and starts the pump as before described. The check
valve, 71, which is placed in the bottom of the piston, 70, allows the pressiire
regulator to open easily, but stops the pump quickly. This is a great
advantage, as the pump will not start with a jump, the moment the water
drops. By changing the tension of the spring, 83, through the key stem,
85, the amount of water pressure can be regulated.
Mason water reducing valve. Fig. 635 is designed to reduce

the water pressure from the street water mains to a low
pressure, for houses and buildings. The body or valve portion
is with couplings, so that it
fitted
may be easily attached to a pipe.
That part of the valve above the
diaphragm, and which comes in con-
tact with the water, is made of the
46 48
best steam metal, thus preventing
corrosion. The long spring case is
made of heavy iron pipe, at the end
of which is an iron bracket, suitably
drilled, so that the valve may be
securely bolted either to the floor or
to a beam overhead. The tension of
the main spring is adjusted by means
of a small rod inserted in a nut at
the end of the spring case. The
diaphragm is very strong and will
hold several times the pressure re-
quired. The working of this regulator
is very simple. The water enters
Fig. 635.
through the inlet coupling, 45, and
passes through the chamber, 68, into the low pressure side of
the regulator, the valve, 43, being held open by the tension of
the spring, 53. When the low pressure has attained the
desired limit, which is also felt in the diaphragm chamber
through the hole which communicates with the chamber, 68,
it forces down the diaphragm and seats the valve, 43. When
the pressure again drops in the system, the diaphragm is forced
up by the spring, 53, and the valve, 43, again opens.
:
An automatic throttle valve for a boiler feed pump is shown

perspective and outline in Figs. 636 and 637 this is a governor
;
for the pump, controlled by the relative pressures of steam and

water. It is known as Mullins automatic controller and is
made at Seattle, Wash., and has the following features
Fig. 636.
simply a balance valve and differential piston it is in a

It is ;
class by itself, both as to

its construction and operation in regu-
lating feed water pressure in connection with steam boilers.
Fio. 637.
The initial steam pressure being on the ends of the valve,

has access, through the neck, to the full area of the piston, and
Tools, Valves and Piping. 353
will force it into a position that gives the full valve opening,
where it remain until overcome by water pressure from the
will
pump, acting against the opposite side, which is of reduced area.
It is necessary in operating this valve to have an excess of
water pressure over the steam pressure in the boiler. The excess
of the water pressure is obtained by the reduction of the area
of the water side of the piston —
thus to illustrate if the total—
area were lo square inches, and the reduction was one inch or
lo percent., it would require that the water pressure should be
lO per cent, greater than steam pressure, to give the same thrust
on the piston, then until the water has reached a pressure lo
per cent, in excess of the steam, the valve would be held open,
but thereafter it is held open only wide enough to admit steam
to the pump to keep up this lo per cent, excess pressure.
Should the excess pressure attempt to rise above this, it im-
mediately forces the steam valve nearly shut, thus nipping
the cause of the rise, namely, too great a piston speed.
The water pressure will vary only as the steam pressure
varies, always keeping the same per cent, of excess. The results
are directly opposite to what would or does occur where feed
—
Note. " In starting the pump, stand by until it has caught suction,
' '
and accumulated nearly the correct water pressure, now open the valve on
the pulse, or pressure pipe to the controller and open pump throttle wide,
thus giving the controller free action.
" Suppose the boiler pressure is loo pounds, the water pressure will be lo
per cent, higher or i lo lbs. Carrying an even fire, with water at second
gauge, feed valves properly set, the load suddenly increases, which pulls
steam down to 99 pounds, the water does not remain at 1 10 lbs. as before,
but is now 10 per cent, in excess of 90 lbs. or 99 lbs., thus in place of 10 lbs.
excess water pressure there is but 9 lbs., which means there will be less
water delivered through the feed valves, which will hardly ever have to be
touched.
—
" Next the load will lighten steam will rise, and the excess pressure will
automatically increase, thus restoring the water used at a time when it was
most necessary to lighten the feed to temporarily favor the fire.
"Suppose the load continues light, with good fires, steam rises to no
pounds, the water will rise to 10 per cent, more pressure or 121 pounds, thus
automatically giving more pressure to feed up on high steam, and store
' '
away the heat that would be wasted by radiation, absorption, or perhaps

blowing off."
water is delivered at a stated pressure. On a battery of boilers,

during the cleaning of fires, the closing of feed valves on one,
two or more boilers, does not affect the feed of those already
set in the least, the pump will simply make less strokes neces-
sary to properly feed the others.
The regulating isdone by the feed valves at the boilers if ;
it is desired, all feeds may be closed, and the pressure will not
rise, the pump will stop if its plungers need packing it will
;
FiQ. 638.
be detected by the fact that the

pump will creep, to keep up the re-
quired pressure. When feed valves
Fig. «».
are once regulated to admit the re-
quired amount of water, to replace the evaporation, they may be
marked, and when in this position, they, with an even steam pres-
sure, will always admit the same amount of water to the boilers.
It is understood that this valve is placed between the
ordinary throttle valve and the pump.

The Bordo blow-off valve is shown in Figs. 638 and 639; it con-
sists of a brass or iron body which resembles the shell of a plug-
cock, but with this difference, it has a sharper taper than the
regular plug-cock ; in this device the plug is usually made of
brass —tinned on the outside. In process of making and while

Tools, Valves and Piping. 355
hot a sheath of babbitt metal or its equivalent is cast upon the
plug; the metals amalgamate and practically become one casting.

The parts of valve are as follows, i, the body, 2, the
plug, the packing and lifting gland, 4, the lifting cam, 5, lock-
3,
nut, 6,two brass rings of equal size, with a special gasket be^
—
tween them all as shown in the engravings.
The valve is operated with a wrench on the square of the
plug. The lifting gland when adjusted is permanently held'.
by a lock-nut. By releasing the

lock-nut with the wrench and turn-
ing the gland to the left, the plug
is lifted so that it will turn easily.
When the lock-nutis moved up,
the lifting cam (which couples the

packing gland to the plug) can be
pulled out the gland is then free
;
to be removed for repacking. In

Fig. 6i/^.
use the best method of handling
is open and close the valve slowly never wit) a jerk.
to —
The tendency toward higher pressure steam boiler ins*"allation
has made apparent the need of a blow-off, like this one dencribed,.
made of strong material and correct in principle in fact the

;
high steam pressures now carried have almost made a revo-

lution in boiler appliances.
The Fig. 640 represents two valves applied to the end of a
The valve next to the boiler
blow-off pipe. is open at all times
excepting when the operating valve, next to the sewer is to

be attended to for repairs, etc.
The table below is intended to correspond with the letters
to be seen in the illustration, Fig. 640.
Table.
Size
in
Inches
PIPES, JOINTS
*Ho FITTINGS
FiQS. 611, 642.-See page 863.

PIPES AND FITTINGS.
A pipe was originally a wind instrument of music, consisting
of a tube or tubes of straw, reed, wood or metal ; in the litera-
ture of hydraulics this wind instrument becomes "« lo7ig tube or
hollow body of wood, metal, earthetiware, or the like ; especially,
one used as a conductor of water, steam, gas, etc.
A pipe fitter is one who fits pipes together, or applies pipes,
as to an engine or pump. A pipe fitter uses all the tools already
described and in addition several others.as stretched lines, the
spirit level and plumb-bob he also uses special devices to aid
;
in special cases ; by himself and

these are sometimes invented
sometimes belong to " the trade-lore " transmitted in the long
and varied operations of every successful shop. A pipe fitting
is a piece, as a coupling, a valve, etc., used for connecting
lengths of pipe or as accessory to a pipe. Joint comes from

the word join and means the place or part where two things or
parts are joined or united as a joint in a pipe. See note below.
Narrow surfaces make better and safer joints than wide
ones they are more quickly repaired with file or scraper, and
;
they are less liable to catch dirt at the moment of making

a joint. The limit of narrowness is that required to resist
strains that might crush the metal and spoil the face of the
joint.
Unless the joint is made metal to metal, fitting without any

orifice, the jointing material always softer than the pipes or
is
other things to be joined. way the jointing need not

In this
have dead-true surfaces, but, yielding under pressure, it adapts
itself to the space it has to fill. It must be dense enough and
hard enough to resist all the working strains and influences
Note. —In proportion as steam pressure gets higher joints are made
thinner and flanges smoother. In the past rough turning succeeded chip-
ping, rough filing followed with an application of the surface plate, and
finally the scraper was used to produce a dead-true surface, which is now
only cleaned and wet with heavy mineral oil to withstand any pressure
whatsoever.
359
3b0 Pumps and Hydraulics.
that are likely to act upon it. The jointing of a steam pipe
must resist the temperature of the steam, the water it carries
with it, the changes of tempera-
ture when the pipe cools during
intervals of work,and the strains
due to the weight of the pipe,
and also the internal pressure
of the steam. If it expands
differently from the metal in
the pipe, it must be sufficiently
elastic to compensate for this
expansion, otherwise it will leak
each time the pipes cool down.
Fig. 643.
The joint should be always
inside the line of bolts, and if
any joint material extends be-
yond, it would only help to
support the flange in case it
should spring. This, of course,
indicates faulty design, for
flanges ought to bear the strains
FlO. 644.
of jointing without perceptible
spring. Male and female flanges
are best for high pressures.
A very popular joint is made
with a planed or turned sur-
face and a sheet of paper of the
quality used to wrap bales of
paper. This is the last sur-
vival of the millboard. Rubbed
over the flange with a dirty hand
and cut out with a penknife
on a board, this is one of the
Fio, 615.
cheapest jointings known. This
paper has no lumps or grit in it, and if smeared with mineral
cylinder oil it may be separated several times before it is spoiled.

It is largely used on the faced joints of small engines and
Pipes and Fitfinf^s. 361
steam pumps. The mineral oil increases the life of the paper
when exposed to high steam. Sheet asbestos is better.
Hydraulic joints for high pressure require greater rigidity
than those of steam, but they do not have to bear high tem-
peratures. The jointing material may be more or less plastic,
such as leather, rubber or gutta
percha. It is generally inclosed in
a groove in the flange, and com-
pressed by a projection fitting the
groove, so that expansion of the
jointing is arrested and the space
Fig. 647.
\7m////'"""'/w»w//''''''
Fig. 650. Fig. 651.
is completely filled. There is no better principle for joints

than this where packing is used between flanges. At a pressure
of three tons to the inch, every square sixteenth of an inch
must resist a power equal to twenty-six pounds ; the joint must
therefore be non-porous.
362 Pumps and Hydra^dics.
There are compounds used for making joints on which the

plastic matter,which is subject to much changeof volume be-
tween the liquid and solid state, is mixed with a neutral sub-
stance, like sand, which, combining mechanically with it,
replaces from 90 to 95 per cent, of

the total mass, and reduces its shrink-
age to an inappreciable quantity.
Another class of joints is that
intowhich the jointing material is
poured in a liquid state. Most of
those liquids, such as lead, pitch,
putty, sealing-wax, beeswax, or clay,
shrink when
they dry or cool.
Others, Portland cement and
like
certain metallic alloys, do not change
Fig. 652.
in volume. Others, again, like sulphur
and plaster of Paris, increase in
volume in setting. These substances
all vary in their elasticity, qualities
of density, hardness, and powers of

resisting heat, cold and moisture.
The duty of a joint must, therefore,
be well considered before the mate-
rial is chosen, after which the recess
in which it is to lie must be carefully
Fig. 653.
designed so as to firmly hold the mate-
rial and with the least possible waste.
Kerosene, from its solvent powers,
willdestroy joints of rubber or of
cements compounded with oils. Kero-
sene tanks are, therefore, rust-jointed
and calked. As kerosene does not
Fig. 654.
dissolve anything that is soluble in
water or alcohol, kerosene casks are coated with glue to make
them tight. India rubber may be used as a kerosene joint if in-
closed like the hydraulic joint, and prevented from swelling. It is
then unable to absorb the liquid. But leather is very much better.
Pipes and Fittings. 363
In making up a piece of piping in which several fittings are

quite close together, each fitting
is tightened separately do not ;
follow the common practice of making up loosely at first

and then tightening all together by applying a wrench to the
fitting farthest from the main connection, as this process does
not insure tight joints and the intermediate fittings, nipples,
etc., are subjected to an unnecessary torsional strain.
The proper arrangement of pipe connections have already

been alluded to in Part One, page 222 it is a subject whose
;
importance can scarcely be magnified for if any difficulty is ex-

perienced in making a pump work properly when first started,
it will generally be found to proceed from imperfect con-
nections, and remains true quite to the end of the useful-
this
ness of the pump. By a careful study of the illustration above
mentioned, a good degree of attention will be repaid.
Figs, 641 and 642 represent pipes which are specially in-
tended for mine pump columns or discharge pipes." They are
made in sizes from six inches to thirty inches outside diameter ;
they are of wrought iron, lap welded and tested to a pressure

of five hundred pounds to the square inch they are fitted with ;
cast iron or steel flanges, bolts and gaskets which face square
with the center line of the pipe.
These flanges are shrunk on the pipe as shown in the figures,
expanded and flared inside.
Fig. 643 represents a male and female flange joint metal to
metal combined with and forming a part of the pipe it is used ;
for special work and conditions. Fig. 644 is the usual screwed
sleeve threaded connection with right hand coupling. Fig. 645
is a much used male and female flange union screwed for the
reception of standard wrought iron pipe. Fig. 646 illustrates
the common threaded malleable iron union and Fig. 647 the
plain light malleable iron tee.
NOTB. —Attention of the reader is directed to that part of the Glossary

in the opening pages of Part One which relates to pipe and fittings as being
closely related to this division of the work and which may be considered as
an introduction to what is now adde/.
Steam Pipe Lines. These are constructed of cast iron or

wrought iron and used for conveying a supply of steam from
the boilers to engines, pumps, turbines and other machines
driven by steam. Usually these lines are built up with straight
pipe and " fittings." The names of the latter are as follows
elbows; forty-fives (45°); tees; plugs; caps; reducers (or bush-
ings); nipples; valves; unions (with ground, perishable, and
flange joints); couplings (reducing and right and left); crosses
.special fittings, such as elbows and tees of a nominal size re-
f V )\[C^
L?i]lL?
Fig. 655. Fig. 656. Fig. 657.
Note. —
Cast iron was formerly entirely employed for steam pipe, but
now never used for high pressures.
it is
While lead and iron pipe have taken the place of the old log pipes of
former days for carrying water and sundry purposes, there are still uses for
which wooden pipe is better adapted than any of the metal pipes a new ;
kind of wire wound wooden pipe has been made. Bach length is built up
of staves, wound with galvanized steel wire under tension. The sizes are
made 2 to 8 inches internal diameter. The staves are kiln-dried, % inch to
xYz inch thick. Joints are made with a male and female socket on the small
sizes, and a sleeve and butt joint on the larger sizes, 8- inch pipe of this type,
wound with No. 4 copper wire, has been tried, where acid water rapidly
destroys ordinary pipes, with excellent results. This pipe has been tested
to 500 pounds pressure, it is lighter to handle and is not so liable to burst as
cast iron.
Pipes and Fittings. 365
duced at some point to a smaller size to avoid the use of re-

ducers angle, check, and gate valves, and plug cocks locknuts.
; ;
The proper anchoring and supporting of large steam mains

is important. It is preferable to allow the system to expand
in the proper direction without stress and at the same time
avoiding vibration. The illustrations will give an idea of the
method used in supporting pipes and allowing for expansion.
Fig. 657 shows a wall bracket upon which the rollers support-
ing the pipe and allowing for the expansion and contraction
are attached. Fig. 655 shows a bracket with an adjustable
single roll, which may be adjusted to suit the pitch of the pipe
at the same time allow the pipe to expand.
Fig. ^55 shows a bracket with one adjustable roll designed

formain steam pipes. This is an elaborate device but would
be appreciated in buildings where everything is wanted to make
up a strictly first class line of details.
Fig. 657 represents an extension of the same idea in which

one bracket is made to carry two lines of pipe smaller than the
one shown in the preceding illustration. Fig. 656 is a support
made of one inch round iron and answers every purpose where
all of these designs of pipe hangers permit of free expansion
and contraction of the pipes.

It is bad practice to support the main steam pipes over
boilers by hangers from the building as the building may settle
in a different degree from the boiler hence the steam pipes are
not properly supported, i. e., they are either strained unneces-
sarily by the upon the hangers or they are permitted to
strain
support themselves it is better to support them by iron props
;
underneath, made by screwing a flange upon the end of apiece

of pipe of proper length and having a wrought iron crotch with
thread and nut for adjustment inserted in the upper end.
The flange on the prop restsupon the boiler walls while the
crotch fits the pipe and by means of the nut any desirable
elevation
el of the steam pipe may be secured. For when the
oilers settle as they will the pipes and connections all settle
ogether.
II
Fia. 656. Fio.659. Fia. 660.
Fio. 66S. Fio. 666.

Pii)es and Fittings. 3^7
Fig. 648 shows the common wrought iron right-hand sleeve

coupling 2ind Fig. 649 a plain lock nut.
Fig. 650 shows the bell and spigot connection commonly
used for joining cast iron water or soil pipes, the joint being
formed by pouring melted lead into the cavity inside the bell.
The melted lead is prevented from escaping by damming up
the opening with a turn of oakum at the bottom and fire clay
at the top of the joint. After the lead cools it is calked with
a calking tool. Fig. 651 is similar to Fig. 643 only the latter
has plain flanges with a gasket, A, B, inserted.
Fig. 652 represents an improvement on the union shown in
Fig. 646. It is known The improvement
as the Dart-union.
consists in the substitution of a ball and socket joint made of
composition brass or bronze ground joint and enclosed within
the malleable iron case ; unions are particularly desirable for
where it would be next to impossible to
inaccessible locations
reach the union to renew the gasket.
Fig. 653 is an extra heavy beaded malleable iron ie^, while
Fig. 654 shows a common threaded cast iron pipe plug.

The on page 366 are one half end views, divided on
figures
the center of brass and iron tubing; they are reduced in
line,
size, but show their relative thickness, from one eighth inch
•up to four inches inclusive.
The " Standard" sizes are shown 663 and 664.
in Figs.
The ^^ extra strong'' are represented in Figs. 658, 661 and
662.
The double extra strong is shown in Figs. 659, 660, 665
and 66^.
All " tubing," including boiler tubes, is measured by the
outside diameters, while gas and steam pipe,'including cast iron

water pipe is designated by the inside diameter.
X^M Note. — The best way of jointing hydraulic pipes has been the subject of
much practical experiment. A
guttapercha ring has been universally
adoptea as the best means of preserving the joint watertight. Modified
form of this joint is made by casting a projection on the pipe beyond the
flange, the bell and spigot being formed on this projection. The effect is
^_ to increase the depth and the strength of the flange, without an increase of
^ft its section at the junction between the flange and the pipe.
I'
368 Pumps ana Hydraulics.
Much might be said regarding duplicate pipe systems, both

for and against. The general practice is coming to be that of
subdividing into units, while in smaller plants the duplicate
system is used. The service and conditions govern the method
of piping, which should be such in every instance as to prevent
a shut down due to accident in some part of the system.
All the fittings in the pipe system of a plant should be of
the best quality, and the piping for high pressures should be
extra heavy to withstand the test of time and usage. Water
pipes, when of commercial wrought iron, should be galvanized.
In laying out a line of
piping or in replacing a
portion of an existing line
the measurements should
be taken from center to
center of the various fit-
tings the allowance for

;
the threaded part of the

pipe can be made after
the center-to-center and
^
Coi/fiMc
over-all measurements have been made and before the pipe is

cut. Experience teaches what to allow for the threaded part
on different sizes of pipe. The accompanying engraving gives an
illustration of how the measurements on a pipe system are made.
As, for example, A represents the distance, center-to-center, from elbow

to tee B, from the starting place to center of elbow
; C, the distance,
;
center-to-center, of the two elbows ;D, from the starting place to the center
of the globe valve E, the center of the globe valve to the center of the tee,
;
and F, from the center of the tee to the center of the elbow.
Gshows the center of the elbow to the center of the union H, from;
the center of the union to the center of the tee, and I, from the center of the
tee to the center of the elbow J, from the center of the elbow to the center
;
of the coupling, and K, from the center of the coupling to the final tee ; all
as indicated by the arrow heads and crosses.
USEFUL NOTES
" There are many fingers pointing to the value of a
training in science, as the one thing needful to make the
man, who shall rise above his fellows.'' —Frank Aubn.
1
"A heavy wager has been laid
That there are tricks in every trade,*'
USEFUL NOTES
Relating to Pumps and their Management
happens at times that a pump, with the full pressure

It
against which it is expected to work, resting upon the dis-
charge valves, refuses to lift water for the reason that air within
the pump chamber is not dislodged, but only compressed by
the motion of the plunger. It is well, therefore, to arrange for
running without pressure until the air is expelled and water
follows. This is done by placing a check valve in the delivery
pipe, and providing a waste cock in the discharge chamber to be
closed after the pump has caught water. A
stop valve is also
required for shutting off the back pressure when the pump
can be opened for examination of the valves.
*
If any experienced in making a pump work
difficulty is
properly when first started, it will generally be found in leaks
through imperfect connections, or from the temporary stiffness
to be expected in a new machine, or perhaps leaky valves.
If, when standing at the suction end of a centrifugal pump,

looking over pump shell toward pulley, the top of shaft re-
volves from right to left, or against the sun, the pump is right
hand, and if from left to right, or with the sun, // is left hand.
*
A pump should be located in a convenient as well as a clean
place. It should be well set upon a suitable foundation, so
that it may be free from vibration or jar; this "note" applies
to direct-acting, self-contained pumps, as well as to others.
* #
871
The economical operation of a pump depends, to a great

extent, upon the kind and condition of the packing in the
stuffing-boxes and pistons, its quality, adaptability to particular
requirements, and the method of placing it in the stufifing-boxes
and plungers.
« «
*
Almost all the stuffing-boxes on pumps are too shallow and
the glands too short. To keep a rod tight under these condi-
tions the packing must be of the proper size and quality, and
it must be put in with a view to securing the greatest possible
degree of elasticity, so that the rod may be kept tight with the
least pressure on the packing.
To do this, it is best to select packing which will permit a

number of narrow rings to be used instead of a few wide rings.
The rings next to the bottom will become dry and hard before
those next to the glands of the box are half worn out. If a
number of narrow rings are used, the dry ones may be removed
and duplicated by new ones and replacing the rest of the
packing in the stuffing-box. This method economizes packing
and secures a tight yet freely working rod.
When patent square packings are used, it makes less differ-

ence whether the rings are narrow or wide, because the surface
in contact with the rod will be nearly continuous in either case.
When cutting packing rings, the length should be such that

the ends do not come together within \ inch when put into the
stuffing-box, and the rings are put in to break joints, which
prevents leakage through them.
When inserting this packing, the rings are put in one at a
time, using a piece of hard wood to push them to the bottom
of the stuffing-box and firmly against one another. The stuf-
fing-box should be filled as full as it can be, and start the nuts
on the studs by hand. Screw up the nuts with the hand and
then start the pump If leakage occurs do not attempt
slowly.
to tighten the nut while the rod is in motion, and in all cases
Useful Notes. 373
tighten it only enough to stop the leakage. A

sHght leakage
at the water end is not harmful. A
little cylinder oil and
graphite occasionally applied to the rod will tend to keep it

smooth and bright, which condition is favorable to the dura-
bility of the rod and of the packing.
*
When cutting rings of packing for the water piston or
plunger, the rings should be \ inch short, as previously de-
scribed, page 372.
* *
Packing should fit the grooves in solid pistons moderately

tight, so that the packing can be pushed into the grooves with
the fingers. The depth of the packing should be such that the
iston will fit the bore of the water cylinder snugly when first
ut in. If packing of the proper depth cannot be obtained, it
is better to have the grooves turned to receive standard sizes
I packing and not require special sizes. Cutting hydraulic

packing is a tedious job, consuming a great deal of unnecessary
ime.
i
^H
^w
» *
power to feed into the bottom of a tank than

// takes less
on account of the weight of water in the
does into the top,
tank. The bottom of the tank holds up all the water except
the column directly over the opening of the delivery pipe, so
that the additional pressure on the pump is due only to the
depth of water in the tank, not to the size of the body, and it
is impossible to feed into the top without increasing the height
of the column fully as much. It makes no difference whether
the height is due to the depth of the water inside the tank or
an additional length of pipe outside.
* *
*
duty of the air pump is solely to get rid of the water
KThe
nd air in the condenser. It adds to the efficiency of the con-
ensing apparatus, and renders its operation continuous its ;
valve being thrown by the action of its own piston, it must

complete its stroke in length whether the piston is moving in
air, water or vapor.
Pumps should be kept clean internally and externally. In

order to keep a pump clean internally it must be inspected and
oiled internally at regular intervals the same as it is
externally.
* *
When pumps fail to work properly the difficulty is generally
located in one of three places, viz. : the water end, the steatn
end or the suction pipe.
« *
*
The several parts of the valve gear of a single cylinder pump
should be marked when the pump works properly, then any
trouble due to the slipping of the collars or tappets can readily
be remedied; if the nuts and set screws are kept tight,
derangements occur only at long intervals.
The principal difficulties encountered with steam pumps

are not generallydue to improper steam distribution, but to
wear, as may be seen hence by inspecting pumps at regular
;
intervals many unpleasant occurrences and accidents can be

avoided. '
*
The steam pipe leading to a pump should be so arranged that
the water of condensation, while the pump is idle, may not
pass through the steam chest and cylinders, and wash off the
lubricating oil. Drip cocks should be attached to steam pipes
and all large pipes should have separators and steam traps.
* #
Pumps that are generally operated at moderately high

speeds and with high lifts may be made to work more smoothly
by placing a vacuum chamber on the suction pipe.
*
Valves in the suction pipe should have the stems carefully
packed and kept tight air leaks in valve stem stuffing-boxes
;
are too often overlooked.

* *
Stoppage of the suction pipes or chamber is generally in-
dicated by a jerky action and pounding of the plungers or water
Useful Notes. 375.
pistons, while a dull thud at the ends of the stroke is more
often due to a lack of air in the air chamber, or when the speed
is high, to a lack of capacity in the air chamber.
The steam ends of pumps require the same lubrication as the

cylinders and valves of engines. Intermittent lubrication is
never to be recommended even for slow running pumps. Sight

feed oil cups are always preferred.
* *
A sight feed lubricator zonn^ztÂ to the steam pipe below
the throttle or to the steam chest is automatic in its operation.
All that is necessary is to fill it. When the speed increases

the feed increases and when the pump stops the feed stops.
An oil hand pump is also desirable to introduce a mixture of
oil and graphite, about lO per cent of graphite.
» *
*
The water end stuffing-boxes of a pump may be lubricated
by putting a heavy grease on the piston rods, or good cylinder
oil may be used when grease is not at hand. Some of the grease
works into the stuffing-boxes and furnishes better lubrication

than can be obtained by the water alone. Care must be used
not to use too much oil as it must not go beyond the stuflfing-
boxes and contaminate the water.
When a pump works properly under high pressures and fails

to work under low pressures, the difficulty is generally found
in the lift of the valves.
When the water end of a pump is known to be in good con-

dition failure to run properly will in all probability be discovered
in the steam end, and in single cylinder pumps the fault is
generally caused by clogging of the auxiliary valves and ports.
Sometimes pieces of packing break of! and get into these small
ports, thus shutting off the admission or release of steam.
When one side of a duplex pump makes a quick stroke it in-
dicates either that the stuffing-box gland of the opposite side

is too tight or that the packing in the cylinder of the side ma-
king the quick stroke is wearing out or has, perhaps, given way.
A broken discharge or suction valve will also cause a " jerky "
motion of the pistons.
* *
*
Pumps should be examined frequently in order to know
what parts are beginning to wear and how fast the wear is ta-
king place. When this is done the worn parts can, in the
majority of cases, be taken out and replaced by new ones be-
fore they give out entirely, thus avoiding delay, but what is
better, duplicated parts kept on hand r^Sidy at a moment's notice.
The regular inspection of the screen in the separating chamber

in the suction pipe renders frequent inspections of the interior
of the pump unnecessary, the inspection previously alluded to
is generally easier and more quickly done.
* *
*
Considerable wear can and frequently does take place in a
pump in the course of six months, and for this reason it is advi-
sable to inspect the interiors at shorter intervals, say four
months pumps and once in three months for
for general service
boiler feed pumps. More frequent inspections should be made
when handling dirty water.
* *
When a pump has run faster one zveek than the week
to
previous in order to supply approximately an equal volume of
water, the plungers and valves should be examined, because
such behavior indicates leakage.
* *
*
The sight feed lubricator should be filled in the morning so
as to be empty by night, thus permitting the water to be
drained out without wasting oil. Draining the delivery valve
chest will also drain the delivery pipe up to the check valve if
those pipes are above the chest and without water seals in
them. If this pipe is arranged below the pump, then separate
drain cocks should be provided and should be placed at the
lowest positions in the piping.
Useful Notes. 377
When a pump fails to start after standing for some time it
should be primed by filling the barrel with water and starting

the pump slowly. If after priming it fails to raise water, the
suction pipe should be examined and also the plungers and
the valves. If the plunger packing has become dry and hard,
merely filling the water end with water will not at once remedy
the trouble because the packing must be thoroughly soaked
before it will work properly.
Pumps should be packed with the same care and consideration

as used with the best steam engines. The rods should be
is
packed just tight enough to prevent leakage, and the packing

renewed often enough to keep it soft and pliable, in which state
it readily absorbs oil. Old packing will upon examination be
frequently found full of sand and small particles of grit.
Metallic packings are now extensively used on steam piston

rods and upon the rods of air pumps.
* *
When priming and draining a pump the air cock in the air
chamber should also be opened. The drain and cylinder cocks
at the steam end should be opened before closing the throttle
the steam should be shut off at the boiler when stopping at
night so as to drain the entire pipe.
*
Pumps that are exposed to low temperatures in winter
should be provided with removable drain plugs or drain cocks
for emptying the cylinders and valve chambers of water and
also allowing the water to flow out of the suction pipe.
The friction in pipes, •whtth.Qrol cdiSX. iron, steel or copper,

depends upon the internal smoothness of the pipe and the
velocity of the water, as well as the number and kind of ells,
tees and valves in the pipe. Wrought iron lap welded pipe,
for steam, is preferable to either cast iron or copper. It is
smoother internally than cast iron, and is lighter and costs less
than copper, and is much stronger and safer than either.
*
It may be said when an engine is run without a condenser

the steam with which the cyHnder is filled at the end of the
stroke has to be forced out against the pressure of the atmosphere,
about 15 pounds to the square inch. It is possible from the
nature of steam to remove the atmospheric pressure with a
decided gain in almost all cases.
One pound of steam at atmospheric pressure occupies 1,642

times as much room as it does in the state of water. If, there-
fore, when the stroke has been completed, and we are ready for
the piston to come back, we inject a little cold water into the
spent steam, it will condense to about one i6c)Oth of its volume,
and leave a vacuum into which the piston can return without
having to force back the atmosphere. This is the way the
earlier vertical engines were run, the condensation taking place
in the cylinder itself, and, moreover, the vacuum was all that
made the engine operative, for the steam carried was but little
above atmospheric pressure.
#
*
*
The velocity of water entering a suction pipe depends upon
two things, the vacuum in the pipe and the vertical lift of the
water. The longer the suction pipe, vertically, the greater the
frictional resistance to the flow of water; the flow of water
through small discharge pipes should not exceed four hundred
feet per minute, and for large pipes five hundred feet per
minute.
A locomotive-boiler compound. The lines of a certain great

R. R. traverse a country where the water is very hard and they
are compelled to resort to some method of precipitating the
lime that is held in solution. After many tests and experiments
they have made a compound and use it as follows in a barrel :
of water of a capacity of fifty gallons they put 21 lbs. of car-

bonate of soda, or best white soda ash of commerce, and 35 lbs.
of white caustic soda; the cost, per gallon, is about 2\ cents.
The compound is carried in this concentrated form, in calomine

cans on the tender of each locomotive. A
certain amount,
Useful Notes. 379
according to the necessities of the case, is poured into the ten-

der at the water tank at each filHng. This amount is deter-
mined by analysis, and varies all the way from two to fifteen
pints for two thousand gallons of water. The precipitating
power compound may be taken roughly at f of a pound
of this
of the carbonate of lime, or equivalent amount of other material,
per pint of the compound. On their western lines where they
are dealing with alkali waters and those containing sulphates,
the company use merely 60 pounds of soda ash to a barrel of
water. When the water is pumped into the boiler the heat
completes the precipitation and aggregation of the particles,
and this does away with all trouble of the boiler or injector
tubes clogging up.
* *
*
It has been recently determined by some German experi-
menters that sugar effects a strong action in steam boilers; it has

an acid reaction upon the iron which dissolves it with a disen-
gagement of hydrogen. The amount of damage done increases
with the amount of sugar in the water. These results are worthy
of note in sugar refineries and places where sugar sometimes
finds its way into the boilers by means of the water supplied.
The experiments in question also show that zinc is strongly at-
tacked by sugar ; copper, tin, lead and aluminium are not

attacked. ^ ^
White oak bark, used by tanners, has an excellent effect on

boiler incrustations. It may be used as follows Throw into :
the tank or reservoir from which the boilers are fed a quantity
of bark in the piece, in sufficient quantity to turn the water to
a light brown color. Repeat this operation every month at
least, month. Add
using only half the quantity after the first
a very small quantity of the muriate of ammonia, about one

pound for every 2,000 gallons of water used. This will have
the effect of softening as well as disintegrating the carbonate of
lime and other impurities deposited by the action of evaporation.
Note. — Care
must be exercised in keeping the bark, as it becomes
broken from the pump valves and blow-off valves. This may be accom-
ixp,
plished by throwing it into the reservoir confined in a sac.k.
Among the best samples of boiler compounds ever sent to the

laboratory for analysis were those found to be composed of
Sal-soda 40 Pounds
Catichu 5
Sal-ammoniac 5 "
This solution was formerly sold at a good round but figure,
since its nature became more generally known, not found
it is
in the market, but it is largely used, consumers putting it up

in lots sufificient to last a year or so at a time.
The above is recommended by those who have
strongly
used it, one pound of the mixture being added to each barrel
of water used, but after the scale is once thoroughly removed
from the boiler, the use of sal-soda is all that is necessary.
There are other evils sometimes inherent in hard waters

above the mere production of a crust. Some waters con-
tain a great deal of soluble magnesia salts, together with com-
mon salt. When this is the case there is a great probability of
corrosion, for the former is attacked by steam at high pressure
in such a way that muriatic acid fumes are produced, which
seriously corrode the boiler,and what is far worse, passes with
the steam into the engine, and sets up corrosion in the cyl-
inders and other delicate fittings with which the steam comes
in contact. All this can, however, be obviated by the removal
of the magnesia from the water.
« *
When water attains a high temperature, as it does under in-
creasing pressure, ranging from 175° to about 420° Fahr., all car-
bonates, sulphates and chlorides are deposited in the following
order
First.Carbonate of lime at 176° and 248° Fahr.
Second. Sulphate of lime at 248° and 420°.
Third. Magnesia, or chlorides of magnesium, at 324° and 364°.
It is to take advantage of this fact that mechanically ar-
ranged jets, sprinklers and long perforated pipes are introduced
into the interior of a steam boiler these tend to scatter the
;
depositing impurities and also to bring the feed water more

quickly to the highest possible temperature.
Useful Notes. 381
Where fuel is expensive and pumps are used for con,

tinuous service under high and unusually high pressures it is
oftentimes advisable to operate the pumps condensing. This
may be done, when the pump lifts water by suction, without a
separate condenser by connecting the exhaust pipe with the

suction pipe, as shown in Fig. 667. Assume that the pump
has been working properly for from 3 to 5 minutes with
the valve A nearly closed and the valve B
a little open, the
valve A is now quickly closed and B
opened. In operating
these valves both hands should be used, so that they may be
opened and closed simultaneously.
So penetrati?ig is water at high pressure that only special
qualities of cast iron will be tight against it. In the early days
Fig. 667.
of the hydraulic jack it was no uncommon thing to see water

issuing like a fine needle through the metal, and the water needle
is said to penetrate the flesh as readily as one of steel.
The engraving, Fig. 668, represents a novel device for

preventing the bursting of water pipes by freezing. This is
simply an air chamber placed in the horizontal part of the
pipe, with the chamber on top side so that the ice may expand
into this chamber, and so its force is expended upon the air
^Jnstead of bursting the pipe.
HI This device also acts as an air chamber and prevents
"water hammer.". It is made by the Anti-bursting pipe Co.,
^îttsburg, Pa.
When it becomes necessary to make a quick connection

into a main steam pipe without breaking joints, a saddle such
as either of those shown in Fig. 669 and Fig. 670 may be applied
by simply cutting or drilling a hole through the main steam
pipe.
Fig. 6t)8.
To make the joint, the rough lumps should be filed off the
outside of the pipe and red lead rubbed on to mark the sur-
face, to show when the fit is properly made. Then lay on
with a brush a thiii mixture of red lead and varnish and
quickly screw the saddle in place. Such joints seldom or never
leak when allowed to thoroughly dry before use.
FiQ. 669, FiQ. 670.
When it becomes necessary to cut square packing to reduce

its depth, place the packing in a vise, allowing the stock to be
removed to project above the jaws, as shown in Fig. 671.
With the aid of a draw-knife the work can be quickly and
easily done. It is difficult to cut the packing evenly. If the
rings have an uneven bearing on the bottom of the grooves
leakage is likely to occur when the pump is first started.
Useful Notes, 383
The follower type of water piston can readily be packed

without removing it from the cylinder, providing rings of the
proper depth and length are at hand The old packing rings
can be removed with a packing hook. Take the new ring and
start one end with a soft stick, and push the remainder of the
ring firmly against the collar or flange at the inner end of the
piston, as shown in the engraving. Fig. 672. Arrange the
several rings so as to break joints.
Method of packmg a follower piston. Coat the sides of the
rings with a thick paste of cylinder and Dixon's Flake
oil
graphite, which will prevent the rings from sticking together.
Fig. 671.
Pump packingcatinot be readily examined and is liable to

fail any time, therefore several rings, cut to the proper
at
length, should be kept on hand. This may be easily done by
making a pattern ring, which is nothing more or less than a
ring of packing which has been fitted into the piston and is
known to be of the proper length. The extra rings can then be
cut at odd times, and when occasion demands it the water
piston can be packed very quickly and the pump started.
Care should be taken when about to pack a boiler feed
pump or other pump subjected to high pressure to see that the
cylinders are relieved before loosening the cylinder head bolts.
This may be accomplished by closing the valve in the delivery
pipe,and also in the suction pipe if the pump receives water

;
under pressure, open the air cock on the air chamber and
cylinder cocks.
Pump slip or slippage represents the difference between the
calculated and the actual discharge of a pump, which is gen-
erally expressed as a percentage of the calculated discharge.
Thus, when the slippage is given as fifteen per cent, it indicates
that the loss due to shp amounts
to fifteen per cent, of the cal-
culated discharge. Slippage is
due to two causes, the time re-
quired for the suction and dis-
Fio. 672 charge valve to seat, due to ex-
cessive speed. When the piston
speed is so high that
the water cannot
enter the pump fast
enough to completely
fill the cylinder only
a partial cylinder full

of water is delivered
at each stroke. High
speeds also increase
slippage, due to the
seating of the valves.
Graphite as a lubri-
cant is almost with-
out a rival. It is one

of the forms under
which carbon appears
in nature it is also known under the name of plumbago and
;
black lead ; it is soft and oily to the touch it is a conductor of

;
electricity; it is a lubricant that allows pipe joints to be

screwed up to the tightest possible fit. Graphite remains upon
the threads preventing rust, and it so preserves its peculiar
properties that pipe can be unscrewed without effort eight or
ten years after the joints have been made.
:
Useful Notes. 385
It is difficult to lift hot water by suction, btit not everyone

can explain the cause ; the reason is as follows
A
be a vessel in which a vacuum exists, and
_
In Fig. 674, let
let it communicate by a tube, as shown, to the lower vessel
containing water. The pressure of the atmosphere upon the
surface will force the water up into the pipe
until the column is high enough to exert a
pressure per square inch equal to that of the
A cubic
atmosphere. inch of water weighs
J
^
a^r =(d
Fig. 673. FiQ. 674.
ibout 1-28 of a pound, so that it will take 28 cubic inches to

weigh a pound, or a column 28 inches high to exert a pressure
of one pound per square inch. The atmospheric pressure is 14.7
pounds, or to avoid fractions, say, 15 pounds. This pressure
would then support a column -^— —=

^
12
35 fêt high ; that is„
386 Pu7nps and Hydraulics.
the column a-c in Fig. 674 would be 35 feet in height. Attach

a gauge at or above the top, a, of a column, and it will indi-
cate a perfect vacuum if the gauge were attached 28 inches
;
below would indicate a pressure of one pound above ab-

a, it
solute zero, or a vacuum of 15 1 — =

14 pounds; and if the
gauge were moved further downward, it would indicate an in-
creasing pressure, that is, a diminishing vacuum, at the rate of
one pound for every 28 inches of the water column above it,
until at the level of the water in the tank the pressure would
be 15 pounds absolute, and the vacuum would be zero.
Now, suppose the pipe to be lowered until the distance
from the bottom of the vessel, A, to the water level, r, is 21
feet. In that case we will have the pressure of the atmosphere
(15 pounds) forcing the water up into the vessel, and the
column 21 feet high, or —28— =

21X12
— 9. pounds, opposing it. The
difference, 15 —9=6
pounds, is available to force the water
into the chamber. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 673,
where A
is a pump cylinder then the difference in pressure,
;
6 pounds, lifts the valve, and the water enters the pump cham-
ber with a velocity due to that pressure. In order to insure
smooth and quiet running of the pump, it is necessary to keep
the speed of the piston inside of the velocity with which the
cylinder would fill under this pressure, reduced by the friction
of the water, the pressure required to lift the valves, etc.
But this supposes that there is a perfect vacuum in A, and
we cannot realize this in contact with hot water. Water at any
temperature will boil unless it is under a pressure equal to or
greater than that corresponding with the temperature. Water
at 60 degrees F. will boil if the pressure upon its surface is re-
duced to a quarter of a pound per square inch, and iitthe case
shown in Fig. 674, it would boil and fill the space with A
steam at that absolute pressure.
NoTR. —Water at170 degrees F. will boil if its pressure is reduced below
6 ]~o.inils absolute, and
if the water were at this temperature in Fig. 673, the
cylinder, A wouM he filled with steam at 6 ]ionnds pressure and this added
. ;
to the 9 |>o'.in(!s pressure of the cohuuii would completely alance the atmos-
1
pheric prvo. u and Iho water would not rise above the level, A.
•(.•,
388 Pumps and Hydraului.
Wia.w^
TABLES AND DATA.
Miner's Inch Measurement. The term miner s inch is of
California origin, and not known or used in any other locality,
it being a method of measurement adopted by the various ditch
companies in disposing of water to their customers. The term is
more or less indefinite for the reason that the water companies
do not all use the same head above the center of the aperture,
and the inch varies from 1.36 to 1.73 cubic feet per minute
each, but the most common measurement' is through an
aperture 2 inches high and whatever length is required, and
through a plank i^ inches thick, as shown in the engraving,
Fig. 675. The lower edge of the aperture should be 2 inches
above the bottom of the measuring box, and the plank 5 inches
high above the aperture, thus making a 6-inch head above the
center of the stream. Each square inch of this opening re-
presents a miner's inch, which is equal to a flow of i^ cubic
feet per minute. Time is not to be considered in any calculation
based upon a miner's inch measurement.
Explanation of Weir Dam Measurement, Place a board or
plank edgewise across the stream to be measured as illustrated
in Fig. 676.
This plank will be supported by posts sufficiently strong to

resist the pressure likely to be brought upon it by the head of
water which will form in the pond above this temporary dam,
saw out a gap in the top of the dam whose length should be
from two to four times its depth for small quantities of water
and longer for larger quantities. The edges of this gap should
be beveled toward the intake as represented. The over-fall
below the bottom of gap should be not less than twice its
depth, that is, twelve inches if the gap is six inches deep, etc.
Drive a stake above the dam at a distance of about six feet
from the face of plank and then obstruct the water until it rises
precisely to the bottom of the gap and mark the water level on
the stake. Complete the dam so that all the water will be com-
pelled to flow through the gap and when the stream has as-
sumed a regular flow mark the stake at this new level.
889
390 Pumps and ffydraulics.
Some would prefer to drive the stake with its top precisely
level with the bottom edge of gap in dam so that the depth of
water in stream may be measured with a rule or steel square
placed upon top of this stake at any time after the flow of water
has reached its average depth over dam. However the marks
upon the stake are preferred by most experts. After the stake
has been marked it may be withdrawn and the distance between
the first and last marks gives the theoretical flow according to
the table, page 391.
Measurement in an open stream by velocity and cross section.

Measure the depth of the water at from 6 to 12 places across
the stream at equal distances apart. Add together all the
depths in feet and divide by the number of measurements made;
this will be the average depth of the stream, which, multiplied
by its width, will give its area or cross section. Multiply this
by the velocity of the stream in feet per minute which gives
the cubic feet per minute of the stream.
Tables and Data. 391
Cubic Feet of water per minute that will flow over a Weir one-inch wide
and from yi to 20^ -inches deep.
INCHES
392 Pumps ana IlycCraulics.
•ainuitn «S!Sa!S
SUOIIB9
Tables and Data, 393
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394 Pumps and Hyctraulics.
£ -*
§0-
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H
Table.
The pressure of water in pounds per square inch for every ft. in height to
300 feet and then by intervals to 1,000 feet head. By this table, from the pounds
pressure per square inch, the feet head is readily obtained and vice versa.
Feet
TABLE OF FRICTION HEADS IN FEET IN SMALL PIPES 100

FEET LONG UNDER GIVEN DISCHARGE.
1.
Contents of cylinders, in cubic feet and in U. S. gallons,

for one foot of length.
.,
TadCes and Data. 399
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iOO Pumps and Hydraulics,
DIMENSIONS OF CAST IRON PIPE, FLANGES, ETC

INDEX
TO PART TWO
''An index is something intended to point out,
guide, or direct, as the hand of a clock or a steam-
gage, the style of a sun dial, an arjn of a guide-
post or the figure of a hand (|^")."
THE INDEX
TO Part Two of Rogers Pumps and Hydraulics.
PAGE PACK
Accidents, to avoid 374 Air, moving power ; note 23
Acid, muriatic fumes, action of . . . 380
'
' back pressure '
' of, des 36
syphon pump, ills, and des. . 265 Air-bound pumps 371
Adjusting, care must be exer- Air brakes, use of compressed
cised in 372 air in, des 57
*• Admiralty," the rectangular chamber, to prevent freezing. 381
surface condenser, des 303 A'r compressor, direct acting
Advantages of the Cataract steam single, ills and des. . 72
mining pump 146 power wall or post, ills, and
modern pulsometer 273 des 72
Aer, def 179 the • Imperial," ills, and
Aeriform fluids, def 15 des 67-70
Aermotor pumps 177-192 Air compressors, des 57-78
Aermotors, why so named 187 methods of driving 59
Ahrens steam fire engine 126 theoretical operations of 63
Air, des 15 Air cooler of condenser, ills 312
and steam, relative space oc- Air, fluid of, def 17
cupied by 378 gravity and elasticity of 16
and vacuum pumps, ills, and leaks in suction must be pre-
des 31 vented 374
steam end of 35 A'r lift pump,
and des ills, 79-90
table of test 41 care and management 87-88
as a mechanical agent 17 lift system, advantages ot. . . . 79
Air lift pump, theory of 80 Atmospheric pressure, effect of

liquid, des 64 altitude upon 73, 74
pipe of a compressor 84 pumps, des. and ills 169-171
pressure pumps, direct, ills. Attachment, def. of 317
and des 90 Attraction of cohesion, def 16
(Mr pump attached to a condenser Automatic action of the pump
becomes a vacuum pump.. 373 controlled by a float, ills.
Dean Brothers' twin cylinder, and des 318, 319
ills, and des 46-50 duplex steam pump and re-
Edwards, ills, and des 53-55 ceiver, Deane, ills, and
principles of duty 373 des 318,319
simplest form of, ills 15 throttle valve for boiler feed
used in connection with a jet pump, ills, and des 352, 353
condenser, ills 34
hand, des. and ills 29, 30 " 3ack pressure " of atmos-
the inertia of 17 phere, des 36
Altitude, effect of, on atmos- Baffle plate, used in condenser,
pheric pressure 73, 74 ills, and des 305
American pump as attached to Ballast pump, the, ills, and
steam fire engine, ills 93 des 159-161
driving mechanism of, ills.
Ballast tank, ship's, def 322
and des 93i 98 Ball cock, ills, and des 320
American steam fire engine Ball float, ills, and des 318-319
pump, ills 132, 133 how attached in air and
des 138, 139 vacuum pump 36
Ammonia or acid pumps, ills. Ballot, Buys, law relating to
and des 171 barometers i8i
muriate of, action 379 Bark, care to keep out of pipes
Amoskeag fire engine, ills.. 107, 128 and valves 379
des.. 141, 142 mixture, des 379
Anderson steam trap, des. and white oak, prevents boiler in-
ills 332, 333 crustation 379
Anti-freezing device, ills 382 Barometer, ills, and des 20
Application of packing, how water, how made . 31
done 372 Barrel, capacity of in gallons 323
Appurtenances belonging to Bell and spigot connection, ills.
.steam fire engines, list of . . iii and des 367

Aqua-thruster 267-269 Belted duplex air compressor
Atmosphere, pressure of, def. .16, 36 (built by the Allis-Chalmers
surface condenser exerts 314 Co.) 62-71
weight of, on the surface of Bilge pump, special fittings for. . 161
the earth 19 * Blake" compressor 73
Atmospheric air, a type of other Bliss-Heath atmospheric pump-
gases 25 ing engine, ills, and des. 169-171
Inaex. 40i
PAGE
Blowing engine, ills, and des. .66, 67 Capacity of cisterns and tanks,
Blow-off cock, des 347 how estimated 364
valve, Bordo, and des.. 354, 355
ills, Carbonate of lime In boiler
Boggs & Clark hydraulic dredg- scale 328
ing pump, ills, and des. 217, 218 magnesia in boiler scale 328
Boiler cleaners, mechanical 380 Carbonates deposited in order,
compound, cost of 378 des 380
action of 379
Boiler compound, directions for Care and management of air
use 378 pumps 87-88
for locomotives 378 the Clapp & Jones steam fire
formula for 380 engine 123

feed pump, centrifugal form Carr steam pump governors,
adopted for ... 222 ills, and des 288-291
Boiler of steam fire engine, des. 99
Cataract steam pump, ills 144
Boiler of the Ahrens steam fire
des 146
engine 126
the Clapp & Jones steam fire Centrifugal pump, diagram of
engine I18 right and left-hand methods
the Silsby steam fire engine . . 115 of discharge 225
Boiler scale, table of analysis 328 early form of, ills 212
Boilers, ball cock attached to 320 des 214
corrosion of, how caused. . . . 380 four stage, ills and des 224
Bolt circles standard pipe
of important note relating to
flanges Table
;
399 speed of quotation from
;
Bolts, diameters of lengths of. 399

; .
*'
Industries " 223-229
Bordo blow-off valve, ills, and Morris Machine Company's,
<ies 354,355 steam-driven, ills, and
Bottoming-tap, ills, and des 339 des 220-221
Box wrench, des 345 multi-stage, ill. and des. .223-224
.
Brewers' grains, how pumped ;

the Buffalo, ills and des. ... 223
note 202 the converse of the turbine
Buffalo, the centrifugal pump, water-wheel 213
ills,and des 223 vertical, submerged type of,
Bulkley "Injector" condenser, ills, and des 222 223
ills, and des 308, 309 directions for erecting and
Buys Ballot's law relating to running. 226-228
barometers 181 fans used in, ills 213
Byron Jackson Machine Co.'s des 215
turbine pumps, ills, and history of 211
des 236-242
Centrifugal pumps, how to de-
termine right or left-hand
C'tmcron, the, vertical plunger pumps 226
sinking pump, ills 150-151 and des
ills, 21 1-230
des 152 rotary and 193-229
Centrifugal pumps, the Worth- Coal, decreasing supply of 84

ington, divided into Co- Cock, des., classes of 347
noidal, volute and Turbine, ball, ills, and des 320
des 229 blow-off, des 347
two general types of, ills, and cylinder, des 247
des 215-216 feed, des 347
Centrifugal wheel, ten thousand four-way, des 347
horse power, ills, and des. 213 . gage, des 347
also 133, Part One. oil, des 347
Chain tongs 343 Cock, self-closing, des 347
Chlorides deposited in order, steam, des 347
des 380 stop, des 347
Churning in pumps, causes of 375 three-way, des 347
Churn valve for feeding the Cock, des
try, 347
steam fire engine, des iii water, des 347
purposes of 137 Column of water, pressure of
Circulating pump, des 32 Table 396
Circulating pumps, ills 219 Columns, mine pump, ills, and
des 168 des 363
Cistern, def. of 321 Compound, boiler, record of re-
Cisterns and tanks, table of ca- sults 378
pacity for 324 Compound or two-stage compres-
ball cock attached to 320
sion 74-75
Cisterns, computation for finding
Compounds for making pipe
weight of 324
joints 367
contents of round Table 398
;
diameters of, in decimals of a Compressed air, des 57

foot ; Table 398 Compressibility of gases 26
rule for finding contents of
Compression, compound or two- ,
round ; Table 398 stage 74-75

Clapp & Jones steam fire en-
Compressor, belted duplex air
gine 118
(built by the Allis-Chal-
Village Engine .... 121
mers Co. ) 62-71
Classification of steam fire en-
" Imperial " air, des. and
gines 93
ills 67-70
Cleaner, mechanical boiler 380
Norwalk compound, des. and
Cleaning carpets and railroad
ills 77-78
cars and seats, use of
Norwalk standard, ills, and
vacuum or atmospheric des 56-58
pressure in, des 59
power wall or post air, ills.
c Icatiliness essential, 371
and des 72
CI gging of suction, effect of. . .
374
vertical duplex 64-71
Closed pressure tanks, ills, and
des 32i-.^23 Compressors, air. des 57-58
Index. 407
PAGE PAGE
Computation for finding Construction of Silsby ttie
weigfit of water in cis- steam cylinder pump and
terns and tanks 324 boiler 115
obtaining the contents of a Contamination of water to be
barrel in gallons 324 prevented 375
Miner's Inch, with ills 388 Contents, Table of XI.
open stream measurement 390 . . . Controller, Mullin's automatic,
weir dam, water, measure- ills, and des 352-353
ment 390 Cooling towers, des 33
relating to water pumped by Corcoran double action suction
windmill 191 force pump, des. and ills. 185-186
••Condensation," def 18 tank valves 323
Condenser, def 32 Corcoran windmill, ills, and
des 299 des 184-186
advantages of 300, 378 Corrosion, def 328
combined, and feed-water how prevented 380
heater, ills, and des 306 how caused
of boilers, 380
cone, ills 312 Cotton presses, pump for, ills.
Conover, ills, and des 5o-53 and des I54-I55

economy of 37 Coupling pipe, ills 368
elbow, exhaust and injection, "Crane-necked" steam fire
des. and ills 306 engine 141
exhaust pipe into suction, ills. Cranes and hoists, use of com-
and des 381 pressed air in, des 57
exhaust steam induction, des. Crow, ills, and des 340
and ills 308 Cubic foot, capacity of in gallons. 323
Condenser, jet, ills, and des. . . . 312 Cutter, pipe, ills, and des 338
jet type of 33 Cylinder-cock, des 347
keel, what it consists of. 311 Cylinders, contents of, in cubic
plant,marine, ills, anddes.310-311 feet for each foot depth ;
pump, ills, and des 306-307 Table 398

Condensers, classification of 303 relieved before removing head 383
Condenser, surface, ills, and des. 313
tube, ills, and des 305 Dam* Weir, measurement of
Condensing apparatus, des. and water 3^
ills 297-314 Dart union, and des
ills, 367
engines, early, des 378 Davidson marine pump, ills.
Condensing surface required, and des 156-157

amount of 312-314 Dean Brothers' twin cylinder air
Cone, condenser, ills, and des. 306 . . . pump, ills, and des 46-50
Conoidal centrifugal pump, the Dean automatic duplex steam
Worthington, why so named, pump and receiver, ills.
des 229 and des 318-319
Conover condenser, ills, and single sugar-house pump, ills. *
des 50-53 and des 164-163

PAGE
Dean automatic duplex steam Draining pump cylinders and
pump and receiver, single pipe* 377
vertical sinking pump, ills. 148 plugs 377
des 149 Dredge, elevator, des 222
vacuum pump. ills, and des.. 42-43 20-inch hydraulic, ills, and
Deep-well pump, working barrel des 221
of 192 Dredge5, self-propelling and sea-
Deflector, water circulating going, des. ; note 210

120
Derangement of duplex pump, Dredging pump, hydraulic,
broken valve may cause
Boggs & Clark, ills, and
it.. 376
Diagram of des 217-218
discliarge openings
of centrifugal right and left-
Root's large rotary, ills, and
des 208-210
hand pumps 225
Drill and pipe tap combined 339
Dial, to read the, of a water
Drip cocks, proper location of. 376 . .
meter, ills 332
Diameters of cisterns in deci-
Dry cocks, centrifugal pump,
particularly adapted for use
mals of a foot Table ; 398
in building sewers, in sand
Diapliram lift and force pump,
dredging 214
ills 145
des 148 Duplex pump, delays, avoid by
outfit for 149 frequent inspections 376
Diffusion of gases 27- derangements of one side 375 . . .
vanes of Worthington centri- jerky motion in, cause of 376 . . .
fugal pump, des repairs should be prompt and

233
Direct acting steam single air timely 376
compressor, ills, and des. . 72 screens, important that they
Disadvantages in the use of com- be kept clean 376
pressed air for operating separating chamber requires
mining pumps 71
frequent examination 376
Discharge per minute under suction valves require much
given heads Table attention 376
; 392-393
Discovery of the advantages worn parts should be replaced 376
arising from the conden- Duplex steam pump and re-
sation of steam 300 ceiver, Deane automatic,
Distributing reservoir, def 322 ills, and des 318-319
••Doctor" independent pump,
ills, and des 161-162
** Donkey " pump, des 161
Edison Manufacturing Co.
Double extra first steam fire hand mining pump, des.. 148 . .
engine, capacity and Edwards air and vacuum pump,

weight of ills, and des 53-55
93
tube injector, universal, ills. . 262 Ejector, ills, with a foot strainer. 260
des 264 double tube, ills, and des. 261

. . .
Dmin for steam pipes 374 or exhauster used for priming

Drain, necessity for 374 centrifugal pumps, des 216
Index. 409
PAGB
Elector, ills 218 Explanations of principles In-
pump, ills, and des 259-260 volved in feeding tank. 373 . .
water pressure, ills, and des . 266 exposed pipes, precautions

and injectors ".
243-266 against freezing 377
application of, ills 256 Extra first steam fire engine,
des 260 capacity and weight of . . . .
93
Elastic fluids, two classes of 16
Elasticity, def 26 Failure of pump, how to find
a property of air 16, 17 cause 374
of all aeriform fluids, def 17 Fans, ills 213
Elbow, condenser, exhaust and des 215
injection, des. and ills 306 Peed-cock, des 347
pipe, ills 368 Feeding into bottom of tank
Elbows, des 364 requires less power than top 373;
Electric mining pump, ills., part Feed-water heater and com-
one 276 bined condenser, ills, and
des., parttwo 147 des 306
Elevator, Mason, pump pressure Voltz, ills, and des 304-306
regulator, ills, and des 286-287 . . impurities, des., note relat-
Endicott's platform springs, ing to 327
des 141 Fifth steam fire engine, capacity
Energy of the steam injector, and weight of 93
whence derived, note 247 Fire engine, Silsby steam, des.
wind as a source of power 181 and ills 113
Engines, early condensing, des.. 378 steam, and des
ills, 91-142
Engine, steam fire, ills, and Fire hose flow of water, how
des 91-142 retarded in, des 135
Entering or taper tap, ills, and pumps, Holyoke pattern of
des 339 rotary 203
Evaporation, def. and laws of . . . 28 First steam fire engine, capacity
Eve, J.f inventor of Eve's and weight of 93
rotary pump, historical Flange joint, ills, and des 363
note 196 Flanges, diameters of standard ;
Eve's rotary pump, des. and Table 399

ills 196-197 standard, bolt circles of ;
Exhaust steam Induction con- Table 399

denser, des. and ills 308 table of standard sizes 399
injector, ills and des. 249, 255-256 thickness of standard 399
injector, high pressure, ills. union, des. and ills 363
and des 257 Float, automatic action of the
Exhaust steam , utilizing of ; note 35 pump controlled by a, ills.
Expansibility of gases, def. and and des 318-319

ills 25 Flow ofwater over Weir dam ;
Expansion and compression of Table 391

a body, def 18 Fluid, paalicles of 14
Flume, mechanism to shut off Gas-fitter's air proving pump,

the water supply of, ills. 295 . . . def. and ills 29
Foot-board of the steam fire en- Gates, head, mechanism to raise
gine, des Ill and lower, ills 295
Foot valve applied to centrifugal Gauge, hydraulic, test pump,
pump 216 ills, and des 164
Forcer of steam injector 247 indicating pressure and
Foundations of tanks 323 vacuum, des 259
suitable, precautions for 371 vacuum, why graduated in
Fountain, Hero's, ills, and des. 23 . inches ; note 21
in vacuo, ills, and des 23 Giffard, inventor of the in-
Four stage centrifugal pump, jector ; historical note 245
ills, and des 224 Gould's rotary pump, ills 194
Fourth steam fire engine, ca- des 159
pacity and weight of 93 Governor and pump, des. and
Four- way cock, des 347 i^ls 317-319
Fox boiler, des. and ills 101-103 Governors, Carr steam pump,
Freeman, John R., credit given ills, and des 288-291
for table 117 Governor, Mason pump, ills.
Freezing, anti-, device 381 and des 284-286
of pipe, how prevented, ills, utility combination pump,
and des 381 des. and ills 296
Friction, different kinds of pipe. 377 . Governors, pump speed, ills, and
Friction heads ; Table 394-395 des 281-294
in small pipes Table ; 397 Graduated tank, des 322
Friction, influence of, on differ- Grains, wet, brewers', how
ent kinds of pipe 377 pumped ; note 202
loss in pounds pressure ;
Graphite as a lubricant, des 384
Table 392-393 Graphite, invaluable about studs,
must be kept down 372 nuts, etc 384
Frizell system of air lift pumps 88 mix with oil for hand pump. .
375
use of, on pipe threads 384
Gravitation, effect on current of
Qage-cock, des 347
air 180
Qallon, capacity of 323
Gravity, a property of air 16
imperial, capacity of 323
Grit, avoid in packing 377
Gallons for each foot of length
Guericke, Otto von, inventor. 19 . .
in pipes 398
Guide vanes of Worthington
Gases and liquids, properties in
centrifugal pump, des 231
common, des 24
des 21?
compressibility of 26
diffusion of 27
expansibility of, def. and ills. 25 Hanimer, how best used, des. 345 . .
permanent, def 16 Hand air pumps, des. and ills. .29-30

pressure exerted by 26 Harris system of raising watsf
weight of, def 26 by direct pressure ^
Index. 411
PAGF PAGB
Hay den & Derby Mfg. Co 352 Ice, expansion of 381
Head gates, mechanism to raise Ideal steel tank tower, ills, and
and lower, ills 295 des 187
HeadA, friction at given rates " Impellers," des 212
Table 394-395 Impellers of Worthlngton cen-
trifugal pump, des 233
Heat, action of, on particles of
Impellers or pistons of rotary
bodies 16
Heater, noiseless water, ills, and
pumps, ills, and des 196
'* Imperial " air compressor,
des 265-266
stationary, for the steam fire
ills, and des 67-70
Imperial gallon, capacity of 523
engine 105
Incrustation, des 328
Heron or Hero, account of 99
Incrustations of injector pipes,
of Alexandria historical note
;
relating to steam fire engine 95

how removed 254
' Hero'5 fountain," invented Injection, def 32
by Hero of Alexandria water of air and vacuum
99
and des pumps,des 35
ills, 23
• Hessian Suck," a form Injector, action of 247, 249
of cen-
a gauge indicating both pres-
trifugal pump, des 211
sure and vacuum for the 259
Hinged valve 347
. . .
Historical notes and ills, relat- " Injector " condenser. Bulk-
ing to steam fire engine. .92-99 .
ley, ills, and des 308-309
History of tlie centrifugal pump 211 Injector, double tube universal,
Hogsfiead, capacity of 323 ills 262
Holyoke Improved speed gov- des 264
ernor for water wheels, exhaust steam ills, and des. 255-256
,
ills, and des 291-294 high pressure exhaust steam,

pattern rotary pump 203 ills, and des 257
Horizontal two-stage pump, how to start the exhaust steam 259
ills 236 Korting, des 264
des 241 ' * Manhattan '
' automatic, ills. 244
Hydraulic dredge, 20-inch, ills. des 251
and des 221 Metropolitan double tube, ills. 248
dredging pump, Boggs & des 252
Clarke, ills, and des 217-218 Metropolitan single tube, ills . 250
gaugetestpump, ills, and des. 163 des 252
joints for high pressure, ills. Monitor, ills 246
and des 361 des 252
Hydraulic lifts and cranes, not an economical device 249
pump for, des. and ills. .154-155 peerless automatic, ills. ..... 246
packing, difficulty in cutting. 373 des 251
pipes, best way to join Note. 367
; peerless, names of parts 251
riveting and punching, pump ills 234
and des
for, ills, I54-I55 peerless, table of pressure and
Hydro-pneumatics 15 temperature of the 251
Injector, double tube universal, *' down "a well in the

Kicking
the exhaust steam 249 early days, ills VIII.
Injectors and ejectors 243-266 Knight, E. H., classification of
piping of " Manhattan " and cocks and valves 347
peerless, ills, and des 253 Korting injector, pieces compos-
rules to govern the actions, ing the, shown in cuts page 263
etc., of 253-254 names of the parts 264
table of capacity of 252
three distinct types of 247 L,a France steam fire engine
Inspection for causes of failure pump, ills 134
in starting a pump 371 des 139-141
Inspections, internal and ex- Leakage, indications of 376
ternal necessary 374 slight, unimportant 373
Inspirator, des 249 Leaks, often the cause of failure
Instructions and suggestions in starting a pump 371
for the steam fire en- Left and right-hand pumps,
gine 129, 131, 135-137 customary rule for 371
Interchangeable socket Life of boiler of steam fire en-
wrench, and des
ills, 344 gine, how prolonged 105
Inter-cooler, the, ills, and des.. 74-78 Lifter of steam injector 247
Intermediate tap, ills, and des. 339 .
Lifting valve 347
Interruption of flow by foreign Lime, carbonate of, in boiler
body in suction 375 scale 328
Inverted-cup valve 347 Liquid air, des 64
Irregularity in duplex pump, Liquids under heavy pressure,
cause of 375 pump for delivering, ills,
Irregular speed indicates trouble. 376 and des I54-I55

Duty, unsteady discharge re- Lobes of rotary pump, ills, and
quires attention 376 des 209-210
« Isochronal " pump, def 147 Location for pumps, proper 371
Lombard, Nathaniel, pump gov-
ernor ; note. 294
Jet condenser, ills, and des.
Lubrication, intermittent, to be
32. 303. 312 avoided 375
discovery of 301
Lubrication, proper, for packing 373
Jet pump, the, ills, and des 261
type of condenser 33
Magdeburg cups or hemis-
Joint, pipe, compounds for
pheres, and des
ills, 19
making, recipes 362
piping, des and
Magma sugar pump, ills, and
ills 359-362
des 166-167
Magnesia, carbonate of in boiler
Keel condenser, what it consists scale 328
of 311 salt, etc., in water 380
Kerosene, effect on pipe joints. . . 362 must be removed 380
Key valve 47 Main feed pump, uses for the. . . i6t
Index. 418
PAGE PAOB
*< Manhattan" automatic in- Mining, Cataract steam pump,
jector, ills 244 ills 144
des 251 des 146
Marine pump, Davidson pattern, Mining pump, double leather,
ills, and des 156-157 ills 145
Marine pumps 155162 des 147
Ship's pump 155 electric, ills., Part One 276
*• Mariotte's law " des. Part Two
17 147
Maries of parts necessary 374 hand-power, ills 145
Masiin automatic steam vacuum des 148
pump, ills 271 the Cameron vertical plunger
des 279 sinking, ills 150-15
Mason elevator pump pressure des 152

regulator, and des. .286-287
ills,
the "Scran ton," ills, and
pump governor, ills, and des 153-154
des 284-286 Mining pumps, des. and ills. . 145-155
pump pressure regulator, ills.

pumps, an advantage of ; note 152
and des 349-350 note relating to the cost of re-
steam pump with receiver at- pairing a half-inch globe
tached, ills and des 319 valve 145
water reducing valve, ills, and use of compressed air in 71
des 351
Miscellaneous pumps 143-176
•* Massachusetts pump," des.

Molecules, repulsive force of 27
211 . .
Monitor injector, ills 246

Matter, properties of 24
des 252
Measurements of pipe lines,
how to be taken, ills 368
Mo nkey -wrenches , "knife-
handle," ills, and des 344
Mechanical boiler cleaners 380 Morris Machine Company's
Mercury, inches of, def 31 centrifugal pump, steam-
Metallic packings, popular and driven, ills, and des 220-221
good 377 Mud, 20-inch hydraulic dredge
Meter, water, ills, and des 329-332 for pumping mud, silt, etc.. 221
Worthington water, ills, and Mullin's Automatic controller,
des 330332 ills, and des 352-353
Meteorology, def 179 Multi-stage centrifugal pump,
Metropolitan double tube in- ills, and des 223-224
jector, ills 248 turbine pump, priming of,
des 252 ills, and des 228-229
single tube injector, Ills 250

des 252 Neck-cap of the modern puls-
Mine drainage, adaptation of the ometer, ills, and des 274
turbine pump for 233 Neck-piece of the modem puis-
pump columns, ills and des. . 363 ometer, ills, and des 274
Miner's inch water measure- Newcomen, discovery relating to
ment, ills 388 condensation of steam 301
Nipple-Holder, pipe, ills, and des. 341 Pilot or auxiliary valve, des 348
Norwalk compound comprts- Pipe, condenser spray, des 306
sor, des. and ills 77-78 connections, proper arrange-
standard compressor, ills, and ments of 363
des 56-58 cutter, ills, and des 338
note 78 fitting, des 359
Nozzles of stej tn fire engine. 125 . .
freezing of, how prevented,
ills, and des 381
three types of, in steam in-
jector 247 gas and steam, how measured 367
joint, des. and ills 359-363
Nuts and screws must be kept
telescopic, ills, and des 152
tight 374
Pipe lines, how measurements
are to be taken, ills 368
Oak'bark, directions for use 379 lines, steam 364
white, used in boilers 379
Pipe, making up a piece of 363
Oil-cock, des 3^7 nipple holder, des 341
Oil, how used in the Cataract
originally a musical wind in-
steam pump cylinder 146
strument 359
Oil-pipe lines, pump for 155 saddles for quick connections
tank steamer pump, ills, and into pipes, ills 382
des 159-161 spanner, ills, and des 344
stock and die, des 341
Packing, care of 372 Pipe, suction, should be drained. 377
economy of, narrow rings. . . . 372 tail, of condenser, ills 312
for pump plungers 373 thickness of standard 399
for pumps, suitable 372 Pipe tongs, and des
ills, 343
how to fit 372 vise, ills, and des 340
must be never rigid.. 372
elastic,
Pipe, wooden, note relating to. 364 . .
for stuffing boxes, badly pro- wrench, Trimo, ills, and des. 343
portioned, glands too short. 372
advantages and disadvantages
to cut square thinner, des. and
of 377
ills 383
Pipes and fittings, note relating
Paper mills, particularly adapted
to 359
for use of centrifugal pumps 214 exposed, precautions against
Papin, Denis, inventor, account freezing 377
of 211 flow of water in cast iron;
historical note 64 table 394-395
Parallel vise 341 joints and fittings 359-368
Parker, Richard Qreen, quo- relative advantages of 377
tation 14 Pipes, small, rates of discharge;
Peerless automatic injector, table 397
ills 246 steam, to properly drain 374
des 251 strainers for suction, ills, and
Pelton water wheel 60 des 325-328
Index. 415
Piping of Mantiattan and peer- Pressure, atmosphere, surface

less injectors, ills, and des. 253 condenser exerts 314
of high pressure exhauststeam exerted by gases 26
injector, ills, and des 258 in pounds for every foot up to
standard, "extra strong," 300 ft height, etc.; Table. .
396
double extra strong, ills. of air and gases, def j
7
and des 367 of column of water Table. ; . . 396
to remove incrustations from of the atmosphere, def 16
injector. 254 Pressure per square inch in
Piston, Follower type, how pounds Table ;
396
packed 383 reducing valve, ills, and
Plug pipe, des 349-350
ills 368
taps, ills, and des Prime movers, def 181
339
Priming methods adopted to suit
Plugs, drain 377 centrifugal pumps of various
Plunger, deep well pump, ills.
designs, ills, and des 228-229
and des 192 Priming, to start 377
packing, dry, remedy for. 377 . . .
Propeller pump, the wood, ills.
packing, how to apply. 373 and des 172-174
water, how packed, des. and Pulsator 269
i"s 383 Pulsometer, des. and ills 267-280
Pneumatics. 15-30 Pulsometer, action of 276-277
Pneumatic syringe, ills, and des. 26 a form of vacuum pump 269
Pohle, Dr. Julius J., historical and boiler in portable form,
note ills, and des 280
79
system of elevating liquids, arrangements of, for empty-
ills, and des 81-84 ing vats or tanks, ills, and
•Points" relating to the care des 278
and management of air com- historical 269
pressors important points to be at-
61
tended to note 279
Portable drilling macliines, use ; . .
Pulsometer, suggestions relative

of compressed air in, des. 57 . .
to placingof the pump; note 273

ôrm of pulsometer and boiler,
the modern, ills, and des. .270-273
ills, and des 280
the original, ills, and des.. 268-271
tool, def 337 the principal parts of, des.
Ports, reducing capacity of, by and ills 277
substances 375 Pump, air, Dean Brothers' twin
of a windmill, what
k
I^pwer
depends upon
wall or post air compressor,
it
190
cylinder,
air
and des
and des
lift, ills,
ills, 46-50
79-90
ills, and des

Pump, American, driving me-
72
chanism of, ills, and des 93, 98
Practical Engineer, ills, of air and governor, des. and 1113.317-310
lift pump from 89 Buffalo centrifugal, ills, ana
Preface IX des aaj
416 Pumps and Hydraulics/
FAOB
Pump, American, centrifugal, Pumping water, use of com>
diagram of right and left- pressed air in, des 59
hand methods of discharge 225 •• Isochronal," def 147
centrifugal, four-stage, ills. Maslin automatic steam
and des 224 vacuum, ills 271
multi-stage, and des 223-224
ills, . . des 279
vertical, submerged type of, • Massacliusetts," des 211
ills, and des 222-223 mining, hand-power, ills 145
Pump, circulating, des 32 des 148
columns, mine, ills, and des. . 363 Pump of ttie Silsby steam fire
Conover vacuum, ills, and engine 113
des 50-53 portable fire air 29
Corcoran double action suc- Quimby screw, ills, and
tion force pump, ills, and des 174-176
des 185-186 Root's rotary, ilia, and des. 209
Davidson, marine, ills, and
Pump speed governors, ills, and
des 156-157
des 281-294
Dean single vertical sinking,
steam fire engine, ills, and
ills 148
des 91-142
Dean vacuum, and des. .42-43
ills,
American, ills 132, 133
deep well, working barrel of. 192
des 138-139
Pump, difference between a hand
La France, ills 134
pump and a windmill pump 187 des 139-141
Pump, Edwards' air, ills, and syphon, and des
ills, 188, 265
des 53-55
as attached to steam fire en-
ejector, as a form of 259
gine, ills 93
Eve's rotary, des. and ills.. 196-197
the ••Ballast," ills, and
Pump, failure in starting, cause . 371
des 159-161
for salt water evaporator and
the Cameron vertical
distiller, ills, and des 168
plunger sinking, ills. . . 150-151
Pump, gas-fitter's air proving,
des 152
def and. ills 29
the Deane sugar-house, ills.
Gould's rotary, ills 194
and des 164-165
des 199
the "Doctor" independent
Pump governor, Mason, ills. pump, ills, and des 161-162
and des 284-286 the injector can be used as a . 249
Nathaniel Iômbard, note 294 the jet, ill. and des 261
utility, combination, des. and the Magna sugar, ills, and
ills 296 des 166-167
-'ump governors, Carr steam, the *• Scranton " mining,
ills, and des 288-291 ills, and des 153-154
hand oil, desirable 375 the ship's 155
<• Hessian Suck," des .. 211 Taber rotary 200-202
hydraulic gauge test, ills, and Pumps, air and vacuum, ills, and
des 163 des 31
Index. 417
PAGE PAGE
Pumps, air pressure, ills, and des. 90 Pump, vertical, of the Clapp &
ammonia or acid, ills, and des. 171 Jones steam fire engine. 1 18 .
auxiliary feed, often dupli- windmill, operation of 187

cated 161 Purification of water effected by
Byron Jackson Machine the air lift pump 87
Company's turbine 236-242 Purifying water 379
Pumps, centrifugal, ills, and
des 211-230 Quimby screw pump, ills, and
circulating, ills 219 des 174-176
des 168
directions for erecting and
liaising sunken vessels, use of
running 226-228
compressed air in, des 59
fire, Holyoke pattern of ro-
" Rarefaction," def 18
tary 203 " Rarefied," def 18
Pumps, marine 155-162
Ratchet drill, ills, and des 338
methods of priming centri-
Rates of discharge of small pipes
fugal pumps 228-229
Table 397
Pumps, mining 145-155
Reamer, ills, and des 339
an advantage of, note 152
Receiver, use of 317
Pumps, miscellaneous 143-176
Dean, Mason and Worthing-
of steam fire engine, des. and
ton steam pumps with re-
ills 100, 106, 107
ceiver attached, des. and
operation of large dredging. 210 .
i^ls 318-319
rotary and centrifugal. .193-229 . .
Receiviing reservoir, def 322

Pumps, rotary, ills, and des.. 194-210
Rectangular surface condenser,
impellers or pistons of, ills.
the " Admiralty," des 303
and des 196
Refrigerating and ice making,
used for pumping thick stuff. 165
use of compressed air in,
f^«mps, sinking, des. and ills. 148
. .
des 59
"sugar-house" 165-167 Regulator, Mason elevator pump
Taber rotary 200-202 pressure, ills, and des. . . 286-287
turbine 230-242 Relieved cylinaers, now to pro-
vacuum, single and cross com-
ceed 383
pound double acting 37-39 Remedy for air-bound pumps. .
371
vacuum, table of arrangement
Reservoir, def 322
of valves . . . > 41 distributing, def 322
wind power, ills, and des.. 185-192 receiving, def 322
Pump, the wood propeller, ills. Reynolds-Corliss type, valve
and des 172-174 gear of 67
the Worthington pressure, Right and left=hand pumps, how
ills, and des 154-155 determined 371
the Worthington "wreck- Rings, how to cut to size 373
ing" pump, ills, and des. 157-159 pattern, to be on hand 383
vacuum, Worthington ver- Riveters, use of compressed air
tical beam, ills, and des. .44-45
[^^ in, des 5^
Vitruvius, quotation from 57 Water pressure machines. . .117.154

Volt, def 256 measurement of 113
Voltaic electricity 246 due to its weight, data 83
Voltmeters, def 256 pressure of, table 1 14
V thread, def 33 pressure on column of, data. . 77
how transmitted, data and ills. 79
proportioned to its depth,
Washer, def. 33
data 83
Waste channel of water-falls.. 119
table
Waste pipe, sizes for the under- 77
writer pump
Water pressure or hydraulic
384
motors, des 147
Water and steam, one an elastic
and the other a non-elastic
Water pumps, why so called 187
liquid 149
racks for turbine wheels, how
Water arch, def best made 131
33
Water as an example of a fluid
Water ram, def 34
73
Water-bellows, def rises to same level in opposite
33
Water, boiling point of arms of tube, data 83
76
salt, boiling point of 76
cap, def 33
chemical composition of
sea, how many cubic feet to
75
and ton 97
clocks, des. ills 39
conditions of
tables of weight and volume,
75-77
etc 76
considered from a chemical
temperature of, for calcula-
standpoint 75
tions 75
data relating to 75
Water dust, French term for Water, theoretical and actual
steam 285 flow, note 106
end, def three laws of frictional resist-
33
of the underwriter steam fire ance of 100
pump, ills, and des 367-380 Water-tight turbine, ills, and
pumps, des. and ills. 209 des 139
Waterfalls, des. of supply and under pressure, efflux of. .105-113
waste channels .. 119 velocity of, in flumes and
division of parts deriving pipes, rule 138
energy 119 tail race, rule 138
Water, flow of, result of gravity 89 weight and volume of , tables. . 76, 77
four notable temperatures of.. 75 in round numbers 76
Water-hammer, def 34 one cubic foot of 76
or valve slam, def 374 Water wheel 132, 133
influence of gravity on weight Water wheels 1 19-144
note
of, 80 des. and ills, of chutes,"
**
Water-lifting inventions 53-70 gate-seats, '•

gates " and
of what composed 2S5 " buckets " of turbine, des.
practically non-elastic, data. .75-77 and ills 139
pressure engines, care of, to des.and ills, of flutter wheels,
prevent freezing, etc. . ..145, 146 etc 121-125
Index. 419
PAGE
Sinking or station pump, adap- Steam fire engine, auxiliary ap-
tation of the .turbine pump pliancesand supplies 99
for 233 " crane necked," frame for. . 141
des.and ills 148 Fox boiler, des. and ills. .101-103
.
Deane single vertical, ills 138 historical notes and ills 92-99
des 149 inner and outer tube system,
Size of rings to use. 373 des 104
Sleeve coupling, ills, and des. . . 367 instructions and sugges-
Slide valve 347 tions 129, 131, 135-137
Slippage, def causes of
.
, : . . . 384 nozzles 125
Socket wrench, interchangeable, parts of 99
ills, and des 344 pumps, des and ills 106, 107
Spanner, ills, and des 344 pumps, piston rods, exhaust,
Soeed controlling device, style coal box, etc 100, loi
A, Mason pump, method of self-propelled, Amoskeag pat-
operating, ills, and des. 288 . . tern 142
Speed governor for water stationary heater for, des .... 105
wheels. Hoi yoke improved, suction strainers of, des. and
ills, and des 291-294 ills 109
pump governors, ills, and table of effective fire streams
des 281-294 for 117

Spray pipe and nozzle, ills 312 "thaw-pipe'- connected to . . 123
Spring valve 347
the Ahrens 126
Sprinkler, inside boiler to scatter Steam engine pump, the
fire
particles that would other- American, ills 132, 133
wise form scale 380 des 138-139

Square packings, advantages of. 372 the Amoskeag, ills 107, 128
' Staggered " tube system used des 141-142
in steam fire engine 104 the boiler, des 99
sicandard pipe sizes, ills 367 the Clapp & Jones iid
Starting a pump, precautions in. the La France, ills 134
371
Steam and air, relative space oc- des 139-141
cupied by 378
Steam fire engine, the Silsby
boiler, feed water impurities, rotary, des. and ills 113
des 327
appurtenances belongfing to 11 . .
cock, des Siamese connections for 138

347
*^7linders, engines and pumps valve motion of, des no
synonymous, require the Steam induction condenser,
same lubrication 375 exhaust, des. and ills 308
drven centrifugal pump, Mor- Steam injector, exhaust, ills, and
ris Machine Company's, des 255-256
ills, and des 220-221 injectors, three distinct types
end of air and vacuum pumps 35 of 247
^êam fire engine, ills, and mains, bracket for supporting
J^fe: des 91-142 of, ills, and des 364-365
Steam injector, materials for •• Sugar-house " pumps 165-167

making 364 pump, the Deane, ills, and
pipe lines 364 des 164-165
the proper anchoring and sup- Sugar, action of in boilers 379
porting of, ills, and des. . . . 365 no action on copper, tin, lead
to properly drain 374 and aluminum 379
Steam pump, Deane automatic Suggestions how to find the
duplex, ills, and des. . . .318-319 trouble in starting a pump 371
3team shovel of service in rais- Sulphates deposited in order, des. 380
ing material . . 222 Surface condenser 32, 303, 313
trap, des 333-334 extent of a 28
Steam, utilizing of exhaust ; note 35 Swivel bench and des., 340
vise, ills,
Stems valve, in suction must not Syphon pump, des. and ills 188
leak Syringe, Pneumatic, ills, and
374
Stock and die pipe, ills, and des. 341 des 26
Stop-cock, des 347
Stopping at night, precautions
Xaber pumps, directions for set-
for ... 377 tling and operating 200-202
Stop valve, necessity of 371
Table of analysis of average
Stover Manufacturing Com-
boiler scale 328
pany, makers of the Samp-
arrangement of valves for air
son windmill 190
and vacuum pumps 41
Strainers for suction pipes of
average hourly velocity of the
steam fire engines 138
wind in the U. S 183 •
•
'
for suction water pipes, ills.

Bliss Heath dimensions and
and des 325-328
capacities of atmospheric
suction, of steam fire engine,
pumps 171
des. and ills 109
bolt circles of standard pipe
Stress on bolts 399 flanges 399
Stuffing boxes, failure under
Table of capacities at varying
high pressure, cause 375
heights above sea level 74
pump end, how lubricated. . .
375
. .
capacities, etc., of the uni-

Submerged type of centrifugal versal double tube injector. 264
vertical pump, ills, and
and pipe sizes of sugar-house
des 222-223
pumps 167
Suction hose for the steam fire for 20-inch hydraulic dredge. 221
engine, how fitted and car- of "Ballast" pump 161
ried Ill ofBoggs & Clarke hydraulic
Suction pipe should be drained. 377 . dredging pump 218
pipes, strainers for, ills, and of Davidson marine pump. 157 . . .
des 325-328 of Deane single sugar-house

strainers of steam fire engines, pump 165
des. and ills 109 of injectors 252
valves must be well packed . .
374 of tanks and cisterns 324
Index, \l\
PAGE PA -J 3
Table of capacities at varying Table of standard sizes of
heights above sea level, flanges 399
of the Deane single vertical test of air a nd vacuum pumps. 4
sinking pump ". I49 velocity of flow in pipes. . .
392-393
" Tables and data
of Worthington " wrecking 387-400
pump 159 dimensions and capacities of
I able of class 'fication of steam the Quimby screw pump. 176 . .
fire engines 93 pressure and temperature of

of Contents XI. the peerless injector 251
of contents of cylinders in relating to the sizes and capac-
cubic feet for each foot ities of pumping mills. 189-190
.
of depth 39S Tail pipe of condenser, ills.. .. 312

Table of diameters of cisterns Take-off " ring of Fox boiler,
in decimals of a foot 398 des. and ills 103
dimensions of noiseless water Tank, def. of. 321
heater 266 ball cock, operation of, ills.
of the Bordo blow-off valve. . 356 and des 320

of water pressure ejector 266 closed pressure, ills, and
Table of discharge per minute des 321-323
under given heads 392-393 feeding into top or bottom. 373 . .
of effective fire streams 117 graduated, def 322

of flow of water in cast iron hoops, iugs and lock nut nip-
pipes 394-395 ples, important parts of.,. . 323
Table of flow of water over Weir needed strength of a 323
Dam 391
valves 323
friction heads at given Tanks and cisterns 188, 321-324
rates 394-395 table of capacity for 324
friction heads in small pipes.. 397 arrangements of pulsometer
frl.-.tion, loss in pounds pres- for emptying, ills, and des. 278
sure 392-393 computation for finding
rates of discharge of small weight of 324
pipes 397 foundations for 323
parts of the '
' Imperial '
' air Tanneries, particularly adapted
compressor 70 for use in centrifugal pump. 214
pressure in pounds for every Tap, ills, and des 339
foot up to 300 ft. height, etc. 396 'Tapping," des. of process 339
fable of pressure of column of Tapping iron furnaces, use of
water 396 compressed air in, des 59
per square inch in pounds . . . 396 Tee, beaded malleable iron, ills.
of sizes, capacity, etc., of the and des 367

Cataract steam pump .... 147 malleable iron, ills, and des. .
363
of sizes, etc., of the "Blake" pipt, ills 368
compressor 73 Telescopic pipe joint, ills, and
sizes and capacities of eject- des 152
t ots 259 Temperature of gases 28

" "~~
•
PAGE PAGE
Ten thousand horse power tur- Turbine pump, Byron Jackson
bine wheel,_ills IV Machine Company's. .236-242 . .
Test pump, hydraulic gauge, ills.

Turbine wheel, ten thousand
and des 163 horse power, ills IV
Two-stage or compounded com-
"Thaw-pipe" connected to
pression 74-75
Clapp & Jones steam fire
engine 123
Union, Dart, and des
ills, 367
Theoretical operations of air flange, ills. ?nd des 363
compressors 63 pipe, ills 368
Theory of air lift 80 Universal double tube injector,
Thermometer, des 18 ills 262
Thick stuff, the handling of, des. 165 des 264
Third steam fire engine, capac- Uses ofcompressed air 57
ity and weight of 93 Utilities and attachments. . .315-334
Three-way cock, des 347 Utility, def. of 317
Throttle and quick closing trip
valve, ills 336 Vacuum, def 31
des 348 des 299
valve, automatic, for boiler chamber necessary for high
feed pump, ills, and des.352-353 lifts 374
Thud, causes of, in pumps 375 remedy for pounding 374
Tire air pump 29 gauge, why graduated in
Tongs, chain 343 inches ; note 21
pipe, ills, and des T. . . .
343 pumps, single and cross com-
Tools, def pound double acting 37-39
337
table of arrangement of valves 41
valves and piping 335-356
table of test 41
Towers, cooling, des 33
synonymous with air 373
Transmi tting messages th rough
the Conover condenser, ills.
pneumatic tubes, use of
and des •_5o-53
compressed air in, des 59
the Deane, and des
ills, 42-43
Trap, Anderson steam, des. and the Edwards, ills, and des. . . 53-55
ills 332-333 the Maslm automatic steam,
steam, des 333-334 ills 271
Trimo pipe wrench, ills, and des. 343 des 279
Try-cock, des 347 the Worthington vertical
Tub, des 323 beam, ills, and des 44-45
Tube of condenser, ills, and des. 305 Valve, def 347
Tubing, including boiler tubes, automatic throttle, for boiler
how measured 367 feed pump, ills, and des.352-353
Turbine pump, multi-stage, how auxiliary or pilot, des 348
primed, ills, and des 228 Bordo blow-off, ills, and
Turbine pump, space occupied des 354-355
by note ; 233 churn, for feeding the steam
ûmps 230-242 fire engine, des Ill
Index. 423
PAGE PAGE
Valve, connection of 346 Velocity, average of the wind
V«Ive for Carr steam pump gov- for the U. S., Relative, of
ernors, ills, and des. .290-291 . . water in large and small
gear of the Clapp & Jones pipes 378
Village Engine 122 Vertical duplex compressor. . .64-71
•
of the Reynolds-Corliss type.. 67 pump of four-stage turbine,
heart created on the principles ills 238
of 347 des ., 241
hinged 347 Vise, pipe, and des
ills, 340
inverted-cup 347 swivel bench, ills, and des. 340 . .
tey 347 •Volute," def. of 2U

lifting 347 centrifugal pump, the Worth-
Mason water reducing, ills. ington, why so named, des. 229
and des 351 centrifugals, des 229
N tiive motion of steam fire en- Volz combination of condenser
gines, des no and feed-water heater,
pressure reducing, ills, and ills, and des 304, 305, 306
des.- 349-350
rotary 347 Water "Ballast" pump, des.
slide 347 and ills. . . 160
spring 347 Barometer, how made 31
rhrottle and quick closing trip, cock, des 347
ills 336 contamination of, to be pre-
«ies 348 vented 375
dogging of, remedy 375 Weir Dam measurement, des.
*'
Corcoran " tank 323 and ills 390
l:ft of, important for high Water, discharge per minute
pressures 375 under given heads Table. 392 ; .
names, hov/ derived 347 expansion of, by freezing. 381 . . .
Vajvcs of an air compressor, Miner's Inch, flow of 388

how operated by mechani- Waterhammer, prevention of,
cal means 65 ills, and des 381
.•ule for setting of Deane Water heater, noiseless, ills, and
vacuum pump 43 des 265-266
several classes of 347 meter, ills, and des 329-332
suction, must be well packed. 374 to read the dial of a, ills 332
Vat, des 323 Worthington, ills, and des.330-332
'<VanDuzen's steam jet pump" ; Water, open stream measure-
note 260 ment 39c>
Vapor, def 16 penetrating force of, under
Velocity, average of the wind high pressure 38
fortheU. S 182 plunger, how packed, des.
of flow in pipes Table. ; . . .392-393 and ills ôt,
entering suction
w&'e,er 378 pressure ejector, ills, and des. 266
water in discharge pipes 378 pressure of column of ; Table. 396
$2i Pumf>s and Hydraulics.
Water, purifying of 379 Wind produced by gravitation. 180

reducing valve, Mason, ills. average velocity of, for the
and des 351 U. S i8i
relative velocity of, in large Wooden pipe, note relating to. .
364
jnd small pipes 378 Wood propeller pump, the, ills.
velocity of, in discharge pipes 378
and des 172-174
Water wheels, H
o 1 y o k e im-
proved speed governors for,
Working, improper, to find
and des cause of 375

ills, 291-294
Turbine, ills IV Worthington centrifugal
Water works, mine drainage, pumps divided into Con-
adaptation of the turbine oidal. Volute and Turbine,
pump for 233 des 229
Wear of parts, inspections neces- condensing apparatus, opera-
sary tion of 307
374
Weather bureaus, table of the duplex steam pump with re-
average hourly velocity of ceiver attached, ills, and
wind in the U. S 183 des 319
Weight of gases, def 26 pressure pump, the, ills, and
Well heads, three styles ot, des. des 154-155
and ills. . 86-87 turbine pump, ills, and des. 230 . .
Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. vertical beam vacuum pump,

Co., 75-H. P. induction ills, and des 44-45
motor 241 water meter, ills, and des.. 330-332
Wheeler Condenser and Engin- "wrecking" pump the, ills.
eering Co., referred to 306 and des I57-I59
Windmill governor, ills, and "Wrecking" pump, ills, and
des 188 des 157-159
pump, des 187 Wrench, def 345
operation of 187 monkey, ills, and des 344
rules for approximately deter- interchangeable socket, ills,
mining the size of 190 and des . . . .
344
as a prime mover 182 single-ended, double-ended,
Windmills, note relating to 183 open-ended, box-wrench,
the Corcoran, ills, and des. 184-186 des..... 345
W indmill, the power of, upor Trimo pipe, ills, and des 343
what it depends 190
iVindmotors, why so named. 187 . . .
power pumps ills, and des. 185 192

oower as a source ot energy. i8x . 2lnc, attacked strongly by sugar. 379
THEO.
NY. CITY
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tion, Location, Erection, Running, Care and Repair, Station
Testing. Telephones. Principles and Construction. Various
Systems. Wiring Diagrams. Telephone Troubles.
Contains 332 pages, 436 Illustrations. Telegraph. Simul-
8, taneous Telegraphy and Telephony. Wireless Principles,
Construction, Diagrams. Electric Bells. Electric Lighting.
Illumination. Photometry, Etc.
9Coil4.alns 322 pages, 627 illustrations. Electric Railways.
• R. Tl. Signal Worit. Electric Locomotives. Car Lighting.
Trolley Car Operation. Miscellaneous Applications. Motion
Pictures. Gas Engine Ignition. Automobile Self-Starters and
Lighting Systems, Electric Vehicles, Etc.
I A Contains 5 3 pages, 599 illustrations. Elevators. Cranes
1
XU« Pumps. Air Compressors. Electric Heating. Electric Welding.

Soldering and Brazing. Industrial Electrolysis. Electro-
plating, Electro-Therapeutics, X-Rays, Etc. Also a com-
plete 12&-page ready reference index of the completa library.
This index has been planned to render eaaily aeeea^l« all vLt
vast information contained in the 10 eleemoal KUloes. Tbare
are over 13,500 cross references. You find Wb» yon want to
know instantly.
A NEW Up-to-Date GUIDE For
MARINE ENGINEERS
Giving Just the Needed Information
WITH A
Q uestions and jr\nswers

on the following subjects
How to Figure (with
examples).
Safety Valve R-'Ies.
Horse Power Rules.
Theory and Elements of
Engineering.
Steam Tables.
Marine Boilers.
Oil Burners.
Marine Engines.
Turbines.
Pumps and Condensers.
Injectors and Heaters.
Steering Engines.
Pipes and Piping.
Machines.
Auziiiarj'
General Care and
Management, with
Suggestions.
Breakdowns and Re-
pairs at Sea.
Overhauling and Lay-
ing L'p.
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Gas Producers.
Heavy Oil Engines.
Diesel Engines.
Dynamos and Motors.
ElectricShipPropulsion.
Refrigerating.
850 Machinery.
Pages Government Rules and
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600 to Engineers' Certifi-
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ful Questions and
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PRICE »3 POST PAID
THIS BOOK WILL HELP YOU

SHIPFITTERS'
GUIDE —
The author has had twenty-five years'
$2.
experience as a shipfitter, and makes
everything as plain as a pike-staff.
A
mine of absolutely indlspenaable information
for the man on the job.
Explainsall about the Parts of a Steel Ship. A
full list of terms used in shipbuilding and on
board ship. Problems encountered in shipfltting.
Work of the mold loft. Laying off plans to full size.
The making of the template from the plannlngsheets
to the placing of the tinished plate on the ship-
transferring— punching rivet holes— shearing —
bending— Plan reading. How to lay the chalk line
— repairing a template— method oX lapping boards
in template construction.
Loft work. Use of liners. Duplicating Bars or
Angles. Lifting a bracket plate from the hull
—
lifting a bosom bar on the ship— beveling- lifting
curved shell from the hull— method of obtaining
template sets for curved plates- lifting boss plate
from the hull— lifting a margin bar. Building a
bulk freighter— launching a bulk freighter. In-
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the practical shipworker.
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Two hundred pages ; illustrated. Con-
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Audel's Easy Lessons
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A practical Course of Instruction Explaining the Principles,
3.C.
Construction and tlie Working of Wireless Apparatus— for stu-
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following iMPORTA.vr Chapters and Lessons 1. — Forma of Electricity.
2. — Magnetism and Electro-magnetic Induction. 3. — Disruptive Dis-
charge. 4. — Electric Oscillations. 5.— Electric Waves. 6.— The Aerial
Wire System. 7. — The Grounded Terminal. 8. — The Transmitting
Apparatus. 9.— The Receiving Apparatus. 10.— The Aerial Switch
and Other Apparatus. 11. — Installing the Apparatus. 12. — Some other
considerations. With a thorough grasp of the elementary principles and
a fair skill with the telegraph key, the other and more complex things a
wireless operator must know, will come quickly and easily and with them
— success. 242 pages, 259 illustrations — well printed and made to
fit the Test pocket. PRICE 50c.
Hawkins* Hectrical Dictionary.
$2.52
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Engineers, Contractors, Superintendents,
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thousands upon thousands of words, terms and phrases used in the
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No
Dictionary has to the knowledge of the publishers been printed
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Engineering.
measures 6^x8^ inches, is over one and one-half inches thick;
It
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the book which is charming.
Hawkins' Mechanical Dictionary. $9^

If the reader often encounters words and allusions whose meaning
i& nordear, or is a busy man, without time to wade through a whole
volume on any subject about which information is desired, or is a
student or a professional man, feeling the frequent need of a first class
reference work, he will readily appreciate the qualities that are to be
found in this most useful book.
It is a cyclopaedia of words, terms and phrases in use in the
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Mechanic Arts, Trades and Sciences "many books in one." It is
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704 pages, ky^tiyi inches, handsomely bound.
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OF AUTOMOBILES 50c.
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language.
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understood may cause trouble.
The Latest Improvements are shown, also directions for instiJHng
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Hom.ana' Autoraolwlei.
"Homans' Self Propelled Vehicles" girei full
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It is a thorough course in the Science of
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AudeU Automobile Guide. $|i!

Written so you can understand all about the
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This volume gives the latest and most
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Automobile Engines, including chapters on
Producer Gas Plants and the Alcohol
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The book is a-practical educator from cover
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anj one using these motive powers.
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Gives in detail all necessary information oa
$2
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Rogers* Erecting and Operating.
Provides full information on methods success*
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\#
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neers' and firemen's law, turbines, injectors,
valves, steam traps, bells, gears, pullcjiw
electricity, etc., etc
Hawkins* Electricity for Engineers.
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introduction of electrical machinery in
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It contains 550 pages with 300 illustration*
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m g^
Hawkins* Engineers* Examinations . X#
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This work is gotten up to fill a long-felt need
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This instructive book on Boiler Room
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is
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$1
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is
and operating engineers, superintendents and

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plain and valuable lessons derived from the
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Pumps and Hydraulics Part-2

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Presented to the

Mrs. Mary B. Wakeham

PUMPS; STEAM PUMPS, SINGLE, DUPLEX AND COMPOUND; PUMPING-

ENGINE UNDERAWRITERS' PUMPS MINING PUMPS AIR AND

VACUUM PUMPS; COMPRESSORS; CENTRIFUGAL AND ROTARY

UTILITIES AND ACCESSORIES VALVE SETTING MAN-

AGEMENT CALCULATIONS, RULES AND TABLES.

CHANICS, HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS GRAVITY AND FRICTION ;

HYDRAULIC MEMORANDA; LAWS GOVERNING FLUIDS; WATER

THEO. AUDEL & COMPANY

Protected by International Copyriglit in Great Britain and all

Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Tuala,

Printed In the United State).

Introduction to Part Two ....

1. It contains no more than can be mastered by the average

engineer and those associated with him, such as millwrights,

and practice no exertion has been spared in the attempt to

make it fairly represent the latest state of the science of

cal advancement, i. e., in the line of practical hydraulics.

4. It has been made by "men who know for men who

deduced from the discoveries of different individuals, in different

5. It is a work of reference minutely indexed. We are

learn, education cannot make him learn," but in a well indexed

" Look ahere, I don't propose to make a dictionary of

It is not thus with this work nothing has been withheld

that would make it and helpful to one in need of the

has contributed his careful supervision to each page of the

Credit due also to Mr. Edward F. Stevens, assistant at

the Yale University library, New Haven, Conn., for a careful

or more years experience in business and editing with a mechan-

These names should assure confidence in the contents of

atmosphere. It is inodorous, invisible,

100 cubic inches of air at mean temperature and pressure weighs

all the properties which have been ascribed to liquids in general,

As the air which we breathe, and which surrounds us, is the

by the reaction of the internal air.

Heat insinuates itself between the particles of bodies and

attraction of gravitation and the attraction of cohesion. But,

A column of air, having a base an inch square, and reaching

The elasticity of air and other aeriiorm fluids is that prop-

The and all gases is in direct

Air becomes a mechanical agent by means of its weight, its

The fluidity of air invests it, as it invests all other liquids,

causes them to expand, while within certainlinfiits they are

easily compressed. This materially affects the state of density

The chemical properties of both liquids and fluids belong

earth, while in the upper regions of the atmosphere, where

visible is yet a material substance, possessing al. the common

panded by heat and contracted by cold, may be used instead

Fio. 331. Fio. 832. Fio. 333.

which is ground and well-greased, is pressed on the plate of the

air-pump. Fig. 331. As soon as the air in the vessel is rarefied

to 4>4 inches diameter, the edges of which are made to fit

tightly, and are well greased. One of the hemispheres is pro-

balanced by the elastic force of the air in the interior. But

The Barometer is an instrument to measure the weight of

cup or leather bag of mercury, on

sealed at one end, and is quite

the column of mercury sinks, and, after oscillating some time,

The mercury is raised in the tube by pressure of the