Pumps and Hydraulics Part-1

' AR90R j
Presented to the
LIBRARY of the
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
by
Mrs. Maiy B. Wakeham

PUMPS
AND
HYDRAULICS.
IN TWO PARTS.
Part One.
>-Of-YRlGHTFD I90S
BV THEO. AUPEL &. CO.
NEW rCRK
" Thous;hl is Ihf f<rincipal factor in all mfchanitat not k; thf mechanical tffott is
an incident rather than the puncxpal equipment in any tiade or occupation."
".4nv (ratfe if ea^-Iv Irnrrrei hv rn a^t fh^J-'r rf*" ""j hii reasoning facultits
and makes a study of cause and rjf'ct." -CHAS. J. AfASOX.
PUMPS AND
HYDRAULICS
— BY
WILLIAM ROGERS
Author of "Draiuing and Design," etc.
RELATING TO
HAND PTTMPS POWER PT7MPS PASTS OP PUMPS
; ; ; EUECTHICALLY DRIVEN
PTTMPS; STEAM PUMPS, SINGLE, DUPLEX AND COMPOUND; PUMPINCJ
ENGINES, HIGH DUTY AND TRIPLE EXPANSION THE STEAM FIHE ;
ENGINE UNDEE'WKITERS' PUMPS MINING PU^MPS AIK AND

; ; ;
VACUUM PUMPS; COMPRESSOKS CENTRIFUGAL AND ROTARY

;
PUMPS THE PULSOMETER JET PUMPS AND THE INJECTOR

; ;
ITTILrnES AND ACCESSORIES VALVE SETTING MAN-; ;
AGEMENT CALCULATIONS, RULES AND TABLES.

;
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.
ALSO
GEtTEEAL CONSIDERATIONS: GLOSSAEY OF PUMP TERMS; HISTORICAL
INTEODUCTION, 'WITH ILLUSTEATIONS THE ELEMENTS OF HYDRO-ME-
;
CHANICS, HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS GEAVITY AND FRICTION ;

;
HYDRAULIC MEMORANDA; LAWS GOVERNING FLUIDS; WATER

PRESSUEE MACHINES PUMPS AS HYDRAULIC MACHINES, ETC.
;
PART ONE.
PUBLISHED BY
THEO. AUDEL & COMPANY

72 FIFTH AVE., IMPERIAL ARCADE,
LUDGATE CIRCUS, E.C.,
NEW YORK, U.S.A. LONDON, ENG.
Copyrighted, 1905, by
THEO. AUDEL & CO., NEW YORK.
Entered at Stationers Hall, London, England,
Protected by International Copyright in Great Britain and all
her Colonies, and, under the provisions of the

Berne Convention, in
Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Tunis,

Hayti, Luxembourg, Moimco, Montinegro
and Norway.
Printed in the United States.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part ONE.
The divisions of Part One are represented by the following
headings : each subject is fully treated and illus-
trated on the pages shown :
iNTRobuCTORY CONSIDERATIONS
^
"Among the first things a practical engineer should know,

and among the last things he will, after becoming such,
forget, is that in handling water within pipes he has a Jiuid
which, while it is flexible to the greatest extent a?id is suscep-
tible of the influence of power, or force, of greater or less
ijttensity, and while it may be drawn from below and raised
to the heights above, can be turned to the right or to the left
at will, and while, with a seeming docility which is as
flattering as it is deceptive, it betids itself to the will of the
engitieer, still there are some things it will not do, and which
all the complicated appliances of the engineer have as yet
failed to compel it to do. When inclosed within chambers
a7id pipes, to aji extent that fills them, it will not permit
the introduction of an added atom without bursting its
boujids. While iîclosed within long lines of pipes it will
not suddenly start into motion, or when in motion suddenly
come to a rest, without shocks or straitis more or less dis-
astrous ; and so, while it seems to be handled with the greatest
ease, it is only in the mantter it chooses to go, and all me-
chanical applicances not designed with reference to following
these imperative laws are sure to meet trouble, if not disaster.
In other words, when an unyielding force meets an unyield-
ing resistance, their coming together means a shock to all
about.'
INTRODUCTORY
CONSIDERATIONS
Introductory Considerations.
" Whenever a full mind meets an empty one, it is
a call to teach, not to scoff.^^ —Anon.
" //(? zvho sedulously attends, pointedly asks, calmly
speaks, coolly answers and ceases when he has no more

to say, is in possession of some of the best requisites of
man.'''' — Levater.
PREFACE.
It should be a matter of thankfulness to author and

reader, or rather to both instructor and student, for this is
designed to be an educational work, that the Laws of Nature

are unchangeable.
From age to age and co-extensive with the globe the

immutable principles underlying and actuating the physical
states of all matter remain steadfast; gaseous bodies expand
by unchanging laws which are obeyed down to the merest
atom, fluids flow by law and the earth to the smallest particle
remains firm, all things at all times responsive to the man-
dates of the Author of Creation.
The silent, mighty, unanswering physical characteristics of

Gravity, Cohesion, Tenacity, furnish an agreeable contrast to
the din, discord and frequent argument, to the verge of hatred,
that have too often accompanied the efforts of mankind to co-
operate with the forces of Nature. But now, between author
and reader, let it be hoped, that in the unfolding of the sub-
ject-matter of this work that kind consideration will be
extended and that some of that peacefulness and trust which
existed on the earth,when flmts were the weapons and the
gourds the only goblets, may prevail from beginning to the
" finis " of the volumes.
The author in planning the outlines of this work has

aimed to keep close to real things belonging to the practical
side of hydraulics, pumps, pumping-engines, and to the simple
explanation of the Natural Laws pertaining to their industrial
Introductory Considerations.
application. A knowledge of the real things in the objective
world about us and the laws that govern them in their inter-
relations is of practical value to every man; all branches of

science are simply branches of one great science and all phases
of human activity are touched by it; man is so constituted that
he must have something to be interested in, and if he has no

resources within himself he looks elsewhere, and often to his
own disadvantage.
And so, the author has aimed to make the subjects of this
book interesting as well as useful; i, by their self-help arrange-
ment; 2, by the illustrations, and 3, by leaving very much to
the further research and investigation of the reader, as, in a

well-told story, many things are left to the imagination of the
listeners.
It should be borne in mind by the reader, that the work

is designed to be seriously Educational in its plan and scope,
and Progressive in the presentation of its subject-matter;
nothing has been withheld that might add to its lasting value.
This is said in the way of an introduction to the Table of

Co7itents to which the student is referred as showing the
method of treatment, in the wide range of the theory and
practice, of this important branch of Industrial Science.
In the back of the volume may be found a Ready Refer-

ence Index which by its admirable method of arrangement
affords a speedy key to the contents of the book when occasion
requires.
Introtiucto'''y Considerations.
WHAT A STEAM PUMP WOULD SAY IF IT
COULD TALK.
Tlic ti'dl-kiuKcn pump expert, Mr. I\ Mcriam WlucLr, \\x\\o
us saying that if the iiKinufacturcrs of steam pumps would sci.d
out pumjs a cavd readin«j something like the f'
witii ihcir !
lowing, would probably impress the men who run the piini]).
it
more forcibly than anyiiiing that could be said or written in the

ordinary way of giving instructions:
''Please do not gorge me with oil, as it zvill give my steam

chest indigestion. What I like is a steady diet and thus enable
my work smoothly and loith durability.
valves to A very small
amount of oil fed to me steadily is the thing — /'/
saves oil and
repair bills.
" Two me a good dose of kerosene,

or three times a year give
to elean out any obstructions that may have accumulated in the
passageivays of my steam chest, or on the face or working parts
of the valve and valve-seat, or on the chest piston.
" Do all you can to help me make a full length of stroke, as it
means that I will use less steam and do better ivork. The ad-
justable collars on the valve rod will allow you to regulate the
length of my stroke to a nicety.
" By allowing me to make short strokes, you prevent my
steam piston from getting in proper cushion, which it would
its
do if it could complete its full stroke. My steam piston is sup-

posed to run up to the end of the cylinder and pass across the
exhaust port, cushioning on the confined steam between said port
and the cylinder cover.
The hand wheels on the side of my steam cylifider are for

"
controlling the amount of this cushion. For slozv speeds these

cushion valves should be shut tight. When running at ordinary
speed or a high rate of speed, these cushion valves should be
slightly opened.
Introductory Consideratiop.s.
" Once in a while take a look at my ivater cylinder. See that

the packing of the water piston is not set up so tight that it inahrs
nie grunt, producing unnecessary friction and zvear. Or, per-
haps the packing is too loose a ft, or is worn out and nctds re-
nczving.
" Please see that my water valves are seating properly,
because if they arc not tight I cannot pump as much water as
I ought to do for a givc7i speed. Sometimes the springs on the
backs of my water valves need renewing or looking after.
" If you have not already provided a good suction air cham-
ber for my tuater cylinder, you ought to do it, because it will pre-
vent the ivater column in the suction pipe from slapping the face
of my water pisto7i at the end of each stroke in a harsh manner
and so produce '
ivater hammer. ' A
good suction air chamber,
properly located, saves wear and tear, and makes a pump quiet
running.
" Please keep me nice and clean. I may not be of as much
importance as your big engine, but there is no reason why I shoidd
not be kept free from dirt and grease. I hate to have oil slob-
bered all overmy steam chest, or my stuffing-boxes left leaking.
" You will fnd it pays to keep me in good condition, like a
well-groomed horse. Treat me well and Fll serve you well and
long!! I "—The Engineer.
—
GLOSSARY OF PUMP AND HYDRAULIC

TERMS.
Air-bound. This word applies to both pump and piping and

expresses the confinement of air between the discharge
valve of the pump and the check-valve or the point of
delivery.
Air-cock. Is the same as

a pet-cock and is used
to relieve pipes that

are air-bound.
Annular Valve. From an-

nular — a ring i. e., a
round valve with a
hole in the middle.
Area. The extent of sur-

face, as the area of a
piston.
Assemblitig. Putting to-

AiB Cock.
gether the parts of a
machine.
Atmospheric Pressure. The pressure of atmospheric air, not

only downward but in every direction, this amounts to
about 14.7 lbs. per square inch at the sea level. Usually
taken at 15 lbs. to facilitate calculations.
Auxiliary. Something to " help out," as an auxiliary cylinder

or an auxiliary piston.
18 p2i7nps and Hydraulics.
Ball Check-valve. One in which a metal ball is used in place
of a poppet-valve.
Balanced Valve. A valve hav-
ing an equal pressure on
all sides. See equilibrium
valve.
Basket. The outer casing or

netting of a .foot valve
which forms a strainer on a
pump suction pipe.
Bends. In pipe, the turns in

lines of pipe may be angle
Ball Check-Valve. bends (called " elbows ") or
offset bends.
Bibb-cock. This is a plug cock having an elbow or curved out-

let directing the outflow downward.
Bibb-Cock. Bibb Compression.
Bibb Compression. A
bibb-cock having in place of the plug a
stem with thread and handle to open by unscrewing; the
valve contains fibrous packing and is made tight by com-
pression.
Bonnets. These are covers for the opening into valve chambers
of pumps.
Glossary of Pump and Hydraulic Terms. 19
Boss. round protuberance on a casting to support a stud

Any
or to strengthen a steam chest cover, etc.
Bushing. A
nut used in pipe fittinj^.
threaded inside and outside to accom
modate two sizes of pipe.
Check Valve. A valve through which fluid

can pass only in one direction used be- ;
tween pump and reservoir or boiler.

BCSHIKQ.
See swing-check.
second nut screwed against the to hold

Check-Nut. A first it
firmly in place ; also called a lock-nut.
A
pump arranged to force water through
Circulating Pump.
the tubes of a surface condenser.
Frequently a centrifugal pump is used
as a circulating pump.
Clack Valve. This takes its name from the

noise it makes in seating ;it is made of
leather with a metal weight on top, the

leather forming a hinge on one side.
In the cut the lifted valve is the
"clack."
Clearance. The space or distance by which

Clack VAiiVB.
one piece clears space
another. The
between piston and cylinder head.
Cock. A faucet or device for opening or

closing a passage. The illustration
shows a straight-way cock.
Column Pipe. A column may be considered
as a beam set on end and a

column pipe
as a pipe set
may, similarly, be defined
on end. The pipes leading from a
Plain Cock
boiler.
water column to
20 Pumps and Hydraulics.
Compression Gauge Cock.

A having a
device
threaded steam spin-
dle and made tight by
compression. The fig-
ure exhibitsan outside

view of a locomotive
compression gauge
Compression Gauge Cock.
cock.
Corrosion, Rusting or wasting away of the surfaces of metals.
Croiv. A claw with a screw attached to support- and feed a

drill brace for drilling holes in pipes.
Cup LcatJicr Packing. The leather

packing used around the ram of a
press. In section it resembles a
—
cup hence the name.
Cup Leather Packing.
CnsJiioning. This term applied to the operation of pumps,

etc., is t" c iniprisoning of steam, water or air between the
pistun ;i;id cylinder head to prevent the piston from im-
pact with the head.
Cylinder Head
or Cylinder Cover. A plate which encloses or
covers the end of a cylinder.
Dead eiid of a pipe. The closed end of a pipe or system of

pipes.
Disk or Disc. A cylinder, whose length is very short in pro-
portion to its diameter ; a round plate with a hole in its
center.
Double-eye or Knuckle Joint. A joint formed of two forks or

jaws with a cube of iron between them, with a bolt or pin
through each jaw and the cube at right angles. Will work
freely in all positions from a straight line up to 45*'.
Glossary of Pump and Ilydrauiic Terms. 21
Double seated poppet I'alve. poppet A

valve having two valves on one stem,
with two scats in the same shell.
Drafting luater. Another term for " rais-

ing" water by suction, in distinction
to '*
forcing water."
Drip-pipe. A device
used to draw off the
water of condensation from systems
of piping, steam cylinders, heater-,
Doublb-Seated Poppet
etc. Drain-cocks are used for simihir
Valvb.
purposes.
**
Dutchman" A piece " fitted in " to restore a worn part or
to hide a defect.
Duct. A passage or conduit.
**Duty" of pimtps. This indicates the

measurement of the work performed
by pumps. " Duty trials " are careful
tests of the work done by the larger
pumping-engines.
Mlboiv. This fitting is used for uniting two

pipes together at right angles. The
illustration shows a malleable-iron gas- Elbow.
pipe elbow.
Equilibriiini Valve. A valve balanced by an

equal pressure on both ends.
Expansioyi faint. A telescopic slip joint

having a packed stuffing box, permitting
the parts it connects to expand and con-
tract under variations of temperature.
FcLce. The broadest flat surface of a piece of

EiPA>bioaJcuiii. work, OE the one having the greatest area.
22 Pumps and Hydraulics,
Factor of Safety. When a calculation of the ultimate strength

of a machine is to be made it is necessary to provide for
contingencies— this takes the form of a multiplier, and is
called the factor of safety, or the margin of safety.
Feather, or sunk key. A key that is fast in one piece of
work, and an easy fit in the other, as a feather in a shaft.
F/ow. Motion of a fluid or liquid in one direction. " Flow-

gate " is a term sometimes applied to a riser.
Flume. An open trough for conveying water.
GiiOBB Valve.
Gate Valve. A
valve which opens the full area of the pipe, on
the principle of a gate in a water flume.
Globe Valve. A valve having a round ball-like shell as shown

in the engraving.
Gland. The sliding bushing for holding packing into a stuff-

ing box, adjusted by studs and nuts.
Goose neck. A pipe fitting having two bends in opposite

directions which resemble the neck of a goose.
Gridiron Valve. A type of slide valve familiarly called a

"grid," which may be
circular or rectangular, consisting
of bars and spaces, sliding over a similarly
alternate
formed seat, the object being to obtain the necessary
steam way with a diminished amount of valve travel.
Hand-Nut. A
nut having wings or
projections so that it may be
screwed up by hand without the
aid of a wrench.
"
Head of water. In hydraulics " head Hand-Nut.
means pressure due to height of

column of water.
Heat Units. The unit of heat is the amount of heat required
to raise one pound of water one degree, usually from

32° to 33° Fahr.
" Hesitates" A pump is said to " hesitate" when the motion

becomes uncertain.
Horse-power of a pump. Is the same as is used to designate

that of a steam engine, with this exception the initial :
throughout the
pressure in the pump remains constant
stroke. Formula is the same as for a steam engine.
''Hump." This is an arch or bend which causes an "air

pocket " in a water-pipe line.
Hydrant. A valve and spout connecting with a street main.
Hydraulic Belt. An endless woolen band for raising water.

The lower bight is immersed in water, and the upper bight
passes over a roller. The belt travels about 1,000 feet per
minute, and discharges at its upper turn.
24 Pumps and Hydratdics,
Hydraulic Jack. A lifting device in

which a ram, a pump, and liquid is
used instead of a screw.
Hydraulic Pivot. A " slippery liquid

support " for an upright shaft, a
film of water being introduced be-
neath it by pressure to support
the weight thereof and prevent the
usual friction of the shaft on its
step.
Hydraulic Shears. A machine for

shearing or cutting metals, etc., by
the force of water pressure operat-
ing cutters.
HvDK.vuLic Jack.
Hydraulic Valve.' A
valve for regulating the distribution of
water in the cylinders of hydraulic elevators, cranes and
other water pressure machines and devices.
Hydraulic Wheel. One for raising water by applied power, as

the Noria Scoop wheel, tympanum, etc. See illustrations
in section relating to the history of the pump.
fijipact. The single instantaneous shock of a body in motion
when it strikes against another body either in motion or

at rest.
Leakage. The loss of water from any cause,
" Lift and drop of a valve." This term indicates the amount of
" play " up and down, designed to be given to a valve by
its designer.
Liner. A piece of iron or other metal put behind or on a piece

to take up its wear.
Lost Motio)i. Motion that is not transmitted on account of

the looseness of the parts, hence it is lost.
" Losing 'ti'ater." A term used when the pump stops, caused
by air leaking into the suction pipe, or foreii^n matter
clogging the strainer at the end of the suction pipe.
Line pressure steam. Steam which is either below 30 lbs., or
but a few pounds in excess of the atmospheric pressure.
Lug. That which projects like an ear, especially that by which

anything is supported, or against which anything bears, or
through which a belt passes.
Main. A principal pipe or duct as distinguished from lesser

ones, especially a principal pipe leading to or from a reser-
voir or a fire-main ; a " forcing main " is the delivery pipe
of a pump.
Mean gradient. The grade of a pipe-line which î^^^-^W

should be made as nearly straight as possible
to avoid air pockets.
Miner s Inch. The amount of water that will

flow per minute through an opening one inch
square in a plank two inches thick, under a
head of four inches of water above the upper
edge of the opening, and is equal to nine
United $tates gallons.
Mississippi River gauge eock, A cock without a

handle or thread upon the stem and designed
to be opened by pressure upon the top end
of the stem as shown.
" Modulus " of a steam pump. The measure or

multiplier of power used in operating pumps.
Modulus has nearly the same meaning as Mississippi
"measure. GaiSeJ^k.
Nipple. A short connecting

piece of pipe threaded up-
on both ends.
Outboard delivery pipe. The Nipple.

pipe which leads, in steam
vessels, from the condenser through the side of the ship.
Pipette. A small tube used to withdraw and transfer fluids or

gases from one vessel to another. The shape differs with
the special use to which it is adapted : some are graduated
to measure fluids accurately as well as to transfer them.
Penstock. The barrel of a pump in which the piston plays and

through which the water presses up also the conduit or ;
trough from the source of supply to a water wheel.
Pet-cock. This is an air-cock. See air-cock.
Pipe-clamp. Adevice for connecting one pipe to another

without cutting the pipe and inserting a tee; a pipe-saddle
performs the same office as the above, but for larger pipes.
Pitcher Pump. A hand pump which takes its name from the
shape of its discharge.
Plug-valve. This is a tapering" plug

which turns in a shell, example, /
the phig of a faucet. See Cock.
K fire-plug is a street hydrant to
which a hose may be attached.
Plumb-bob. This is a device for test-

ing whether anything stands
exactly vertical ; a plumb-rule
Plumb
Pitcher Pdmp. contains a plumb-bob. Bob.
Glossary of Pii^np and Hydraulic Terms. 'VI
Pressiirt-reducing Valve. A
valve for reducing high boiler
pressure to low pressure, for steam heating, etc.
Pressure Reducing Valvk. Section.
Priming. To fill a pump with water when it refuses to lift
of its own action, is called " priming the pump."
Piunp-brake. The handle or lever by which a pump is worked.
Pump-box. A cap or case covering the top of a pump ; the

casings of the upper and lower valves are the upper and
lower pump boxes.
Pump-chain. An endless chain with discs forming valves at

proper distances, working on two wheels, one above and
one below, and passing down outside and returning up-
ward through a wooden tube like a belt.
Pump-cheeks. A forked piece serving as a fulcrum for the

handle of a pump.
Piivip-zvell. A compartment extending from a ship's bottom

to the lower or the upper deck, as the case may be, to
contain the pump stocks, etc. The bilge water collects in
the livibers and is discharged through a spout called the
pump-dale.
Pumps and Hydraulics.
Rain-gauge. A vessel graduated to measure the fall of rain in
a given period.
Rediicing-coupling. A fitting for con-

necting two sizes of threaded pipe.
Resistance. The force that a pump has

to work against, caused by gravity,
friction, head of water, etc.
Reducing Coupling.
Right-hand Thread. A
screw thread in which, with the
threaded end of the bolt towards you, the top of the nut
must revolve from left to right like the hands of a watch,

in order to cause the nut to screw upon the bolt.
Open. ROPB SOCKBTS. CLOSEa
Rope-socket. A
device fastened to the end of a rope by means
of which the rope may be attached to its load. The
socket may be open or closed.
Rust-joint. A joint which is made by being filled with sifted

cast-iron borings, mixed with ammoniac, sulphur and
sal
water; this causes the cuttings to rust and form a solid
cemenL
Sea Injection. The pipe and valve through which sea water is
injected into the condenser of a marine engine.
Screw jack or lifting jack. A screw

working in a threaded base or
stationary nut and turned by a
lever inserted into holes near the
top, of which there are usually
four. A loose plate or swivel is
placed on top of screw. Screw Jacks.
"Slams" and ''Shocks.'' Banging, clanking and jarring noises

indicating a derangement of the action of a pump.
^ Sheve-coupliyig. A threaded con-
nection for uniting the two
ends of pipes of equal size.
''Slippage." The difference bc-

Sleeve Cocplixg.
tween ,
the
111
calculated and
1
actual work performed by a pump.
Sluice. A water-gate ; a channel to run off waste water.
Slurry pump. A special pump for handling a mixture of earth

water.
Socket-wrench. A wrench for turning nuts, having a socket in

the end made to a special size and shape of the nut to be
turned.
Spanner. Is a wrench for turning

round nuts having
^ holes or slots. C>1'AKNEK.
Spline or feather. A key made fast in a shaft.
Split-pin or cutter. An iron pin divided at the end which is
to be spread apart after inserting in the hole.
^'Spread." A term used to indicate the distance from center

to center of the cylinders of a duplex pump.
Spring-seat. An elastic seat for a valve.
30 Pu7nps a7id Hydraulics.
Steam thrown valves. Valves moved by steam only.
Steam end of a pump. The end operated by steam.

^^Sticking of valves'' Inability to work caused by the in-
troduction into the valves of sand, soil, etc.; or it may be
caused by too tight a fit of the moving parts, rust or
corrosion.
Street elbow. An elbow having an ex-

tension piece at one end.
^^Stroke" of pump. The distance trav-

eled by the piston in one motion.
Street Elbow.
Stud-bolt. A
piece of round bar metal with a thread upon
each end. A
represents thread for nut B body of bolt
;
and C thread to fit in casting.

IP
Stub-End. Strainer.
Si2ib-end. Either end of a connecting rod.
Strainer. A device for separating solid particles from the

liquid which contains them.
Stuffing box. A recess to receive the packing around piston

rods, plungers and valve stems.
Submerged pump. A pump which works under water.
Glossary of Pump a?id Hydraulic Terms. 31
"Sucking wind." A leakage of air into the suction part of a

pump.
Supplemtutal piston. The piston which operates the main
valve in the steam pump.
Swing Check Valnt:. Switch ("ock.
Sluing check valve. One which swings upon a pivot or hinge in

opening and closing.
Switch cock or valve. A device for conducting exhaust steam

into the smoke stack or atmosphere. A
three-way cock.
Syphon Cock.
Syphon Cock. A cock having a combined chamber which is
partially filled with water of condensation, attached to a

steam gauge to keep steam from entering and damaging
the works of the instrument.
Thumb-Nut.
Thumh-nut: as a wing-nut, but a smaller size of the

The same
two, shown above, applied to hand-vice.
Tobin-bronze. An alloy of copper, tin and zinc treated in a

special manner; it is non-corrosive, has great tensile
strength and can be forged at a cherry red heat.
''Trailing Water" Water can be trailed, i., e., carried through

pipes to pumps a very great distance so long as "the lift"
is not over 25 to 33 feet.
''Trovipe.'" The term used to designate a water-blast —

form of pump.
Turbine. A
water wheel driven by the impact or reaction of
streams of water flowing through it or by the impact and
reaction combined it is also distinguished by the manner
;
in which it discharges the water, as outward, vertical or

central discharge turbine wheels.
Turbine-pump. A pump in which water is raised by the action
of a turbine wheel driven by exterior power in the opposite

direction from that in which it is turned when used as a
motor.
Tube-Plug.
Tube-plng. A tube stopper to be used in case of a leak in a
boiler tube ; it two wood pistons joined together

consists of
so that the leak will come between them. Tube plugs are
frequently made of turned tapered cast iron, one of which
is to be driven into each end of a leaking tube.
Glossary of Pump and llydratilic Terms. 33
Union. A fitting designed to unite the

two serevved ends of a pipe, with a
sr\\ T~ sinj^le nut to seeurc them.
Vaciiinn. A voiil space; an inclosed

chamber from which the air (or
other gas) been N'ery
has nearly
Union. removed, as by an air pump.
Valve. Any deWce or appliance used to control the flow of a

liquid, vapor, or gas, or loose material, through a pipe,
outlet or inlet; the term includes steam and water-
air, gas,
cocks of all kinds; water-gates, air-gates, etc. One hundred

and fifty of such devices are named by Knight in his
"Mechanical Dictionary."
Viscosity. Glutinous, adhering, or sticky, as tar, gums, mo-

lasses. Internal friction or resistance to change of shape.
V thread. A thread on a rod or bolt cut in the form of a

letter V.
Washer. A circular piece of leather, rubber, metal, or other

material with a hole in its center, through which a rod
or bolt may pass.
Water Arch. A chamber of plates or of pipes over the furnace

door of brick set boilers to take the place of the usual
cast iron or fire brick arch, and connected with the boiler
to supply it with water. The feed water is often in-
troduced through the water arch.
Water-bellows. A form of pump, like a bellows —of great

antiquity.
Water-cap. The .cover for discharge valves on a steam pump.
Water-end. The pump end of a steam-pump; in distinction

from the steam end.
Water-hammer. A noise caused by the ptilsative motion of

water inside a steam pipe, resembling the blows of a
hammer.
Water Ram. A hydraiilic ram.
Working Barrel. The water end of a pump.
Whirlpool-chamber. A chamber attached to the discharge

end of the centrifugal pump in which the whirling water
gradually loses its rotation, thereby reducing friction.
Wing-nut. An iron nut having a wing at each side. Sometimes

called a "butterfly nut."
Yoke. A branch pipe, or a two-

way coupling for pipes, par-
ticularly twin hot and cold-
water pipes that imite in
their discharge.
Yoke.
Y. —
Â pipe fitting for uniting two pipes at an angle of 45°.
HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.
The very small degree

of antiquity to which ma-
chine tools can lay claim
appears forcibly in the
sparse records of the state
of the mechanic arts a
century ago.
Gourd, Caulduon and Pipkin. A few tools of a rude

kind, such as trip-hammers
(^worked by water wheels), and a few special ones, which aimed
at accuracy but were of limited application, such as "mills"
for boring cannon, or "engines" for cutting the teeth of clock
wheels, were almost their only representatives.
The transmission of power was unthought of, except for

the very limited distances which were possible with the ill-
fitted "gudgeons" and "lanterns and trundles" of the old

millwrights.
The steam-engine, however, changed all this; on the one

hand the hitherto unheard of accuracy of fit required by its
working parts created a demand for tools of increased power
and precision, and on the other it rendered the use of such
tools possible in almost any situation.
Thus, acting and re-acting on each other, machine tools and

steam engines have grown side by side, although the first
steps were costly and difficult to a degree which is not now
easy to realize. James Watt, for instance, in 1779 was fain to
be content with a cylinder for his "fire-engine," of which,
though it was but 18 inches in the bore, the diameter in one
place exceeded that at another by about %
of an inch; its
piston was not unnaturally leaky; though he packed it with
"paper, cork, putty, pasteboard and old hat."
35
The early history of the pumping-engine is the history of the

and for many years the only way
steam-engine, for originally
in which the steam-engine was utilized was for pumping water
out of the coal mines of England and from the low lands of
the Netherlands.
In 1698 Capt. Thomas Savery secured Letters Patent for a

machine for raising water by steam. It consisted of two boilers
and two receivers for the steam, with valves and the needful
pipes. One of the receivers being filled with steam, its com-
munication with the boiler was then cut off and the steam
condensed with cold water outside of it; into the vacuum thus
formed the atmosphere forced the water from below, when the
steam was again caused to press upon the water and drive it
still higher.
This engine was used extensively for draining mines and

the water was, in some instances, made to turn a water wheel,
by which lathes and other machinery were driven.
In 1705 Thomas Newcomen, with his associates^ patented
an engine which combined, for the first time, the cylinder and
piston and separate boiler. This soon became extensively
introduced for draining mines and collieries, and the engines
grew to be of gigantic size, with cylinders 60 inches in diameter
and other parts in proportion.
This engine was, in course of years, used in connection
with the Cornish pump, whose performance in raising water
from mines came to be a matter of the nicest scientific investi-
gation,and adopted as the standard for the duty or work, by
which to compare the multitudinous experimental machines
very soon introduced by many inventors.
But there is an earlier history which long antedates the

achievements of Savery, Newcomen and Watt, which belongs,
however, principally to the domain of hydraulics. Before pro-
ceeding to discuss the advancements made within the memory of
men now living, it may be well to take a glance backward and
occupy a few pages with their appropriate illustrations, with
the facts recorded in history.
Historical Introduction. 37
It were vain to even advances made toward

try, to trace the
the mammoth city pumping from the early bej^nnning

stations,
hereafter described, which have inspired the words recorded
by J. F. Holloway, M. E.:
"In lookinjT; upon the ponderous pumping

engines which hft a volume of water equal to the
flow of a river, sending it with each throbbing
beat of their pulsating plungers through the
arteries and veins that now reach out in every
direction in our great cities, bringing health, com-
fort, cleanliness and protection to every home
therein, we cannot but wonder what is the history
of their beginning, what the process of their
evolution out from the crude appliances of long
ago.
Just who the first man was, and by what
stream he sat gazing on his parched fields, on
which the cloudless skies of the Orient shed no
rain, and where the early rising sun with eager
haste lapped up the dew drops which the more
kindly night in pity over his hard lot had shed,
and who, looking on his withering grain stalks on
the one side and the life-giving waters which
flowed by on the other, first caught the inspiring
thought that if one covdd only be brought to the
other, how great would be the hanêst, we shall
never know. Knowing, as we do, that such still
is the problem that confronts the toiler on the
plains of that far-off Eastern land where man's
necessities first prompted man's invention, it does
not require a great stretch of the imagination to
conceive of such a situation, and to believe that,
acting on the impulse of the moment, he called
his mate, and tying thongs to the feet of a sheep-
skin and standing on either side of the brook,
with alternate swingings of the suspended skin
they Hfted the waters of the stream to the thirsty
field, making its blanched furrows to bloom with
vegetation, and at the same time introducing to
the world the first hydraulic apparatus ever in-
vented, and certainly the first hydravdic ram ever
used."
The figures shown on the opening page of this section of

the work represent the very first used for collecting
utensils
and containing water. The gourd or calabash was undoubtedly
the very first; it was common among the ancient Romans,
Mexicans and Egyptians, and in the most modern times con-
tinues to be in use in Africa, South America and other warm
countries. The New Zealanders possessed no other vessels for
holding liquids, and the same remark is applicable to numerous
other savage tribes.
Although not strictly connected with the subject, it may be
observed that the gourd is probably the original vessel for
heating water, cooking, etc. In these and other applications
the neck is sometimes used as a handle and an opening made into
Figs. 47-52.
the body by removing a portion of it, asshown in the engrav-

ing, its exterior being kept moistened by water while on the
fire, while others apply a coating of clay to protect it from the
effects of the flame. When in process of time vessels for heat-
ing water were formed wholly of clay, they were fashioned
after the cauldron as shown.
The above illustrations are representations of ancient vases;
it is curious to note their conformation to the figure of the
gourd. The first three on the left are from Thebes. Golden
ewers of a similar form were used by rich Egyptians for con-
taining water to wash the hands and feet of their guests.
Similar shaped vessels of the Greeks, Romans and other
people might be easily produced.
—
In Eg>^pt, India, Chaldca and China the clepsydra or water-

clocks date back beyond all records. Plutarch mentions them
in his life of Alcibiades who
Century
flourished in the Fifth
B. C. when they were employed
in the tribunals at Athens to
measure the time to which the
orators were limited in their
addresses to the judges. Julius
Caesar found the Britons in
possession of them.
The clepsydra is a device for
measuring time by the amount
of water discharged from a ves-
sel through a small aperture,
the quantity discharged in a
given unit of time, as an hour
Fia. 53. Water-Clock. being first determined. In the
earlier clepsydras the hours
were measured by the sinking of the surface of the water in
the vessel containing it. In others the water ran from one
vessel to another, there being in the lower a cork or piece of
light wood which as the vessel filled, rose and thus indicated
the hour. In later clepsydras the hour has been indicated by
a dial.
Fig. 53 shows a water-clock described by Hero of Alexandria,

Egypt, made to govern the quantities of Huids flowing from a
vessel. The note below gives the exact wording of the de-
scription which has come down to us.
"A vessel containing wine, and provided with an open spout, stands
upon a pedestal: it is required by shifting a weight to cause the spout to
—
pour forth a given quantity, sometimes, for instance, a half cotyle (J4
pint), sometimes a cotyle {Vz pint), and in short, whatever quantity we
please. A B (fig. 53), is the vessel into which wine is to be poured: near
the bottom is a spout D the neck is closed by the partition E F, and
:
through E F is inserted a tube, G H, reaching nearly to the bottom of the

vessel, but so as to allow of the passage of water. K L M N is tlie
pedestal on which the vessel stands, and OX another tube reaching

^0 Pumps and Hydraulia
within a little of the partition and extending into the

pedestal in which
water isplaced so as to cover the orifice O, of the tube. Fix a rod, P R,
one-half within, and the other without the pedestal, moving like the beam
of a lever about the point S and from the extremity P of the rod suspend
;
a water-clock, T, having a hole in the bottom. The spout D having been

first closed, the vessel should be filled through the tube G before water H
is poured into the pedestal, that the air may escape through the tube X O;
then pour water into the pedestal, through a hole, until the orifice O is
closed, and set the spout D free. It is evident that the wine will not flow,
as there is no opening through which air can be introduced: but if we
depress the extremity R of the rod, a portion of the water-clock will be
raised from the water, and, the vent O being uncovered, the spout D will
run until the water suspended in the water-clock has flowed back and
closed the vent O. If, when the water-clock is filled again, we depress the
extremity R still further, the liquid suspended in the water-clock will take
a longer time to flow out, and there will be a longer discharge from D:
and if the water-clock be entirely raised above the water, the discharge
will last considerably longer. To avoid the necessity of depressing the

extremity R of the rod with the hand, take a weight Q, sliding along the
outer portion of the rod, R W, and able, if placed at R, to lift the whole
water-clock; if at some smaller portion of it. Then,
a distance from R,
having obtained by trial the quantities which we wish to flow from D, we
must make notches in the rod R W
and register the quantities so that, ;
when we wish a given quantity to flow out, we have only to bring the
weight to the corresponding notch and leave the discharge to take place."
THE SYPHON.
The Syphon is a bent pipe or tube with legs of unequal
length, used for drawing liquid out of a vessel by causing it to
rise in the tube over the rim or top. purpose the For this
shorter leg is inserted in the liquid, and the air is exhausted by-
being drawn through the longer leg. The liquid then rises by
the pressure of the atmosphere and fills the tube and the flow
begins from the lower end.
The general method of use is to fill the tube in the first
place with the liquid, and then, stopping the mouth of the
longer leg,to insert the shorter leg in the vessel; upon re-
moval of the stop, the liquid will immediately begin to run.
The flow depends upon the difference in vertical height of the
two columns of the liquids, measured respectively from the
bend of the tube, to the level of the water in the vessel and to
the open end of the tube. The flow ceases as soon as, by the
lowering of the level in the vessel, these columns become of
equal height or when this level descends to the end of the
shorter leg.
The atmospheric pressure is essential to the support of the
column of liquid from the vessel up to the top of the bend of
the tube, and this height is consequently limited; at sea height
the maximum height is a little less than 34 feet for water, but
this varies according to the density of the fluid.
Figs. 54
Syphons are necessary in numerous manipulations of the

laboratory, and modem researches in chemistry have given rise
to several beautiful devices for charging them, and also for
interrupting and renewing their action. When corrosive liquids
or those of high temperatures are to be transferred by syphons,
it is often inconvenient, and sometimes dangerous to put them
in operation by the lungs. Moreover cocks and valves of
metal are acted on by acids, and in some cases would affect or
destroy the properties of the fluids themselves.
Fig. 54 shows how hot or corrosive liquids may be drawn
offfrom a wide mouthed bottle or jar. The short leg of a syphon
is inserted through the cork, and also a small tube, through
which the operator blows, and by the pressure of his breath

forces the liquid through the syphon.
syphon sometimes employed by chemists.

Fig. 55 represents a
When used, is first placed in the fluid to be
the short leg
decanted, the flame of a lamp or candle is then applied to the
imderside of the bulb; the heat rarefies the air, and conse-
quently drives out the greater part of it through the discharg-

ing orifice. The finger is appHed to this orifice, and as the
bulb becomes cool the atmosphere drives up the liquid into the
void and puts the instrument in operation.
Fig. 56 is a syphon charged by pouring a quantity of the
fluid to be decanted into the funnel, the bent pipe attached
to which terminates near the top of the discharging leg. The
fluid in descending through this leg bears down the air within
it, on the principle of the trompe, and the atmosphere drives
up the liquid in the reservoir through the short leg.
Fig. 57 is a glass syphon for decanting acids, &c. It is

charged by sucking, and to guard against the contents entering
the mouth, a bulb is blown on the sucking tube. The accumu-
lation of a liquid in this bulb being visible, the operator can
always withdraw his lips in time to prevent his tasting it.
Fig. 58 is designed to retain its contents when not in use,
so that on plunging the short leg deep into a liquid the
instrument will operate. This effect however will not follow
if the end of the discharging leg descend below the bend
near it, and if its orifice be not contracted nearly to that of a
capillary tube.
Fig. 59 is a syphon by which liquids may be drawn at in-
tervals, viz., by raising and lowering the end of the discharging
leg according to the surface of the liquid in the cistern.
Figs. 60, 61, 62 are

syphons described by Hero
of Alexandria who lived
120 B. C; the descriptions
of the figures are the trans-
iation of the original.
Let A B C D (Fig. 60)

be a vessel open at the
top, and through its bot-
tom pass a tube, either an
inclosed pipe as E F G, or
a bent syphon G H K.
^
Fio. „„
60.
When the vessel AB CD
is and the water runs over, a discharge will begin and

filled,
continue till the vessel is empty, if the interior opening is so
near the bottom of the vessel as only to leave a passage for

the water.
As before, let there be a vessel, A B (Fig. 6i), containing

water. Through its bottom insert a tube, C D, soldered into
the bottom and projecting below. Let the aperture C of the
syphon approach to the mouth of the vessel A B, and let an-
other tube, E F, inclose the tube C D, the distance between
the tubes being cver^-TA-here equal, and the mouth of the outer
tube being closed by a plate, E G, a little
above the mouth C. If we exhaust, by
suction through the mouth D, the air in
the tube C D, we shall draw into it the
water in the vessel A B, so that it will
flow out through the projection of the
syphon tmtil the water is exhausted. For
the air contained between the liquid and
the tube E little, can pass into
F, being but
the tube C
D, and the water can then be
drawn after it. And the water will not
cease flowing because of the projection of
—
the syphon below: if, indeed, the tube E
F were removed, the discharge would
cease on the surface of the water arriving Fig. 61.
at C, in spite of the projection below;
but when E F is entirely immersed no aircan enter the syphon
.n place of that drawn off, since the air which enters the vessel
takes the place of the water as it passes out.
Let ABC (Fig. 62), be a bent syphon, or tube, of which the

leg A B plimged into a vessel D E containing water. If the
is
surface of the water is in F G, the leg of the syphon, A B, will

be filled with water as high as the surface, that is, up to H, the
portion H B C remaining full of air. If, then we draw off the
air by suction through the aperture C, the liquid also will

follow. And if the aperture C be level with the surface of the
AA Pumps and Hydraulics.
water, the syphon, though full, will not

discharge the water, but will remain full:
so that, although it is contrary to nature
for water to rise, it has risen so as to fill
the tube ABC; and the water will
remain in equilibrium, like the beams of
a balance, the portion H B being raised*
on high, and the portion B C suspended.
But if the outer mouth of the syphon be
lower than the surface F G, as at K, the
water flows out, for the liquid in B, K
being heavier, overpowers and draws
toward it the. liquid B H. The discharge,
however, continues only until the surface
Fia. 62. of the water is on a level with the mouth
K, when, for the same reason as before, the efflux ceases. But
if the outer mouth be lower than K, as at L, the
of the tube
discharge continues imtil the surface of the water reaches the
mouth A.
The Syringe is an instrument of very high antiquity and

was probably the first machine consisting of a cylinder and
piston that was especially designed to force liquids. In the
closed end a short conical pipe is attached whose dimensions
are adapted to the particular purpose for which the instrument
is to be used. The piston is solid and covered with a piece of
soft leather, hemp, woolen listing, or any similar substance
that readily imbibes moisture, in order to prevent air or water
from passing between it and the sides of the cylinder. When
the end of the pipe is placed in a liquid and the piston drawn
back, the atmosphere drives the liquid into the cylinder; whence
it is expelled through the same orifice by pushing the piston
down: in the former case the syringe acts as a sucking pump:

in the latter as a forcing one. They are formed of silver, brass,
pewter, glass, and sometimes of wood. For some purposes
the small pipe dispensed with, the end of the cylinder being
is
closed by a perforated plate, as in those instruments with

which gardeners syringe their plants.
WELLS.
Long before pumping
devices were conceived, wells
existed as the invention of
prehistoric man. Herewith
isa sectional view of Joseph's
Well to be seen at the pres-
ent time at Cairo, Egypt.
Scientists think it the pro-
duction of the same people
that built the pyramids and
the unrivaled monuments
of Thebes, Dendaroh and
Ebsambone. The magni-
tude of the well and the
skill displayed in its con-
struction is perfectly imique.
This stupendous well is

an oblong square, twenty
four feet by eighteen, being
sufficiently capacious to ad-
mit within its mouth a
moderate sized house. It is
excavated (of these dimen-
sions) through solid rock to
the depth of one hundred
and sixty-five feet, where it
isenlarged into a capacious
chamber, in the bottom of
which is formed a basin or
wa-
reservoir, to receive the
ter raised from below (for
this chamber is not the bot-
tom of the well). On one

side of the reservoir another
shaft continued, one hun-
is
dred and thirty feet lower,
Joseph's Wki.l.
where it emerges through the rock into a bed of gravel, in

which the water is found, the whole depth being two hundred
and ninety-seven feet; the lower shaft is not in the same verti-
cal line with the upper one, nor is it
so large, being fifteen feet by nine.
As the water is first raised into

the basin, by means of machinery
propellefl by horses or oxen within
the chamber, it may be asked, how
are these animals conveyed to that
depth in this tremendous pit, and by
means do they ascend? A
what
spiral passage-way is cut through the
Twelfth Century. rock, from the surface of the ground
to the chamber, independent of the well, round which it winds
with so gentle a descent, that persons sometimes ride up or
down upon asses or mules. It is six feet four inches wide, and
seven feet two inches high. Between it and the interior of the
well, a wall of rock is left, to prevent
persons falling into, even looking
or
down it (which in some cases woiild be
equally fatal), except through certain
openings or windows, by means of which
it is faintly lighted from the interior of
the well. The animals descend by this
passage to drive the machinery that
raises the water from the lower shaft
into the reservoir or basin, from which
it is again elevated by similar machin-
'^'*
ery and other oxen on the surface of ^^'''"buc'S'?''
—
Note. However old and numerous wells with stairs in them ma)' be,
most of the ancient ones were constructed without them hence the neces-
;
sity of some mode of raising the water. From the earliest ages, a vessel
—
suspended by a cord, has been used by all nations a device more simple
and more extensively employed than any other, and one which was un-
doubtedly the germ of the most useful hydraulic machine of the ancients.
The figures shown on this and a few succeeding pages are from the collec-
—
tion made by Ewbank to whom reference has been made in another
portion of this work.
the ground. In the lower shaft a path is also cut down to the
water, but as no partition is left between it and the well, it is
extremely perilous for strangers to descend.
The square openings represented on each
side of the upper shaft are sections of the
spiral passage, and the zig-zag lines indicate
its direction. The wheels at the top carry-
endless ropes, the lower parts of which reach
down into the water; to these, earthenware
vases are secured by ligatures (see A A) at
!N^ equal distances through the whole of their
Pulley and Two length, so that when the machinery moves
Buckets, these vessels ascend full of water on one side
(ancient.)
of the wheels, discharge it into troughs as
they pass over them and descend in an inverted position on
the other side.
This celebrated production of former times, as will be per-

ceived, resembles an enormous hollow screw, the center of
which forms the well and the threads a winding stair-case
aroimd it. To erect of granite, a flight of "geometrical" or
"well stairs," two or three hundred feet high, on the surface of
the ground, would require ex-
traordinary skill, although in
its execution every aid from
rules, measures, and the light
of day, would gtiide the work-
men at every step but to begin
;
such a work at the top, and

construct it downwards by ex-
cavation alone, in the dark
bowels of the earth, is a more
arduous undertaking, especially
as deviations from the correct
lines could not be remedied; Chinese Windlass.
yet in Joseph's well, the partition of rock between the pit and
the passage-way, and the uniform inclination of the latter,
seem to have been ascertained with equal precision, as if the
4S Pumps and HydrauLtcs.
whole had been constructed of cut stone on the surface. Was

the pit, or the passage, formed first; or were they simultane-
ously carried on, and the excavated masses from both borne up
the passage, are unanswered questions.
The extreme thinness of the parti-
tion wall, excited the astonishment of
M. Jomard, whose account of the
well is volume
inserted in the second
of Memoirs in Napoleon's great work
on Egypt. It is, according to him,
but sixteen centimetres thick, [about
six inches!] He justly remarks that
it must have required singular care to
leave and preserve so small a portion Anglo-Saxon Crane.
while excavating the rock from both
sides of it. It would seem no stronger in proportion, than
sheets of paste-board placed on edge, to support one end of the
stairs of a modem built house, for it should be borne in mind,
that the massive roof of the spiral passage next ike well, has
nothing but this film of rock to support it, or to prevent from
falling, such portions as are loosened by fissures, or such, as
from changes in the direction of the strata, are not firmly united
to the general mass. But this is not all: thin and insufficient
as it may seem, the bold de-
signer has pierced it through
its whole extent with semi-
circular openings, to admit
light from the well those on :
one side are shown in the

engraving.
Aqueducts, fountains, cis-
SwAPE OR Sweep, A. D. 1493. terns and wells, are in numer-
ous instances the only re-
Note.— Roman are found in every country which that people

wells
conquered. Their armies had constant recourse to them when other sources
of water failed. Pompey and Cssar often preserved their troops from
destruction by having provided them. It was Pompey's superior knowl-
edge in thus obtaining water, which enabled him to overthrow Mithndates,

by retaining possession of an important post.
Historical Introductioti. 49
mains of some of the most celebrated cities of the ancient

world. Of Heliopolis, SycJne and Babylon in Egypt; of Tyre,
Sidon, Palmyra, Nineveh, Carthage, Utica, Barca, and many
others. "The features of nature," says Dr. Clarke, "continue
the same, though works of art may be done away: the 'beau-
tiful gate' of the Jerusalem temple is no more, but Siloah's
fountain still flows, and Kcdron still murmurs in the valley of
Jehoshaphat." According to Chateaubriand, the Pool of
PiCOTAH OF HiNDOSTAN.
Bethesda, a reservoir, one hundred and fifty feet by forty, con-
structed of large stones cramped with iron, and lined with
flints embedded in cement, is the only specimen remaining ot
the ancient architecture of that city.
—
Note. The operation of this primitive device may be thus described-
Near the well or tank, a piece of wood is fixed, forked at the top in this
;
fork another piece of wood is fixed to form a swape, which is formed

by a peg, and steps cut out at the bottom, that the person who works the
machine may easily get up and down. Commonly, the lower part of the
swape is the trunk of a tree; to the upper end is fixed a pole, at the end
of which hangs a leather bucket. A man gets up the steps to the top of
the swape, and supports himself by a bamboo screen erected by the sides
of the machine. He plunges the bucket into the water, and draws it up by
Vis weight; while another person stands ready to empty it
Ephesus, too, is no more; and the temple of Diana, that

according to Phny was 220 years in building, and upon which
was lavished the talent and treasure of the east; the pride of
all Asia, also one of the wonders of the world, has vanished,
while the fountains which furnished the citizens with water,
remain as fresh and perfect as ever. Cisterns have been dis-
covered in the oldest citadels in Greece. The fountains of
Bounarhashi are perhaps the only objects remaining that can
be relied on, in locating the palace of Priam and the site of
ancient Troy. And the well near the outer walls of the temple
of the sun at Palmyra, will, in all probability, furnish men with
water, when other relics of Tadmor in the wilderness have
disappeared; a great number of the wells of the ancient world
still supply man with water, although their history generally,
is lost in the night of time.
We are now to examine the modes practised by the ancients,

in obtaining water from wells. In all cases of moderate depth,
the most simple and efficient, was to form an inclined plane or
passage, from the surface of the ground to the water;
a method by which the principal advantages of an open spring
on the surface were retained, and one by which domestic
animals could procure water for themselves without the aid
or attendance of man.
But when in process of time, these became too deep for

exterior passages of this kind to be convenient or practicable,
the wells themselves were enlarged, and stairs for descending
to the water, constructed within them.
—
Historical Note. One of the most appalling facts that is recorded
of suffering from thirst occurred in 1805. A
caravan proceeding from
Timbuctoo to Talifet, was disappointed in not finding water at the usual
watering places ;when, horrible to relate, all the persons belonging to it,
two thousand in number, besides eighteen hundred camels perished by
thirst! Occurrences like this, account for the vast quantities of human
and other bones, which are found heaped together in various parts of the
desert. While the crusaders besieged Jerusalem, great numbers perished
of thirst, for the Turks had filled the wells in the vicinity. Memorials of
their sufferings may yet be found in he heraldic bearings of their descend-
ants. The charge of a foraging party "for water," we are told, "was an
office of distinction;" hence, some of the commanders on these occasions,
subsequently adopted water buckets in their coats of arms, as emblems
of their labors in Palestine.
Historical Introductio?t. 51
Wells with stairs by which to descend to the water, are

stillcommon. The inhabitants of Arkeko in Abyssinia, are
suppHed with water from six wells, which are twenty feet deep
and fifteen in diameter. The water is collected and carried up
a broken ascent by men, women and children. Fr>'er in his
Travels in India speaks of "deep wells many fathoms under-
ground, with stately stone stairs." Near the village of Futteh-
broad
pore, is a large well, ninety feet in circumference, with a
stone staircase which about thirty feet deep to descend to
is
the water. The fountain of Siloam is reached by a descent

of thirty steps cut in the solid rock, and the inhabitants of
Libya, where the wells often contain water, "draw it out
little
in little buckets, made of the shank bones of camels."
Wells with stairs are not only of very remote origin, but
they appear to have been used by all the nations of antiquity.
They were common chiefly, among the Greeks and Romans.
Italian Mode of Raising Water to the

Upper Floors of a House.
As a matter some six or eight representations of

of interest
the early forms of have been introduced; but little
wells,
—
need to be written relating to them the cuts with the titles
speak for themselves and also indicate their manner of use.
(See note.)
In Syria and Palestine at the present time the antique

bucket and rope, in modified form, is still used in raising water
from wells for irrigation. The buckets are attached to the
ropes at regular intervals and pass over large drums going
down empty and rising full. They discharge at the top into a
large open trough, which conveys the water to the irrigating
ditches.
Roman Screw. — Fig. 72.
A method much used where rivers are available is the

wheel and bucket, in which the buckets are mounted on the
rim of a large wheel which is* of a diameter equal to the height
to which the water is to be raised. The processes although
extremely crude are well adapted to countries where labor is
inexpensive as the running expense of the devices is very small.
—
Note. The source from which many of these have been derived is
"Eubank's Hydraulics," to which work credit is gladly given for nearly all
the historical data so far used in this volume. The author of the book
named gave many years of research into the early records of all relating
to hydraulics and water machines and kindred subjects.
Historical hitroductioyi. 53
WATER-LIFTING INVENTIONS.
The raising of ivater is one of the early arts; beginning in
ancient times with devices of the crudest form it has followed
the progress of civilization with ever-increasing importance. In
the present era, it demands engineering ability of the highest
order and the finest of machinery.
Important epochs in the gradual inventions relating to
pimips and hydraulics are: (i) The "force pump," due to

Ctesibius 200 B. C; (2) the "double-acting pump," invented
(3) the "hydravilic ram," by
by La Hire in 17 18; White-
hurst in 1772; (4) the " hydraulic >ress," introduced by Joseph
Bramah in 1802.
IMost of the machines hitherto noticed, raise water by means

wells
of flexible cords or chains, and are generally applicable to
of great depth. We
now enter upon the examination of another
variety, which, with one exception (the chain of pots),
are
composed of inflexible materials, and raise water to limited

heights only.
In machines, the "mechanical powers" are

preceding
distinct from the hydraulic apparatus, i. e., the wheels, pulleys,
windlass, capstan, etc., form no essential part of the machines
proper for raising but are merely employed to
the water,
transmit motion to them; whereas those we are now about to
describe, are made in the form of levers, wheels, etc., and are
propelled as such.
The Roman Screw delineated upon the opposite page, if not

the earliest hydraulic engine that was composed of tubes, or in
the construction of which they were introduced, is certainly
the one known of that description; in its mode of
oldest
operation differs essentially from all other ancient tube ma-
it
chines; in the latter the tubes merely serve as conduits for the
ascending water, and as such are at rest; while in the screw it
is the tubes themselves in motion that raises the liquid.
^^ Pumps and Hydraulics.
Fig. 73 represents one of the earliest forms of a double

gutter, placed across a trough or reservoir designed to
receive
the water. A partition is formed in the center, and two
openings made through the bottom on each of its sides,
through which the water that is raised escapes. The
machine
is worked by one or more men, who
alternately plunge the
ends into the water, and thus produce a continuous
discharge.
Sometimes, openings are made in the bottom next the

laborers, and covered by admit the water without
flaps, to
the necessity of wholly immersing those ends;
machines of
this kind probably date from remote antiqmty;
they are
Fig. 73.
obviously modifications of the Jantu of Hindostan and other

parts of Asia. The jantu is a machine extensively used in parts
of India, to raise water for the irrigation of land, and
is thus
described: "It consists of a hollow trough of wood, about
fifteen feet long, six inches Avide, and ten inches deep,
and is
placed on a horizontal beam lying on bamboos fixed in the
bank of a pond or river.
One end of the trough as shown in- the figure rests upon
the bank where a gutter is prepared to carry off the water, and
the other end is dipped in the water, by a man standing on
a
stage, plunging it in with his foot. A long bamboo with a
large weight of earth at the farther end of it, is fastened to the
end of the jantu near the river, and passing over the gallows,
poises up the jantu fiill of water, and causes it to empty itself
into the gutter. This machine raises water three feet, but by
placing a series of them one above another, it may be raised
to any height, the water being discharged into small reservoirs,
sufficiently deep to admit the jantu above, to be plunged
low
enough to fill it;" thus conveyed over rising ground
water is
to the distance of a mile and more. In some parts of Bengal,

they have different methods of raising water, but the principle
is the same.
The Tympanum. This is a water raising current wheel

originally made in the form of a drum, hence the name.
It
is now a circular open frame

wheel, fitted with radial par-
titions as shown in Fig. 74, so
curved as to point upward on
the rising side of the wheel and
downward on the descending
side. The wheel is so suspended
that lower edge is just sub-
its
merged and is turned by the
current (or by other power) the ,
partitions scooping up a quan-

tity of water which, as the
Fig. 74. wheel revolves, runs back to
the axis of the wheel where it is discharged; or it may dis-
charge at some point of the periphery; while one of the most

ancient forms of water Ufting machines it is still used in
draw-
ing works.
A little study of the figure (74) will explain its operation.
S, is G G, the gutters; A, a trough to take away

the shaft;
the water. The arrow indicates the direction in which the
wheel turns; each gutter, as it revolves scoops up a portion of
water and elevates it, till by the inclination to the axle, it flows
towards the latter, and is discharged through one end of it.
The prominent defect of the tympanum arises from the

water being always at the extremity of a radius of the wheel,
by which its resistance increases as it ascends to a level with

the axis, being raised at the

end of which virtually
levers
lengthen till the water is dis-
charged from them; this has
been remedied by making the
arms curving as shown in the
Scoop Wheel (Fig. 75.) As this
revolves in the direction of the
arrow the extremities of the
partitions dip into the water and
scoop it up and as they ascend
discharge it into a trough placed
Fig. 75.
under one end of the shaft
which is hollowed into as many compartments as there are

partitions or scoops.
Fig. 76 repre-
sents a- sectional
view ofan im-
proved tympanum;
this was invented
by De La Faye; the
illustration will be
readily under-
stood. As shown
in Figs. 74 and 75
the wheel is driven
by the current of
a steam impinging
upon what in later
times came to be
known as boards
or floats on the
circumference of the wheel.
Within the enclosure are arranged four scrolls of suitable
proportions, dipping the water, at one end, and emptying it
out at the center of the wheel as more clearly shown in Figs.
74 and 75.
Historical Iniroduction.
The Koria or Egyptian Wheel. The tympanum has been

described as an assemblage of gutters, and the Noria may be
considered as a number of revolving svvapes. It consists of
a series of poles united like the arms of a wheel to*a horizontal
shaft. To the extremity of each, a vessel is attached which
fills as it dips into the water, and is discharged into a res-
ervoir or gutter at the upper part of the circle which it de-
scribes. Hence, the former raises water only through half a
diameter, while this elevates it through a whole one. (Fig. 77.)
The Chinese make what would seem to have

the noria, in
been its primitiveand with an admirable degree of
form,
economy, simplicity, and skill. With the exception of the axle
and two posts to support it, the whole is of bamboo, and not
a nail used in its construction. Even the vessels, are often
joints of the same, being generally about four feet long and
two or three inches in diameter. They are attached to the
poles by ligatures at such an angle, as to fill nearly when in the
water, and to discharge their contents when at, or near the top.
The periphery of the wheel is composed of three nngs of

unequal diameter and so arranged as to form a frustrum of a
cone. The smallest one, to which the open ends of the tubes
are attached, being next the bank over which the water is con-
veyed. By this arrangement their contents are necessarily
discharged into the gutter as they pass the end of it. When
employed to raise water from running streams they are
propelled by the current in the usual way the paddles being —
Note. —The mode of constructing and moving the noria by the Romans,
is thus described by Vitruvius, who lived about the beginning of the
Christian Era. "When water is to be raised higher than by the tympanum,
a wheel is axis of such a magnitude as the height to which
made round on
the water is to be raised requires. Around the extremity of the side of
the wheel, square buckets cemented with pitch and wax are fixed so that ;
when the wheel is turned by the walking of men, the filled buckets being
raised to the top and turning again toward the bottom, discharge of them-
selves what they have brought into the reservoir."
formed of woven bamboo.

The sizes of these wheels,
vary from twenty to seventy
feet in diameter; some raise
over three hundred tons of
water in twenty-four hours.
A writer mentions others
which raise a hundred and
fifty tons to the height of
forty feet during the same
time.
The Persian Wheel. Two

prominent defects exist in
the noria. First, part of the
Fig. 77. water escapes after being
raised nearly to the required
elevation. Second, a large portion is raised higher than the
reservoir placed to receive it, into which it is discharged after
the vessels begin to descend; to obviate this the Persian
wheel was devised.
The vessels in which the water
is raised, instead of being fast-
ened to the rim, or forming part
of it, as in the preceding figures,
are suspended from pins, on which
they turn, and thereby retain a
vertical position through their
entire ascent; and when at the
top are inverted by their lower
part coming in contact with a pin
or roller attached to the edge of
the gutter or reservoir, as repre-
sented in the figure. By this ar-
rangement no water escapes in rising, nor is it elevated any
higher than the edge of the reservoir; hence, the defects in
the noria are avoided. It is believed, to have been used in
Europe ever since the time of the Romans.
GAINING AND LOSING BUCKETS.
In the latter part of the Sixteenth, or beginning of the

Seventeenth Century a machine which is entitled to particular
notice on account of its being, as
claimed, the first one of the kind to be
self-acting, for raising water was in use
in Italy. It is ascribed to Gironimo
Finugio who put one in operation at
Rome in 1616.
Between the illustration and the fol-
lowing description its operation may

be clearly understood. On a pulley S,
are suspended by a rope two buckets
A and B, of unequal dimensions. The
smaller one B, is made heavier than A
when both are empty, but lighter when
they are filled. It is required to raise
by them part of the water from the
spring or reservoir E, into the cistern Z.
As the smaller Bucket B,' by its sup-
erior gravity, descends into E, (a flap
valve in its bottom admitting the
water), it consequently raises A into the
position represented in the figure. A
pipe F, then conveys water from the
reservoir into A, the orifice or bore of
which pipe is so proportioned, that
both vessels are filled simultaneously.
The larger bucket then preponderates,
descending to O, and B at the same
time rising to the upper edge of Z,
when the projecting pins O O, catch
against on the lower sides of
others
the buckets, and overturn them at the
same moment. The bails or handles are attached by swivels
to the sides, a little above their center of gravity. As soon
as both buckets are emptied, B again preponderates, and the

operation is repeated without any attendance, so long as there
is water in E and the apparatus continues in order.
In Moxon's machine, the buckets were filled by two

separate tubes of unequal bore; the orifices being covered by
valves to prevent the escape of water while the buckets were
in motion; these valves were opened and closed by means of
cords attached to the buckets. The eflflux through F in the
figure, may easily be stopped as soon as A begins to descend,
by the action of either bucket on the end of a lever attached
to a valve, or by other obvious contrivances. The water dis-
charged from A, runs to waste through a channel provided
for that purpose.These machines are of limited application,
since they require a fall for the descent of A, equal to the ele-
vation to which the liquid is raised in B. They may however
be modified to suit locations where a less descent only can be
obtained. Thus, by connecting the rope of B to the periphery
of a large wheel, while that of A is united to a smaller one on
the same axis, water may be raised higher than the larger
bucket falls, but the quantity raised will of course be pro-
portionally diminished. In the face of these seciiring advan-
tages it has fallen into disuse; it was much too complex and
cumbersome, and of too limited appHcation.
The principle of in all these machines is no
self-action
modem discovery, for was described by Hero of Alexandria,
it
who applied it to the opening and closing the doors of a

temple, and to other ptuposes.
THE PULLEY AND WINDLASS.

In those vast periods preceding the dawn of history, water
was as heavy and as necessary for the use of mankind and
animals as it is to-day; the toil and labor in securing it must
indeed have been hard. Doubtless, the first inventions of the
primitive man were first made —perhaps, after weapons of de-
fence —to relieve himself of the painful endeavor of supplying
the precious liquid.
There are reasons which render it probable that the single

ptdley was devised to raise water and earth from wells; the
latter are not only of the highest antiquity but they arc
the only known works of man in early times in which the pulley
could have been required or applied. That it preceded the
invention of ships and the erection of lofty buildings of stone,
is all but certain; but for what purpose, save for raising of
water, the pulley could have been previously required it would

be difficult to divine; it seems to have been the first addition
made to those primitive implements, the cord and the bucket.
By it the friction of the rope in rubbing against the curb
and the consequent a portion of the power expended
loss of
in raising the water, were avoided, and by it also a beneficial
change in the direction of the power was attained; instead of
being exerted in an ascending direction, it is applied more
conveniently and efficiently in a descending motion as shown
in the various figures and illustrations in the preceding pages.
But the grand advantage of the pulley in the early ages

—
was this: by it the vertical direction in which men exerted
their strength, could be directly changed into a horizontal
line, by which change animals could be employed.
The wells of Asia, frequently varying from two to three,

and even four hundred feet in depth, obviously required more
than one person to raise the contents of an ordinary sized
vessel; and where nimibers of people depended on such wells,
not merely to supply their domestic wants, but for the purposes
of irrigation, the substitution of animals in place of men to
raise water, became a matter almost of and was
necessity,
certainly adopted at a very early period. In employing an ox
for this purpose, the simplest way and one which deviated the
least from their acaistomed method, was merely to attach the
end of the rope to the yoke, after passing it over a pulley fixed
sufficiently high above the mouth of the well, and then driving
the animal a distance equal to its depth, in a direct line from
it, when the bucket charged with the liquid would be
raised from the bottom.
Although it may never be known to whom the world is

indebted for the windlass, there are circumstances which point
to the construction of wells and raising of water from them, as
among the first uses to which it as well as the pulley, was
applied. The windlass possesses an important advantage over
the single pulley in lifting weights, or overcoming any resist-
ance since the intensity of the force transmitted through it
can be modified, either by varying the length of the crank, or
the circumference of the roller on which the rope is coiled.
Sometimes a single vessel and rope, but frequently two, are
employed as shoviTi in several of the preceding illustrations;
one of these is the Chinese Windlass. This furnishes the means
of increasing mechanical energy to almost any extent, and as
it isused to raise water from some of those prodigiously deep
it, page 47, has been inserted.
wells already noticed, a figure of
The roller consists of two parts of unequal diameters, to the
extremities of which the ends of the rope are fastened on
opposite sides, so as to wind round
both parts in different directions.
As the load to be raised is sus-
pended to a pulley, every turn of
the roller raises a portion of the rope
equal to the circumference of the
thicker part, but at the same time
lets down a portion equal to that
of the smaller; consequently the
weight is at each turn,
raised
Fig. 79. through a space equal only to half
the difference between the circumferences of the two parts of
the roller. The action of this machine is therefore slow, but
the mechanical advantages are proportionately great.
The fusee windlass is shown in Fig. 79. This is an early

invention designed to overcome in a mechanical method the
greater weight which the rope hung at its extremity has, as
compared to what it is when nearly wound up. At the bottom
of the well the rope then being at its heaviest period is wound
upon the small end of the fusee; and as the length diminishes
Historical Introductioji. 63
it coils round the larger part. (See Fig. 79), which is however
inacctirately dra\\Ti — as the bucket is at the top of the well; it
should have been represented as suspended from the large end
of the fusee.
The value of a device like be appreciated when

this will
the great depth of some and the consequent
wells is considered
additional weight of the chains. In the fortress of Dresden
is a. well eighteen hundred feet deep; at Augustburgh is a
well in which half an hour is required to raise the bucket; and

at Niuremburgh another, sixteen hundred feet deep. In all
these, the water is raised by chains, and the weight of the one
used in the latter is stated to be upwards of a ton.
The tynipayium and noria in
all their modifications have been
considered as originating in the
gutter or and the swape;
jantu,
while the machine we are now
to examine is evidently derived
from the primitive cord and bucket.
The first improvement of the latter
was the introduction of a pulley
or sheave over which the cord was
directed —the next was the addition
of another vessel, so as to have
one at each end of the rope,
and the last and most important
consisted in uniting the ends of
the rope, and securing to it a
number of vessels at equal dis-
tances through the whole of its
length —and the chain oj pots was

the result. (See Fig. 80.)
^^- 80' The general construction of
this machine will appear from an examination of those which
are employed to raise water from Joseph's well at Cairo,
represented on page 45. Above the mouth of each shaft a
vertical wheel is placed, over which two endless ropes pass
and are suspended from it. These are kept parallel to, and
at a short distance from each other, by rungs secured to
them at regular intervals, so that when thus united, they form
an endless ladder of ropes. The rungs are sometimes of wood,
but more frequently of cord like the shrouds of a ship, and the
whole is of such a length that the lowest part hangs two or
three feet below the surface of the water that is to be raised.
Between the rungs, earthenware vases (of the design shown at
A A) are secured by cords round the neck, and also round a
knob formed on the bottom for that purpose.
WHEEL AND AXLE.
In all -the machines the roller is used in a

preceding
horizontal position;but at some unknown period of past ages,
another modification was devised, one by which the power
could be applied at any distance from the center. Instead of
placing the roller as before,
over the well's mouth, it was
removed a short distance from
it, and secured in a vertical
position, by which it was

converted into the wheel or
capstan. One or more hori-
zontal bars were attached to
of a length adapted to the
it,
Fig. 81. power employed, whether of

men or animals; and an alternating rotary movement imparted
to it, as in the common
wheel or capstan, represented in the
figui-e. machines of this kind, and worked by
It appears that
ynen were common in Europe previous to, and at the time he
wrote. Sometimes the shaft was placed in the edge of the
well, so that the person who moved it walked round the latter,
and thus occupied less space.
:
SUCCESSIVE INVENTIONS.
With the wide acceptance in practical use of the Duplex

steam pump, may
be dated the beginninjij of the modem inven-
tive period of pumping machinery; this introduction of the
Dujilex pump was only one of five successive advances
which it were well for the student to memorize
I, The Cornish,
2. The Rotative,
3. The Direct Acting,
4. The Duplex, and

5. The Compounded Steam Pump.
The Cornish engines have been alluded to in connection
with the Newcomcn engine. Probably no large pumping
engines in the past have held, and deservedly so, as high
repute as have the Cornish engines when used for deep mine
pumping. Their construction, with the rude appliances at
hand, is not only a marvel but as well a high tribute to the
ingenuity of those who designed them and to the skill of the
workmen who built them. A rather full illustrated description
of this almost imexcelled machine will be found later on in the
book.
The next class of large steam pumping-engines which have

played an important part in the history of hydraulic engineer-
ing may he grouped together as ''rotative engines.'' What is
here meant by the term "rotative" is engines in which there
are parts which make complete and continuous rotary motion
and in which are used, in some way or another, shafts, cranks
and fly-wheels.
These engines vary greatly in their design and in the

details of their construction. They are of varying sizes, in-
cluding some of the largest and most expensive in the world.
As a general thing they are employed in supplying towns and
cities with water, and in some cases freeing shallow mines of
water. The application of the power of the steam used in the

steam cylinders in this class of engines to drive the plungers or

pistons in the pumps, varies greatly, both as to the general
design upon which they are built, and in the detail of their
construction. In some instances it is through the use of long
or short beams or bell cranks, sometimes through gearing, and
occasionally through the plunger or piston of the pump direct;
but in all cases the limit of the stroke of the steam piston, and
of the pump plunger, is governed by a crank on a revolving
shaft.
Attached to the revolving shaft is a fly-wheel of greater or

lessdiameter and weight, which, in addition to assisting the
crank to pass the center at each end of its stroke, is employed
to store up at the beginning of each stroke of the steam piston,
whatever excess of power or impulse there may he imparted to it,
beyond that required to steadily move the water column, and to

give out again, toward the latter part of the stroke, when the
power of the steam is of itself below that required to move the
water column, the power previously stored in it. In this respect
the function of a revolving fly-wheel on a rotative engine is the
same as is the weighted plunger in the Cornish engine; both
being used for the purpose of permitting the steam to be cut
off at a portion of its stroke in the steam cylinder, and expanded
during the rest of the stroke.
In short, these devices, as employed in both the classes of

pumping engines described, were used in order that the best
economy in the consumption of steam by means of early cut-
off and a high grade of expansion, might be attained.
The succeeding class of pumps to be described, driven by

steam are direct acting steam-pumps.
What is here meant as "direct-acting," is a steam-driven

pump in which there are no revolving parts, such as shafts,
cranks and fly-wheels; pumps in which the power of the steam
in the steam cylinder is transferred to the piston or plunger in
the pump in a direct line, and through the use of a continuous
rod or connection. (Fig. 82.)
Historical Introduction.
The introduction of the direct-acting steam-pump marked

a point of deviation, and it entered the field almost without a
rival, and at a time when economy was overshadowed by its
convenience.
In the brief description given of these three most prominent
classes pumping engines, no attempt has been made to
of
describe any of the peculiarities of their general construction,
beyond what was necessary to describe their action and the
principles upon which they operate.
Fig. 82.
In pumps of this construction there are no weights in the

moving parts other than that required to produce sufficient
strength in such part for the work they are expected to per-
form, and, as there is consequently no opportunity to store up
power in one part of the stroke, to be given out at another, it
is impossible to cut off the steam in the steam cylinder during
any part of its stroke. The uniform and steady action of the
—
Note. Up to the introduction of the direct-acting steam pump, all the
other pumping machinery of the world then in use was the outcome of
evolution. It had been developed by slow stages, in which one engineer
after another aided by the experience of others and of his own, supple-
mented by his inventive faculties, added here and there slight improve-
ments to which other engineers, with increased experience, were enabled
to add still other improvements, so that each new engine constructed under
more favorable circumstances, and with increasing expenditures, was
supposed to excel all previously built until at this time we have, as it is
;
fair to suppose, pumping engines which combine all the wisdom of the
past, and which leave little or no room for further improvements in their
respective classes.
direct-acting steam-pump is dependent alone on the use of a

steady uniform pressure of steam through the entire stroke of
the piston against a steady, uniform resistance of water pres-
sure in the pump; the difference between the power exerted
in the steam cyhnders over the resistance in the pump govern-
ing the rate of speed at which the piston or pkmger of the
pump will move. The length of the stroke of the steam piston,
within the steam cylinders of this class of pumps, is limited
and controlled alone by the admission, suppression and release
of the steam used in the cylinders.
The history of the Direct-Acting Steam Pump differs from

all others from the fact that it was the invention of one man,
and was in the main perfected during his lifetime. It was so
strikingly different from all that had preceded it, that there
was nothing in the way of precedent, either in ancient or
modern practice, of which the inventor could avail himself by
which to aid or guide him to success.
The date of the first patent on these pimips was September

7, 1 84 1. was issued on a small pump used for supplying feed
It
water to a steam boiler, and consisted of one steam cylinder con-
nected to a force pump, and so arranged that by the use of levers,
trips, springs, and other connections between the piston rod and
the slide valve, the movement of the piston rod controlled the
movements an extent that not only regulated
of the slide valve to
the length of the stroke of the piston, but reversed its motion.
This pump was placed alongside of the steam boiler, and was
so connected by means of pipes and levers and floats within
the boiler, that when the water fell below the proper level in
the boiler, it would start the pump, and stop it when the
water rose too high.
Note. —At the head of a list consisting of two names only, who, on
the foremost pages of "The American Society of Mechanical Engineers,"

are recorded as the "Honorary Members in Perpetuity" of that large
and standing as well at the head of that long and increasng list
society,
ofmembers who have accomplished their work on earth, may be seen the
name of Henry Rossitcr Worthington, the inventor and original builder
of the "direct-acting steam pump."
Feeling how incomplete was an invention which did not

pro\nde against the intennittent action of the pump, Mr.
Worthington devoted much time and study to correct this
trouble, and a few years later he brought out an improved
pump which, in its simplicity of parts, certainty of action, and
cheapness of construction more than rivaled the original in-
vention itself. This pirnip is now universally known as the
"Direct-Acting Duplex Steam Pump."
In the main, the construction of the steam ends and the

water ends of the duplex pump differs but slightly from those
of the single-acting pump, but the mechanism which operates
the steam valves is different, and the effect on the water column
was marvelously different; the principle upon which it operates
is this:
Two pumps of similar construction are placed side by side,

a lever attached to the piston rod of each pump connects to
the slide valve of the opposite steam cylinder; thus the move-
ment of each piston, instead of operating its own slide valve as
in the single pump, operates the slide valve of the opposite
cylinder. The effect of this arrangement is, that as the piston
or plunger of one pump end of its stroke, the
arrives near the
plunger or piston of the other begins its movement, thus alter-
nately taking up the load of the water column, producing a reg-
ular, steady, onward flow of water, without the unusual
strains induced by such a column when suddenly arrested or
started in motion.
While the "duplex steam pimip" overcame one of the

greatest objections to the former single pimip, there still re-
mained in this class of pumping machinery one other difficulty.
It did not use steam expansively.
This not only debarred it from competing with other en-

gines where a large quantity of water was required to be
raised, and where the cost of fuel was an item of importance,
but as well prevented the pump from taking rank among the
hydraulic appliances required in supplying towns and cities.
This objection was one which seemed insurmountable, the

steam in them could not be used economically. Applied to
the propulsion of the plunger or piston of this pump it must
be of and pressure, to overcome the height
sufficient quantity,
of the column of water on the pump, together with its friction
through the pump and its connections, at the very beginning of
the stroke; and it must be maintained, both as to its volume,
and its pressure up to the very last part of the stroke. Any
diminution, either of volume or pressure, during any part of
the stroke would simply bring the pump to a stop. This ap-
parent inability to cut off the steam in the steam cylinder, and
to complete the stroke of the pump by the aid of the steam
remaining in the cylinder, and by its expansive force, had de-
barred this pump from coming into general use for large water
works. How this, the only remaining objection to their use
for such purposes, was overcome, forms an interesting chapter
in the history of the "Direct-Acting Steam Pump."
It was when this question had assumed a most formidable

importance, that the principle of using steam in compound
steam engines had engaged the careful consideration of the
most eminent engineers of this and other coimtries; its adjust-
ment to the Duplex pumps was made, and while it was easily
done, owing to their peculiar construction, its application pro-
duced a most wonderful result in their working, and their
speedy introduction for water works use.
Note. —At this time the man who had invented and built the little steam
pump for the canal boat, who had watched its growth and development,
siupplemented one device after another to help it on thiough the trial
period of its had merged it at last into the dual or duplex stage
existence,
of its advancement, had added to it the compound feature, had seen it
expanding in size and importance until, growing up and out of the day
of small things, it had come to take its well-earned place alongside those
old and massive machines whose invention and origin was lost amid the
—
musty records of the past it was, at this time, and of which any man
might well have been proud, that his lifelong labors came to an end
Dec. i8. 1880, at the Everett House, New York City.
ELEMENTARY HYDRAULICS.
There are three physical states or conditions of matter,

which are the solid, liquid and gaseous, which in this connection
apply to Ice, Water and Steam. A solid offers resistance both
to change of shape and to change of bulk.
AFluid offers no resistance to change of shape. Again

fluidscan be divided into liquids and vapors or gases. Water
is the most familiar example of a liquid. A liquid can be
poured out in drops while a gas or vapor flows in a stream
or streams.
Gas a term at first used as meaning the same as the

is
name but is now restricted to fluids supposed to be per-

air,
manently elastic, as oxygen, hydrogen, etc., in distinction

from vapor such as steam which become liquid upon a re-
duction of temperature.
It is important to note that experiment proves that

every vapor becomes a gas at a sufficiently high tempera-
ture or low pressure, while, on the other hand, every gas
becomes a vapor at sufficiently low and high pressures.
In present popular usage the term gas applies to any
substance in the aeriform elastic condition.
Hydraulics is that branch of science or of engineering

which treats of the motion of liquids, especially of water and
of the laws by which it is regulated.
As a science, hydraulics includes hydrodynamics or the
principles of mechanics applicable to the motion of water.
As a branch of engineering, hydraulics consists in the
practical application of the mechanics of fluids, to the control
73
and management of water, with reference to the wants of man,

including water works, hydraulic machines, pumps, water
wheels, etc.
The term hydraiilics, so familiar in daily use, is formed

from two Greek words meaning: i, water; 2, a pipe; hence,
it will be observed with interest how close the original meaning
follows the development of the science in its practical adaptation;

there is always the "pipe" or holding vessel and the "water"
or its equivalent.
From the same elementary word meaning water, in the

Greek language, has been formed very many other words
in common use, for example hydrophobia, hydrogen, hydrant,
hygrometer, etc., as well as the following:
Hydromechanics is that branch of natural philosophy which

treats of the mechanics of liquid bodies, or in other words, of
their laws of equilibrium and motion. Hydromechanics com-
prises properly those phenomena of liqmds by which these
bodies differ from solids or from bodies at large; hence, its
foundation is laid in the properties that distinguish the liquid

from other states of bodies, viz.: the presence of cohesion,
with great mobility of parts, and perfect elasticity.
Hydrostatics is that branch of science which relates to the

pressure and as water, mer-
equilibritim of non-elastic fluids,
cury, etc.; machine in which
thus, the hydrostatic press is a
great force with slow motion is action commiuiicated to a large
plunger by means of water forced into the cylinder in which it
moves, by a forcing pump. Statics treats of forces that keep
bodies at rest or in equilibrium, the water through which the
force operates in the hydrostatic press always remaining at
rest serves as a good illustration.
Pneumatics is that branch of science, which relates to air,
or gases in general or their properties; also of employing

(compressed) air or other gas as a motive power. The use
of pneimiatic pumping machinery is constantly increasing,
especially of the direct pressure types; imder the section of
Elementary Hydraulics. 75
this work relating to Air Pumps additional data will be

presented.
Hydropnenniaitcs is defined as involving the combined

action of water and air, or gas, as shown, for example, in the
hydropneumatic accumulator. The word is a compoimd
formed of the Greek words meaning water and air.
Senii-liqiiids. All the results stated in reference to water

are further modified in those semi-liquids which have greater
or less viscidity, as pitch, syrup, fixed oils, etc. Viscosity may
be defined as the quality of flowing slowly, thus the idscosity
of such liquids as have been named is very great as compared
with that of a mobile liquid like alcohol.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Water, considered from, a chemical standpoint, is a com-
pound substance consisting of hydrogen and oxygen, in the
proportion of two volumes of the former gas to one volume of
the latter; or by weight it is composed of two parts of
hydrogen imited with sixteen parts of oxygen. It should
be noted that the union of these two gases is effected by
cliemical action and not by mechanical mixture. Pure water
is transparent,^ inodorous and tasteless.
Under ordinary conditions water passes the liquid form

only at temperatures lying between 32° F. and 212° F.; it
assumes a solid form, that of ice or snow at 32° F., and it takes
the form of vapor or steam at 212° F.
There are Jour notable temperatures for water, namely:

32° F., or 0° C. =the freezing point under one atmosphere.
3 9°. I or 4° = the point maxim\im of density.

62° or 16° .66 =^ the standard temperature.
212° or 100° = the under one
boiling point, atmosphere.
The temperature 62° F. is the temperature of water used

in calculating tl;ie specific gravity of bodies, with respect to the
gravity or density of water as a basis, or as unity.
Weight of one cubic foot of Pure Water.
At 32'' F.
At 39°- 1-
At 62** (Standard temperature)
At 212°
Ele7nentary Hydraulics. 11
where precision is not required; the j^ressure on a square foot

at different ocean depths are api^roximatc, in the following
TABLE*
Depth in fev.t.
This follows, since here the distance of the center of

gravity of the base from the surface of the fluid, is the same as
the perpendicular height of the column. With a given base
and height, therefore, the pressure is the same whether the
vessel is larger or smaller above, whether its figiire is regular or
irregular, whether it rises to the given height in a broad open
funnel, or is carried up in a slender tube.
Hence, any quantity of water, however small, may be made

to balance any quantity, however great. This is called the
hydrostatic paradox. The experiment is usually performed by
means of a water-bellows, as represented in
Fig. 84. When the pipe AD is filled with
water, the pressure upon the surface of the
bellows, and consequently the force with which
it raises the weights laid on it, will be equal
to the weight of a cylinder of water, whose
base is the surface of the bellows, and height
that of the column AD. Therefore, by mak-
ing the tube small, and the bellows large, the
power a given quantity of water, however
of
^j^^S^slj small, may
be increased indefinitely. The
il I ii pressure of the column of water in this case
.•mil ft ll
'
:;jB .
iiMLI ij^ corresponds to the force applied by the piston

^ in the hydrostatic press.
Wehave already seen that the pressure on the bottom of a

vessel depends neither on the form of the vessel nor on the
quantity of the liquid, but simply on the height of the liquid
above the bottom. But the pressure thus exerted must not be
confounded with the pressure which the vessel itself exerts on
the body which supports it. The latter is always equal to the
combined weight of the liquid and the vessel in which it is
contained, while the former may be either smaller or greater
than this weight, according to the form of the vessel. This
fact is often termed the hydrostatic paradox, because at first
sight it appears paradoxical.
Eleme7itaay Hydraulics. 79
CD (Fig. 85) is a vessel composed of two cylindrical parts

of unequal diameters, and filled with water to a. From what
has been said before, the bottom of the vessel CD supports
the same pressure as if its diameter were everywhere the same
as that of its lower part; and
would at first sight seem that
it
the scale MN which the vessel CD is placed,

of the balance, in
ought to show the same weight as if there had been placed in
it a cylindrical vessel having the same weight of water, and
having the diameter of the part D. But

the pressure exerted on the bottom of the
vessel is not all transmitted to the scale
MN; for the upward pressure upon the
surface no oi the vessel is precisely equal
to the weight of the extra quantity of
water which a cylindrical vessel would
contain,and balances an equal portion of
the downward pressure on ni. Conse-
quently the pressure on the plate is MN
simply equal to the weight of the vessel
Fig. 85.
qj^ ^^^ q£ ^^ water which it contains.
Pressure exerted anywhere upon a mass of liquid is trans-

mitted wtdiminished in all directions, and acts with the same
force on all equal surfaces, and in a direction at right angles to
those surfaces.
To get a clearer idea of the truth of this principle, let us

conceive a vessel of any given form in the sides of which are
placed various cylindrical apertures, all of equal size, and
closed by movable pistons. Let us, further, imagine this vessel
to be filled with liquid and unaffected by the action of gravity;
the pistons will, obviously, have no tendency to move. If now
a weight of P pounds be placed upon the piston A (Fig. 86),
which has a surface A, it will be pressed inwards, and the
pressure will be transmitted to the internal faces of each of the
pistons B, C, D, and E, which will each be forced outwards by
a pressure P, their siuiaces being equal to that of the first
piston. Since each of the pistons undergoes a pressure, P,
equal to that on A, let us suppose two of the pistons united so

as to constitute a surface 2a; it will have to support a pressure
2 P. Similarly, if the piston were equal to 3a, it would ex-
perience a pressure of 3P; and if its area were 100 or 1,000
times that of would sustain a pressure of 100 or 1,000
a, it
times P, In other words, the pressure on any part of the

internal walls of the vessel would be proportional to the surface.
The principle of the equality of pressure is assumed as a

consequence of the constitution of fluids.
By the following experiment it can be shown that pressure

is transmitted in all directions; a cylinder provided with a
P
Fig. 86. Fia. 87.
piston is fitted into a hoUow sphere (Fig. 87). in which small

cylindrical jets are placed perpendicular to the sides. The
sphere and the cylinder being both with water, when the
filled
piston is moved the liquid spouts forth from all the orifices,
and not merely from that which is opposite to the piston.
The reason why a satisfactory quantitative experimental
demonstration of the principle of the equality of pressure can-
not be given is, that the influence of the weight of the liquid
and of the friction of the pistons cannot be altogether elimi-
nated.
Note. — The influence of the weight (or gravity) of water and its frac-
[ional resistance in practical use is so great upon all the processes of
numbers and of the application of the natural laws governing the opera-
tion of fluids, as stated under the heading of Hydraulic Data, that
separate pages will hereafter be found devoted to a more extended ex-
planation of this subject of gravity and friction of water.
Yet an approximate verification may be effected by the

experiment represented in Fig. 88. Two cylinders of different
diameters are joined by a tube and filled with water. On the
surface of the liqmd are two pistons, P and p, which hermeti-
cally close the cylinders, but move without friction. Iêt the
area of the large piston, P, be, for instance, thirty times that
of the smaller one, p. That being assumed, let a weight, say
of two pounds, be placed upon the small piston; this pressure
will be transmitted to the water and to the large piston, and as
this pressure amounts to two pounds on each portion of its
surface equal to that of the small piston, the large piston must
be exposed to an upward pres-
sure thirty times as much, or
of sixty pounds. If now, this
weight be placed upon the
large piston, both will remain
in equilibrium; but if the
weight is greater or less, this is
no longer the case.
It is important to observe
Fig. 88.
that in speaking of the trans-
mission of pressure to the sides of the containing vessel, these
pressures must always be supposed to be perpendicular to the
sides.
Equiltbriunt or state of rest of superposed liquids. In order

that there should be equilibrium when several heterogeneous
liquids are superposed in the same vessel, each of them must
satisfy the conditions necessary fora single liquid, &nd further
there will be a stable state of rest only when the liquids are
arranged in the order of their decreasing densities from the
bottom upwards.
The last condition is experimentally demonstrated by
means of the phial of four elements. This consists of a long
narrow bottle containing mercury, water, colored red, saturated
with carbonate of potash, alcohol, and petroleum. When
the phial is shaken the liquids mix, but when it is allowed to
rest they separate; the mercury sinks to the bottom, then

comes the water, then the alcohol, and then the petroleum.
This is the order of the decreasing densities of the bodies.
The water is saturated with carbonate of potash to prevent its
mixing with the alcohol.
This separation of the liquids is due to the same cause as

that which enables solid bodies to float on the surface of a
liquid of greater density than their own. It is also on this
account that fresh water, at the mouths of rivers, floats for a
long time on the denser salt water of the sea; and it is for the
same reason that cream, which is
(1) lighter than milk, rises to the sur-
ny^
(2)
face.
^ / The pressure upon any particle of

a fluid of uniform density is propor-
tioned to its depth below the surface.
Example i. Let the column of

fluid ABCD Fig. (i) be perpendic-
ular to the horizon. Take any points,
X and y, at different depths, and
conceive the column to be divided
into a number of equal spaces by horizontal planes. Then,
since the density of the fluid is uniform throughout, the press-
ure upon X and y, respectively, must be in proportion to the
niunber of equal spaces above them, and consequently in pro-
portion to their depths.
Example 2. Let the column be of the same perpendicular

height as before, but inclined as is Fig. (2); then its quantity,
and of course its weight, is increased in the same ratio as its
length exceeds its height; but since the column
partly sup- is
ported by the plane, like any other heavy body, the force of
gravity acting upon it is diminished on this account in the same
ratio as its length exceeds its height; therefore as much as the
pressure on the base would be augmented by the increased
length of the column, just so much it is lessened by the action
of the inclined plane; and the pressure on any part of Cc will

be, as proportioned to its perpendicular depth; and
before,
the pressure of the inclined column ACac will be the same as
<hat of the perpendicular column ABCD.
Fluids rise to the same level in the opposite anus of a re-

curved tube.
ABC, (Fig. go) be a recurved tube: if water be poured

Let
into one arm of the tube, it will rise to the same height
in the other arm. For, the pressiu-e acting upon the lowest
part at B, in opposite directions, is propor-
tioned to depth below the surface of the
its
fluid. Therefore, these depths must be

equal, that is, the height of the two columns
must be equal, in order that the fluid at B
may be at rest; and unless this part is at
rest, the other parts of the colurrin cannot
be at rest. Moreover, since the equilibrium
depends on nothing else than the heights of
the respective columns, therefore, the oppo-
site columns may diflcr to any degree in
quantity, shape, or inclination to the horizon.
if vessels and tubes very diverse in
Thus,
and capacity, as in Fig. p. 84 be con-
shai)e
nected with a reservoir, and water be poiired
into any one of them, it will rise to the same level in them all.
The reason of this fact will be further understood from the
application of the principle of equal momenta, for it will
be seen that the velocity of the columns, when in motion, will
be as much greater in the smaller than in the larger columns, as
the quantity of matter is less; and hence the opposite momenta
will be constantly equal.
Hence, water conveyed in aqueducts or running in natural

Between the place
channels, will rise just as high as its source.
where the water of an aqueduct is delivered and the spring,
the ground may rise into hills and descend into valleys, and the
pipes which convey the water may follow all the undulations
of the country, and the water will run freely, provided no pipe
is laid higher than the spring.
Pressure of wat^r due to The pressure on any

its weight.
particle of water is proportioned to
depth below the surface.
its
The pressure of still water in pounds per square inch against
the sides of any pipe, channel, or vessel of any shape whatever,
is due solely to the "head" or height" of the level surface of the
water above the point at which the pressure is considered and

is equal to 43302 lbs. per square foot, every foot of head
or 62.355 lbs. per square foot for every foot of head at 62° F.
The pressure per square inch is equal in all directions
downwards, upwards or sideways and is independent of the
shape or size of the containing vessel; for example, the pres-

sure on a plug forced inward on a square inch of the surface
of water is suddenly communicated to every square inch of
the vessel's surface, however great and to every inch of the
surface of any body immersed in it.
It is this which operates with such astonishing

principle
effect of which familiar examples are
in hydrostatic presses,
found in the hydraulic pumps, by the use of which boilers are
tested. By the mere weight of a man's body when leaning on
the extremity of a lever, a pressure may be produced of up-
wards of 20 tons; it is the simplest and most easily applicable
of all contrivances for increasing human power, and it is only
limited by want of materials of sufficient strength to utilize it.
: g
Elenicntai'y Hydraulics. 85
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
Gravity or Gravitation is that species of attraction, or force
by which, all bodies or particles of matter in the universe tend
towards each other; it is also called attraction of gravitation
and universal gravity; a more limited sense is the
gravity, in
tendency of a mass of matter toward a "center of attraction
especially the tendency of a body toward the center of the
earth.
This influence is conveyed from one body to another with-

out any perceptible inter\âl of time. If the action of gravita-
tion is not instantaneous, it comes very nearly to it by moving
more than fifty millions of times faster than light.
Gravity extends to all known bodies in the universe, from

the smallest to the greatest; by it all bodies are drawn toward
the center of the earth, not because there is any peculiar property
or power in the center, but because the earth being a sphere,
the aggregate effect of the attractions exerted by all its parts
upon any body exterior to it, is such as to influence that body
toward the center.
This property manifests itself, not only in the motion of
falling bodies, but in the pressure exerted by one portion of
matter upon another which sustains it; and bodies descending
freely under its influence, whatever be their figure, dimensions
or texture, all are equally accelerated in right lines perpendicvilar
to the plane of the horizon. The apparent
inequality of the
action of gravity upon matter near the sur-
different species of
face of the earth arises entirely from the resistance which they
meet with in their passage through the air. When this resist-
ance is remo\'ed (as in the exhausted receiver of an air-pump),
the inequality likewise disappears.
The law of gravity, discovered by Sir Isaac Newton,

toward the end of the seventeenth century, may be stated as
follows
Every particle oj matter in the universe attracts every oth •
particle unth a force whose direction is that of a line joint,.

the two particles considered, and whose magnitude is directly as

the product of the masses and inversely as the square oj the
distance between them.
As a groundwork for this great generalization, Newton

employed the results of two of the greatest astronomers who
preceded him, Copernicus and Kepler. About 1500 A. D.
Copernicus perceived and announced that the apparent rotation
of the heavens about the earth could be explained by supposing
the earth to rotate on an axis once in twenty-four hours.
Previous to this time the earth had been regarded as the center
of the universe. He also showed that nearly all the motions
of the planets, including the earth, could be explained on the
assumption that these revolved in circular orbits about the sun,
whose position in the circle, however, was slightly eccentric.
Thus, building somewhat upon the labors of the two parties
named, Newton was the first to prove the law of the forces
which would account for the motions of all the bodies in the
solar system.
LAWS OF FALLING BODIES.

Since a body falls to the ground in consequence of the
earth's attraction on each of its molecules, it follows that,
all other things being equal, all bodies, great and small,
light and heavy, ought to fall with equal rapidity, and a lump
of sand without cohesion should during its fall retain its original
form as perfectly as if it were compact stone. The fact that a
stone falls more rapidly than a feather is due solely to the
unequal resistances opposed by the air to the descent of these
bodies; in a vacuum all bodies fall with equal velocity.
In a vacuum, however, liquids fall like solids without separa-

tion of their molecules. The water-hammer, a model used in
scientific schools, illustrates this: the instrument consists of a
—
XoTE. The resistance opposed by the air to falling bodies is especially
remarkable in the case of liquids. The Staubbach in Switzerland is a
good illustration; an immense mass of water is seen falling over a high
precipice, but before reaching the bottom it is shattered by the air into the
finest mist. See Parker's Philosophy, pp. 69-70.
Eleynentary Hydraulics. 87
thick glass tube about a foot long, half filled with water, the
air having been expelled by ebullition previous to closing one
extremity with the blow-pipe. When such a tube is suddenly
inverted, the water falls in one undivided mass against the other
extremity of the tube, and produces a sharp metallic sound,
resembling that which accompanies the shock of two solid
bodies coming suddenly together.
It has been ascertained, by experiment, that from rest, a
body falling freely will descend 16^^ fêet in the first second of
time, and will then have acquired a velocity, which being con-
tinued uniformly, will carry it through. 32^ feet in the next
second. Therefore if the first series numbers be expressed
of
in seconds, i", 2", 3", &c., the velocities in feet will be 32^,
64 J, 96^, &c.; the spaces passed through as 16 iV, 64I, 144I, &c.,
and the spaces for each second, i6fV, 48 j, 80 /j, &c.
TABLE.
Showing the Relation of Time, Space ayid Velocity.
Time in
seconds of
the body's
fall.
qiiiresmore particular consideration. Of the three magnitudes

named, matter alone is directly cognizable by the senses, and
invested with a variety of interesting properties.
For present purposes matter may be defined as anything

that can be weighed, and the quantity of matter as proportional
to its weight; i. e., its attraction towards the earth. The weight
of a body is the force it exerts in consequence of its gravity,
and measured by its mechanical effects, such as bending a
is
spring. We weigh a body by ascertaining the force reqmred

to hold it tip, or to keep it from descending. Hence, weights
are nothing more than measures of the force of gravity in
different bodies.
Again, Gravitation, the most feeble of physical actions between small

masses, is almost imperceptible; yet it is an energy abundant in propor-
tion to the quantity of matter in the universe, and fully competent, by its
gradual condensing agency, to account for the origination of planetary
systems and their movements. It is not strange, therefore, that by some
physicists this energy is supposed to be the beginning of that of which all
other forms of force are residues or metamorphoses. Gravity is the name
especially given to its terrestrial manifestations. A particle or body zviih-
out a sphere or sphcriod, solid or hoU-ozv, is attracted to'the center of the
mass of such body; within a hollozv sphere, it zvill remain at rest at any
point. At different depths below the earth's surface, a body will be
attracted with a force diminishing as the distance from its center de-
creases. The slight variation in the gravitating force of the same falling
body at different heights is in practice usually disregarded. The weight
of a body, as the measure of its gravitating tendency, must vary both
with mass and with the force acting on it; hence, from the form of the
earth, the same body at the sea level zcill zveigh less and less as it is
removed from either pole toward the equator. An elevation above the sea
level gives a like resuU. A
stone falls through a less distance in a given
time on a mountain than in the valley below, less at the equator than at
either pole. The loss of weight in these cases cannot be tested by lever
scales, in which this loss is equal on both sides; but it may be by the
spring balance, in which bodies are weighed by the pull they exert
against the elasticity of a coiled wire. The effect sf centrifugal force,
increasing from the pole to the equator, co-operates with increasing re-
moval from the eath's center to lessen weight the result of the combined
;
action of these two causes is, that a body weighing igs lbs. at either pole
will weigh but 194 over the equator. The line of a falling body, called also
in space at any
the line of direction, is interesting as being that direction
directions are
point of the earth's surface with reference to which all other
named, and by which they are to be determined.
—
Eletnentary Hydraulics. 89
Afew points remain to be named. The How of water is

the of the force of gravity; the importance of this fact
result
and its wide influence cannot be ovêr stated; the gently falling
dew, the mighty currents in the unfathomable depths of the
ocean, as well as the rivnilet merrily falling over the rocks to a
lower level are all subject to the laws of terrestrial gravity.
The upper surface of a liquid in a vessel exposed to the

atmosphere is called the free surface and is pressed downwards
by the air under about 1 5 lbs. pressure per square inch. The free
surface of a small body of a perfect liquid, at rest, is horizontal
and perpendicular to the action of gravity although in large
bodies of liquid, as lakes and ponds, the free surface is
spherical, assimiing the curvature of the earth's surface.
RULES RELATING TO THE VELCX3TY OF

FALLING BODIES.
I. To find the Velocity a falling Body will acquire in any

given time.
Multiply the time, in seconds, by t,2^, and it will give the

velocity acquired in feet, per second.
Example. Required the velocity in seven seconds.
3 2-^ X 7=2251 feet. Ans.
2. To find the Velocity a Body will acquire by falling from

any given height.
Multiply the space, in feet, by 64^, the square root of the

product will be the velocity acquired, in feet, per second.
Example. Reqtiired the velocity which a ball has acquired

in descending through 201 feet.
64^X201=12931; -v/i293i=îi3.7 feet. Ans.

3. To find the Space through which a Body will Jail in any

given time.
Multiply the square of the time, in seconds, by i6jV, and it
will give the space in feet.
Example. Required the space fallen through in seven

seconds.
i6tV X 7 ^=788yV feet. Ans.
4. To find the Time which a Body will occupy in Jailing

through a given space.
Divide the square root of the space fallen through by 4, and

the quotient will be the time in which it was falUng.
Example. Required the time a body will take in falling

through 402 08 feet of space.
.
'\/402 . 08=20 .
049, and 20.049^-4=5.012. Ans.
5. The Velocity being given, to find tJte Space Jalien

through.
Divide the velocity by 8, and the square of the quotient

will be the distance fallen through to acquire that velocity.
Example. If the velocity of a cannon ball be 660 feet per

second, from what height must a body fall to acquire the same
velocity ?
660-^8=82 52=6806 .25
. feet. Ans.
6. To find the Time, the Velocity per second being given.
Divide the given velocity by 8, and one-fourth part of the

quotient will be the answer.
Example. How long must a bullet be falling, to acquire a

velocity of 480 feet per second? ^s^
48o-r-8=6o :-4=i5 seconds. Ans.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
Specific Gravity is the proportion of the weight of a body

to that of an equal volume some other substance adopted
of
as a standard of reference. For solids and liquids the standard
is pure water, at a temperature of 60° F., the barometer being
at 30 inches.
Aeriform bodies are referred to the air as their standard.

A cubic foot of water weighs 1,000 ounces; if the same bulk
of another substance, as for instance cast iron, is found to

weigh 7,200 ounces, its proportional weight or specific gravity
is 7.2. It is convenient to know the figures representing this
proportion for every substance in common use, that the weight
of any given bulk may be readily determined. For all sub-
stances the specific gravity is used in various tests for the
purpose of distinguishing bodies from each other, the same
substance being found, under the equal conditions of tem-
perature, &c., to retain its peculiar proportional weight or
density.
Hence tables of specific gravities of bodies are prepared for

reference, and in every scientific description of substances the
specific gravity is mentioned. In practical use, the weight of a
cubic foot is obtained from the figures representing the density
by moving the decimal point three figures to the right, which
obviously from the example above, gives the ounces, and these
divided by 16 gives the poutids avoirdupois, in the cubic foot.
Different methods may be employed to ascertain the

specific gravity of solids. That by measuring the bulk and
weighing, is rarely practicable; as a body immersed in water
must own bulk of the fluid, the specific gravity may
displace its
be ascertained by introducing a body, after weighing it, into a
suitable vessel exactly filled with water, and then weighing the
fluid which overflows. The proportional weight is thus at
once obtained. Wax will cause its own weight of water to
overflow; its specific gravity is then i. Platinum, according
to the condition it is in, will cause only from to ^^-g of its ^
weight of water to overflow, showing its specific gravity to

be from 21 to 21.5. But a more exact method than this is
commonly employed. The difference of weight of the same
substance weighed in air and when immersed in water, is
exactly that of the water it displaces, and may consequently
be taken as the weight of its own bulk of water. See Fig. 93

and rule and example on page 95.
Fig. 91.
The specific gravity is then obtained by weighing the body

first in air, suspended by a fibre of silk or a hair, in
and then,
water, and dividing the weight in air by the difference. It is

hardly necessary to say that the substance examined must be
free from mixture of foreign matters, and especially from
cavities that may contain air.
—
Note. Hydrometers are instruments for determining the relative density
of fluids distilled zvater is usually referred to as the standard of com-
;
parison. The}' consist usually of a bulb or float weighted at bottom so as to

float upright, and having an elongated stem graduated to indicate the
density of the liquid by the depth to which they sink thereia
Elementary Hydraulics, 93
THE HYDROSTATIC BALANCE.

Every body immersed in a liquid is submitted to the action
ol two forces: gravity which tends to lower it, and the buoy-
ancy of the liquid which tends to raise it with a force equal to
the weight of the liquid displaced. The weight of the body is
either totally or partially overcome by its buoyancy, by which
it is concluded that a body immersed in a liquid loses a part of
its weight equal to the weight of the displaced liquid.

This principle, which
is iiie basis of the theory
of immersed and float-
ing bodies, is called the

principle of Archimedes,
after the discoverer. It
may be shown experi-

mentally by means of
the hydrostatic balance
(Fig. 92). This is an
ordinary balance, each
pan of which is pro-
vided with a hook; the
beam being raised, a
hollow brass cylinder ii»
suspended from one of
the pans, and below
this a solid cylinder
whose volume is exactly
equal to the capacity Fig. 92.
of the first cylinder; lastly, an equipoise is placed in the

other pan. If now the hollow cylinder be wdth water,
filled
the equilibrium
is disturbed; but if at the same time the
beam lowered so that the solid cylinder becomes immersed
is
in a vessel of water placed beneath it, the equilibrium

will be restored. By being immersed in water the solid cylinder
loses a portion of its weight equal to that of the water in the
hollow cylinder. Now, as the capacity of the hollow cylinder is
exactly equal to the volume of the solid cylinder the principle

which has been before laid down is proved.
Minerals, if suspected of containing spaces, should be

coarsely pulverized, and then the second method may be
conveniently applied to determine their density —thus pre-
pared, a higher result will be obtained, and even metals when
pulverized were found to give a greater specific gravity than
when this is determined from samples in their ordinary state.
Very fine powders may also be examined by the method in
use for ascertaining the specific gravity of fluids, viz.: by
comparing the weight of a measiu*ed quantity with that of the
same quantity of water.
A glass vessel called a specific gravity bottle is commonly

employed, which is furnished with a slender neck, upon which
is a mark indicating the height reached by 1,000 grains of
water. The substance to be examined is introduced till it
reaches the same mark, and, the weight of the bottle
being known, only one weighing is required to obtain the
result.
The specific gravity of fluids is also taken by the in-

strument called a hydrometer or alcometer. Such instruments
are much used for ascertaining the specific gravity of spirituous
and other liquors, as an indication of their strength. // i]\e
solid body to be tested is lighter than water, it must be attached

to some heavy substance to cause it to sink. Its specific gravity
is then calculated by dividing its weight in the air by the sum of
the weights of the attached body both in air and in water, first
subtracting from this sum the weight of the two bodies together
in the water.
Bodies soluble in water may be weighed in some other
fluid, as alcohol, ether, olive oil, &c., and their proportional
weight to that of this fluid being thus ascertained, their

density compared with that of water is readily calculated
or they may be enveloped in wax or other suitable substance
to protect them, and then treated by the method just given
for substances lighter than water. Gaseous bodies are weighed
in a thin glass flask or other vessel made for the purpose, and
provided with a stop-cock. The vessel is exhausted of air be-
fore the introduction of the gas.

Elementary Hydratilics. 95
ÛLE FOR FINDING TlIE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF A SoLID BODY.

Weigh the solid in air and then in pure water.
The difference is the weight of water displaced, whose

ipecific gravity is i.ooo.
Then, as the difference of weight is to i.ooo, so is the weight

n air to the specific gravity; or divide the weight of the body
n air by the difference between the weights in air and in water.
Example.
A lump found to weigh in air 577 grains; it is
of glass is
;hen suspended by a horse hair from the bottom of the scale

Dan, and immersed in a vessel of pure water, when it is found
;o weigh 399.4 grains.' What is its specific gravity?
577-0 Then, as 177.6 : i :: 577.0 : sp. gravity,
399-4 I
177.6 the difference i77-6)S77-o(3-248, Ans.

5328
4420
3552
8680
7104
15760
14208
1552
'RO^' COPPER LEAD
Fig. 93.
—
Note. The above figures are introduced to show more vividly the com-
parison between bulk and weight, the size of the different substances, of
:ourse, being merely approximate. A
study of the Table of Specific Gravi-
ies to be found in the next page is worthy of the time and attention.
TABLE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.

Metals.
Iron, (cast) 7-207 Gold (22 carats) 17.481
" " (20 " 15.709
(wrought) 7.688 )
Steel (soft) 7780 Silver (pure, cast) r 10.474

" " (hammered) 10.51
(tempered) 7.840
T.ead (cast) ii-400 Mercury (60°) 13.580
" (sheet) 11.407 Pewter 7.248
Brass (cast) 8.384 Tin 7.293
" (wire drawn) 8.544 Zinc (cast) 7.215
Copper (sheet) 8.767 Platinum 21.500
(cast) 8.607 Antimony 6.712
Gold (cast1 19.238 Arsenic 5.763

" (hammered) 19.361 Bronze (gun metal) 8.700
Stones and Earth.

Coal (Bituminous) 1.256 Lime 2.720
Granite 2.625
" (Anthracite) } \f^^ Marble 2.708
Charcoal ...., 44i Mica 2.800
Brick 1.900 Millstone 2.484
Clay 1.930 Nitre 1.900
Common Soil 1.984 Porcelain 2.385
Emery 1
4.000 Phosphorus 1-770
Glass (plate) 3.248 Pumice Stone 915
Ivory 1.822 Salt 2.130
Grindstone 2.143 Sand 1.800
Diamond 3-521 Slate 2.672
Gypsum 2.168 Sulphur 2.033
Woods.
Ash . .;
845 Cherry 7^5
Beech 852 Cork 240
Birch 720 Elm 671
Oak 1120 Poplar 383

Pine (yellow) 660 Walnut 671
" (white) 554 Willow 585
Liquids.
Acid Sulphuric 1-851 Oil (linseed) 932
" " (castor) 961
Muriatic i-200
Spirits of Wine 9i7 Pure water i.ooo
Alcohol 790 Vinegar 1.080
Oil (turpentine) 870 Milk 1.032

" (olive) 915 Sea water 1.029
Ele^nentary Hydraulics. 97
To Find the Weight of a Cubic Foot of Anything

Contained in these Tables.
Rule. Multiply 62.5 lbs. (the weight of a cubic foot of pure
water) by the specific gravity of the given body.
Example. What is the weight of a cubic foot of sea water?
62.5 lbs.
1.029 sp. gravity.
5625
1250
625
Answer, 64.3125 lbs, is the actual weight: but 64

lbs. is taken in practice as the weight of a cubic foot of sea
water.
Example. How many cubic feet of sea water will weigh

a ton ?
Divide 2240 lbs. (i ton) by 64 lbs.
(_8)2 240
8) 280
Ans. 35
Example. What is the weight of a cubic foot of wrought

'
iron?
62 .
5 lbs.
7 . 69 sp. gravity.
5625
3750
4375
Answer, 480.625 lbs.
480 lbs. in practice is the weight of i cubic foot of wrought iron. »
—
Note. 35 cubic feet of sea water is accounted to be a ton, as in sea
water ballast for steamers, and in calculating displacement of ships.
Example. What is the average weight of a cubic foot of

Bituminous coal?
1.256 sp. gravity.
62.5 lbs.
6280
2512
7536
Answer, 78.5000 lbs.
This 78.5 lbs. is the weight of a cubic foot in a solid block,

but loose, as used for fuel, a cubic foot weighs about 49.7 lbs.
which is the average of 13 kinds.
Example. What is the weight of a solid cast cylinder of

copper, 4 inches diameter and 6 inches high?
8.607 sp. gravity. •7854
62.5 lbs. 16 diam. squared.
4303s 47124
17214 7854
51642
12.5664 area of base.
537-937Slbs. percub. ft. 6 high
Say 538 lbs. 75.3984 cu. in. in volume
Say 75.4 cubic inches.

cub. in. cub. in. lbs.
Then, as 1728 : 75-4 538 Answer.

538
6032
2262
3770
12)40565.2
1728 12)3380.433
12) 281.702
23.47s lbs.
Answer, 23^ lbs. nearly.
FRICTION AND VISCOSITY OF FLUIDS.
Frictional Resistance. —
The resistance with which bodies
oppose the movement of one surface on another is termed
friction. It depends on the nature, and the roughness of the
surfaces in contact ; at the commencement of the sliding, it is
greater than when the motion is continued.
Friction is an equivalent force exerted in a direction

in effect
opposite to that in zuhich the sliding occurs. Its whole amount
is the product of two factors the first of these, which sums
:
up the effect of the nature and condition of the surfaces, is

called the coefficient of friction ; the second, which is the sum
of all pressures, as weight strain, and the adhesion due to
magnetism (when employed), which act to urge the two bodies
together, /. e., perpendicularly to the surface of contact, is
called the normal pressure. But

law holds only where,
this
with dry surfaces, the pressure is not enough to indent or
abrade either; or, with wet surfaces, not enough to force out
the unguent. In either of these cases, the friction 'ncreases
more rapidly than the ratio of normal pressure
No surfaces can be made absolutely hard or smooth ; when

one surface is made to slide over another, the slight roughness
of the one interlock with those of the other, so that the surfaces
must be separated or the points abraded to allow of the
motion but if one surface roll upon another, the prominent
;
points are successively raised, without the need of complete

lifting of the body or wearing off those points. Hence, there
are two kinds of friction, the sliding and the rolling. The
Former of these in amount greatly exceeds the latter; it is a
leading element in the stability of structures and fabrics of all
kinds, and the most important resistance and source of waste

in all machinery, and is therefore a chief object of regard in
Jie arts of construction and the science of engineering.
Sliding friction increases with the roughness of the surfaces

in contact ; hence, it is in practice diminished as these surfaces
become worn, also by polishing, and by the use of lubricants,
which smooth the rubbing surfaces by filling their depressions.
almost universally, in exact proportion with the
It increases,
owing to weight or other causes, with which
entire pressure,
the two surfaces are held together; but at very great pres-
sures, somewhat less rapidly. Consequently, in all ordinary
cases, so long as the entire weight or pressure remains the
same, the friction is, in general, entirely independent of th;;
extent of the surfaces in contact.
The exceptions are, some increase when the rubbing sur-

faces under the same total pressure are very greatly extended,
or when either surface is comparatively soft ; and considerable
lessening of friction when the bodies are very small, as in
the runners of skates upon ice. For ordinary rates of motion,
the total friction within a given space or distance is in like
manner entirely independent of the velocity with which one
surface is caused to move over the other ; but in very slow
motions it is increased, and in very rapid motions perceptibly
diminished.
Friction is also increased in proportion to the tetidency of the

surfaces to adhere ; hence, it is usually found greater between
bodies of the same kind (steel on steel proving almost an ex-

ception) than between those of different kinds it is usually ;
greater when the surfaces have been long in contact, and at the
beginning of motion, and always so, unless corrected by
lubricants, between metallic surfaces so highly polished that
air may be excluded from between them.
The frictional resistance retarding the flow of water is sub-
ject to three laws
1. It is proportioned to the amount of surface in contact.
2. It is independent of the pressure.
3. It is proportional to the square of the velocity.

It should be remembered that the laws relating to friction,

between solid bodies operate quite differently from what they do
when applied to liquids hence, the large mass of data relating
;
to the general subject of friction must be disregarded in the

consideration of hydromechanics and allied subjects.
For all fluids, whether liquids or gaseous, the resistance is
independent of the pressure between the masses in contact.
This is in accordance with the second law as stated.
The friction for all fluids (liquid or gaseous) is in proportion
to the area of the rubbing surface ; this follows from the first
law and as the sectional area of a circle is the least, pipes from
their circular form present the smallest resistance to the flow
of water.
From the third law, in practice we desire the making of pipes
as large as possible experiment having proved that low speeds
;
are preferable to moderate and still more so, as compared to

high speeds in proportioning the piping of hydraulic apparatus.
Friction of fluids independent of the nature of the
is also
solid against which the stream may flow, but dependent to
some extent upon their degree of roughness.
Friction for all fluids is also proportional to the density of
the fluid, and related in some way to its adhesiveness.
Water flozuing through a pipe tends to drag the pipe along
with it on account of friction in all actual fluids there is
;
viscosity or internal friction, but if the relative motion is only

slow enough it makes little difference whether the fluid is
viscous or not.
Ordinary fluids will change in shape under the action of a
force,however small, if enough time is given for the change to
take place, and the rate of change of shape is a measure of its
viscosity.
The laws of friction, both for solids and liquids, have been
established from experiments endlessly varied. In investigating
these principles we first proceed on the supposition that the
forces in question act without any impediments. Great
simplicity is attained by first bringing the subject to this ideal
lOS Fumps and Hydraulics.
standard of perfection, and afterwards making suitable allow-

ances forall these causes which operate in any given case to
prevent the perfect application of the law.

Several tables and other data relating to the friction of
water will be found in the other sections of this work, reference
to which is made in the Index.
TJie term viscosity has been described in the Glossary at the
beginning of this work a perfect fluid is incapable of resisting
;
— —
except by its weight or inertia a change of shape. Such a
substance does not actually exist for all fluids have viscosity or
internal friction.
This is defined as a resistance to a change of shape depend,

ing on the rate at which the change is effected, but, as the
fluids which engineers have to deal with are water and vapors
and gases, it simplifies nearly all the calculations to assume
that they have no internal viscosity or friction.
A slow continuous change of the shape of solids or semi-
solids under the action of gravity, or external force, is also by
the extension of the term called viscosity, as the viscosity of
ice, as observed in the slow movement of those rivers of ice,
the glaciers.
The viscosity of liquids arises from the mutual attractions of
the molecules and is diminished by the effect of the wandering
molecules (C. D.) The viscosity of gases increases while that
of liquids diminishes as the temperature is raised.
The viscosity of fluids presents a certain analogy with the

malleability of solids.
Vis Viva is &Qiyy\v2XQn\.\.o active or living force ; temperature
isthe Vis Viva of the smallest particles of a body in bodies of ;
the same temperature the atoms have the same vis viva, the
smaller mass of the lighter atoms being compensated by their
greater velocity.
This term, which is often met with in scientific treatises,
was invented by Leibnitz. It is well known that water in rapid
circulation will absorb more heatthan when stagnant or moving
slowly this is caused by Vis Viva of the atoms.
;
CAPILLARY ATTRACTION.
Capillary attraction is the attraction which causes the ascent
\f fluids in s>nall tubes. This word is derived from the Latin

capillus —a hair.
The tubes must be less than one-tenth of an inch in
diameter in order to produce the most satisfactory results,
and tubes whose bores are no larger than a hair present the
phenomenon the most strikingly. But though the rise of watet
above its natural level, is most manifest in small tubes, it appears,
in a degree, in vessels of all sizes and shapes, by a ring of water
formed around the sides with a concavity upward.
The following are the leading facts respecting capillary
attraction.
(i.) IVhen small tubes, open at both ends, are immersed per-
pendicularly in any liquid, the liquid rises in them to a height

which is of the bore. Though tubes
inversely as the diameter
of glass are usually employed in experiments on this subject,
yet tubes made of any other material exhibit the same property.
Nor does the thickness of the solid part of the tube, or its
quantity of matter, make the least difference, the effect de-

pending solely on the attraction of the surface, and consequently
extending only to a very small distance.
(2.) Different fluids are raised to unequal heights by the same
tube. Thus, according to experiment, a tube which will raise
water 23 inches will raise alcohol only 9 inches.
(3.) A tube y|-^ of an inch in diameter raises water 5.3
inches and since the height is reciprocally as the diameter,
;
the product of the diameter into the height is a constant quantity,

namely, the .053th part of an inch square.
(4.) Fluids rise in a similar tnanner betzveen plates of glass,
"tnetal, &c., placed perpendicularly in the fluids, and near to one
another. If the plates are parallel, the height to which a fluid
will rise, is ; and
inversely as the distance between the plates
the whole ascent half that which takes place in a tube of
is just
the same diameter. If the plates be placed edge to edge, so
as to form an angle, and they be immersed in water, with the
line of their intersection vertical, the water will ascend between

them in a curve having its vertex at the angle of inter-
section. This curve is found to have the properties and form
of the hyperbola.
In the adjustment of the stems of barometers and the
thermometer an allowance is made to compensate for the
influence of capillary attraction.
Figs. 96.
Such are the leading facts ascertained respecting capillary

attraction. Various explanations of them have been attempted
but that of La Place is most generally received. According
to this high authority, the action of the sides of the tube
draws up the film of fluid nearest to it, and that film draws
along with it the film immediately below it, and so each film
drags along with it the next below, until the weight of the
volume of fluid raised exactly balances all the forces which
act upon it. The fact that the elevation of the water between
the parallel plates is exactly half that rn a tube of the same
diameter, clearly indicates that the force resides in the surround-
ing body and the additional fact that the thickness or quantity
;
of that body makes no difference, proves that the force resides

in the surface, and that the action extends only to a very small
distance.
—
Note. Several familiar examples of capillary attraction may be added.
A piece of sponge, or a lump of sugar, touching water at its lowest corner,
soon becomes moistened throughout. The wick of a lamp lifts the oil to
supply the flame, to the height of several inches. A capillary glass tube, bent
in the form of a syphon, and having its shorter end inserted in a vessel of
water, will fiP. itself and deliver over the water in drops. A lock of thread or
of candle-wick, inserted in a v"2£s*^l of water in a similar manner, with one
end hanging over the ves.«el, will exhibit the same result. An immense
weight or mass may be raised through a small space, by first stretching a
dry rop» hetvveen it and a support, and then wetting the rope.
The "everal figures above need no explanation to the attentive readei.
Flozv of Water under Pressure. 105
FLOW OF WATER UNDER PRESSURE.

Under this head three general cases are to be considered :
I, that of hquids issuing from orifices; 2, their fioiv throtigh

tubes, or in streams ; and, 3, the effects of the nwnientiim
Ami impact of liquids. The principles governing the action ( f
the two last will be introduced, 2, under that portion of the

work relating to "piping," and, 3, under the sections pertain-
ing to the jet pump. Throughout the different portions of the
book will the three cases be still further elucidated.
Now, as to the laws governing the escape of liquids under

pressure through an opening, it may be understood that when
the liquid escapes from a vessel, owing to the excess of the in-
ternal pressure, tJicvolume which escapes depends on the section

of the orifice and the velocity with which the liquid molecules
move at the moment of their escape from it.
This velocity depends upon the density of the liquid, the

excess of pressure at the opening, and the friction of the liquid,
both at the opening and against the walls. When the aperture
is made in a very thin wall of a large vessel, so as to remove,
as much as possible, the causes tending to modify the motion
of the escaping fluid, the laws of the escape are comprised in
the following theorem, discovered by Torricelli, in 1643, as a
consequence of the law of the fall of bodies discovered by
Galileo: "Liquid molecules, flowing from an orifice, //^/^y' //;r-
same velocity, as if they fell freely in vacuo from a height equal
to the vertical distance from the surface to the center of the
orifice''
Deductions from the above :

— i. the velocity depends on the
depth of the orifice from the surface, and is independent of the
density of the liquid. Water and mercury in vacuo would fall
Note. — Torricelli discovered, in the early part of the 17th century,

the remarkable fact thatissues from a small orifice with
a fluid
the same velocity and atmospheric resistance excluded) which
(friction
it would have acquired in falling through the depth from its surface. This
was one of a long series of discoveries leading toward the now almost exact
science of hydro-mechanics.
/06 Pumps and Hydraulics.
from the same height in the same time and so escaping from ;
an orifice at the same depth, below the surface, would pass out
with equal velocity ; but mercury, being 13.5 times as heavy
as water, the pressure exerted at the aperture of a vessel filled
with mercury, will be 13.5 times as great as the pressure exerted
at the aperture of a vessel filled with water 2, the velocity of ;
liquids as the square roots of the depths of the orifices below

is
the surfaces of the liquids.

Thus
stating, the velocity of a liquid escaping from an
orifice one foot below the surface to be one ; from a similar
orifice four feet below the surface, it will be two, and at nine
feet three, at sixteen feet four, and so on.
From comparative experiments made by a great number of
observers, it is learned that the actual flow is only about two-
thirds of the theoretical flow. See note.
The form and constitution of liquid veins have been studied
and found to be :
I. — That the fluid issuing vertically from an orifice made in

a plane and thin horizontal always composed of two
wall, is
distinct parts. Fig. 97, the portion nearest the orifice is calm and
transparent, like a rod of glass, gradually decreasing in diameter.
The lower part, on the contrary, is always agitated, and takes
an irregular form, in which are regularly distributed elongated
swellings, called ventres, whose maximum diameter is greater
than that of the orifice.
Note. — Theoretical and actual flow. — The actual flow from an orifice,
is the volume of liquid which escapes from it in a given time. The theoretical
flow, is a volume equal to that of a cylinder which has for its base the
orifice, and for its height the velocity, furnished by the discovery of Torri-
celli. That is, the theoretical flow is the product of the area of the orifice
multiplied by the theoretical velocity. It is observed that the vein escaping
from an orifice, contracts quite rapidly, so that its diameter is soon only
about two-thirds of the diameter of the orifice. If there was no contraction
of the vein after leaving the orifice, and its velocity was the theoretical
velocit}', the actual flow would be the same as that indicated by theory.
But its section is much less than at the orifice, and its velocity is not so
great as the theoretical velocity, so that the actual flow is much less than
the theoretical flow ; and in order to reduce this to the first, it is necessary
t'l multiply it by a fraction.
Flow of ]\\itcr 7i7ider Pressure. 107
2. — In the lower part of the vein, the h'quid is not continuous;

for we employ an opaque liquid, as mercury, we can see
if
through the vein, Fig. 98. The apparent continuity in a vein

of water is owing to the fact that the globules which consti-
tute it succeed each other at a distance inappreciable to the eye.

The time it takes by a vessel to empty itself is to the time
required, when it is kept constantly full, to discharge the same

quantity of water, as 2 to i, and the spaces
described by the surface in its descent in a
column of equal size throughout, arc as the
odd numbers, 9, 7, 5, 3, i. Thus these
spaces measure equal times. Since liquids
are not perfectly mobile, and their exit at an
orifice must be retarded by cohesion and
friction, the results thus far given are much
modified in practice.
When a liquid flows through an orifice

in a vessel, eddies are formed about the sides
of the orifice, preventing the escape of a jet
equivalent to its full size and owing to
:
these, and to acceleration of velocity, if the

Jet he downward, it rapidly contracts in its
diameter. At a distance outside about equal
to diameter of the opening, it is contracted
to I or I its original area and this part has
;
been called the "contracted vein." It has

been shown, that below this the stream still
Fio. 97. FIG. 98.
contracts, though less rapidly.
These swellings separate more widely as they descend with

increased rapidity ; but falling through great heights, the
whole may finally be dissipated in a mist.
Note. — The annular swellings contain air and arise from a periodical
succession of pulsations near the orifice, which must be produced by very
small oscillations of the entire mass of the liquid, so that the velocity of the
flow is periodically variable. The sucking, whistling noise which is often
heard in the descent of water through an orifice is caused by air drawn in by
the whirling motion. See Fig. 103.
108 Piivips and Hydraulics.
If an orifice in a vessel looks downward, and the column of

liquid over it be short, this will simply drop out by its own
weight, starting at a velocity of o. But if a considerable depth
of liquid be above, its gravity produces a corresponding pres-
sure on its base, or on that liquid which is near it ; so. that, if
a plug be removed from an orifice in or close to the base, the

liquid starts at once into rapid motion.
Each particle of a jet A issuing from the side of a vessel

Fig. 99 moves horizontally with the velocity above men-
tioned, but it is at once drawn dozvmvard by the force of
gravity in the same manner as a bullet fired from a gun,
with its axis horizontal. It is well known that the bullet
describes a parabola tvith a vertical axis, the vertex being the
muzzle of the gun. Now, since each particle of the jet moves
in the same curve, this jet C
takes the parabolic form. In
every parabola there is a certain
point called the focus, and the
distance from the vertex to the
focus fixes the magnitude of a
parabola in much the same
manner as the distance from
the center to the circumference
Fio. 99.
fixes the magnitude of a circle.
Now be proved that the focus B is as much
it can
below as the surface of the water is above the orifice. Accord-
ingly, if water issues through orifices which are small in com-
lârison with the contents of the vessel, the jets from orifices
at different depths below the surface take different forms, as
shown at If these curves are traced on paper held behind
D.
the jet, then, knowing the horizontal distance and the vertical
height, it is easy to demonstrate that the jet forms a parabola.
—
Quantity of Efflux. If we suppose the bottom of a vessel
containing water to be thin, and the orifice to be a
small circle whose area is A (see Fig. lOO) where A B repre-
sents an orifice in the bottom of a vessel.
Flow of Water under Pressure. 109
Every particle above A B tries to pass out of the vessel,

at once and in so doing exerts a pressure on those nearest
Those that issue near A and B exert pressures in the
directions M M and N N those near the center of the orifice
;
in the direction R
Q, those in the intermediate parts in the
directions P Q, P Q. In consequence, the water within the
space P Q P is unable to escape, and that which does escape,
instead of assuming a cylindrical form, at first contracts, and
takes the form of a truncated cone.
f R: p.
M i N
FiQ. 100. I'X... ,nl.
It found that the escaping jet continues to contract

is
until at a distancefrom the orifice about equal to the diameter

of the orifice this part of the jet is called the vena contracta
;
or contracted vein, as explained on a previous page.
Influence of tubes on the quantity of efflux. — The result be-

fore given has reference to an aperture in a thin wall. If a
cylindrical or conical efflux tube is fitted to the aperture, the
amount of the flow is considerably increased. A short tube,
whose length is from two to three times its diameter, has been
found to increase the actual efflux per second to about 82
per cent, of the theoretical. In this case the water on enter-
ing the tube forms a contracted vein, Fig. loi. just as it would
do on issuing freely into the air but afterwards it expands,
;
and, in consequence of the adhesion of the water to the

interior surface of the tube, has, on leaving the tube, a section
greater than that of the contracted vein. The contraction ol
the jet within the tube causes a partial vacuum shown in
black in the figure.

Now, if an aperture is made in the tube, near the point ot
greatest contraction, and is carefully fitted with a vertical tube,
the lower end of which dips into water, Fig. loi, it is found
that water rises in the vertical tube, thereby proving con-
clusively the formation of a partial vacuum.
If the nozzle has the form of a conic frustum whose larger
end is at the aperture, the efflux in a second may be raised to
92 per cent., provided the dimensions are properly chosen. If
the smaller end of a frustum of a cone of suitable dimensions
be fitted to the orifice, the efflux may be still further increased,
vhich will fall very little short of the theoretical amount.
Fig. 102.
Velocities of streams. — The velocity of streams varies

r^reatly. The slower flow of rivers has a velocity of less than
three feet per second, and the more rapid, as much as six feet
per second, which gives respectively about two and four miles
per hour. The velocities vary in different parts of the same
transverse section of a stream, for the air upon the surface of
the water, as well also as the solid bottom of the stream, has a
certain effect in retarding the current. The velocity is found
to be greatest in the middle, where the water is deepest. Fig.
102, somewhere in in, below the surface ; then it decreases with
the depth towards the sides, being least at a and b.
Flow of Water under Pressure. Ill
Appearance of the surface during a discharge. A vessel —

containing a liquid, discharging itself through an orifice, doe?
not always preserve a horizontal surface. When the

vein issues from an orifice in the bottom of a vessel.
and the level of the liquid is near the orifice, the
liquid forms a whirlpool, Fig. 103. If the liquid
has a rotary movement, the funnel is formed sooner;
if the orifice is at the side of the vessel, there
is a
Fio. 103. depression of the surface upon that side, above the
orifice. Fig. 104. These movements depend upon
the form of the vessel, the height of the liquid in it, and the
dimensions and form of the orifice. »
In order to verify many of the laws of hydraulics in an

accurate manner, necessary to maintain a uniform pressure
it is
on the escaping liquid, thereby obtaining a

constant velocity at the orifice. This may be
done in various ways, as by allowing the water
to flow into the vessel in a little larger quan-
tity than can escape from the orifice, the ex-
cess being discharged over the upper edge of Fig. IM.
the vessel ; also by means of the syphon.
By suspending solid particles, such as charred paper, pulver-

ized in the water, we render the currents that are formed visible.
These solid particlesarrange themselves, in
curved lines, towards and into the orifice, as a
center of attraction. Fig. io'5. The particles in im-
mediate contact with the orifice, not moving so
easily as those within, must cause contraction ;
so, also, we can see that gravity in accelerating

the velocity^ must cause continual decrease in the
Fig. 1(6.
section the jet.
of
—
Upward jets of water. As the velocity of a liquid escaping
from an orifice is the same as that which a body acquires, falling
from a height equal to the distance from the level of the liquid,
to the orifice, a jet of water escaping from a horizonal opening
upwards, should theoretically reach the level of the liquid in the
vessel. But never takes place, Fig. io6, because cf 1st, the
this —
friction in the conducting tubes destroying the velocity. 2nd, the
resistance of the air. 3rd, the returning water falling upon
that which is rising. The height of the jet is increased by
having the orifices very small, in comparison with the conduct-
ing tube piercing them in a very thin wall, and inclining the
;
jet a little, thus avoiding the effect of the returning water.
—
Height of the jet. If a jet issuing
from an orifice in a vertical direction
has the same velocity as a body would
have which fell from the surface of the
liquid to that orifice, the jet ought to
rise to the level of the liquid. It does
not, however, reach this for the par-;
ticles which fall hinder it. But by in-

clining the jet at a small angle with the
Fig. 106.
vertical it reaches about 9/10 of the
theoretical height, the difference being due to friction and to
the resistance of the air.
The quantities of zvater wJiicJi issue from orifices of different

areas are very 7iearly proportional to the si.'ê of the orifice, pro-
vided the level remains constant, and this is true irrespective
of the form of the opening which may be round, square, or any
other shape.
Escape of liquids through short tubes. — We often place in

an orifice, to increase the flow, a short tube (called an adjutage)
either cylindrical or conical. If the vein pass through the
tube without adhering to it, the flow is not modified if the ;
vein adhere (the liquid wetting the interior walls) the contracted
part is dilated, and the flow is increased.
In the last case, and with a cylindrical adjutage, its length

not being more than four times its diameter, the flow is
augmented about one-third. Conical pipes, converging towards

the exterior, increase the flow still more than the preceding,
the flow and velocity of the vein varying with the angle.
—
Escape of liquids through long tubes. When a liquid passes
through a long straight tube, the flow soon diminishes greatly
in velocity, because of the friction which takes place between
the liquid particles and the walls. If there be any bends or
curves in the tube, it is still further diminished by the same

cause. The discharge is then much less than it would be from
an orifice in a thin wall, and therefore the tube is generally in-
clined the liquid then pisses down this inclined plane, or it is
;
forced through by pressure, applied at the opposite end.

Direction of the jet froin lateral orifices. — From the principle
of the equal transmission of pressure, water issues from an
orifice in the side of a vessel with the same velocity as from an
aperture in the bottom of a vessel at the' same depth.
MEASUREMENT OF WATER PRESSURE.

/;/ it may be well to
reference to the table on the next page,
say that it has two uses; by it when the ''head" is known the
pressure can be ascertained to a fraction, thus, Ex. i, If the
head is 140 feet, then the pressure is 60.64 pounds per square
inch. Again, Ex.2, If the pressure is 15.16 per square inch,
then the head is 35 feet.
IVSIPE. {See Pagf. tis.'^ Outbids.

114 Pu77ips and Hydraulics.
PRESSURE OF WATER.
The pressure of water in pounds per square inch for every foot in height to
300 feet and then by intervals, to 1000 feet head. By this table, from the pounds
;
pressure per square inch, the feet head is readily obtained ; and vice versa.
Feet
HYDRAULIC GAUGES.
The Piezometer, or pressure gunge, is an iustruvient for
measuring the pressure of icater in a pipe.
It may be broadly stated that all pressures and weights re-
lating to water, steam, gases, etc , are now recorded by gauges.

The principle of construction
of the dial gauge is that tiic
pressure may be indicated by

means of a spring and pointer
upon a divided dial similar to a
clock face, but marked in divi-
sions, indicating pounds, hun-
dreds, etc., pressure instead of
hours and minutes. The more
approved forms of gauges are
now constructed upon the prin-
ciple of the Bourdo7i spring or
Fig. m. metallic barometer invented in
1849. (Seepage 113 for illus.)
The essential principle — or

discovery — is this : that a metal
curved tub e — oval cross
section, under pressure, tends to
straighten itself according to
the force exerted by the pres-
sure inside. Figs. 107 and 108
show the ordinarj' style of gauj^c
which consists of an elliptical
tube, connected at one end to a
pipe communication with the
in
pressure, and at the other end
with toothed arc and pinion to a
pointer spindle as shown in cuts.
—
Note. Hydraulic gauges are indispensable as it is often necessary to
stop the pressure at points below that at which the safety valve has been set.
11^ Pumps and Hydraulics.
Within the gauges— or cases, is a small coiled tube closed

at one end, while the other end is attached to the socket
through which the water is admitted this tube has a tendency
;
to straighten when under pressure, and thus its free closed end
moves, and this motion is communicated to the pointer; when
the pressure is relieved the tube assumes its original position
and the pointer retu/ns to zero. There are many modifications
and special adaptations of the Bourdon discovery, but the
principle remains, and the same useful results are obtained
with both single and double tubes, the latter being the most
resensitive.
107 shows the dial of a hydraulic gauge which is
Fig.
graduated to suit the work to which it is related. These gauges
are made for pressures from 1,000 to 20,000 pounds per square
inch. The springs are formed of heavy solid bar steel turned
and bored to size and are of the Bourdon style. They are in
use in large railroad shops, sugar refineries and cotton-seed oil
mills. These gauges are also made with connections through
the back of the case.
The gauge illustrated in Fig. 108 is used in connection with
hot water heaters, denoting the height of column of water in
the tank or reservoir, one hand being painted red and the
other black. As it is necessary to have at all times in the
tank or reservoir a certain height of water, the red hand is set
at the point on the dial which denotes this height. The black
hand connected with the working parts of the gauge and
is
indicates on the dial the actual height of water in the tank or

reservoir.
The dial of this gauge is graduated in feet, instead of
pounds.
A
check valve almost indispensable in using a hydraulic
is
gauge, as the pressure is often suddenly removed and the mo-

mentum of the hand will throw the pinion out of gear with the
toothed arc, and is Hable to break the hair-spring. A check
valve prevents any trouble of this kind and should always be
used.
WATER WHEELS.
Hydraulic viachi)ii-ry may be broadly divided into
I. Motor machines, and,
2. Pumps.
Water motors may be divided into

I. Water wheels,
2. Turbines, and,
3. Water pressure engines.
In hydraulic motor machines a quantity of water descending
from a higher to a lower level, or from a JiigJicr to a longer
pressure, drives amachine which receives energy from the
water and applies it to overcoming the resistances of other
machines doing work.
/;/ the next ge7ieral class, work done on the machine by a
steam engine or other source of energy is employed in lifting
waXt.x jrom a loiver to a higher level. A few machines such as
the ram and jet pump combine the functions of both motors and
pumps.
The subject of water wheels ts but a continuation of much
that has been illustrated and defined in the historical introduction}
to which is now added the following summary.
In every "system of machinery deriving energy from a
natural water-fall there exist tlie following parts :
(i) A supply chafinel, leading the water from the highest
accessible level, to the site of the machine; this may be an
open channel masonry, or wood, or it may be a closed

of earth,
cast or wrought-iron pipe in some cases part of the head race
;
is an open channel, part a closed pipe.
(2) Leading from the motor there is a tail race, culvert, or

discharge pipe delivering the water after it has done its work.
(3) A waste chan)iel placed on or at the origin of the head
race by which surplus water, in floods, escapes.
(4) The motor itself, which either overcomes a useful re-

sistance directly, as in the case of a ram acting on a lift or
119
crane chain, or indirectly by actuating transmissive machinery,

as when a turbine drives the shafting, belting, and gearing of a
mill. With the motor is usually combined regulating machinery
for adjusting the power and speed, to the work done.
The great convenience and simplicity of water motors has

It d to their adoption in certain cases, where no natural source
of water power is available. In these cases, an artificial source
of water power is created by using a steam engine pump
to
water to a reservoir at a great elevation, or to pump water into
a closed reservoir in which there is great pressure.
Water flowing from the reservoir through hydraulic engines

gives back the energy expended, less so much as has been
wasted Where
in friction. a continuously acting steam engine
stores up energy by pumping the water, while the work done
by the hydraulic engines is done intermittently, —this arrange-
ment is considered the most useful.
NoTR.— "WTierever a stream flows from a higher to a lower level it is
possible to erect a water motor. The amount ot power obtainable depends

on the available head and the supply of water. In choosing a site the
engineer will select a portion of the stream where there is an abrupt natural
fall, or at least a considerable slope of the bed. He will have regard to the
facility of constructing the channels which are to convey the water, and
will take advantage of any bend in the river which enables him to shorten
them. He will have accurate measurements made of the quantity of water
flowing m the stream, and he will endeavor to ascertain the average quan-
tity available throughout the year, the minimum quantity in dry seasons,
and the maximum for which bye-wash channels nmst be provided. In many
cases the natural fall can be increased by a dam or weir throwm across the
stream. The engineer will also examine to what extent the head may vary
in different seasons, and whether it is necessary to sacrifice part of the fall
and give a steep slope to the tail race to prevent the motor being flooded
by backwater in freshet time.
In designing or selecting a water motor it is sufficient to consider only

its normal working conditions. It is generally quite as im-
efficiency in
portant to know how it will act with a scanty water supply or a diminishea
head. The greatest difference in water motors is in their adaptability to
varying working conditions. "— Encvc. Brit.
ITafer Wheels. 121
Water wheels are large vertical wheels driven by water fall-
ing from a higher to a lower level- they are motors on which

the water acts, partly by weight, partly by impulse. Ttirbincs
are wheels, generally of small size compared with water wheels,
driven chiefly by the impulse of the water. Before enterin^^
the moving part of the turbine, the water is allowed to acquire
a considerable velocity; during its action on the wheel this
velocity is diminished, and the impulse due to the change of
momentum drives the turbine. Roughly speaking, the fluid
acts in a water-pressure engine directly by its pressure, in a
zvater wheel chiefly by its weight causing a pressure.
A flutter-zvhcel is shown in
Fig. IThis is a water wheel
lO.
of moderate diameter placed at

the bottom of a chute so as to
receive the impact of the head of
water in the chute and penstock.
Its name is derived from its rapid
motion, the effect of which is to
Fio. 110.
cause a commotion of the water
like "the fluttering" of a fowl.
—
Impact Wheels. The simplest and most imperfect of the
horizontal wheels are the so-called impact wheels or impact
turbines, such as shown in
Fig. III.
They consist of i6 or 20
rectangular blades fastened to
the wheel at an inclination of
50° to 70° with the horizon.
The water is brought on
through a race of 40° to 20°
inclination, so that it strikes
#io.llL
at about right angles upon the
blades.
These wheels are used in falls from lo to 20 ft., where a

largenumber of revolutions is necessary, as in grain mills,
where the moving millstone is hung on the vertical shaft of
the wheel, hence intermediate gearingis unnecessary. These
crude machines are found in Southern Europe, North Africa,
in the Alps, Pyrenees, and in Algiers. They are about
5 ft. in diameter, and the blades are 15 inches high and 8 to 10
inches long (measured radially).
Fig. 1 1 2 shows an " under-
shot water zvlieclT In this style

of wheel, the work is done by
impact alone, as the running
water acts only on a few im-
mersed buckets on the under
^''- '^
side of the wheel.
In the breast zvheel, Fig. 113, the water is admitted on a level
or slightly above the center of the shaft, so that the water acts
by impact and weight.
Fig. 113.
Note. — "A wetr is a dam erected across a river to stop and raise the
water, as for the purpose of taking fish, of conveying a stream to a mill, of
maintaining the water at a level required for navigating it, or for the pur-
poses of irrigation."
For facilitating the computation of the quantity of water flowing over
weirs, Weir Tables, upon approved formulas, of which
are used, based
'•Francis' Formula" is perhaps the most reliable. These tables are applicable
*-o the subject of water wheels but cannot be printed in this work.
Water iVheels. 123
Fig 114 represents an ovcr-sJiot -water wheel (F G H T.,

with axis at O) in which the water flows upon the top of the
wheel at//, in the same direction in which it revolves, therefore
the impact of the water is util-
ized upon the upper buckets II,
a, b, after which tlie weight of the

water acts in the buckets c, d, e,
F, e', d' and c'. At b' the

buckets begin to overflow and
empty themselves as shown at a'.
It will be seen that the water acts
upon almost one-half the circum-

ference of this wheel, thus realizing
the greatest mechanical effect
Fig. 111.
with the smallest quantity of water.
The perhaps the first application of the
ciirrent-xvJieel is
force of water in motion, to drive machinery. In the first
century B. C, water-wheels for driving mills were used in Asia
Minor and on the Tiber. In the former case we suppose, but
in the latter case we know, that these were current-wheels.
Fio. 115.
Tlie tide or current wheel, (Fig. 115) erected in the vicinity

of the north end of London Rndtê, and subsequently under its
124 Pumps and Hydraulics^
northern arch, was erected by Peter Morice, a Dutchman, in

1582, and operated force-pumps which supplied a part of Lon-
don with water. The stand-pipe from the pump was 120 feet
high, and conducted the water to a cistern at that height.
The amount raised was about 216 gallons per minute. The
wheel worked sixteen pumps, each 7 inches in diameter, and
having a uniform stroke of 30 inches.
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the works
were extended from time to time, and occupied one after
another of the arches. In the first arch of the bridge was one
wheel working sixteen force-pumps. In the third arch were
three wheels, working fifty-two pumps. The united effect was
2,052 gallons per minute, raised 120 feet high.
In 1767 Smeaton added wheels in the fifth arch. Steam-
engines were added about this time to assist at low water and
at neap-tides. Thus the matter remained till 1821. Stow, the
antiquarian and historian, describes the works in 1600 and ;
Beighton in 1731 gives an account of them at that date.

The water-wheels at that time were placed under several
of the arches. The axis of these wheels was 19 feet long
3 feet diameter. The radial arms supported the rings and
twenty-six floats, 14 feet long by 18 inches wide. The axis
turned on brass gudgeons supported by counterpoised levers,
which permitted the vertical adjustment of the wheel as the
tide rose and fell. On the axis of the wheel was a cog-wheel
8 feet in diameter and having forty-four cogs ; meshing into
a trundle-wheel ^\ feet in diameter and having 20 rounds, or
pins vind whose iron axle revolved in brasses.
The axis of the trundle was prolonged at each end, and had
quadruple cranks which connected by rods to the ends of four
walking beams 24 feet long, whose other ends worked the
piston-rods of the pumps. The axis of oscillation of the lever
supporting the wheel, and by which it was adjusted to the
height of the tide, was coincident with the axis of the trundle,
so that the latter engaged the 8-feet cog-wheel in all con-
ditions of vertical adjustment. Cranks operated one end of
the beams while pumps were attached to the other end.
Water Wheels. 125
Fig, Ii6 exhibits an overshot ^vaicr li'hccl employed nt

Laxey, Isle of Man, for driving the pumps which drain the
mines at that village; these have an extreme depth of 1,380
feet. The wheel is 72 feet 6 inches in diameter, 6 feet in
breadth, exerts ^ force of about
clnTTT'^^
200 horse-power 3"<^ '^ capable
iRiyBBil^^
of pumping 250 "'lllS^BIB^^ gallons per min
from a depth ^^ '--"^ ^^'<-'^'
^liS'^lilIiWy&
Its crank-stroke fe^jLÎ Wi(/f r^ fi--^ is 10 feet. The
water for driv- ^SEfSffli"^ftifXihlW»\ ine it is con-
ducted by pipes from a reservoir on a neighboring hill, and

ascends in the column of masonry shown to the left of the
wheel. (Knight Vol. III.) An extra crank appears to be
shown in the foreground of this reproduction of an old drawing.
TURBINE WATER WHEELS.
The word turbine is derived from the Latin, *'turbo" — that

which spins or whirls around — a whirlwind.
The turbine is a horizontal water wheel, and is similar to the
hydraulic tourniquet or reaction wheel shown in Fig. 1 17. This
consists of a glass vessel, M, containing water and capable of
moving about its vertical axis. At the lower part there is a
tube, C, bent horizontally in opposite direction at the two ends.
If the vessel were full of water and the tubes closed, the pres-
sure of the sides of C would
balance each other, being equal
and acting in contrary direction:
but, being open, the water runs
out and the pressure is not ex-
erted on the open part but only
on the opposite side, as shown
in the figure A.
And this pressure, not being
neutralized by an opposite
pressure, imparts a rotary mo-
tion in the direction of the ar-
row, the velocity of which in-
creases with the height of the

liquid and the size of the aper-
This description and the
ture.
j-iQ^ 117^
an idea of the
illustration gives
crude reaction wheel invented
by Barker about 1740; again a turbine is simply a centrifugal
pump reversed, but the turbine is usually furnished with curved
giiidc vanes to guide the water as it enters the wheel.
Note. —
The steam turbine has come into common use and competes in
itseconomical performance with the simpler and less economical types of
the steam engine it is impelled by steam jets, the steam impinging upon
;
vanes or buckets on the circumference of a rotating disc or cylinder.

Turbine Water Wheels. 127
In those turbines ivhich are without guide blades i. e., which —

—
have a high fall the discharged water still possesses a great
velocity and the wheel is thereby deprived of a considerable
part of mechanical power. This loss can, however, be obviated
or lessened by using the energy of this discharged water to
drive a second wheel.
A construction of this sort has been carried out by Ober-
Bergrath Althaus in the tanning mill at Vallendar near Ehren-
breitstein. The essential parts of the arrangement can be seen
in Fig. 8.1 A E A is an ordinary reaction wheel with four
1
curved revolving pipes and a fall of 124 ft., and B B is a larger

wheel with floats which is set in rotation by the water issuing
from A. A. Since the tiuo wheels turn in opposite directions,
they must be connected together
by a special form of wheel-work.
The outer wheel affords the
additional advantage of serving
at the same time as a fly-wheel,
thereby giving a more uniform
rate of motion to the whole
^^Bk
^1^^. A^î</
J) \\
\£mw/
Mm^ machinery.
Turbines are variously con-
structed, but all have curved
floats or buckets against which

Fig. 118. the water acts by its impulse
or reaction in flowing either out-
ward from a 1 central chamber, 2 inward from an external
casing, 3 from above dowmvard, and,
4 from below; these
constructions are either divided into outward^ vertical or central
discharge wheels.
Turbines may also be divided into reaction turbines, or
those actuated substantially by the water passing through them
(their buckets moving in a direction opposite to that of the
flow) ; impulse turbines or those principally driven by impact
against their blades or buckets (the buckets moving with the
flow) ; and combined reaction and impulse wheels which include
the best modern types of turbines. In reaction turbines the
wheel passages are designed to be always full and therefore

the water under pressure in the impulse turbine the pas-
;
sages are not usually full.
Turbines in which the water flows in a direction parallel to
the axis are called parallel floiu tiirhuics — or journal turbines.

The tnrbine-dynaviouieter is a device used for measurings or
testing the power delivered by turbines (whence its name).
Foiirnejron's Turbine. This is, in its latest form, when

properly constructed, the nearest perfect of the horizontal
water-wheels. Ic revolves
either the air or under
in
water, and may be either
high or low pressure. For
the low-pressure wheel, the
water enters the flume from
the open reservoir, with free
surface, as in Fig. 1 19. For
high pressure, the reservoir
is boxed up and the water
brought in at the side through
a pipe, as shown in Fig. 124,
page 136. The first is for low

and the second for high falls.
Note. —The early historj' of
the turbine one of considerable
is
interest especially in view of the
development of the sieavi,from the
water turbine.
Fig. 119.
"M. Foumeyron, who began
his experiments in 1S23, erected his
first turbine in 1827, at Pout sur I'Ognon, in France. The result far exceeded
his expectations, but he had much prejudice to contend with, and it was not
until 1S34 that he constructed another, in Franche Comte at the iron-works
of M. Caron, to blow a furnace. It was of 7 or 8 horse-power, and worked
at times with a fall of only 9 inches. Its performance was so satisfactory
that the same proprietor had afterwards another of 50 horse-power erected,
to replace 2 water-wheels, which together, were equal to 30 horse-power.
The fall of water was 4 feet 3 inches, and the useful effect, varied with the
head and the immersion of the turbine, 65 to 80 per cent. Several others
were now erected 2 for falls of seven feet i at Inval, near Gisors, for a fall
: ;
of 6 feet 6 inches, the power being nearly 40-horse, on the river Epte, ex-
pending 35 cubic feet of water per second, the useful effect being 71 per cent,
of the force employed."
Turbine Water Uliteis, 129
Fig. 120.
The Leffel-Samson tur- bifie wheel is shown in the

engraving, Fig. 120, page 129, where N.N. represents
the bottom casting of the case flanged to support the
wheel by resting upon the bottom of the penstock,
The draft tube / is of conical shape as represent-
ed at J. J. to reduce the friction of discharge water
which after performing its work in the wheel escapes
at thebottom of the draft tube. Tliis tube must al-
ways project into the tail water at least two or three
inches. The gates H.H.H. are pivoted at the center
so that they are balanced and opened and closed
are
with the least possible friction. These gates are"
operated by rods L. Z., connecting with a rack and
pinion which are manipulated by the operator as
occasion requires, by an extension shaft from the
coupling K^ having a hand- wheel on top.
Fig. 121,
/ iirbine Water Wheels. 131
Power is transmitted from the wheel shaft FXo the gears

and pulleys connected with the coupling above ; the manner
of setting turbine whaels in openstocks is shown a few pages
further on.
From the construction of gates and guides upon turbine
wheels one may readily see the absolute necessity of carefully
guarding the flume against the admission of sticks and' other
solid materials that might wreck the wheel or jam the gates
so that they could not be operated this is best accomplished
;
by placing a water rack in front of the head gate at the entrance

to the flume.
These water racks are best made of flat bars of wrought iron
placed edgewise in a vertical position, or what is better, let the
top incline say one foot or two (depending upon the size of
flume) towards the head gates. When placed in an inclined
position it is verymuch easier to clean the rack from drift
wood and the like than when placed in a vertical position a^
by means of a hoe or scraper these obstructions may be hauled
up over the top of the inclined rack.
The racks should be made very strong and substantial to

guard against being broken by ice in the winter, for should the
rack give way at any inopportune time the admission of sticks
and other rubbish might wreck the wheel.
The " runner "which is the revolving part, as shown inFig.
121, composed of two separate and distinct types of wheels,

is
and has two diameters, as shown. Each wheel or set of buckets

receives its separate quantity of water from one and the same
set of guides but each set acts only once and independently
upon the water used, hence the water does not act twice upon
the combined wheel as might be supposed, as in the compound
steam engine.
The upper wheel G receives the water as shown by the
arrows at A, and has a central and downward discharge, while
the lower wheel C receives the water as shown by the arrows
atB and has an inward, downward and outward discharge as
shown by the arrows at D.
These two sets of bucketsneed to be exceedingly strong.

The lower set B are made' of
heavy flanged steel plate and are
cast into their places by being placed in the sand mould, and the
cast iron flows around them forming the heavy ring C^ sur-
rounding the outer and lower edges. This ring is a part of the
diaphragm which separates
the two wheels. The up-
per edge of the ring C is
beveled to form a neat
joint which prevents any
urmecessary loss of water.
This runner is bal-
anced and secured to
a hammered iron or steel
shaft F. It is supported
usually by a step of the
best specially selected hard
wood thoroughly soaked
in oil for months before
use. The lower end of the
shaft is dished out at E,
forming a true arc of a
circle —
concave while the —
wooden step is made
spherical — convex — to fit
into the end of the shaft.

The step is formed in this
way so that no sand can
lodge between the bearing
surfaces, and cut them out.
The resident oil in the
Fig. \n.
wood combined with the
water make a most durable means of lubrication, and these
steps last for many months where the water is clear.
To get at the exact quantity of water consumed by a tur-
bine wheel, one cannot make an accurate calculation from the
openings through the wheels but the water is measured after it
Turbine. Wahr Wheels. ^-^-^
has passed through the wheel, as it flows away into the tail
race. Any form of b'lckets or admission

sh'ght variation in the
apertures will make an appreciable variation in the quantity
of water discharged by a turbine wheel.
These wheels are made either for vertical or horizontal

shaftsand are also made single or double. The engraving.
Fig. 122, shows a Hercules turbine ivitliDi the case and gate
ready to set in the penstock.
Up tot!ic y.ar make of wheel tested at the flume of

1076 this
the Hul}\jkj W'.iLer Works showed the highest efficiency at all
stages of gate, namely 87 per cent, (page 97, Emerson's tests).
I The design of case will naturally lead the reader to conclude

Mnt this wheel has, i, an inward, 2, downward and, 3, an out-
w.ird discharge which is correct. The gate is sitnply a curb or
hollow cylinder which forms a sleeve outside the case and is
raised and lowered by the gearing and rack shown in the
engraving. As this sleeve rises it gradually uncovers the open-
ings shown which admits water into the wheel.
Horizontal Turbine — The turbine of 10,500 horse power

installed in the Shawinigan plant, Canada, sec IV Pt. 2. is of
tJie horizontal type, the water entering at, A, the lowest part
of the turbine and flows around and fills the outer special tube,
passes through an annular gate, flows radially through the
wheel thence out through two draft tubes, B, one on each
side. The weight of the water wheel is 182 tons, the shaft
weighing 10 tons and the bronze runner 5 tons. It is 30
feet from base to top and 32 feet 2% inches wide overall. The
shaft, C, is of solid forged steel, 22 inches diameter in the middle,
tapering down to 10 inches diameter on one end ana :6 inches
diameter on the other, the distance between bearings being
27 feet. The intake is 10 feet in diameter and the quantity of
water going through the turbine when developing full power is
39^,000 gallons a minute. The speed of the wheel is 180
revolutions per minute with a head of water acting on the
turbine of 125 to 135 feet.
Fig 123 is designed to show The Setting of a turbine wheel

in a wooden penstock.
Fio. 123.
The principal and most essential dimensions necessary to be

considered in setting turbines are indicated by letters, each
size having its own particular dimensions.
/;/ setting the wheel in the ordinary penstock it is necessary in
the first place, -to have the floor exactly level, and it is generally
more convenient to lay down a ring of soft wood around the
Turbine Water Whecis. l-^-J
hole in the floor, as it will be much easier to dress off with a
plane than the plank floor. The floor should be supported by

posts under the timbers around the hole, so that there will
be no settling of the floor after being once made level. As the
flange on which the wheel rests is turnctl true, the wheel will,
when placed on this level floor, stand in the exact position
required, /. c, the shaft will be exactly vertical.
If the wheel is a large one and was taken apart for shipment,
the draft tube is first erected in position, then the wheel is
placed on its step, the other parts being put on in their order.
The step and other bearings are adjusted before leaving the
shop, but it will sometimes happen that they will in some way
get shifted, and as the wheel being put together, they should
is
be inspected and readjusted, if necessary. The only change-

that can occur in the step is its vertical adjustment, which is
regulated by screws. When the right height is found, the broad
flange around the lower part of the wheel should stand about
one-sixteenth of an inch below the under side of the base of
the guide rim where it rests upon the draft tube. The adjust-
able bearing on the top of the cover plate should be fitted up
closely around the shaft, but not screwed so tightly as to bind it.
All these whecis above fifteen inches in diameter are pro-
vided with chains and weights to counterbalance the weight of
the gate, so that it will move easily. It is best, when it can be
done without much trouble, to carry the weights outside of the
flume, but they can be used inside where the height is sufficient,
although it will require a little more weight to be as effective.
When the wheel is not likely to be started up at once, it is a
good plan, when putting it together, to smear the step and
the shaft at the bearing with tallow, as a protection against
rust while it remains idle.
It is sometimes necessary to use a draft tube longer than is

ordinarily attached to the wheel. If properly constructed and
applied there will be no sensible loss of power, but it must be

air tight, and when of considerable length it is better enlarged
gradually toward the lower end, especially in cases where it
may be necessary to carry this tube near the pit bottom.
Iron cases for Turbines. Fig. 124 shows the setting of a

Hercules wheel within an iron case.
mil
^^ 41 \)>^
Fig 124.
Although the expense of iron is as a rule considerably

greater than wood, the results obtained by the use of iroii
cases and penstocks are much better than could be possible with
wood, on account of their durability and freedom from leakage.
It is generally conceded that there is a great risk of the

step becoming heated and burning out when placed in a draft
tube above the tail-water, and a jet of water is required to
counteract this tendency to overheat. As all such fixtures
are liable to derangement and often fail to operate, we are in
favor of setting the wheel with the step immersed, whenever
it can be done without too great expense.
This case consists of two cast iron heads with boiler iron
sides and is provided with a cover, so that the wheel may be
taken out entire. This cover is fitted with stul^ng boxes for
both wheel and gate shafts, and a manhole affords easy access
to the wheel. The bearing surfaces of the heads are nicely
turned, insuring tight joints, and all holes for rivets are accu-
rately spaced and drilled. The heads of the 'larger cases are
made to clamp, the two halves being planed together ; the
cases are fitted with mouthpieces having cast iron flanges for
feeder connections, to secure by bolts to either iron or wooden
feeders.
Where two wheels of the same or different diameters are

to be used, corresponding cases connected in the centre with
one common feeder connection, or are placed in cases provided
with separate feeders. In connection with these cases an iron
draft tube of any desired length may be used. The wheel is
usually fitted to the case before leaving the works, and in erect-
ing the smaller wheels, all that remains 1o be done is to set the
case on the foundations provided lor it and make the necessary
connections as stated in explanation previously made for
Figs. 122 and 123.
The general arrangements required for the proper erection

of turbines are wellunderstood by competent millwrights and
do not in ordinary cases present any serious difficulties. It
may be of intere-t to many, and to the advantage of some who
may consider the use of water power, if a few general remarks

on this subject are added.
In practice there is almost always a little loss of head due
to the velocity with which the water passes through the channels
leading to and away from the wheel, and it should be the aim
in constructing flumes to bring the loss to a minimum. When
the size of the wheel and the quantity of water to be used
have been determined, i, the size of the conduit for carrying
the water to the wheel, 2, the width and depth of the wheel-
pit and tail-race, and 3, the dimensions and location of the
flume for the wheel are to be considered and properly arranged.
All of these should be of such dimensions as to insure the

flow of water through them at a moderate velocity, and with
as little change of direction as may be practicable.
The larger the pipe or canal the better, but there must be
a limit in practice, and it may be laid down as a general rule
that a velocity oitliree feet per seeond is good practice in short
tubes of uniform section of not more than fifty feet in length
but the velocity should be reduced as the distance increases,
until in a length of 200 feet, it should not exceed two feet
per second.
The same rule applies to the tail-race, except that the velocity
should be somewhat lower in ditches cut through rock or earth
and havingthe naturally resulting roughness of sides and bottom.
The width and depth of the pit below the wheel may, for a
given wheel, vary somewhat as the water discharged into it is
greater or less ; therefore, the dimensions should increase with

a greater head for the same wheel. The following is an ap-
proximate rule for the dimensions of the pit, say for a head of
twenty feet width of pit equal to four times the diameter of
:
wheel, depth below the level of tail-water one and a half times
the diameter of wheel. The flume for the wheel should be
about three times the diameter of the wheel in its width or
diameter, and if it Is decked over at the top it should be high
enough inside to clear the coupling on the wheel shaft.
The Watertight Turbine is a special machine designed to

keep the case tight by the pressure of the water against the
gates at the sides, no matter how much these gates wear.
Fig. 125 shows the plan of chutes, gate-seats, gates, and
buckets of the wheel. Part of the gates are shown open, and
others are closed. The gates make a quarter of a turn in
opening, and the same in shutting, and to open all the gates,
the gate wheel makes half a revolution. The upper half of
case shows the gate-wheel and pinion for operating its parts.
Fig. 12.5.
The small illustration is a perspective view of the gate and

gate segment used on the watertight turbine. The part
cut away forms part of the chute when the
gate is open as shown in the lower left-hand side of
the figure. The sharp edge of the gate cuts off sticks
and rubbish which are liable to get in the wheel,
which is an obvious advantage. Another desirable
feature claimed for this wheel is the plan of operating
the gates in opposite pairs; by this means 2, 4, 6, 8 or 10 full
gates may be opened at will, according to the power required.
.40 Pumps ana HydraiUtcs.
THJi MlAGARA Fajlls Tubbine.— Fig. 126.

Turbines at Niagara Falls. A number of turbines installed

at Niagara Falls, N. Y., are here briefly described they arc ;
about 5,000 horse-power each a canal leads water from the

;
river to the wheel pit. The water is carried down the pit
through steel penstocks to the turbines, which are placed 136
feet below the water level in the canal. After passing through
the wheels the waste water is conveyed to the river below
by a tunnel 7,000 feet long. The "plan" Fig. 126 shows a
cross-section of the wheel pit, with an end view of a penstock,
wheel case and shaft. Fig. 126 exhibits part of a vertical
section of the wheel pit and a side view of this penstock, with
the enclosing case and shaft of the turbine.
Thisturbine has a rock-surface wheel pit, but this surface is
protected by a brick lining having a thickness of about 15

inches. The width of the wheel pit is 20 feet at the top and
16 feet at the bottom, and the cylindrical penstock is 7^ feet
in diameter. The shaft of the turbineis a steel tube 38 inches
in diameter, built in three sections, and connected by short

ôlid steel shafts 1 1 inches in diameter, which revolve in bear-

ings. On the top of each shaft is a dynamo for generating the
electric power.
In Fig. 126 is shown a vertical section of the lower part of
the penstock, shaft, and twin wheels. The water fills the casing
around the shaft, passes both upward and downward to the
guide passages, through which it enters the two wheels, causes
them to revolve, and then drops down to the tail race at the
entrance to the tunnel, which carries it away to the river. The
gate for regulating the supply is seen upon the outside of
these wheels, both at the top and bottom, Fig. 126.
Fig. 128 gives a larger vertical section of the lower wheel
with the guides, shaft, and connecting members. The guide
passages, and the wheel passages, are triple as shown so that
the latter may be filled not only at full gate, but also when it
is one-third or two-thirds open, thus avoiding the loss of
energy due to sudden enlargement of the flowing stream. The
two horizontal partitions in the wheel are also advantageous
in strengthening it. The inner radius of the v/heel is 31^ inches
and the outer radius is 37^ inches, while the depth is about 12
inches. In this figure the gate is represented closed and to
open, it moves downward uncovering the guide passages as
shown in Fig. 126, the position it occupies loaded.
In Fig. 127 is shown one of the wheels, in a
a half-plan of
part of which are seen the guides and vanes, there being 36 of
the former and 32 of the latter Although the water on leav-
ing the wheel is discharged into the air, the very small annular
space between the guides and vanes, together with the decreas-
ing area between the vanes from the entrance to the exit
orifices, ensures that the wheels move like reaction turbines for
the three positions of the gates correspond to the three
horizontal stages or openings through the guides as shown in
Fig. 128, /. e., thrc\ tiês of gate.
Note. —A one of these wheels, made in 1895, developed 5,498

test of
electrical horse-power, generate! by an expenditure of 447.2 cubic feet of
water per second under a head of 135. i feet. The efficiency of the dynamo
being 97 per cent. the efficiency of the wheel and approaches was 82^ per cent.
,
Tlic a\'cra>^fc discliar^c throiii^h one of tlicsc twin turbines

is about 430 cubic feet per second, and the theoretic pozutr due
to this discliarjfc is 6,645 Horse-power.
Hence if 5,000 horse-power be utilized
the efficiency is 75.2 per cent. Under
this discliarge the mean velocity of
water in the penstock is
nearly 10 feet per second,

but the, loss of head due to
friction in the ])enstock
will bo but a small
fraction of a foot.
The pressure-head
in the wheel case
is then practically
that due to the
actual static head,
or closely 141 ^ feet
upon the lower and
130 feet upon the
upper wheel.
The absolute
velocity of the
water when entering the
wheel is about 66 feet per
second, so that the pres-
sure-head in the guide pas-
sages of the upper wheel is nearly 66
feet. The mean absolute velocity of
the water when leaving the wheels is
rio. 127.
about 19 feet per second, so that the

loss due to this is only about 4 per cent, of the total head.
—
NoTR. The above description refers to the ten turbines in wheel pit
No. I. The ilhistrations are those of the wheels called units i, 2, and 3
which were instalkd in iSo^ and i''95. l^nits 4 t inclusive, installed in
> i >,
1898-1900, are of the .same type except that both the penstock and wheel case
have cast-iron ribs on their sides which rest on uiassi\e castings built into
the masonry of the side walls. This arrangement dispen.scs with the sup-
porting girders shown in Fig. 126 and gives much greater rigidity to both
penstocks and wheels.
U4 Pumps and Hydraulics.
The weight of the dynamo, shaft, and turbine is balanced,

when the wheels are in motion, by the upward pressure of the
water in the wheel case on a piston placed above the upper
cssm '"UJ j. j»j<-...i(,...^^|
wheel. The upper disc containing the guides is, for this pur-
pose, perforated, so that the water pressure can be equalized.
WATER PRESSURE ENGINES.
Water pressure engines are viachines zi'iih a cylinder ami

piston or rani, i)i principle identical H'itli the corresponding part
of a steatn otginc ; the water is alternately admitted to and
discharged from the cylinder, causing a reciprocating action of
the piston or ram. It is admitted at a high pressure and after
doing its work on the piston is discharged.
The water some of these machines acquires a high
in
velocity tJie useful work is due to t/ie difference in tlie pressure
;
of admission and discliargc, whether that pressure is due to the

weight of a colum.n of water of more or less considerable
height, or is artificially produced.
When an incompressible fluid such as water, is used to act-
uate piston engines, two special difficulties arise. One is that
the lost work in friction is very great, if the water attains a
considerable velocity ; another is that there is over-straining
action on the machinery. The due to
violent straining action
the more or sudden arrest of the motion of water in ma-
less
chinery is termed hydraulic shock. For these reasons the
maximum velocity of flow of water in reciprocating hydraulic
machines should generally not exceed 5 to 10 feet per second.
Under high pressure, where there is less object in saving

and it is very important to keep the dimensions of the
machinery small, Mr. Anderson gives 24 feet per second
as the limit of velocity. In large water-pressure engines used
for pumping mines the average piston speed does not exceed
^ to 2 feet per second.
The suitability of water for the transmission of poiver has

been fully recognized in recent years the facility with which
;
water under pressure is capable of being utilized, and the ad-

vantages that attend its use in motors have resulted in many
practical difficulties being overcome, which were at first
considered insurmountable,
145
At the outset of the employment of water pressure it was

feared that the water in the pipes and machinery might freeze.
This, however, has been found not to be a difficulty where
well-known precautions arc taken. The working parts should,
where possible, be placed under ground, or should be cased in,
if they are above ground. The zvater should be run out of all
valves and cylinders zvhich cajinot be cased in, and protected
as soon as the working of the machine ceases.
A very small gas jet or lamp placed near the unprotected

parts will prevent freezing.
Experiments have also shown that a mixture of glycerine

and water prevents the effects of frost at a temperature as low
as 1 6° Fahr., provided the glycerine has a specific gravity of
1. 1 25, and that it is mixed in the proportion of one part of
glycerine by weight to four parts of water.
Where water is used over again in the machines (by return-

ing the exhaust water from the machines to a reservoir), such
addition of glycerine is more easily resorted to. Where moder-
ate risks of frost have to be dealt with, tiie proportion of one
gallon of glycerine to 300 gallons of water proves effectual. If
the water is at a high pressure, such as 1,500 lbs. to the square

inch, it is less liable to freeze than when used at a low pressure.
Again, it was at first feared that accidents might be frequent

from the bursting of hydraulic pipes and cylinders under high
pressure. Such, however, has been proved not to be the case
in practice, and even where pipes or cylinders do burst, the
pressure once dissipated, as the body of water which can
is at
escape at the opening is but slight.
It is desirable to use water wnich is as free as possible

cither from suspended matter or from chemical impurity. The
former increases the wear and tear of the packing, and is other-
wise inconvenient, and the latter acts injuriously on the seats
and fittings of valves. Sea-water can be used for hydraulic
machinery, but on account of its corrosion, fresh- water is better.
,
//yiirau/ic Moloi s. 117
Water-pressure has sometimes been applied to operate ma-

chines which are worked continuously and not intermittently,
and to Continuous working rotary machines. This is unwise,
for in applying hydraulic power to iho continuous working of
shafting or shc»p tcxjjs, the amount of power developed by the
hydraulic engine cannot be varied \.o suit the work to be doPL,
neither can the speed be regulated with sufficient nicety.
HYDRAULIC MOTORS.
Pressure or Hydraulic Motors form an interesting variety
of hydraulic devices ; they consist of working cylinders with
valves and pistons, and resemble forcing pumps in their con-
struction, but differ from them \\\ their operation; the pistons
not being moved by any
external force applied to them through
cranks, levers, but by the zveight or pressure of a column of
etc.,
%vater acting directly upon or against the pistons. Pressure

engines or motors are applicable to locations such as afford —
a suitable supply of water for the motive column but where- ;
ever refuse, impure, salt or otiicr water can be obtained from a

sufficient elevation, such may be used to raise a quantity of
fresh water by these machines.
The stress considered in hydro-niechanics
is alivays a pressure
as liquids are ingeneral capable of sustaining only a slight

tension without disruption the intensity of the pressure is
-
measured by the number of units of Jorcc per unit of area.

Thus we say, one thousand pounds of |)ressure per square inch
of piston — the pounds and the square uiches are the units
used in these calculations.
The invention ot pressure engines brought to light a ;/rz£/
mode of employmg water as a motive agent: and also the

means of appiymg it in locations where
could not otherwise it
be used ,
with pressure engines the motive agent may betaken
to the machine itself. In valleys or lowlands, having no
natural water, but where that liquid can be conveyed in
fall i»f
tubes from a sufificient elevation (no matter how distant the

source may be), such water, by these machines, may be made
u^ Pump and
•
HydraMlics.
^
——
Hyaraunc Motors. 149
to propel others ; unlike the steam engine, a pressure engine

is inexpensive, and simple in construction — it requires neither
chimneys, furnaces nor fuel ; neither firemen nor engineers, nor
is there any danger of explosions. It may be placed in the
corner of a room, or be concealed under a counter or a table. It
may be set in operation in a moment, by opening a cock, and
the instant the work is done, it may be stopped by shutting
the same, and thus prevent waste of power.
Pressure engines afford an illustration of the variety of

purposes to which z. piston and cylinder may be applied. These
were probably first used in piston bellows next in the syringe ; ;
subsequently in pumps of every variety and then in water- ;
pressure and steam engines. The moving pistoyi is the nucleus

or elemental part that gives efficiency to them all ; and the
apparatus that surround it in some of them, are but its parts.
The history of machines composed of pistons and cylinders

also illustrates the process by which some simple inventions
have become applied to purposes, foreign to those for which
—
they were originally designed each application opening the
way for a different one.
In another form hydraulic motors have been adopted, in

favorable locations, as first movers of machinery, and when
thus used, they exhibit a very strikiyig resemblance to high pres-
sure steam, engines. Indeed, the elemental features of steam
and pressure engines are the same, and the modes of employ-
ing the motive agents in both are identical it is the different —
properties of the agents that induces a slight variation in the
machines one being an elastic Jluid, the other a yion-elastic liquid.
In steam engines a piston is alternately pushed forward

and back in its cylinder by steam and by means of the rod to
;
—
Note. "The hydraulic engine of Huelgoat, in Brittany, is used to drain
a mine is single-acting, and acts directly to lift the piston of the pump. It
;
makes five and a half strokes per minute, the stroke being a little more than
eight feet in length. The piston-rod is 767 feet long, and it weighs 16 tons.
The power of the engine is derived from a source at a height 370 feet above
its own level." Knight.
Fig. 131.
Valvb.
jm^
(^^^\
Hydraulic Motors. 151
which the piston is secured, motion is communicated to a crank

and fly-wheel, and through tliese to the machinery to be
driven : it is the same with pressure engines wlien used to move
other machines, except that instead of the elastic vapor of
water, a column of that liquid drives the pistons to and fro.
In default of a natural head of sufficient pressure, the head is

sometimes established in an acctiniiilaior of power this is a ;
body of water driven into a reservoir under heavy pressure, by

forcing pumps worked by power. In cities where the water
distribution is from elevated reservoirs, and in which the water
supply is sufficiently abundant to justify the application of a
portion of it to industrial uses, the water-engine or motor
is recommended.
The following description of a water engine of world-

wide adaptation will, if attentively studied, show the working
of an approved type of this machine :
Ramsbottom's hydraulic engine (Figs. 129 and 130), is oscil-

lating, and employs two cylinders b, /, operating one crank-
shaft, a, by means of two cranks at right angles to each other.
In one of the accompanying figures the channels of induction
are marked j, and are cast on the cylinders the dotted circle
;
c shows the position of the supply and discharge pipes in the ;
other figure these pipes are indicated by arrows. The two

views are vertical cross-sections at right angles to each other,
one being through the axis of the cylinders and the other
through the middle post in which the inner trunnions of the
cylinders are journaled. The apertures of induction are seen
at h and those of eduction at i, and have the form of truncated
circular sectors, whose center is the center of motion.
The induction and eduction spaces are divided by a sectoral
partition ; the apertures of admission and discharge on the
sides of the cylinders are of similar construction. The surfaces
of contact between the cylinders b, I and the support d are
planed and polished and are made water-tight by the adjusting
screws ni m of the pivots. When the piston / is at the end of
its, course in either direction the cylinder and crank are vertical,
and the valves allmomentarily closed, the openings by which

the channels yy communicate with the discharge and supply
pipes presenting themselves exactly opposite the solid sectors
which separate h from i.
In the next moment the flow of water will recommence,

the cylinder discharging itself from the full side of the piston,
and filling anew from the opposite side. Air chambers and
relief-valves are used as a provision against counter-pressure
and hydraulic shocks.
The Brotherhood three-cylinder reciprocating engine is an
appliance for producing rotary motion by water-pressure.
The working parts of the Brotherhood three-cylinder

hydraulic engine consist only of the three pistons and con-
necting rods, one crank and one rotating balanced valve and
spindle which fits into the driver and is turned direct from the
crank-pin ;
there are no glands, stuffing boxes, or oscillating
joints.
It is shown by Figs. 131, 132. The three cylinders, A

(made one casting) are always open at their inner ends, and
in
are attached to a central chamber, B. They contain three
pistons, P, which transmit motion to the crank-pin through the
rods, C. The water is admitted and exhausted by means of
the circular disc valve, V, having a lignum-vitae seat. The
valve is rotated by the eccentric pin, E. A face view of this
valve is shown above the steam chest. It has segmental ports
which, in rotating, pass over apertures in the valve seat. There

being no dead centers, the engine will start from all positions
of the crank-pin, and a uniform motion of the shaft is produced
without a flywheel.
The pressure is always on the outer end of the piston, so
that the rods, C, are in compression, and take up their own
wear. This engine is well adapted for transmitting pres-
sure to appliances which are worked intermittently, as, owing
to the great speed at which it can be run, it will not only save
the loss from friction (where gearing is employed), but will also
reduce the friction in the machine itself by enabling the gear-
Hyiii'iiulic J\Ioiors. 153
infj (or increasing speed to be dispensed with. The production

of this simple hydraulic rotary engine led to its wide application
to capstans.
Fig. 13; represents a small hydraulic engine — The Compton
Hydraulic —
Motor attached to and operating a gas-com-
pressor. It shows a style of water motor in large use in con-
tiecKon with city water-mains. A pressure of 15 to 20 lbs. per
<;quare inch is sufHcicnt to operate it the motor here illustrated
;
occupies a floor space of 9 x 23 inches it will supply gas ;
burners to the extent of 6,000 candle-power.

The valve motion on the motor is unique in this, the out-
lets and inlets have a positive motion by which they are simul-
FiQ. 133.
taneously opened and closed by the motion of the piston this ;
valve motion is designed to overcome the back pressure it has ;
a governor, incorporated in the valve-motion for the purpose

of maintaining uniform pressure on the main pipes.
HYDRAULIC PACKINGS.
Generally speaking a packing is a contrivance or a material
to close a joint. Various greasy materials with gaskets, flax,
hemp, etc., are used in joints which are screwed down, also
collars of rubber, red lead, luting, graphite, etc.
A most important part in the practical working of nearly
all water-pressure machines is the leather collar, the invention
154 Pumps and Hyihâulics.
of which by Bramah removed the difficulties which had been
experienced in making the large ram work water-tight when

submitted to great pressure.
It consists of a
circular piece of
stout leather (see
cut page 2o), in the
center of which a
" U " Packing— Fio. 134. Cup Packing— Fig. 135.
circular hole is cut.
This piece of leather is thoroughly soaked
in water and is pressed into a metallic mould
and so that a section of it represents a reversed
Flange Packing. U, S-^d is fitted into a groove made in the
Fio. 136.
neck of the cylinder. This collar being con-
cave downwards, then in proportion as the pressure Increases,
the edge nearest the ram being trimmed down, it fits the more
tightly against the ram plunger on one side and the neck of
the cylinder on the other. It should be saturated with Neats-
foot or Castor oil so as to be impervious to water.
When the least amount of friction possible is desired in

the operating of a hydraulic no form of
plunger, there is
packing which can surpass a properly prepared and applied

Leather "U" Packing (Fig. 134), and in practice its position is
according to conditions, either in a groove near the upper end
of the cylinder, or at the lower end of the ram.
When for any reason not desired to use the outer lip
it is
of the packing, the resulting form is known as a Cup Packing,

(Fig. 135), and when the inner lip is used then we have the Hat
or Flange Packing. Fig. 136.
When the water pressure is not over 2,000 lbs. to the square
inch, and a greater allowance for friction is not important, a
fibrous packing can be used, which is easier of application than
these for large sized cylinders.
The loss of power by the best of leather packings is i per
cent, on 4 ram, y^ per cent, with 8
in. in. ram and ^ per cent,
with 16 in. ram.
HYDRAULIC
APPARATUS
HYDRAULIC APPARATUS.
Apparatus is another name for machinery but it also carries
the particular meaning of a complete collection of instruments
or devices prepared for a particular use, hence, hydraulic
appvratus may be said to include very many combinations of
machines to utilize the pressure or weight of water.
A number of these devices are illustrated in the succeeding

pages. It were vain to attempt to describe all.
Knight in his Mechanical Dictionary has grouped some

six hundred and seventy five terms and names under the head-
ing of " Hydraulic Engineering and Devices." In the note
are given some terms, the definition of which the student may,
perhaps, look up thus Gyle (the first term given) is a large
; :
cistern or vat. The liquor gyle in a brewery is the water-vat or

gyle tun.
Hydraulic apparatus has been developed mainly from two

sources. The " cut and try " method, which of course was the
first and second from scientific calculations, based upon both
the experiments and upon the mathematics of hydraulics.
It is difficult at this date to say to which procedure the

Vv'orld is the most indebted, but it is plainly discernable that
the two methods have been necessary as a check upon each
other. Untold thousands of practical experiments and an
almost equal number of tables, rules and calculations have
been made. The result has been that out of many failures the
point of economy and efficiency, aimed at, of hydraulic appa-
ratus is well defined.
—
Note. Terms relating to hydraulics named by Edward Knight, H
Civil and Mechanical Engineer as above. Gyle; Slaice Valve The Sough.
,
Stade Worm-safe
; Weel Water-twist
; Water-Jute ; Water-gilding ; ;
;
Vineficatur Tun Tide-lock Tail-bag

; ; Swash-bank Sump Stop-plank;
, ; ; ,
Sterhydraulic apparatus Staith Rip-rap Qua}- Pufler Psychrometer

; ; ; ;
;
Levee ;
Leach
Learn Land tank
;
Kiddle
; Kimelm Keir Jetty ; ; ; ,
:
Invert Burette; Hydraulic Blower, etc. Some of these terms go "way

back," and the above are a specimen only of the 675 headings.
157
%?7ectat.
jCerer
a 71 vc hie.
Riser roi'i
Fig. 137.
'7 \ -i^
Cyl
Section of Claw Type HyopvAulic Jack,
— ;
Steam Fire Pumps. 159
HYDRAULIC JACK.
A Lifting-Jack is a contrivance for rais-
ing great weights by force from below
also called a jack-screw. From its derivation
^^_^ f^ from Jack', equivalent to lad or boy, has
p I arisen its modern use as denoting a contri-
vance which is subject to rough usage. It is
operated by a whereas a hydraulic
screzu,
Jack is a jack or lifting apparatus operated

by some liquid, usually oil, acting against a
piston or plunger, the pressure on the liquid
being produced by a force pump. The
hydraulic Jack consists of, i, a cylinder ; 2, a
ram or plunger; and 3, a pump. One of
these machines is shown and described in
the Glossary, page 24, another is illustrated
Fio i;w. by Fig. 1 38. The Fig. 137 on the opposite page
shows the inside view of Fig. 138 but on adif-
erent scale. The names of t lie parts are particularly to be noted.
Movable hydraulic, or screw, jacks serve on numerous
occasions most effectively for lifting or propping-up of less
accessible parts. Eye-bolts and jack-bolts are arranged for,
in all parts that are likely to be handled, to facilitate and accel-
erate the work in necessarily crowded quarters.
The base or foot is usually made of cast iron or cast steel and
may be either round or square to suit requirements. The
cylinder is bored from a seamless steel ingot and having a
thread upon its lower end is screwed into the base.
The ram is also a tube of seamless steel having a thread at
the top and is screwed into the head or cap which is made
either of cast iron or cast steel. The lower end of the ram has
a thread inside to receive the pump plug which contains the
delivery valve, while upon its outside is placed the cup leather
packing ard the ram packing ring. The pump for operating
the ram is from five-eighths to three-quarters of an inch in
diameter depending upon the capacity of the jack, and has a
plunger packed with a cup leather.
160 Pumps and Hydra2ilics.
A suction valve is contained within the plunger. A short

arm is fitted upon a socket which enters through the side of
the head or reservoir. This arm is connected by a pin to the
pump inside the ram while the outer end of the socket has
a tapered rectangular hole through it to receive the jack-lever.
A leather collar packing makes the socket tight where it enters
the side of the reservoir.
To properly use a Jiydraulic jack. Place the head under the
weight to be raised, be c. ireful to set the jack plumb with a
good solid footing; put the lever into the socket with its pro-
jection on the bottom side work the lever until the weight has
;
been raised to the desired height or an escape of liquid blows

out of tJie safety vent. Hold the lever up or raise it to its
highest position and remove it from the socket to prevent the

valve from opening. In lowering insert the lever in the socket
with the projection underneath and then cautiously press it
slowly down until it brings up against the stop; remove the

lever and turn it over with the projection on top ; insert the
lever in the socket and gently but firmly press on the end it
with the right hand clasping the ram with the fore finger, and
thumb of the left hand thus the workman has full control of
:
the jack and can lower and stop as frequently as may be found
necessary.
If from any cause the valves stick a few sharp quick strokes
of the lever will usually release it and cause it to work, if not,
it should be thoroughly cleaned.

Before shipping the brass filling screw should always be
screwed down tight, and before using this screw should always
be loosened to let the air out and in.
—
Note. A prominent firm making these tools says: "In our Jacks, rams
are cut and cylinders bored from solid high carbon steel. We have nearly 300
styles for pushing, pulling or lifting." This shows the wide use to which
hydraulic jacks are put the style shown in the Glossary with its broad base
;
is to be used when the jack stands upon a light board on the ground and
can be placed under the work, or where steadiness is required. Fig. 139
shows a scyle to be used when there is not room enough to get the head of
the jack under the work, and is the style generally used for moving engines,
builers, machinery, etc.
Steam Fire Pump:^. 161
In repairing Jiydraulic jacks the following points should be

carefully observed before attempting to repair a hydraulic jack
;
•the trouble should be definitely located, next:

Put the jack under a weight and attempt to raise it, care-
fully watching its action. Should the liquid leak out around
the lever socket, the gland should be tightened slightly until
this leak disappears. If the .packing is worn out unscrew the
setscrew at the back of the head about one-quarter inch, then
withdraw the socket not more than one inch, unscrew the gland
and put in a new packing
of lamp wick braided and well oiled
with mineral which is free from gum.
oil, Afterwards put the
socket back to its former place and tighten the set screw.
When the pump valve leaks the lever can be worked up
and down without raising the ram. This is also true when
the plunger packing becomes worn. If the trouble is found
with the valve it can be ground by takmg out the pump plug
and unscrewin<7 the brass bonnet which covers the valve.
Fia. 139.
Sometimes the jack will become air bound by reason of the

accumulation of dirt around the filling plug this must be ;
removed before the jack will work. Sometimes the liquid will
all have been displaced before the ram is half way up, in this
emergency the reservoir must be refilled. It often happens

that when the workman stjps working the lever it will persist
in This indicates the presence
rising to its highest position.
of dirtunder the lower or delivery valve. One or two sharp
quick strokes of the lever will generally dislodge such ob-
structions if this does not bring relief the valve is probably
;
worn so as to need regrinding. When a jack has been taken

apart each part should be thoroughly washed in clean water.
While using, if the liquid escapes over the top of the

cylinder the ram packing is too loose, and may be set out by
inserting a strip or strips of tin or any sheet metal between the
leatherand the ram packing ring all leathers should be kept
;
soft pliable by saturating with a proper leather dressing

and
such as Frank Miller's Leather Preservative or Shoemakers*
Dubbing. Castor Oil is excellent as well.
One man caii exert 7ifion the lever all the pressure that the
jack is capable of raising and this pressure should not exceed
150 lbs. Beyond this the jack will be strained.
To repack the pump remove the pump plug, and unscrew

the set screw in the head, then withdraw the socket far enough
to permit it to revolve clear of the lug, on the head, which
brings the piston head out of the pump.
After the new packing is in place the piston should be
worked in and out a few strokes to see if it is right, then re-
place the plug.
To fill the reservoir remove the filling screw in the top of

the head, and with a mixture of proof alcohol (95 per cent.),
fill
two parts and water three parts for winter use, or for summer
use one part alcohol to four parts water.
When not in use the ram in a hydraulic jack should be kept

in its lowest position, that is to say, all the way down, or in, as
the case may be.
—
Important. Jacks should never be filled with
kerosene oil, water or wood alcohol, for the following
reasons: Kerosene oil destroys the leather packing,

water will rust the parts and make them rough, while
wood alcohol attacks the smooth steel surfaces, and
thus destroys both the cylinder and ram. All liquids
should be well strained before putting them into the
reservoir and great care should be exercised to prevent
any dirt from [getting into this reservoir.
Hydraulic Apparatus. 103
The Pulling Jack.— 'Y\i<t pulling jack, Fig. 139, is used in

connection with travelling cranes over wheel presses, quarter-
ing machines, planers, drill presses and lathes. Its operation
is the reverse of lifting jacks.
This Jack has an improved force-pump on the outside,

worked by a lever, which draws the liquid from the upper end
and forces it into the space on the opposite side of the piston.
The piston rod has one of the rings attached at the end.
By this operation the rings are drawn together and with
them the body to be lifted or moved, for it will be understood
that this style of jack works either
in a horizontal or vertical position.
Hooks are furnished instead of
ringswhen desired.
The liquid is introduced into a
hole in the side of cylinder, care,
being observed to push the piston
into the cylinder.The proportions
of filling liquid are proof alcohol
two parts and water three parts.
To use this jack extend it as

far as it can be pulled apart, first
opening the valve in the side of

force-pump. Now close this valve
and work the pump lever.
This jack appeals particularly ^vi. 140.
to the marine engineer, to be at-

tached to the trolley over the engine for the purpose of
raising pistons, rods and lifting various parts of the machinery.
—
Horizontal Jack. The accompanying engraving. Fig. 140,
shows a horizontal type for pulling armatures on to shafts,
putting in cranks pins, and marine work. The directions given
for the care and handling of the regular hydraulic jack apply
also to this as well as other devices of the same description.
1C4 Pumps and HydraMlics.
This pump has two plungers of different diameters, the

small one inside of the large, so that by throwing a clutch,
both plungers may \\ox\i together as one, or they may be
separated, and the smaller one used ; as for example, in start-
ing, the larger pump is used as far as possible, i.e., until the
pressure becomes too great for the large plunger, then the
clutch is thrown and the smaller one finishes the work.
of this appliance may be changed to three times
The speed
greater, and its power reduced to one-third of the maximum
by throwing the clutch which brings the large plunger into
operation. A rack and pinion with handle is connected with
the main ram to cause its return when forced out to its full
length. The size shown in Fig. 140 represents a capacity of
200 tons and its approximate weight is 1,200 lbs.
—
Hydraulic Bolt Extractor. Much harm is done to
TJie
coupling bolts in driving them out with a hammer or sledge.
Em. ui.
The hydraulic bolt extractor shown in Fig. 141 is an admirable

device to do this work without injuring the bolts or threads.
This same apparatus may be used for other purposes as well as
that for which it was designed, as will appear from time to time.
Ilyd'-aulic Apparatus. 165
—
The Uydraulic Punch. The hydraulic punch has been
found of greatest utility in the erection of steel structures,
such as buildings, bridges and ship building. It consists of a
hydraulic jack attached to a "punching bear" instead of the
usual screw to operate the punch. By an
ingenious device the punch can be shoved
down close upon the work without pump-
ing all the way, as in the earlier styles of
hydraulic punches; this means a consider-
able saving of time and muscle.
The construction and operation of
working parts of this punch will be easily
understood by referring to the engraving,
Fig. 142 where 18 represents the body or
"punching bear," 17
the ram, 19 the rais-
ing and lowering pin-
ion to move the ram
quickly to work;
its
20 shows the die with

punch in place above
it, secured by its
gland 3 the punch
;
head cistern, the

screwed cover having
a hole in its center to
guide the end 2 of
pump plunger 9, hav-
ing cup leather pack-
ing 10, at its lower
FiQ.
end 5 represents the
;
142.
lower socket which
carries thearm 4 to operate the piston 6. The suction valve
II supported by the spring underneath; 12 is the safety
is
vent; 13 the release or lowering valve operated by the stem 7

which is pushed downward by the projection of the piston 6
whenever the lever is turned and pressed downwards as de
scribed in lowering the lifting jacks. The relief valve is kept

seated by the spring 14. 8 represents the body of the pump
16 its packing and 15 the ram packing ring. No. 16 does not
move, but the ram 17 does, having a cup leather reversed at its
upper end applied in the same way and manner as 16, with
screwed packing ring. The discharge valve is located behind
the pump plunger 9 and is, therefore, invisible.
A hydraulic piincJi mounted upon three legs or supports is
shown in and it also has a shackle at

Fig. 143, its back to
suspend the punch in mid air as occasion requires.
Fig. 143.
The details punch are like Fig. 142. It has two

of this
guards, one each side of the punch to pull the material operated
upon off the punch as it is raised by the lower lever. Another
very convenient style of hydraulic punch is shown in Fig. 144
where A represents the body of punch, B the operating lever
with the lowering or adjusting lever shown broken off. The
punch proper is shown at C. The center of gravity of this

punch has been so nicely located that by suspending from the
handle the ram hangs plumb.
Fig. 144.
H)8 Pumps a>i(i hydraulics.
Fig. 145.
THE HYDRAULIC PRESS.

The hydraulic press consists of
1. A Lever,
2. A Pump,
3. and a Ram working in a
4. Cylinder.
Bramah in the year 1796 brought out a very interesting

apparatus which illustrates the law of the equality of pressure
which has been widely adopted in the practical use of the
hydraulic press. The principle upon which
this press works is
due to Pascal but remained for Bramah to put it to pract'cal
it
use. Enormous pressures are developed by operating the ^, and

lever shown at J/ in Fig. 145, which is connected with pump
plunger P. The pump barrel A is very thick and receives its
supply from the cistern H through the suction pipe a.
Fig. 146.
Water is delivered from the pump A through a heavy lead

pipe into the cylinder B The ram P is
of the hydraulic press.
made tight by the leather packing // and has a table or plat-
form attached to its upper end as shown. The stationary part
Q consists of a heavy cast-iron plate supported by four
wrought-iron or machinery steel columns. By operating the
handle M of the pump any substances placed between the
table on the ram P and the plate Q may be compressed any '
")
reasonable extent.
^"^0 Pumps avd Hydraulics.
The pressure which can be obtained by this press depends

on the relation of the ram P to that of the plunger P. If the
former has a transverse section fifty or a hundred times as
large as the latter, the upward pressure on the ram will be
fifty or a hundred times that exerted upon the pump plunger.
1^\' means of the lever M
an additional advantage is obtained.
If the distance from the fulcrum to the point where the
power is applied is five times the distance from the fulcrum to

the plunger P the pressure on it will be five times the power.
Thus, if a man acts on M
with a force of sixty pounds, the
force transmitted by the plunger P will be 300 pounds, and the
force which tends to raise the ram will be 3,000, supposing the
section of ram is a hundred times that of the pump plunger.
Over-pressure, is prevented by safety-valve shown in front
of the pump A. Fig. 146 shows an enlarged section of the
pump used in connection with this press. When the plunger
/* rises a partial vacuum is formed below it and the suction valve
O rises allowing the pump barrel to fill with water through the
strainer and suction pipe in the cistern.
When the plunger descends the valve O closes and the water
passes through the d scharge valve Ji into the pipe K, thence
into the cylinder B of the press where it acts upon the ram.
When the press has done its work the ram may be lowered by
opening the relief valve r. The safety valve is shown at i.
By removing the plug h the discharge valve can be reached to
grind it in when necessary.
Note. — Hydraulic Pressure Transmission. Water under high pressure

—500 to 3000 lbs. per square inch and upwards— affords a very satisfactory
method power to a distance, especially for the movement of
of transmitting
heavy loads at small velocities, as liy cranes and elevators. The system con-
sists usual!}' of one or more pumps capaljle of developing the required pres-
sure ; accumulators, described on the next page 3, the distributing pipes,
2, ;
and the presses, cranes, or other machinery to be operated. This property

4,
of fluids invests us with a power of increasing the intensity' of a pressure
exerted by a comparativeh* small force, without any other limit than that of
the strrngth of the materials of which the engine itself is constructed. It
also enables us with great facility to transmit the motion and force of one
machine to another, in cases where local circumstances preclude the possi-
bility of in.stituting any ordinary mechanical connection between the two
machines. Thus, merely by means of water-pipes, the force of a machine
i.!:iy be transmitted to any distance, and over inequalities of ground, or
di ouv;h anv (;ther obstructions.

THE HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATCR.

This useful and indispcn-ablc apparatus was dcsi<^nctl by Sir
William Armstrong. Its use was to secure a uniform pressure
of water in a reservoir by weight so that however much or little
of this water was used the pressure would remain constant.
In the first accumulator which is still in
use the ram was attached to the foundation
while the cylinder rose and fell as the pres-
sure was The weights were annular
utilized.
in shape and were hung upon the outside of
cylinder. In the modern types of accumu-
lators the cylinder is stationary and the ram
i
supporting the" weights is made to rise and
fall.
By means of a hydraulic accumulator a

uniform pressure can be established and
maintained on all parts of a hydraulic main
or system.
The volume of water which is used inter-
mittently for the purpose of operating presses
— draw-benches for brass and copper tubing
and the like is replaced by a pump or pumps
which are started and stop-
ped automatically by a con-
nection between the accu-
mulator and the throttle or
M8t
-f belt shifter of the pump.
ClCVATIOh.
The accumulator is used for Pl*H AT BOTTOd
Fio, 147.
a double purpose of main- Fig. 148.
taining a constant pressure

and to store up any surplus force of the pumps. The friction
loss in the transmission of power by water through mains is
very small, as for example It has been found that water
:
under a pressure of yoo lbs. per square inch may be transmitted

through well proportioned mains, one mile with a loss of only
two per cent.
1
'^'
Pumps and Hydraulics.
The useful work stored in an accumulator may be calculated

by the following rule: Multiply the area of ram in square
inches by the length of the stroke in inches by the pressure in
pounds per square inch divided by
^^,000 lbs. the equivalent of one
H. P.
This represents the work done
by one full stroke of the accumu-
lator ram in descending from its
highest position to its lowest.
Example. Required the work
done by one stroke of a ram twelve
inches in diameter, and a stroke of
twenty-two feet, under a pressure
of 750 lbs. the square inch.
to
Area of 12 ram== 11 3.097 square
inches. No. of ins. in 22 ft.=264.
Then
1 3.097X264X750.
1
=678.582 H.P.
33.000
Mr. Tweddel designed the ac-
cumulator shown in Figs. 147 and
148 to furnish the varying demand
forwater where only one appliance
of this kind is used in connection
with a hydraulic system of shop
tools more especially where these
tools are numerous.
The ram or spindle A is fixed
top and bottom and acts as a guide
for the cylinder B
which slides up
and down upon it.
This cylinder is loaded with
weights marked to indicate the Fig. 149.
pressure which the accumulator

will balance with those weights in use. The water is pumped
into the bottom through the pipe C, and fills the annular space
Hydraulic Accumulators. 173
around the spindle. The entire weight of cylinder is raised b\-

the pressure of water acting only on the area of the end of
brass sleeve D, D, which is only \ inch thick all around the
center spindle, and extends down through the bottom packing
in cylinder, as shown in sectional view. Fig. 149.
A compact arrangement thus gained and any reason-
is
able, required cubical capacity may be reached by lengthening

the stroke.
The accumulator is supplied by two pumps having plungers
1
1" diam. by 3^" stroke, speed lOO to 120 rev. per minute.
When the loaded cylinder B reaches the top of its stroke,

by means of a small chain it closes the suction cock E, which
shuts off the water supply of the pumps.
To put in a new bottom packing, the cylinder is let down to
rest on the wooden blocks G, and the spindle is lifted out of
its tapered seat at the bottom by a tackle hooked into the eye-
bolt at the top. To renew the top leather the bracket holding
the top end of spindle A, has to be removed.
This accumulator (having only a small area) falls quickly
when the water is withdrawn, thus producing a combined blow
and squeeze, which is of great advantage in hydraulic riveting^
The Hydraulic Intensifier is a cylinder having two diameters,
in principle very like the tandem compound engine. It is

used for increasing the pressure of water in hydraulic mains,
pipes, or machines, using only the energy of the pressure water
to effect the change. But for this distinction a steam pump
would be an intensifier. An intensifier worked the reverse
way is a " diminisher " as a hydraulic pump usually is, giving
a reduced pressure.
The intejisifier is in some respects analogous to the electric
trayisformer.
The intensifier as used in connection with hydraulic apparatus

was patented in the year 1869 by Mr. Aschroft, but the prin-
ciple upon which it works is very much older. Intensifiers are
made both single and double acting.
174 Pumps and Hyd' aiilic:
rs
Hydraulic Accumulators. l*j
HYDRAULIC RAM.
A ram or zvatcr-ravi is a substitute for a pump
hydraulic
for raisingwater by means of the energy of the moving water,
of which a portion is to be raised. It was considered a notable
discovery when it was demonstrated by Daniel Bernovilli, in

the beginning of the i8th century, tliat zvatcr Jloxving through
a pipe, and arriving at a part in zvhich the pipe is suddenly
contracted, would have its velocity at first very greatly increased.
The hydraulic ram owes its efficacy to the fact that when
a flow of water in a pipe suddenly stopped, a considerable
is
force is generated by the momentum of the water, by its change

from a state of motion to a state of rest. In practice, the pipe
conveying water from the reservoir or head, connects with a
chamber which has a valve opening downward, or outlet valve,
allowing the current of water to pass on or escape when the valve
is open but on flowing the current in the pipe acquires sufficient
;
force to close this valve, which checks the flow in the pipe.
The current is thus suddenly stopped ; this causes a reaction,

which produces pressure open another valve
sufficient to
(inlet valve)between the current-pipe and an air chamber,
and a portion of water enters by means of the force of the
current, but by so doing the current has spent its force the ;
outlet valve at the end of the chamber falls by its own weight,
and the pressure in the pipe ceasing, the inlet valve in the
air-chamber falls and closes the opening. The condition of
things is then restored the water then acquires a momentum
;
which closes the outlet valve and forces more water again into
the chamber. A very slight descending column is capable of
raising one ascending very high. In all cases the drive-pipe
—
Note. In 1797 Matthew Boulton (manufacturer and practical engineer,
and in later life a partner of Jas. Watt, the Father of the steam engine) obtained
a patent for a mode of raising water by impulse. The apparatus had excited
much attention in France, under the name of Montgolfier^ s hydraulic ram,
and Boulton added to it a number of ingenious modifications, which were
the basis of his patent.
or inlet pipe must be sufficiently long to prevent water being

forced back into the reservoir. The air-chamber serves to keep
up a steady supply from the reservoir, preventing spasmodic
action. To prevent admixture of air with the water in the
air chamber, which is caused by pressure of water when raised
to a great height, a small hole should be made on the upper

side of the inlet pipe, immediately in front of the same. By
the action of the ram at each stroke, a partial vacuum is formed
below the air chamber, and the air rushing through the small
hole in the inlet pipe, passes into the air chamber, making good
that which the water absorbs.
Fig. T50 shows in section the construction of the ram in its

simplest form in
which E is the
reservoir, A the
pipe in which the
water falls, B the
channel, a and b
the valveSjC the air-
chamber.and D the
discharge. Water
first flows out in
quantity through
Fig. 150.
the valve a, and as
soon as has acquired a certain velocity it raises that valve,
it
closing the aperture. The impact thus produced, acting on

the sides of the pipe and the valve b, raises this valve, and a
quantity of water passes into the air-chamber shutting off aii
and compressing it in the space above the mouth d of the dis-
charge D. This air by its electric force closes the valve b, and
the water which has entered is raised in the discharge D.
As soon as the impulsive action is over, and the water in

the channel A comes to rest, the valve a again falls by its own
weight, the flow begins afresh, and when

has acquired suffi-
it
cient velocity the valve b again closes, and the whole process
is repeated.
; :
Hydraulic Apparahn. 17?
The efficiency of hydraulic rains has been much discussed;

exhaustive practical tests have been made and the results have
been reduced to formulas. Whittaker's Mechanical Engineer's
Pocket Book gives the following
E— gXhr—
where E = the eflficiency ;
G== gallons of drive water used ;
g = gallons of water raised ;
H= height of feet
fall, in
h = height to which the water is raised, in feet.
The Table given on page 1 74 is from the American Engineer.

Its use is apparent, thus: when the height of fall in feet is, say
12 feet, and the elevation of discharge above the delivery valve
of ram, in feet, is 30 feet, tJic efficiency or i)er cent., is .3282.
{Example) of 100 gallons Z"^^^^ gallons would be delivered.
The double hydraulic ram is shown in Fi;^. 151. A sectional
view of the same device is shown in Fig. 152, the cuts represent
the Rife hydraulic engine, or ram, —a so-c died double acting
or double supply type of the water ram. It more clearly
is
described by considering it, first, as a single machine by disre-

garding its double supply feature.
First, suppose the opening at H, Fig. 152, to be closed, the
valve B being open, the water from the source of supply from
more or less elevation above the machine flows down the drive
pipe. A, and escapes through the opening at B until the pres-
sure due to the increasing velocity of the water is sufificient to
close the valve, B. When the flow through this valve ceases,
the inertia of the moving column of water produces a reaction,
called the ramming stroke, which opens the valve at C, and
compresses the air in the air cham.ber, D, until the pressure of
the air plus the pressure due to the head of the water in the
main, is sufificientovercome the inertia of tlie moving column
to
of water in the drive pipe. This motion may be likened to the
oscillation of water in a \J shaped tube. The instant the column
of water in the drive pipe com.cs to rest, and the air pressure
being greater than the head alone, the motion of the

static
moving column is The water
reversed, and the valve, Cy closes.
in the drive pipe then moves backward, and with the closing
of valve C a partial vacuum is formed
at the base of the drive pipe. Tliis
negative pressure causes the valve,
B, to open again, and completes the
cycle of operations. At the moment
negative pressure appears the little
snifting valve, E, admits a small

quantity of air, and at the following
stroke this air rises into the air
chamber D, which would otherwise

gradually fill with water, or the air
is gradually absorbed by the water.

In this machine the valve, B, is
made as light as is consistent with the

necessar}' strength, and the negative
pressure at the completion of the
stroke opens the valve. In the
Fig. 151. largest size of these machines this
valve is i8 inches in diameter, with
a head of 8 feet, which is a common head for use with hydraulic
rams the static pressure on the under side of
; this valve is 883
pounds it is seen that so great a shock in a
;
valve of this weight would rapidly destroy

both valve and seat.
The waste in a
mechanism of the
Rife engine con-
sists of a large port
with ample open-
ing and a large
Fig. 152.
rubber valve or
overflow with a balance counterweight and spring seat, which
removes almost entirely the jar of closing. The valve, C, in
the air chamber consists of a rubber disc with gridiron port.s
fi ti'aulic Apparatus. 179
and convex seats fastened at the center and lip? around its
circumference. The object of this arrangement is to transfer
the shock from the power of the driving water to the air
cushion with the smallest possible friction and vibration.
After the valve, C, closes, the pressure in the air chamber

forces the water in the air chamber out into the delivery pipes.
The Rife engine is claimed to elevate water 30 feet for each
foot of fall in the driving head ; the machine is built in sizes to
elevate as much as 150,000 gallons per day, the efficiency being
about 82 per cent.
When a water supply pipe is attached to H, the engine is
called double acting; spring water, or that which is purer than

the water used to drive the engine, may then be supplied
through the supplemental drive pipe /, and by a proper adjust-
ment of the relative flow of the impure driving water, and that
of the pure supply, the engine may be made to deliver only
the pure water into the mains. This method is employed
where the supply of pure water is limited.
The most important detail in which the Rife engine differs
from the ordinary hydraulic ram is tJic waste valve. It will be
seen in the engraving that the counterweight on the-projecting
arm of this valve permits the adjustment of this valve to suit
varying heads and lengths of drive pipe. By adjusting the
counterweight so that the valve is nearly balanced, the valve
comes to its seat very quickly after the flow past it begins.
The result is that^ the ram makes a great number of short,
quick strokes, which nre muchon the valves and seats
easier
than slower and heavier strokes. The stroke must be suf-
ficiently powerful to act efficiently in overcoming the head in
the delivery pipe. The adjustable weight permits this to be
effected with great nicety.
Note. —The engine illustrated weighs approximately

2,800 pounds the ;
capacity of the air chamber is 20^ diameter of drive pipe, 8

cubic feet ;
inches diameter of the waste valve, 18 inches weight of waste valve, 50

; ;
pounds diameter of delivery pipe, 4 inches height to top of air chamber,

; ;
V/z feet.
Lifts and These, as hydraulic machines, are

Cranes.
adapted to very many places where other power apparatus is
too slow they operate on the same principle as the hydraulic
;
press having a cylinder and a

;
ram they have chain wheels

:
attached to the outer end of the

ram, as shown in the illustration.
As the ram advances the
chain is shortened and when it
recedes the chain is
lengthened, thus, the

weight attached to
the end of the chain
is raised and lowered.
The hydraulic "lift"
in passenger elevators
operates upon the
same principle and
this gives an idea of the rapid motion capable of being imparted
to the load. It is by the adaptation of hydraulic lifts and cranes
in steel mills that such economical results have been attained.

PUMPS AS HYDRAULIC APPARATUS.

In Figs. [53 ;ind 134 are shown representations of certain
apparatus, long used in schools, to explain the rather obscure
operation, of cytn the simplest of pumps ; these models are
made of glass so that all the movements of the valves, etc.,
may be clearly noted. Credit is due to Monsieur Ganot,
author of Elements of Physics, for the following.
Fig. jyj represents a model of a siietion-ptiinp such as is used

in lectures, but which has essentially the same arrangement as
the pumps in common use. It
consists, 1st, of a glass e\ Under,

B, at the bottom of which is a
valve, S, opening upwards 2nd, ;
of a sHctio7i-tube, A, which aips

into the reservoir from which
water is to be raised 3rd, of a;
piston., which is m<ived up and
down by a rod worked by a

handle, P. The piston has a
hole in its center; this upper
aperture is closed by a valve, O
o[)ening upwards.
When the piston rises from

the bottom of the cylinder B,
a vacuum is produced below,
and the valve O is kept closed
by the atmospheric pressure,
while the air in the pipe A, in
consequence of its elasticity,
Fio. 153.
raises the valve S, and part of it
passes mto the cylinder. The air being thus rarefied, water
rises in the pipe until the pressure of the liquid column, to-
gether with the pressure <>f the rarefied air which remains in
the tube, counterbalances the pressure of the atmosphere on
the water in the reservoir
182 Pumps and Hycii aulies.
When the piston descends, the valve S closes by its own

weight, and prevents the return of the air from the cylinder
into the tube A. The air compressed by the piston opens the
valve O, and escapes into the atmosphere by the pipe C. With
a second stroke, the same series of phenomena is produced,
until after afew strokes the water reaches the cylinder. The
effect is now somewhat modified ;during the descent of the
piston the valve S closes, and the water raises the valve O, and
passes above the piston by which it is lifted into the upper
reservoir D. There is now no more air in the pump, and the
water forced by the atmospheric pressure rises with the piston,
provided that when
it is at the summit
of its course it is
not more than 34

feet above the level
of the water into
which the tube A
dips.
hi practice the
height of the tube A
does not exceed 26
to 28 feet; for al-
though the atmos-

pheric pressure can
support a higher
column, the vacu-
um produced in
the barrel is not
perfect, owing to
the fact that the
Fig. 154.
piston does not fit
exactly on the bot-

tom of the barrel. But when the water has passed the piston,
the ascending force of the latter which raises it, and the
it is
height to which it can be brought depends on the power which

works the piston.
The action of this pump, a model of which is represented in

Fig. 154, depends both on exhaustion and on pressure. At the
base of the barrel, where it is connected with the tube A, there-
is a valve, S, which opens upwards. Another valve, O, open-

ing in the same direction, closes the aperture of a conduit,
which discharges from a hole, o, near the valve S, into a vessel,
M, w hich is called the air-chamber. From this chamber there
is another tube, D, up which the water is forced.
At each ascent of the piston B, which is solid, the watei
rises through the tube A into the barrel. When the pistoi;
sinks the valve S closes, the water is forced through the valve
O into the reservoir M, and thence into the tube D. The
height to which it can be elevated in this tube depends solely
on the motive power which works the pump.
If the tube D were a prolongation of the tube ]ao, the flow
would be intermittent it would take place when the piston
;
descended, and would cease as soon as it ascended. But

between these motions there is an interval, which, by means
of the air in the reservoir M, ensures a continuous flow. The
water forced into the reservoir M
separates into two parts, one
of which, rising in D, presses on the water in the reservoir by-
its weight while the other, by virtue of this pressure, rises in
;
the reservoir above the lower orifice of the tube D, compress-

ing the air above. Consequently, when the piston ascends, it no
longer forces the water into M, the air of the reservoir, by the pres-
sure it has received, reacts on the liquid, and raises it in the tuber
D, until the piston again descends, so that the jet is continuous.
Hydraulic Machine Tools. Probably in no department of
engineering has the use of hydraulic power met with more
success than in its application to certain machine tools. This
success is owing to the peculiar suitability of pressure water —
as the motive agent performance of a certain class of
for the
operations requiring the exertion of a great force with compara-
tive slow motion, as in punching, riveting, forging and the like.
The wide spread and successful use of hydraulic machines
— of which a few only have been described and illustrated upon
—
the pages of this book is due to the necessity for such tools
7KVii\ ihr inventive -'bility of our tool designers.
Ji large fixed hydraulic riveter is shown in Fig. below; it is
capable of exerting on the rivet a pressure of 40 tons or more

the machine has a icorking pressure of 1,500 pounds per square
inch. Working pressures of 5,000 to 10,000 pounds per square
inch are used in hydraulic forging presses, but in the riveter
much less pressure is required.
—
Note. The proportions of t±iis machiue are immense. The platform
weighs 22,500 lbs. and is operated by a single lever shown in the side view.
The '"â/" is 8 feet across. The machine has a large steel '^stake^^ carrying
the stationary die ;this is held in tension strain by the two steel bolts
shown, one upon each side of the machine. The other part of the jaw is
east Ircn.
Fig. 135—The Bellows Pump.
: :
CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS AND PUMPING

ENGINES.
The simplest division of the subject matter relating to this

branch of practical mechanics is that which goes back to th(
very earliest of times ; it is thus :
1. Hand Pumps.
2. Power Pumps.
The names indicate the dividing line between the two. The
following are more modern divisions, indicating the method of
action distinguishing each

1. Suction or Lift Pumps.
2. Force Pumps.
3. Suction and Force Pumps.
These again may be reciprocating or rotary. The powers
actuating pumps are, in the main, as follows:
1. Manual. 5. Wind.
2. Animal. 6. Steam.
3. Belts. 7. Gas.
4. Water. 8. Electricity.
These various motors give distinct names to general classes,
thus, electric pumps, belt pumps, elevator pumps, etc. A sub-

division of titles indicating differences in construction are
these
1. Vertical Pumps.
2. Horizontal Pumps, or again
1. Single Acting Pumps.
2. Double Acting Pumps.
The list is still further extended, as pumps vary in design to
suit their several uses, and are defined as rope, chain, diaphragm,
187
jet, centrifugal, rotary, oscillating, cylinder. It is with the last
named with which this volume has principally to deal; cylinder

pumps cause the last given classification, as they are either sin-
gle or double acting.
A single acting pump does its work through one end of the
cylinder or barrel of the pump.
In double acting pumps the motion of the piston in one

direction causes an inflow of water, and a discharge at the same
time, in the other ; and on the return stroke this action is re-
newed as the discharge end alternately becomes the suction

end ; the pump is thus double acting.
Finally pumps may be classified with reference to particular

uses to which they are specifically adapted by their form and
the materials they are required to handle.
Pumps now raise, convey and deliver beer, molasses, acids,
and melted asphalt. They also handle such gases

oils, as air,
ammonia, lighting gas and even oxygen.
In the orderly progress of the contents of the volume, it
will be seen that the main subject, occupying many pages

that relating to " Steam pumps " those
with illustrations, is ;
having a steam-end and a water-end and which consist of

pump and steam-motor combined. An interesting class under
Vacuum-pumps will be found, i, the combined vacuum and
feed ; 2, the C(jinbincd vacuum aiul ciiculaiing and, 3, the com-
bined vacuum and refrigerating pumps.
Under Pumping Engines and the Steam Fire Engine will
be found a description of the most brilliant and fascinating of

modern scientific and mechanical achievements; these two
sections relate to hydraulic engineering in its highest develop,
ment.
)
HAND PUMPS.
The theoretical action of z. pump has already been described
ind illustrated ; — the practical operation is described in the
note below. The subject is important
enough to justify the space it takes to
present two descriptions of the
these
action of a pump.
The parts of which a pump is composed
arc : i, tlie barrel or cylinder; 2, t lie plunger
or piston; 3, t/ic 7'alzrs; 4, the pipes.

The barrel of a modern pump is a tube
of metal having a water tight plunger or
piston which moves freely up and down at
the pleasure of the operator. This plunger
is in its simplest form made of cast iron in
two parts. The upper part consists of an
arched part having a hole in its center to
receive a bolt which passes through
it and
IG.1: loH. on thea jaw

lower end of the pitman
or connecting rod. The upper end of
this pitman is attached to the pump handle by means of a bolt.
The inside of the upper part of the plunger is threaded to
receive the lower part with a cup leather packing and contains
a valve of metal having a conical seat. Fig. 1 56 shows a design
of a pump in common use in the 14th century.
—
Note. The action of a pn:np is as follows The piston or plunder :
by moving to one end, or out of the pump cylinrler, leaves the space it
occupied, or passed through, to be filled by somethinir. As there is little
or no air therein a partial vacuum is formed unless the supply to the pump
is of sufficient force to follow the piston or plunger of its own accord. If this
isnot the case, however, as it is from which the pump
when the water level
obtains its supply is below the pump itself, there being a partial vacuum
produced, the atmospheric pressure forces the water into the space displaced
by the plunger or piston, continuing its flow until the end of stroke is reached.
The water then ceases to flow in, and the suction valve of the pump
closes, forbidding the water flowing beck the route it came. The piston
or plunger then begins to return into the space it has just vacated, and
which has become filled with water, and immediately meets with a resist-
ance which would be insurmountable were the water not allowed to go
somewhere. (See next page.
189
190 Ptunps and Hydraulics.
Between the upper and lower parts of the plunger a cup

leather introduced before these parts are screwed together.
is
This cup leather, while it allows the plunger to move freely,

.ilso makes a water-tight joint.
The lower valve consists of a piece of cast-iron flat on the
bottom and circular in shape about three-eighths inch thick
Fig. 157.
with a curved toe at one side. This iron disc is secured to the
flat leather valve by a screw that passes through the valve and
is threaded in the disc.

The object of this toe upon the disc is to open the lower
valve by means of raising the pump handle as far asit will go
which lowers the plunger upon the toe and tips the lower
valve upon its seat. This same operation also lifts the valve
in the plunger off its seat, so that all the water in the barrel
drains back into the well so the pump is kept from freezing up
in winter.
Its only egress is by raising the discharge valve by its own pressure,
and passing out through it. This discharge valve is in a pipe leading to the
boiler, and in going out of the cylinder by that route the water must over-
come boiler pressure and its own friction along the passages. Water is
inert and cannot act of itself; so it must derive this power to flow into the
feed pipe and boiler from the steam acting upon the steam piston of the
pump. The steam piston and pump piston are at the two ends of the same
rod. Therefore the steam pressure exerted upon the steam piston will be
exerted upon the pump piston du*"ct>
Hand Pumps. 191
The leather which forms the lower valve

is held in place by clamping the pump
barrel upon it, so that it is held between
the barrel and the base plate.
Hand pumps are primarily divided in-
to : I, suction or lift pumps; 2, force
pumps, and 3, suction and forcing pumps;
4. also pumps for exhausting air from
vessels.
Of the first class, the common single-
acting house-pumps shown in Figs. 157 and
158 are examples; the pumps are simply
modifications of the suction-pump a ^'°- ^^•
;
common form of lift-pump has a pitman-rod

which pushes the water up instead of lifting
it through a spout at or near the top of the
cylinder.
The details of the suction-pump are as
follows — at thebottom of the cylinder is a
pipe communicating with the liquid to be
raised, and a valve which opens from be-
neath. A similar valve is placed in the
piston.
A
force-pump is shown in Fig. 159 from ;
the two figures the difference between the

lift and the force-pump may be understood;
while the former raises the liquid above its
piston from which it flows under no pressure,

the latter forces it out of the barrel under
a varying pressure which depends upon cir-
cumstances. When the piston rises the suc-

tion valve opens, and the valve in the piston
closes by the air-pressure. The liquid then
enters the barrel beneath the piston. On the
descending stroke the suction valve closes,
and the liquid flows upward into the dis-
FiG. ISO. charge pipe.
192 Pumps and Hydratilics.
is shown an air-chamber attached to a force-

In Fig. i6o
pump purpose of preventing shocks in the discharge,
for the
and for producing a steady flow air-chambers are also fre-
;
quently attached to suction pipes for a similar purpose.

According to the underlying principles of action thus
far explained hundreds of thousands of pumps have been
constructed and operated.
It beyond the limits of
is
thisvolume — or any single

book to give the names and
details of these so-called
"hand-pumps," however,
three approved styles are
shown in Figs i6i, 162, 163.
Fig. 161 represents a
double acting ûnip
force
used extensively on ship-
board, wharves, around fac-
tories, mills, etc., and in resi-
dences, for tank pumping.
On ships these pumps per-
form the three-fold purpose
of filling boilers when cold,
washing down decks and to
Fig. 160.
satisfy government inspec-
tion as to fire protection ; in
service in mines they are unaffected by mine water, the work-
ing parts being made non-corrosive. It is claimed that a thiee-
inch diameter cylinder with a stroke of four and a half inches
with a i:i-inch suction pipe and i-inch discharge pipe will lift
and force water 150 ft. high and has a capacity of .28 gallons
for each stroke, with the water not more than twenty-five feet^
below the pump.
Fig. 162 represents a two cylinder force pump; this has
vertical single acting pistons actuated by one lever, producing
the same results as a double-acting pump. It is claimed that
the total lift and force, from supply to point of delivery, with
Hand Pumps. 103
the pump not more than twenty-five feet above water will
attain one hundred feet; that a 3-inch x 4 inch cylinder, i^-
inch suction and i^-inch discharge will deliver .24 gallons oi
water for each stroke.
Fig. 163 represents a widely used type of suction pump ,
it is designed for vessels of not more than fifteen to twentv
feet deep for contractors who wish to pump large quanti-

;
ties of water from excavations,

etc. ;for irrigation or any other
purpose where a compact and
capacious pump is desired.
The may be worked
lever
from three different points as
shown by lugs on the illustra-
tion. The lever socket is made
at such an angle that the bent
wrought iron lever when put in
one side up, is right for ordinary
pumping and by simply chan-
ging it the other side up, it be-
comes a vertical lever. The
valves are accessible and re-
movable by hand from above.
It is claimed that with 8^-in.
diameter cylinder and 6-in.
stroke that the capacity is lyYvi

gallons for each stroke, with 20
feet lift — the suction pipe being
3-in. in diameter. fig. lei.
In the illustrations (Figs. 161 and 162) it will be noticed

that the discharge is conveniently arranged to receive either
fire hose, or iron pipe connections for other uses, as in mines
and on ship-board.
Being 7nade 1)1 large factories, there are immense numbers
in world-wiue use; every detail of these pumps is carefully
considered the sizes manufactured range from 2 inches to C^
;
inches diameter of cylinders, with strokes 4. a\ and. 5 inches.

The capacity of each pump is also given in the pubHshed

listsby the makers this is given under the heading "Capacity
;
per Revolution" viîth the added information as to the best

sizes to be used for the suction and discharge pipes.
Fig. 163.
Note. — It were well for the student to know that in case of breakage or
worn out parts of an otherwise serviceable apparatus that the makers have
provid(d /or theirn pairs as w'xWhe mdxcaicil by the following taken from
the catalogue of a well known manufacturer. "In the following lists will
be found descriptions of pieces for all the staple pumps, which will prove of
decided convenience. In this connection we desire to impress most em-
phatically on the minds of dealers that the threads are cut to exact and
accurate gauges; all holes in flanges, etc., drilled to templets all castings
;
made from exact metal patterns, similar parts being always the same.
Therefore, repairs will invariably take the place of the broken parts."
Hand Pumps. 195
Fig. i6j represents a Pitcher Spout Pump, of large size
for contractors, and Fig. 164 the parts of a common house

pump. The two figures show pumps substantially the same.
The smallest size "listed" of this pump has a cylinder diam-
eter of 2\ inches, fitted with i^ in, pipe and it has a capacity
of .09 gal. per stroke and it takes more
than eleven strokes to pump a single
gallon. With a cylinder 4^ inches,
with pipe i^ in. diam., the pump
has a capacity of .34 gal. per stroke.
Fio. 163. Flu. lUl.
-
The engraving 164 shows a pitcher pump dissected, in which
A represents the lever or handle, B the plunger which contains
the discharge valve and is made tight by a cup leather pack-
ing, C is the fulcrum for the lever, D the barrel or cylinder, E
the lower or suction valve, F the base which supports the
pump. The leather which forms the valve E also makes the
joint between the cylinder and the base.
196 r ps
It'll and Iiydrnulics.
Fig. 165 represents a Tivo-Cylinder Suction and Force Pump

arranged with extension levers. When these levers are put in
place, they afford room for a large force of men to work, and
renders this pump a most powerful engine for throwing water
on fires, or supplying it for many uses about factories, ware-
houses, wharves, etc.
The discharge hose can be fitted both ends for wrought-iron

pipe or either end for hose.The Table below gives the makers'
numbers, the diameter of the cylinders, etc., and also the
distance to which the water can be lifted or forced.
Fig, Itio.
TABLE OF SIZES, CAPACITIES, ETC.
No.
Hand Pumps. in?
Fig. 66 represents a hand, rotary force pump provided with

1
A balance wheel. A
sectional view of this pump is given
in Fig. 167; these pumps are adapted for almost any place
or purpose where lift or force pumps can be used, they can be

moved to any place where water is within suction distance and
immediately upciaLed.
The provision of a foot
valve at the end of the
suction pipe will keep it
always filled.
In the rotary pump there

are no pistons. As will be
seen in the Fig. 167, there
are two pinions of extremely
coarse pitch meshing into one
another with neat fit in the
case; the joints become prac-
tically air-tight by the water
which surrounds them and
passes through the case.
Both pinions are sup-
ported by a journal at each
end, the shaft of one being
extended to receive a pulley
or hand wheel as shown in FlO. 166.
Fig. 166, hence, one pinion

xauses the other to revolve. The teeth on the bottom side of the
pinions move away from each other and
form a partial vacuum which the water
fills and is carried around between the
teeth of the pinions on opposite sides

and is discharged through a central open-
ing in the case at the top, thence through
the discharge pipe into the tank or
FlQ. 107.
reservoir.
In the small sizes of the rotary pump there is no trouble from
leakage, until the parts become much worn.
198 P^ln^ps and Hydraulics.
Bag Pump. This is a form of bellows-pump

in which the valve disc A, which takes the
place of the bucket, is connected with the
base of the barrel by an elastic bag distended
at intervals by rings. This bag maybe made
of leather or of double canvas. The upper
end of the bag should be firmly tied with a
cord in a groove gouged out of the rim of the
board at A. Into this board is fixed the
fork of the piston rod, and the bag is kept dis-
tended by a number of wooden hoops or rings
of wire, fixed to it at a few inches distance from
one another, and kept at equal distances by
Fig. 168.
three or four cords binding them together and
stretching from the top to the bottom of the
bag. Now let this trunk be immersed in the water: it is
evident that if the bag be stretched from the compressed form
which its own weight will give it by drawing up the piston rod,
its capacity will be enlarged, the valve A will be shut by its
own weight, the air in the

bag will be rarefied, and the
atmosphere will press the
water into the bag. When
the rod is thrust down again,
the water will come out at
the valve A, and fill part of
the trunk. A repetition of
the operation will have a sim-
ilar effect the trunk will
;
be filled, and the water will
at last be discharged at the

spout.
Bellows-pujHp (Page i86).
This is an atmospheric pump
in which the part of the
piston is played by the top
leaf of the bellows. A very fig. 169.
Hand Pumps. 105
simple method of describing an invention, from which great

good in drainage of waste lands in Europe, was realized. "There
was of course a valve covering the interior orifice of the nozzle
and opening outwards, to prevent the air from entering when
the upper board was raised. This valve is not shown because
the art of representing the in-
terior of machines by section,

was not then understood, or not
practiced. The lower board is
fastened to the ground by a

platform while the suction pipe
dips into the water. A weight
is placed on the upper board to
assist in expelling the water."
Fig. 169 represents a Double
Lanter)i Bellows-Ptimp as used
in the i6th century. This en-
graving is plain and requires no
description. Fig. 170 shows a
diaphragm pump in which a
sheet of rubber or its equivalent
Fig. 170. is used as a substitute for a
piston in a cylinder.
Note. —When an ox or a horse plunges his mouth into a stream, he dilates
his chest and the atmosphere forces the liquid up into his stomach precisely
as up the pipe of a pump. It is indeed in imitation of these natural pumps
that water is raised in artificial ones. The thorax is the pump; the muscular
energy of the animal, the power that works it; the throat is the pipe, the
lower orifice of which is the mouth, and which he must necessarily insert
into the liquid he thus pumps into his stomach. The capacious chest of the
tall camel, or of the still taller cameleopard or giraffe, whose head some-
times moves twenty feet from the ground, is a large bellows-pump which
raises water through the long channel or pipe in his neck. The elephant by
a similar pneumatic apparatus, elevates the liquid through that flexible
"suction pipe," his proboscis; and those nimble engineers, the common
house-flies, raise it through their minikin trunks in the manner of the gi-
gantic animals which in remote ages roamed over this planet, and which
quenched their thirst as the ox does. There could have been none which
stood so high as to have their stomachs thirty feet above the water they thus
raised into them.
Rope Pump. This machine consists of one or more endless

ropes, all stretched on two pulleys as
shown in Figs. 171 and 172.
These pulleys have grooves formed in their surfaces for the re-
ception of the ropes. A rapid rotary motion is communicated to
the upper pulley, by a multiplying wheel, and the ascending
side of each rope carries up the water absorbed by it, and
which is separated from
while passing over the upper pulley,
it
partly by centrifugal force, and partly by being squeezed in

the deep groove.
In the beginning of
the motion, the column
of water adhering to the
rope, is always less than
when it has been worked

for some time, and con-
tinues to increase till
the surrounding air par-

takes of its motion. By
the utmost efforts of a
man, nine gallons of
water were raised by one
of these machines from
a well, ninety-five feet
deep, in one minute.
{Adams Philos.)
The hydraulic belt is
a similar contrivance.
It is an endless double Fig. 171. Fig. 172.
band woolen
of cloth,
passing over two rollers, not here shown. It is driven with a
velocity of not less than a thousand feet per minute; when the
water contained between the two surfaces is carried up and dis-
charged as it passes over the upper roller, by the pressure of
the band. Some machines of this kind are stated to have pro-
duced an effect equal to seventy-five per cent, of the power
expended, while that of ordinary pumps seldonn exceeds sixty
per cent. {Loti. Mecha?i. Mag.)
Hand Pumps. 201
Spray Pump. Fig. 173 exhibits a carefully designed pamp

made to spray trees, plants, etc. All the working parts are of
brass, the vâlves are metal ; the air chamber is made of gal-
vanized iron or copper and has large capacity. It will hokl
sufficient compressed air to keep the spray going from six
to ten minutes after the pumping stops. The "agitators"
are placed so that they keep thoroughly stirred.
the liquid
The plungers can be easily removed and packed without the
necessity of taking the pump to a shop.
The pump is fastened to the bottom of the barrel by a bolt
passing through the barrel and secured by a nut underneath,
^ with packing to prevent
;^J^|~^1
^^=SB^» leakage, and by an iron
'i^V
plate at the top covering

the opening through which
the pump is placed in the
barrel. This pump is ar-
ranged with one, or two
levers, and for one or two
lines of discharge hose.
The cylinders arc 2\
inches diameter with stroke
3 inches; its capacity per
stroke is 0.13 gal.
Combined Pump and
Horse Poiver. The " horse
Fia. 173. power" (apparatus) with
for one horse its " pole "
and two poles for two horses and its wrought iron "tumbling
shaft " has been so modified that a horse operates the pump,
by means of a " sweep, " direct connected to the pump crank
shaft.
The animal will make three to four circuits per minute,
giving the pump
crank shaft a speed of 40 to 50 revolutions per
minute. The capacity of a 4 in. plunger and 8 in. stroke is
given as 3.120 per gallons per hour; the suction pipe is given
?.i 3.J ''n dia.'^ and the discharge as 3 in. pipe.
DRIVEN OR TUBE WELLS.

Aside from the wells described on page 45 and those follow-
ing it, there are wells made by forcing iron tubing down into
the earth until a water supply is reached. Within reasonable
Fia. 175.
t^
Ftg. 176.
distances and in a remarkably large proportion, these pipe wells

are directly connected with the suction part of hand pumps.
—
Note. "Wheu a well fails to yield a fair amount of oil or water, an
increase in the flow is often effected by means of the Roberts torpedo. This
is a thin water-tight cylinder of metal or paper, 4 to 6 ft. long and 2 or 3 in.
in diameter, charged with powder, gun-cotton or nitro-glycerine. It is
lowered to the bottom of the well, or to a deptli that will bring it opposite
the desired stratum, and the Avell is then flooded. The charge is exploded
hy a cap or electric spark, and the explosion often clears away the ob-
struction from the oil or water vein. This applies particularly to deep wells."
Hand Pumps. 203
To this class also belong the famous oil and artesian wells which
penetrate through earth and rock thousands of feet, many of
them operated by power pumping machines.
The process of driving tube-wells resembles pile-
driving, but with this distinction, that while piles receive
Fio. 176. the blows of the " monkey " on their heads, the
tubes are not struck at all, the blow being
communicated by the clamp, which receives the blow
near the ground. The tube-well, as in ordinary use, is
not intended for piercing rock or solid formations, but

is quite capable of penetrating very hard and compact
soils, and can be also successfully driven through chalk,
breaking through the flints which may obstruct its
passage downward. When solid masses of

rock or stone are reached, special means of
drilling have to be provided for it. When
coming upon rock or stone, the best plan is
to pull up the tube and try in another spot.
Fig. 177.
This applies also when deep beds of clay are
driven into; for, by going a little distance
ofl, and testing again, in many cases water will be found.
The operation is as follows: The first or pioneer
tube, shown in Fig 175 is furnished with a steel point
of bulbous form, and perforated with holes varying
from one-eighth to an inch, extending from 15 in. to
3 ft. from the point. Fig. 178. The enlargement of the
point serves to clear a passage for the couplings by which
the tubes are screwed together. On this tube the
clamp Fig. 176 is held about 3 ft. from the point by
two bolts; the clamp is of wrought iron with steel Fig.178.
bushing screwed internally so as to form teeth to grip the tube.
Fio. 179
Next, the cast-iron driving-weight or niunkv.y is slipped (jn to

the tube above the clamp. The monkey is operated \vith ropes.
204 Pumps and Hydratilics.
Sucker-Rod Coiiplmgs. These couplings are usually made

of iron galvanizedand are used to connect the ends of wooden
sucker rods for deep well pumps. Each half of coupling is
secured to the end of wooden rods by three bolts; the ends of
the couplings are joined by male and female threads in the
usual way.
Either bolts or rivets may be used to attach the rods to
the couplings, (See Fig. 179.)
POINTS FOR ERECTING AND OPERATING

HAND PUMPS.
Fotindation — For the smaller sizes a foundation is not neces-
sary, other than a good floor. With the large sizes it is advis-
able to have a substantial foundation. Con-
crete, well rammed into place, surmounted
by a capstone, is as good as any. The found-
ation allows the pump to be run at a higher
speed ; a plan showing location of bolt-holes,
position of flanges, and general dimensions,
so that there may be no delay in setting
the pump upon arrival at its destination.
Suction Pipe — The suction pipe should be as short and

direct as possible, avoiding all turns not necessary. Place a
strainer and foot-valve, Fig. iSo, on the suction pipe. It is
better for the pump to have a slight suction except when hot
water is pumped, than to supply the water to the pump under
a slight head.
Discharge Pipe — Make the discharge piping as straight as

possible, using long bends.
Packing — The stuffing boxes should be carefully packed and

the gland brought up firmly against the packing; screwing up
the gland by hand should be sufficient.
Large sizes of suction and discharge pipe are desirable, be-
cause the friction of the water in the pipes thus reduced makes
the pump Avork easier.
— ;
POWER DRIVEN PUMPS.

By a poxuer-drivcn pum(^ is meant one actuated by Belt,
Rope-transmission, Gear, Shafting, Electric-motor, Water-
wheel, Friction, or by direct connection to a power shaft. It
thus becomes very frequently a question which apparatus is
most desirable.
These are classified, thus

I. Single power pumps,
2. Duplex power pumps,
3. Triplex (tripple) power pumps,
4. Quadrui)Icx, etc. Where the sizes still
further increase they arc nained from the number of barrels or

water cylinders, but when of much larger size than the Triplex
they come under the classification of pumping engines.
Where power can be had from a shaft in motion there is no
pump so economical as the power or belt driven pump. This
fact is shown by the rapid increase in the number of applica-
tions of this type of pump : the reduced cost of manufacture in
making the teeth of the gear wheels, the use of automatic ma-
chinery, the production of interchangeable parts have tended
to produce a high grade of machine at an attractive price.
The energy expended in operating the power driven pump
isobtained at the same economy as that required by the ma-
chinery in the mill or factory, and as a modern automatic cutoff
engine will develop a horse power with considerable less stean.
than the direct acting steam pump the cost of the power re-
quired by the power driven pump is correspondingly less
it participates in the economy of the steam engine using from
one and a half pounds of coal to five or six pounds per H, P.
per hour.
For this reason the power driven pump is oftentimes the
more economical, and especially where shafting is adjacent to
the location of the pump, or can be conveniently arranged by
simply adding another length of shafting with the necessary
pulleys, or even by cutting suitable openings through the walls
for the belts.
307
'2C3 Pumps and Hydraulics.
and triplex power pumps are described and il-

Single, duplex
lustrated upon the succeeding pages power pumps are built
;
with one, two, three, four or five cylinders and for either high
or low pressure or general service, and their sizes, capacities,
and the materials they handle are no more numerous than
their combinations in erection.
The work devoted to power pumps should be

portion of this
especially interestingand instructive to the attendants operating
steam, compressed air and power driven pumps. Particular
attention has been given to single-cylinder steam pumps be-
cause of the great variety of steam-actuated valves to be found
in practice, each differing from the other in one or more essen-
tial features.
It due very largely to the numerous designs of steam

is
been encountered in managing single-

valves, that difficulty has
cylinder pumps as successfully as those of the duplex type, the
similarity of construction in the latter type, even in minor
details, being much more marked.
The successful operation of a pump depends to a great

extent upon the intelligence displayed inmanagement, and its
an engineer can scarcely hope to obtain quiet and smooth

running pumps and freedom from breakdowns and perplexing
delays except by a thorough knowledge of the details of con-
struction and operation.
It must be remembered that power pumps are to be illus-
trated and explained in a class entirely excluding j/^^^^/m/w/j/

the latter aie pumps in which the moving force is steam.
Electric Pumps are properly power pumps in which the

moving force is electricity which is conducted to the pumps by
wires.
;
PUMP PARTS.
There are properly speaking four kinds of
JVatt'r E/u/s.
water ends to steam and power pumps :
1, A solid plunger, with a stuffing box used for heavy

pressings in hydraulic apparatus, or as shown in Fig. 182, for
larger plungers.
2, A piston packed with fibrous material within the cylinder.
See Fig. 181. The letter P in Fig. 182 and the following cuts
indicates the plunger.
3, A plunger packed with a metal ring around the outside,
as illustrated in Fig. 183.
4, Two plungers, Fig. 184. con-

nected outside of the cylinder with
a stuffing box in two cylinder
heads, through which the plungers
work. These are more fully ex-
plained and illustrated as they
occur in many examples as they
are referred to in the oncoming
chapters of this work.
The construction of the water
ends of single cylinder and duplex
pumps is practically the same
any slight differences which may
be found are confined to minor
details, which in no way affect the
general design or operation of the
Fio. 181.
pump.
steam or power ends of numerous and varied makes of
T/ie
pumps are also as shown in the following pages of this work;
all pumps actuated by power — steam, electric, etc. — are pos-
sessed of these two distinguishing features — i, a steam or
power end, and 2, the water end.
Note. —This
statement has exception in the cases of large pumping
engines having a fly wheel or supplemental cylinders attached to an ac-
cumulator, in which case the steam is worked expansively.
209
no Pumps and Hydraulics.
FiQ. 182.
Fig. 183.
Pump Parts. 211
The stcatn lud of the ordinary single steam pump, and also
of the duplex pump, differs froin the steam eylinder of the steam
engine in that the former has four ports to each eylinder, i. e.,
t'ivo steam ports and tzvo cushioning ports as shown hereafter in
figures.
Under the division of the work allotted to the "Steam
Pump '
will be found all necessary further notice of the steam
ends of Pumps.
Pump I'akrs. The valve apparatus is perhaps the most im-

portant part of any form of pump and its design has a material
bearing upon its efficiency.
r\
Fig. 1S4.
The valves shown in Fig. i8i are carried by two plates or

decks, the suction valves being attached to the lower plate and
the delivery valves to the upper one. The upper deck, and
sometimes both decks, are removable. The valves are secured
to the plates by means of bolts or long machine screws, which,
in turn, are screwed into the bridge across the board in the plate,
as shown in Figs. 185 and 186 or capped as in Fig. 187. The
valves in all pumps except the large sizes, which may properly
be classed with pumping engines, are of the fiat rubber disc
type,with a hole in the center to enable the valve to rise easily

on the bolt, the latter serving as a guide. A conical spring is
employed to hold the valve firmly to its seat, the spring being
held in position by the head of the bolt, or cap, as shown.
Certain improvements in pump-
valves have been made which tend to
increase the durability and to prevent
the liability of sticking, which
is not an
uncommon occurrence after the valves

have become badly worn. The im-
proved forms of pump valves are shown
in Figs. i86 and 187.
When these valves leak through,
wear the disc may be reversed, using
the upper side of the disc next to the
valve seat. This can be done with
Fig. 185.
ordinary valves also, provided the spring
has not injured the upper surface of the
disc. Valve seats are generally pressed into the plates, although
instances may be found where they are screwed. When pressed
in they may be withdrawn by substituting a bolt having
longer screw threads than the regular bolt, and provided with
a nut, as shown in Fig. 188. The bolt
is slipped through a yoke and screwed
into the bridge. By turning the nut
the seat can generally be started with-
out difficulty.
FlO- 1S6. ?iff. m

Pump Farts. 213
Fig. 189 represents the customary inland and stuffing-

box in which the gland is adjusted by the nuts C and D
upon two studs. After the
adjustment has been properly
made lock-nuts are tightened
which leaves the gland free
yet preserves the alignment.
It has been proven by
practice — after long an.d cost-
ly experiments — that a num-
ber of small valves instead of
. :t; ...„. X one large one are far the most
durable durability being the
;
Fig. 188.
question. Corliss, Leavitt,
Holly and other leadfng pump builders had occasion to find
the truth of this statement early in their careers. The
" slamming " of large valves under moderate speeds proved itself
an almost insurmountable difficulty until the principle of keep-

ing the valve area as low as possible within reasonable limits
had been fully demonstrated.
To illustrate the advantage of having a
number of comparatively small valves instead
of one large one, suppose a pump to be fitted
with four 3^-inch delivery valves at each em!,
the valves covering ports 2)4 inches in diameter.
The area of each port is 4.9 square inches. In
order to provide an equal area between the
valve and the seat the valve must rise a distance
Fig. 189.
equal to one-fourth the diameter of the port.
The combined area of the four ports is 19.6 square inches,
which corresponds to the area of a circular opening 5 inches
in diameter, one-fourth of which is i^ inches. It will be under-
stood that the smaller valves can seat much more quickly and
with than the larger one, hence a larger number of
less jar
small valves-is-not only better because of the great reduction
in slippage, but they are.also. more.economical, being subjected
tA le5S. w.e^x audi tear..

The of valves for moderate or low speed pumps is seen

lift
in 190 and those for higher speeds in Fig. 191. These
Fig.
engravings clearly show the relative position of the suction and
discharge valves during the movements of the piston.
Fio. 190.
Pump slip or slippage is a term used to denote the differ-

ence between the calculated and the actual discharge of a
Fio. 191.
pump, and is generally expressed as a percentage of the cal-

culated discharge. Thus, when the slippage is given as 15
per cent, it indicates that the loss due to slip amounts to n
Pump Parts. 215
per cent, of the calculated discharge. Slippage is due to two

causes, the time required for the suction and discharge valves
to seat.
When pumps run very fast the piston speed is so high that
the water cannot enter the pump fast enough to completely
fill the cylinder and consequently a partial cylinder full of
water is delivered at each stroke. High speeds also increase
slippage, due to \.\\q seating of the valves. Fig. 191 represents
a sectional view of the water end of a pump, showing the
position of the valves during a quick reversal in the direction
of the arrows, which illustrates the position of the valves
corresponding to high speed. The valves in a pump, like
almost every other detail in the operation of machinery, do not
act instantaneously, but require time to reach the seats.
When pumps run at high speed the piston will move a
considerable distance, while the valves are descending to their
seats, and water flows back into the pump cylinder until the
valves are tightly closed. The valves will remain in the
raised position shown in Fig. 191 until the piston stops
at the end of the stroke, and under high speed the piston^
will reach the position on the return stroke indicated by the
dotted line L by the time the valves are closed. The cylinder
will be up to this point with water from the delivery
filled
chamber so that no vacuum can be formed until after the

piston reaches this position. The volume of water that can be
drawn into the cylinder must necessarily be represented by
the cubic inches cf space, minus the quantity which flows back
during the time the valves are closing. It will thus be seen that
the actual volume of water discharged is considerably less than
a cylinderful, and the difference, whatever it may prove to be,
is called, and is due to slippage.
Fig. 190 represents the same pump running at a compara-
tivelylow speed. It will be noticed that the valves have not
been raised as high as in Fig. 191, because a longer time being
allowêd for the discharge of the water, a smaller orifice is
sufficient. be seen also that the piston, moving at a

It will
lower velocity, cannot travel as far in Fig. 190 before the valves
seat, and consequently a vacuum can be created in the cylinder

earlier in the stroke, and a larger volume of water can there-
fore be drawn in during the return stroke. In the latter case
it is evident that the volume
of water drawn into the
cylinder will be nearly
equal to a cylinderful and
consequently the loss by
slippage must be corre-
spondingly less.
In order to reduce the-
loss by slippage several'
valves are used instead of
a single valve of equal area..
A flat disc valve will rise
a distance equal to one-
Fig. 1'J2.
fourth the diameter of the-
port or the opening in the seat to discharge the same-
of
volume water that can flow through the port in the same
of
time. In practice the rise exceeds this proportion of one-
fourth a trifle, owing to the friction of the water, and this is.
especially true at high speeds.

Reinforcedpump valves.
Where pure gum has been
used for pump valves it
has always proved too soft

and when it has been com-
pounded with other sub-
stances it has been found
too hard to withstand the
severe duty to which it is
subjected as a material for

Fig. 193.
pump valves.
In the accompanying Fig. 192 is shown the Brad'en pump
valve,which is made of composition of rubber having wire rings-
embedded in the center of the disc. The composition has been
removed from a section to show these rings. A ferrule of:
Pump Parts. 217
composition metal forms a hub around the center through

which the bolt or stud passes to guide the valve and to prevent
excessive wear of the hole.
Its wire coil frame work clothed
with rubber maintains a due amount
of stiffness, with a degree of flexibility
Fio 194. Fig. 195. FiO. 19a
which prevents its bulging

into the holes in the seats,
or sticking therein, and thus
impairing the suctibn and
discharge. Both sides, the
upper as well as the lower,
are made available for service.
Flo. 198. Fig. 197. These qualities of stiffness
and flexibility combined, per-
mit this valve to adjust itself to form a water-tight seat.
Armored pinnp valves. As represented in Fig. 193 this is
a valve made by stamping a metal disc out of steel which is
then plated with copper to protect the surface and secure the
adhesion of the rubber. Marginal notches are left on the in-
side and outside edges of the plate and rubber is moulded
around these, and vulcanized to the required hardness; a brass
or copper plate may be used instead of steel and the plates
may be corrugated radially to increase their stiffness when the
area of the valve is large.
Experience proves that the water valve adopted together

with its location, has a material bearing upon the efficiency
Note. — The screwed seat is shown in Fig. 194, vStud Fig. 195, Metal
Valve Fig. 196, Spring Fig. 197, and all put together in Fig. 198.
of any pump easy seating valves are subject to more or less

;
slippage, owing to tardy seating the location of water

;
valves should be above the pump cylinder, inasmuch as in

operation the pump is always primed, while if suction valves
are placed below, any wear on the valves or valve seats,
or obstruction under the valves, will cause the water to leak
entirely out of the water cylinder, making it necessary to
prime the pump before it can be started.
Valve seats, bolts and

springs should be of the best com-
position or gun-metal and valves of composition, or hard or
;
soft rubber, to suit the duty such pump is required to perform.

These valve seats are screwed into the valve plate, and valves
^fc/^- JMimd
Fig. 199.
may be changed from composition to rubber by merely re-

moving bolt, and substituting one for the other without re-
moving the seat. This is of great advantage where a pump is
to be used for hot water after being used for cold water.
Pump Paris.
Fia. a)L
Air chambers are placed upon the top of a pump, see Figs.
199 and 200, and contain air for the purpose of introducing an
air cushion to counteract the solidity of the water, thus prevent-
ing shocks as the water flows through the valves ; and also for
the purpose of securing a steady discharge of water.
The water being under pressure in the discharge chamber,
compresses the air in the air chamber during each stroke of the
water piston and, when the piston stops momentarily at the
end of the stroke, the air expands to a certain extent and tends
to produce a gradual stopping of the flow of water, thus per-
mitting the valves to seat easily and without shock or jar.
The capacity of the air chamber varies in different makes of
pumps from 2 to 3^ times the volume of the water cylinder in
single cylinderpumps, and from i to 2^ times the volume of
the water cylinder in the duplex type. The volume of the
zvatcr cylinder is represented by the area of the water piston
multiplied by the length of stroke.
For pumps and those employed
single-cylinder, boiler-feed
for elevatorand similar service the volume of the air chamber
should be 3 times the volume of the water cylinder, and for
duplex pumps, not less than twice the volume of the water
cylinder. High speed pumps, such as fire pumps, should be
provided with air chambers containing from 5 to 6 times the
volume of the water cylinder.
The diameter of the neck should not exceed one-third the
diameter of the chamber. When the pumps work under pres-
sure exceeding 85 or 90 pounds per square inch, it is frequently
found that the air gradually disappears from the air chamber,
the air passing ofT with the water by absorption. In this case
air should be supplied to the air chamber unless the pump runs
at very low speeds, say, from 10 to 20 strokes for the smaller

sizes and from 3 to 5 strokes per minute for pumping engines.
At higher speed and with no air in the air chamber the valves
—
Note. in large pumping plants small air pumps are employed for keep-
ing the air chambers properly charged. In smaller plants an ordinary
bicycle pump and a piece of rubber tubing are used to good advantage.
Pump Paris. 221
are apt to seat heavily and cause more or less jar and noise,
and the flow of water will not be uniform. The water level in
the air chamber should be kept down to from one-fourth to

one-third the height of the airchamber for smooth running at
medium and high speeds.
Vacuum chainbcrs are shown in Figs. 199, 200 and 201.

These devices are attached to the suction pipe. When the
column of water in the suction pipe of a pump is once set in
motion, it is quite important, especially under high speeds, to
keep the water in full motion, and when it is stopped, to stop
it gradually and easily. This is accomplished by placing a
vacuum chamber on the suction pipe, as shown in the figures.
The location of the vacuum

chamber may be varied to suit the
convenience of the engine room
arrangements. Fig. 199 represents
the vacuum chamber at the side
of the pump. Fig. 200 shows it
opposite the suction and Fig. 201

represents its position at the end
of the pump.
Vaciiujiichambers are practi-
cally of two designs, as shown in
Figs. 202 and 203. The one shown
Fig. 202. Fig. 203 should be placed in
in Fig. 203.
such position as to receive the im-

pact of the column of water in the suction pipe. In order to
do this effectively it should be placed in the position shown in
Figs. 199, 200 or 201. The chamber illustrated in Fig. 202 is
placed in the suction pipe below, but close to the pump.
The action of the vacuum chamber is practically the reverse

of that of the air chamber. The object of the vacuum chamber
is to facilitate changing continuous into intermittent motion.
The moving column of water compresses the air in the vacuum

chamber at the ends of the stroke of the piston, and when the
piston starts the air expands (thus creating a partial vacuum
above the water) and aids the piston in setting the column of
water in motion again.
Thus the flow of water into the suction chamber of the
])ump is much more uniform during each stroke of the piston
than without the vacu- ,- --^
um chamber, and con-

sequently the pump can
be run at higher speeds
without increasing the
loss due to slippage and without "slamming"

of the valves. Vacuum chambers should be
slightly larger than the suction pipe and
of considerable length rather than of large diameter and short.
The size of the neck is substantially the same as in the air
chamber.
Pump Parts. 223
PIPING A PUMP.
Fig. 204 on the opposite page represents the pipe con-
nections, etc., of a pump with the deHvery opening on the
opposite side. D represents the foot valve and strainer placed
on the lower end of the suction, which should be not less than
a foot from the bottom of the well the distance named pro.;
vides for the giadual filling of the well. C is the suction pipe
proper, screwed into the elboiv, E, which changes its direction
into the suction chamber, which contsan^ the strainer, A. This
strainer can be removed for cleaning by lifting the bonnet
secured by stud bolts on top. In connecting large pumps it is
customary to attach a vacuum chamber, F, which in the absence

of any regular pattern, may be made of a piece of pipe of the
same diameter as the suction and screwed into a X. instead of
the elbow, E, with a regulation screwed cap on top as shown
in the dotted lines.
A priming pipe is shown by the letter J, often used to fill
the pump on starting. The discharge pipe connection is shown

at G with the air chamber attached.
This figure is introduced for the purpose of showing an

approved method of piping a pump. It may be observed that
the flange joints in this design are so arranged that they may
be disconnected without unscrewing any part of the suction
pipe this feature is almost essential in view of needed repairs
;
The foregoing description of the parts of a pump relate to

the water end solely ; there remain the more complex and
widely differing parts of the steam-end which constitute the
distinguishing characteristics of the pumps built by the different
makers. There remain also the particular parts belonging to
the large pumping engines, air-pumps, etc.
These will be described under their respective chapters

with much added and essential matter. Particular detailstas to
the conditions of service under which it is proposed to operate
pumps are to be found on the next page.
CONDITIONS OF SERVICE REQUIRED

OF A PUMP.
It is especially important that the makers and also the
sellers of pumps and pumping machinery should be informed
regarding the proper type, size, pattern d^nd proportion of parts
for any peculiar service, as well as to the plan of their con-

nections and the kind of material to be used in their con-
struction.
This information regarding the conditions of the service

under which the pump is to be worked is quite pertinent to
the foregoing pages regarding the parts of pumps. The follow-
ing questions are extracted from the catalogue of an extensive
manufacturer.
First— To what service is it to be applied ?
Secojid— The quality of the liquid to be pumped, whether

salt, fresh, acid, clear or gritty, and whether cold or hot?
—
TJiird To what height is the water to be lifted by suction,
and what are the length and diameter of the suction and dis-
charge pipes ?
FourtJi — Of what material is the suction pipe, and what is
its general arrangement as regards other pipes leading into

it, etc.?
FiftJi — Will the supply be taken from a driven well? If not,
from what source ?
Sixth — To what height, or against what pressure, is the

water to be pumped?
Sevejith — What is the greatest quantity of water to be
delivered per hour?
Eighth— What boiler pressure of steam carried is ?
Ninth — Will the pump exhaust into the atmosphere, into a

condenser, or against a back pressure ? If the latter, how much?
BELTED PUMPS.
Fig. 205 represents an approved lorm of steam boiler feed
pump, single acting. It nas a crank shaft and a tight and loose
pulley. It may be driven direct from any line shaft, a counter-

shaft being unnecessary.
This is a compact form of a boiler feed pump formerly the;
pump crank shaft was attached to floor beams or timbers above

and connected by a long pitman to the
pump which stood upon the floor; the ob-
jections to the older system of apparatus
were found to be the vibration of the long
pitman and the springing of the floors.
To obviate these two difficulties the
pump and countershaft were attached to
a post bringing them nearer together but
finally resulting in the design of pump
here shown. The broad base insures great
stability in the operation of the pump
especially when fixed to a rigid floor or
timber foundation.
In the Table below are given some
Fio. aos. details furnished by the makers relating
to six sizes of this style of pump, to which
may be added that the speed ordinarily used varies from lOO
revolutions per minute for the small sizes, to 20 revolutions
for the larger sizes.
Table.
No.
Fig. 206 exhibits two independent pumps. The description

of the pump shown in Fig. 205 will apply to the left-hand
pump which a boiler feed pump. The improvement consists in
is
the addition of another pump at the right-hand side this is a ;
suciwn force pump with an air chamber and is used to draw

water from a well and discharge it into a tank from which it is
taken by the other pump and forced into the boiler, as occasion
requires.
These two pumps work simultaneously,
being driven from the same shaft with
cranks set opposite each other. Like the
pump previously described this has a tight
and loose pulley. The larger sizes are
geared, having a pinion on the pulley shaft
and a spur wheel on the crank shaft.
These two pumps represent a high
service and a low service, the left-hand
pump working under high pressure, against
that in the boiler and the right one against
the head of water in the tank. Each
pump has its own separate connections
one or more — to suit the required con-
ditions.
Fig. 206. The right-hand pump

is double acting
guided by a steadiment
the plunger-rod is
which holds it in line and preserves this alignment and the

power is transmitted through a forked connecting rod. The
Table below refers to both these pumps.
Table.
BOILER PUMP.
Belted Pumps. 227
In Fig. 207 is shown a double acting power pump used

principally for feeding boilers but may be employed for any
purpose water or other liquids against pressure. This
in forcing
pump double acting, is made with iowx check valves, as shown
is
in engraving, and will draw water through 25 feet of suction

pipe. On a high lift like the foregoing a foot valve (as shown
at D in Fig. 204) should be used.
The form of valves used in this type of pump are the regular
commercial check valves, made of steam-metal, extra heavy ;
the valve proper

is of the zving
pattern as
shown in the
small cuts.
There are four
of these wings
on each valve,
at right angles
Straight Wings. to one another
forming a cross
with arms of
equal lengths.
The seat of
the valve has an
angie ot 45° to
which tne valve
is adjusted. A
part ot this
Spiral Wings. valve projects Fig. aOT.
above the top and has a slot, shown by the dotted line in it
to receive the edge of a screw-driver, held in a bit stock to
grind the valve seat in refitting. The lift of the valve is reg-
ulated by the distance between the top of the stem and the
bottom of the covering nut or cap.
In hydraulic pumps it is found to be good practice to give
the wings of these valves a twist, or pitch, so that the water in
passing through will cause the valve to rotate and fall in a new
position every time it comes in contact with the seat.
Fig. 208 represents a very compact design of double acting

low service belt driven pump. The water
is bored and
cylinder
has a piston fitted to both ends of this cylinder are covered
it;
with " heads," one of which has a stuffing box through which
the piston operates the outer end of this piston rod is fitted
;
to a slotted yoke which slides upon a guide at the bottom.

This mechanism, just described, takes the place of a pitman
connection and occupies very much less space. The crank shaft
is supported at each end in pillow blocks and is driven by a belt
having a tight and loose pulley larger sizes are geared. Access
;
to the two sets of valves can be had by slacking up four nuts

upon the long belts, two of which are shown in the engraving.
The broad base secures great stability for this size pump.
Fig. 208.
Fig. 209 exhibits two sijigle acting plunger pumps actuated

by one upon each end with crank pins op-
shaft having a crank
posite to one another. This shaft is supported on the top of two
•pillars which form a part of the solid cast iron frame. The
boxes are babbited. The crank shaft has a cast iron spur gear
]<eyed to it and meshes into a pinion upon the pulley shaft.
The teeth are cut to insure smooth and quiet running. The
power is transmitted through a belt upon a tight and loose pulley.
Each pump is secured to the frame by four bolts. The lower end
of the pitman has an arrangement to take up the wear by
means of two set screws with lock-nuts as shown in the figure
Belted Piitnps. 229
Fig. 209.
Fig. 210.
230 Pumps anc^ Jlydraiilics.
on the top of each plunger. This pump is largely used as a

boiler feed pump. These pumps can be used separately or to
gether and with single or compound connections.
Duplex Poivcr Pump. This engraving, Fig. 210, shows a
special boiler feed pump having ball valves, as shown in section,
and which is also intended for use in pulp mills and in other
places where it is necessary to pump sandy or muddy water, or
chemicals, soap and other heavy bodied liquids. These pump -
have composition ball valves, composition plungers and com-

position lined cylinders and glands.
The two barrels or cylinders of this pump are brought to-
gether so as to occupy as little space as possible. Instead of
cranks eccentrics are used having very large wearing surfaces.
Each pitman has a ball at its lower extremity forming a '' ball
and socket" joint, which is adjustable to compensate for wear.
All the bearings are Babbitted and like the last pump described
the gears have cut teeth. It is belt driven.
If there are tivo cranks as in the duplex poiver ptiinp they

are placed opposite to one another or 180° apart, the circle
described by the crank-pin containing 360 degrees. /// the
triplex pump this circle is divided into three equal parts of
120° each which is represented by the position of the cranks;
a quadruplex or two duple.K pumps attached to the same shaft
the cranks will be 90° apart. This arrangement effects a uni-
form distribution of load on the crank shaft and one of the
pumps is continuously discharging at its maximum capacity.
This duplex /^t«yrr pump should not be confounded with the

" Duplex Pump " so called. The latter has two steam cylinders
and two water cylinders and is double acting while the former
is single acting.
The and durability of these, as of all
successful operation
power pumps, depends upon the judicious selection and
largely
application of a proper packing to the stuffing boxes. As for
example, plaited flax dipped in a mixture of warm graphite
and tallow, braided rawhide, Selden's packing, etc., have proved
by long service to have a low co-efficient of friction and are
not liable to cut the plungers.
Belted Pumps. 231
The triplex pou'cr gang pump is shown in Fig. 211. The

engraving represents two triplex pumps bolted to one bed, and
having an extended pulley shaft with pinions near each end to
drive all of the pumps.
Fig. 211.
Table.
232 Pumps and Hydi aiilict
The description of the duplex power pump just given, ap-

plies to thistype also. The exception is that the triplex has
three plungers and barrets instead of two. There are two spur
wheels and two pinions on each pump to equalize the power to
better advantage, as by this arrangement one eccentric is placed
between each pair of spur wheels and two eccentrics outside.
Fig. 212.
The pinion shaft is in one piece having tight and loose pulleys
— —
The eccentrics six in number are set at 60°, and an even
strain on the belt at all points of the stroke is thus obtained,
and connecting both discharges together insures a steady flow
without shock. Where light duty only is required, these pumps
are made without gears to run with the belt over pulleys.
Belted Primps. 233
Fig. 212 represents a single acting triplex plunger pump

actuated by a belt over a tight and loose pulley.
The principal characteristic of this pump is the long connect-

ing rods. These have upper ends regular connecting
at their
rod straps with brasses fitted to them and adjusted by wedges
and set screws. At the plunger or lower ends of these rods
bronze bushings and steel pins are used.
These pumps are largely employed for pumping semi-liquids

such as tar, soap, mud, tan-liquor, oils, chemicals, sewage, etc.
The teeth of the pinion and the meshing part of the two
gears are protected by a shield to prevent clothing being caught
or parts of the body from being injured.
For these various materials different valves are necessary

to be used each suited to the substance to be elevated or
conveyed.
The removal one cover, in this pump, exposes all the dis-
of
charge valves and a plate uncovers each of the three groups of
suction valves, as shown. The suction pipe may be attached
at either end of the suction chamber while the discharge pipe
may be connected with one or both ends of the discharge
chamber.
The pump here represented has barrels 8-inch in diameter
by lo-inch stroke. The air chamber is very large in proportion
to the pump.
Table.
Plungers
The Deane single acting triplex power pump is shown in Fig.

213. Pumps of this type are used for general service in places
where a large quantity of water is to be obtained in a short time
and delivered under high pressure they are adapted for tank
;
service, water works, boiler feed, etc.
Fio. 213.
The pillar, or column design of frame is employed in this
pump which secures great strength with the least weight of

material, and at the same time
is accessible for adjustment or re-
pairs. The bearings both the

for steel shafts are unusually long,
which reduces the pressure per square inch below the factor of
Belted Pumps. 235
safety and increases the durability. The crankpins are set 120
degrees with one anoliier so that the strokes j,uccessively over-
lap, which promotes an easy flow of water through the de-
livery pipe. The crank shaft is of the composite design, the
center crank pin is of equal diameter and forming a part of
the shaft, with discs and crank pins attached to each end by
shrinking fits and keys. Either disc, crank, or their crank pins,
can be duplicated without sacrificing any other part, which
in itself is a great advantage.
The connecting rods have solid ends with adjustable boxes,

with adjustment by means of wedge and screws. The brassej
are lined with a special anti-friction metal bored to exact size.
The crossheads are of the box design with adjustable shoes

having large wearing surfaces in bored guides. These guides
are secured to the frame by studs and nuts.
The plungers are outside packed, the cylinders are sub-

merged, thus keeping the pump primed at all times. The
plungers are bolted to the crossheads and are readily removed
when necessary. The cylinders are single acting and are cast
separate from the base and other parts of the machine, so that
repairs can be made at small cost, and, furthermore, should it
be desirable to use thepump for moving liquids which would
be injurious to cast iron, cylinders of other metals are sub-
stituted. The water chest is cast separate from the cylinders
and is provided with large handholes,. affording easy access to
the interior and to the valves for inspection and cleaning. The
handholes are located so that one valve may be removed in-
dependent of the others.
Improved grease cups are placed on all the bearings. This

pump isvery popular with the users of power driven pumps
and is generally selected for high pressures and for hot or gritty
water. Its simplicity of design and construction, together with
the convenient arrangement of working parts, renders it desir-

able in isolated places where little attention is given to any
kind of pumps.
236 Pumps lift a Hydraulics.
Fig. 214 represents the Gould triplex single acting power

pump and is one of many designs of this class of power
pumps. The frame consists of two standards, which contain
FiQ. 2U.
tic two end cylinders, and the seats to which the outside cross
I., ad guides are bolted. These are held together by two cast-
ings, one containing the center crosshead guide, and the other
Belted Pumps. 237
the center cylinder. The crankshaft is a solid steel forging,

while the bearings arc (^f phosplior bronze, and the pinion shaft
bearings Babbitted.
The gear wheels are machine cut, the pinion and the
adjacent teeth of the large gear are covered by suitable
guards.
The crossheadsare provided with adjustable shoes or gibs,
which work bored guides. The connecting rods are fitted
in
with straps and bronze bo.ves, which are adjustable for wear by
means of wedge and set screws, the wristpin brasses being C'f
the marine type. The cylinders are provided with bronze
liners, which are readily removable when neces.âry for repairs,
the plungers being ground to size, present a smooth j)olished
surface to resist tlie wear.
The valve boxes are separate castings, and each contains a
set of suction and discharge valves. These valves are rubber
discs, held firmly against the bronze seats by cylindrically
wound springs. pumps are furnished with air
All of these
chambers, and vacuum chambers are provided when the nature
of the service demands it. All valves and other working parts
of the pump are accessible for inspection, cleaning and repairs,
all internal parts being arranged within easy reach through the
large handholes.
The pumps here shown are intended for moderately light
pressures as for example not to exceed 150 lbs. per square inch,
but they are also made in heavier proportions for very high
pressures (5,000 lbs. to 15,000 lbs.) such as is necessary to
operate hydraulic presses, draw benches for brass and copper
tubing and that class of work.
A very simple automatic regulator and by-pass connection
(shown in the chapter on accessories) can be attached to these
pumps in situations where a constant pressure is to be main-
tained and allow the pump to run continuously at its maximum
speed. This regulator is adjusted to open the by-pass valve
whenever the pressure in tin." compression tank or pipe system
exceeds the limit pressure, and so fills the ofifice of a safety
valve by allowing the suri)lus water to return to the tank.
?38 Pumps and Hydraulics.
The Riedler belt driven pump is shown in Fig. 215,

The principal feature of this pump is its valve; there is but
one valve for the suction and one for the discharge, which
greatly simplifies the pump end. When working against high
pressures, the ordinary rubber or leather faced valves are often-
times pounded to pieces, but in this pump,
on account of the mechanical control, the
valves work well under all pressures.
This valve and valve seat are circular in
form, and made of bronze, as shown in Fig.
216. The valve has a lift of from i to 2
'"^^^^<s^^S-KJ^-^
Fio. 215.
inches, and an area suflficiently large to reduce the velocity

of the water flowing through it to a few feet per second.
At the beginning of the stroke the valve opens automatically,
controlled, however, by a very simple and effective mechanical
device, and it remains open practically during the entire stroke.
When near the end, it is positively closed at the proper
moment by the controller.
Belted Pumps. 239
This valve, see Fig. 216, may be briefly described as follows.

The scat, A, is turned to slip into its place in the pump and is
made tight by a round rubber hydraulic packing, B, in a groove
near the bottom. A spindle or stud, C, in the center of this
seat supports and guides the valve, D, which is made tight by
a leather seal, E. The rubber collar or buffer spring holds the
valve above its seat, and this valve unlike ordinary pump
\ alvcs, always remains open except when pressure is brought
to bear to close it. The valve bonnet, G, also forms the bear-
Fio. 216.
ing for the valve stem with fork, which spans the spindle, C, at
one end and having the valve lever and pin, H, for operating
at the other end. The valve stem is made tight by a stuffing-
box and gland as shown. The operation of this valve is sub-
stantially as follows.
At the beginning of the suction stroke the valve is opened

by the rubber spring, F, the pressure upon the collar being
relieved by lifting of the valve fork arms through motion of
the eccentric.
It will be observed from an inspection of Fig. 215 that both

the suction valve and the discharge valve are controlled by nn
eccentric — rock arm — and valve levers similar to the motion of
Corliss valves.
Asthe plunger nears the end of its stroke and before it

starts on the return stroke, the valve fork closes the valve, and
thus prevents slip and avoids pounding, so common in pumps
having valves that close by their own weight. In case of any ob-
struction between the valve and its seat the rubber buffer spring
will be compressed thus preventing all injury to mechanism.
The lost work expended in closing the valves is hardly

worth any consideration as it is practically the friction only of
the eccentric and the members of the valve gearing, the bear-
ings of which are all small.
The motion for these valve gears is usually taken from an
eccentric on the main shaft.
The standard speed of the pumps is about 150

Reidler
revolutions per minute. Smaller pumps run even faster than
this
It may be desired to connect a pump directly to a high
speed electric motor or water wheel already installed. To
meet these conditions, a special design known as the Reidler
Express pump, is built.
The chief feature of this pump, is its suction valve. This
valve is concentric with, and outside of the plunger, and lifts
in the opposite direction to that of the plunger when on its
suction stroke. At the end of the suction stroke, the plunger

presses the valve to its seat, thus making it certain that the valve
is seated when the plunger starts on its delivery stroke, allowing
practically no slip. A high air suction chamber containing a
column of water is placed immediately before the suction
valve, so it is certain that the pump will fill as the plunger
moves. Ordinarily the pump would not completely fill, owing
to the high speed of the plunger.
These pumps are also built with steam cylinders both of
the plain slide valve and Corliss designs.
THE ELECTRIC
PUMP
Compass Needle— See Page 266.
—
ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRICAL

MACHINERY.
Each kind of power requires its own special machine-^ so

constructed and adapted as to utilize it ; hence, to be service-
able to mankind, electricity demands machinery suited to its
nature ; what that is, will be indicated in the following few

paragraphs.
is a name derived from the Greek word electron

Electricity
— amber. was discovered more than 2,ooo years ago that
It
amber when rubbed with a Fox's tail possessed the curious

property of attracting light bodies. It was discovered after-
wards that this property could be produced in a dry steam jet
by friction, and in A. D. 1600 or thereabouts, that glass, sealing-
wax, etc., were also affected by rubbing, producing electricity.
Whatever electricity is, it is impossible to say, but for the

present convenient to consider it as a kind of invisible
it is
something which pervades all bodies. While the nature and

source of electricity are a mystery, and a constant challenge
to the inquirer, many things about it havê become known
thus, it is positively assured that electricity never manifests it-
self except when

some mechanical disturbance in
there is
ordinaiy matter, and every exhibition of electricity in any of

its multitudinous ways may always be traced back to a mass
of matter.
—
Note. The great forces of the world are invisible and impalpable we ;
cannot grasp or handle them and though they are real enough, they have
;
the appearance of being very unreal. Electricity and gravity are as subtle
as they are mighty they elude the eye and hand of the most skillful
;
philosopher. In view of this, it is well for the average man not to try to
fathom, too deeply, the science of either. To take the machines and ap-
pliances as ihey are "on the market," and to acquire the skill to operate
them, is the longest step toward the reason for doing it, and why the de-
sired results follow.
243
^44 Pumps and Hydraulics.
it is also conceded, is without weight, and, while

Electricity,
electricity without doubt, one and the same, it is for con-
is,
venience sometimes classified according to its motion, as
I. Static electricity, or electricity at rest.

2. Current electricity, or electricity in motion.
3. Magnetism, or electricity in rotation.

4. Electricity in vibration.
Other useful divisions are into

I. Frictiotial and
2. Dynamical,
And into
I. Static, as the opposite of

2. Dynainic electricity.
There are still other definitions or divisions which are in

every-day use, such as "vitreous" electricity, "atmospheric"
electricity, " resinous" electricity, etc.
Static Electricity. — This is a term employed to define elec-

tricity produced by friction. It is properly employed in the
sense of a static charge which shows itself by the attraction
or repulsion between charged bodies. When static electricity
is discharged, it causes more or less of a current, which shows
itself by the passage of sparks or a brush discharge by a ;
peculiar prickling sensation ; by an unusual smell due to its

chemical effects ; by heating the air or other substances in its
path ; and sometimes in other ways.
Current Electricity. — This may be defined as the quantity

of electricity which passes through a conductor in a given time
— or, electricity in the act of being discharged, or electricity in
motion.
An electric current manifests itself by heating the wire or
conductor, by causing a magnetic field around the conductor
Note. Status — is that branch of mechanics which treats of the forces

which keep bodies at rest or in equilibrium. Dynamics treats of bodies in
motion. Hence static electricity is electricity at rest. The earth's great
store of electricity is at rest or in equilibrium.
Elect:ic Pumps. 245
and by causing chemical changes in a hquid through which it
may pass.
Radiated elcctricily is electricity in vibration. Where the

current oscillates or vibrates back and forth with extreme
rapidity, it takes the form of waves which are similar to waves
of light.
Positive Electricity. — This term expresses the condition of

the point of an electrified body having the higher energy from
which it llows to a lower level. The sign which denotes this
phase of electric excitement is + ; all electricity is either
positive or, — , negative.
—
Negative Electricity. This is the reverse condition to the
above n:ul is expressed by the sign or symbol — These two .
tenr.s r.re used in the same sense as hot and cold.
Aiinosphcric electricity is the free electricity of the air which

is almost always present in the atmosphere. Its exact cause
is unknown. The phenomena of atmospheric electricity are of
two kinds there are the well-known manifestations of thunder-
;
storms and there are the phenomena of continual slight elec-

;
trification in the air, best observed when the weather is fine;

the aurora constitutes a third branch of the subject.
Dynamic Electricity. — This term is used to define current
electricity to distinguish it from static electricity. This is the
electricity produced by the dynamo.
Frictional electricity is that produced by the friction of one
substance against another.
Resinous Electricity. — This is a term formerly used, in place

of negative electricity. The phrase originated in the well
known fact that a certain (negative) kind of electricity was pro-
duced by rubbing rosin.
Vitreous electricity is a term, formerly used, to describe

that kind of electricity (positive) produced by rubbing glass.
Magneto-electricity is electricity in the form of currents

flowing along wires ;
it is electricity derived from the motion
of magnets — hence the name.
Voltaic Electricity. — This is electricity produced by the

action of the voltaic cell or battery.
Electricity itself is the same thing, or phase of energy, by
whatever source it is produced, and the foregoing definitions are
given only as a matter of convenience.
ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCE.
The term is employed to denote that which moves or tends
to move electricity from one place to another. For brevity it is
written E. M. F. it is the result of the difference of potential,
;
and proportional to it. Just as in water pipes, a difference of

level produces a pressure, and the pressure produces a flow so
soon as the tap is turned on, so difference of potential produces
electro-motive force, and electro-motive force sets up a current
so soon as a circuit is completed for the electricity to flow through.
Electro-motive force, therefore, may often be conveniently ex-
pressed as a difference of potential, and vice versa; but the
reader must not forget this distinction.
In ordinary acceptance among engineers and practical work-
ing electricians, electro-motive force is considered as pressure
and measured in units called volts. The usual standard
it is
for testing and comparison is a special form voltaic cell, called

the Clark cell. This is made with great care and composed of
pure chemicals.
The termpositive expresses the condition of the point having
the higher electric energy or pressure, and, negative, the lower
relative condition of the other point, and the current is forced
through the circuit by the (E. M. F.) electric pressure at the
generator, just as a current of steam is impelled through pipes
by the generating pressure at the steam-boiler.
Care must be taken not to confuse electro-motive force with
electric force or electric energy, when matter is moved by a
magnet, we speak rightly of magnetic force when electricity ;
moves matter, we may speak of electric force. But, E. M. F.

is quite a different thing, not " force " at all, for it acts not on
matter but on electricity, and tends to move it.
Flc^tric Pumps.
THE DYNAMO, OR GENERATOR.

The word dynamo, meaning power, is one transferred from
the Greek to the English language, hence the primary meaning
of the term signifying the electric generator is, the electric
power maciiine.
The word gene/ator is derived from a word meaning birtli-
giving, hence also the dynamo is the machine generating or

giving birth to electricity.
Fio. 217.— See page -ISA.
Again, the dynamo is a machine driven by power, generally

steam or water power, and converting the mtxhanical energy
expended in driving it, into electrical energy of the current form.
To summarize, the dynamo-electric generator or the
dynamo-electric machine, proper, consists of five principal
parts, viz :
1. The armature or revolving portion.

2. The field magnets, which produce the magnetic field in
which the armature turns.
3. The pole-pieces.
4. The commutator or collector.

5. The collecting-brushes that rest on the commutator cylin-

der and take off the current of electricity generated by the
machine.
Fig. 218 shows a dynamo of the early Edison type — the
names of the principal parts are given in the note below, as well
as those of the other parts of the machine.
Fig. 218.
This is a two-pole machine,

direct current the figure is in-
;
troduced to show " "

the parts only as this —
dynamo has been
largely superseded by others of the four pole type.
—
Note. A, Magnet yoke B, Magnet and field piece C, Pole piece D,
; ; ;
Zinc field piece E, Armature F, Commutator I, Quadrant JJ, Brushes;

; ; ; ;
K, Adjusting handle for the brushes L, Switch pivot M, Pilot lamp re-
; ;
cepj;acle; N, Negative lug; O, Switch lever; P, Positive lug; Q, Positive

terminal ;R, Negative terminal S, Negative rod
; T, Pole piece
; UU, ;
Bearings X, Slides for belt tightener VVV, Driving pulley; Y, Connect-

; ;
•''
;ig blocks, one on each side of machine.
—
Electric Pumps. 249
An electric motor is a machine for converting electrical

<?nergy into mechanical energy ; in other words it produces
mechanical power when supplied with an electric current; a
certain amount of energy must be expended in driving it; the
intake of the machine is the term used in defining the energy
expended in driving it the amount of power
; it delivers to the
machinery is denominated its out-put.
The between the out-put to the intake is the real
difference
efficiency machine
of the it is well known ;that the total
efficiency of an electric distribution system, which may include
several machines, usually ranges from 75 to 80 per cent., at full
load, and should not under ordinary circumstances fall off more
than say 5 per cent, at one-third to half load ; the efficiency of
motors varies with their size, while a one horse-power motor
will, perhaps, have an efficiency of 60 per cent., a 100 horse-
power may easily have an efficiency of 90 per cent, and the

larger sizes even more.
The general and growing application of electric power to

the driving of all kinds of machinery including pumps makes
the questionof motor driving one of the most important in the
power field. For many purposes, a single speed is sufficient,
but for others, it is imperative that the speed should be
variable and for still others, though not absolutely necessary,
;
a speed adjustment is very desirable.

While the direct-current motor has been in this field so long
that its properties are well known and its possibilities fully
developed, in the operation of motors located in the immediate
neighborhood of the generator the alternating-current motor
has marked advantages where a large area of territory has to
be covered and the conditions are nearly uniform, that is to
say
Where the current has to be transmitted a long distance
and the load approximately constant, the alternating system
is
is preferred, ascan be operated with small main lines or con-

it
ductors. This effects a saving in copper, over the direct system

which requires larger conductors.
FlO. 219.
Fio. 220.
Electric Pumps. 251
Fig. 2 17, on page 247. shows n four-pole generator designed to

run by a belt or ilircclly connected to an engine. The five
parts named, as the principal parts of a dynamo, are all shown
in the figure. The machine is arranged ready to be bolted to
t! c floor.
Fig. 219 on the opposite page is the armature which is

made up of coils of insulated wire, the free ends of which, see
Fig 221.
Fig. 220, are united to the arms of the commutator bars. When
the armature is finished, as shown, the wire forms an unbroken
circuit.
Fig. 221 is intended to represent another form of armature,

but the principle upon which it operates, is the same, as the
Fio. 222.
other shown. A A, represents the wire coils of the armature,

B, is the shaft with its journals, C, is the commutator. All
commutators both for generators and for motor armatures are
insulated by mica between the bars.
Fig. 222 shows a ivovcn zvire brush. The brushes on the

dynamo, page 247, are niadt of carbou.
Fig. 223 shows an alternating inductio7i motor. Induction

is a property by virtue of which an electric current is trans-
ferred from one conducting line to another without any metallic
Fig. 223.
cojinection; it is that influence by which a strong current flow-

ing through a conductor controls or affects a weaker current
Fig. 224.
flowing through another conductor in its immediate neighbor-

hood, — the strong current remaining unaffected.
Fig. 224 exhibits the armature for the above alternator; it
Electric Pumps. 253
is familiarly called a " squirrel cage armature " on account of

its resemblance to the wheel in a squirrel's cage.
Its peculiar construction enables it to run without produc
ing any sparks; this feature renders it safe to run where there
are explosive gases which might be ignited by an electric spark
In the machine the hearings are cast solid with the end shields
thus assuring perfect alignment when properly turned. An
other feature is the automatic self adjusting bearings which arc
lubricated mc
chanically by rings
resting upon the
shaft. These rings
were formerly a
failure, but by the
use of mineral oils
are now a success.
This machine is
one of the simplest
designs of alter-
nating motors, the

example. Fig. 223,
is one developing
one hundred horse

power.
Fig. 225 shows
a revolving field
Fig. 225. with "spider." In
this construction
of generators or motors the field revolves in place of the arma-
tures, the first object of this design is to reduce the high rotat-
ive speed ; it is have a better electrical eflficiency.
also claimed to
The field spider consists of an extra heavy cast iron pulley
which is keyed to the shaft the low speed at which it runs
;
permits the employment of bolts to secure the field coils and

laminated pole pieces to the rim of the spider, as shown in the
engraving. With this construction each individual pole piece
/-an he removed and replaced independent of the others.
264 Pitvip'; and liyclraiitics.
The laminated pole piecf, one of which is shown in detail in

Figs 226-229, takes its name from the fact that it is built up
of a large number of layers of soft sheet iron, which it has been
demonstrated give a better electrical efficiency than a solid
iron. Soft iron is the most magnetic of all metals and is better
suited for pole pieces than steel.
It should be understood that each individual pole piece is
insulated from the others as well as from the spider. The

pieces of sheet iron are stamped out — like washers and are cut
apart and the ends united so as to form a continuous coil, like
a coil of wire and each coil is isolated ; mica is used between
the layers.
Figs. 226-229.
Fig. 230 designed to illustrate the front of a continuous

is
current two wire switchboard with circuit breakers these are ;
made up usually of marble or slate so that they will not burn ;
the Insurance Underwriters require a non-combustible material

at this place, as well as hangers, and insulators used for
conductors.
The Switches shown in the middle of the board, are enlarged

in Fig. 232, and are used for closing the connections with the
generators and lines running to various parts of the field to be
lighted or furnished with power.
The switch handles are made usually of wood or hard

rubber; the blades are of copper. The connections are soldered
into the sockets shown upon the ends of the screws which
project beyond the back of the switch-board.
Electric Pumps, 206
The upper row of figures as shown in Fig. 230 and enlarged

in the engraving, 231, are circuit-breakers. The use of these
is annlogous to lliat of the safety-valve upon a steam boiler, so
that when the pressure in the circuit exceeds that at which it
is set the " breaker " opens the circuit and thus prevents
damage.
Fio. 230.
In this case, the main contact formed by means of a

is
laminated brush while the final is made on carbon, the

stroke
motion of this breaker is by means of a toggle-joint which so
multiplies the power applied that it does not require much of
an effort to close it ; this device maintains the same speed in
operating the breakers when the circuit-breaker is tripped.
A Rheostat is a device for controlling the amount of elec-

tricity in a —
conductor by the insertion of coils of wire in a
—
box which may be successively switched in or out of the main
circuit by means of a lever and button-switch. The best place
to install a rheostat is on a wall or post, as the resistance trans-
forms a portion of the electric energy into heat, which heat
must be dispersed into the atmosphere.
A transformer is an induction coil employed usually for
lowering electric pressure, but it may also be used for rais-
ing the same, in which case it is sometimes called a booster.
A compensator is a transformer which works automatically.
Fig. 231. Fig. 232.
Ammeters record the quantity of ctirrent flowing through

the circuit, in amperes. Voltmeters record the pressure or
strength of the current in volts.
An Ampere is an electric current which would pass through

a circuit whose resistance is one ohm under an electro-motive
force of one volt. A Volt is an electro-motive force of suf-
ficient strength to cause a current of one ampere to flow against

a resistance of one ohm.
The ampere is the unit for calculations relating to the
quantity or volume of a current the volt is the unit for cal-
;
culating the pressure or strength of the current.

Electric Pumps. 257
The action of the electric current in producing rotation in

an electric motor is really quite simple. While many electrical
problems are comparatively complicated, the principal elements
in the operation of electric motors may be readily understood.
The fundamental fact in this connection is the relation between
an electric current and a magnet.
If a piece of round bar iron be surrounfled by a coil through
which an electric current passes, it becomes a magnet. In Fig.
233 the passage of a current through the coil of wire around the
iron bar in either direction, renders the iron a magnet, with
well-known properties. It will attract iron, and the space
all its
surrounding it becomes magnetic. Iron filings will arrange

themselves shown by the dotted lines in the
in the direction
figure. One end of the magnet is the North or positive -f pole
and the other the South or negative pole. —
If a wire, such as CD, be moved past either pole of the
magnet, th-re will be a tendency for current to flow in the wire
either from C to Z> or Z? to C, according to the character of
the pole past which it is moved, and to the direction of the
movement. If the ends of the wire CD are joined by a con-
ductor, so that there is a complete circuit, a current of elec-
tricity will flow through this circuit.
This circuit may be a simple wire, as shown hy the line

CEFD, or it may be the wire coils on machines enabling the
current to produce mechanical work, orit may be electric lamps
producing light. The indispensable feature is that there shall

be a complete unbroken circuit from C io D for the current to
flow, no matter how complicated or how long this circuit may be
This description of a dynamo and motor carries with it all
of the elementary theory of electric generators and motors

that is necessary for an 7.ttendant to know in order to take
reasonably intelligent care of electric machines. Further use-
ful knowledge must be acquired by studying the different
types of electric motors s.nd dynamos. All these other types
of direct current machines have the same elementary theorj'.
although their construction may be quite different.
By suitable illustrations the operation of the electric motor

as applied to pumps will be understood
easily its appli-
;
cation to other Hiachines is the same in theory and practice.
" Why an electric motor revolves" is a question well worth

careful, and, if necessary, long study.
The reason why there is a tendency for an electric ciiricnt

to flow in the wire CD when it is moved in the vicinity oi a
magnet is There are several theories, all more
not fully known.
or less complicated, and depending upon pure assumptions as to
Fig. «3.
the nature of an electric current. For practical purposes it

matters what the reason is tJie fact that current flows
little .
'ivhen there is an electric pressure in a closed circuit, is the im-
portant thing, and it serves all useful purposes to know that

current does flow, and that its direction and amount are always
the same under similar circumstances. There are many facts
in mechanics that are accepted and used practically, about
which little is known as to their fundamental and primary
causes, and this fact about motors and dynamos is, therefore,
only one of many which all must accept without a full and
complete explanation.
Electric Pumps. 259
The inttnsity of the electriC prefsure, or electro-motive

force, depends upon the velocity of revolution of the wire
sections in the armature and upon the strength of the magnets,
and the quantity of current depends upon the electro-motive
force and upon the amount of the resistance in the circuit.
Other things being equal, the current, flowing through a long
small wire, or greater resistance, will be less than through a
short, thick wire, or a less resistance.
Having seen that when a wire is moved in the vicinity of a
magnet an electric pressure is produced which will cause a
current to flow in a closed circuit, one can easily conceive of
many ways in which, by combining magnets and wires so that
n^T\
^^^^ -^ >"••
m
-.
.---:i
.^J^
J:^.---^
-^l^ ---J
_ 1^
y^ f--->r r
-
-^ V F \S!gJa
p>' um^
^
Fio. 334.
there will be a relative motion between them, a current of

electricity may be generated. In order to cause a continuous
flow the relative motion must be continuous; and if the cur-
rent is must be uniform.
to be uniform the motion
Two electro-magnets are shown in Fig. 234, in which the
North pole of one magnet is near the South pole of the other,
and the magnetic held between the two lies in the approxi-
mately straight lines between the two magnets, as indicated by
the dotted lines. If the wire CD be moved across this field
and ends be joined, as by the metallic circuit CEFD, a cur-

its
rent will flow in this circuit. The wire CD may be made to re-
volve around the wire EF, passing in front of one pole and
then in front of the other pole, as in Fig. 235. The current in
the circuit will pass in one direction when the wire is passing
one pole, and in the other direction when it is passing the other
pole. The connection between this elementary arrangement

and the dynamo is easily recognized. In the dynamo a mag-
netic field is produced by electric magnets, called " pole pieces,"
and a considerable number of wires similar to the wire CD
are placed upon an armature so that they revolve in front of
these poles*. Each individual wire produces current first in one
direction and then in another direction, as explained above ;
but if there be many wires there will always be the same

number in front of the North, or positive pole, and the same
num.bcr in front of the South, or negative pole, so that the
total or resultant action is practically uniform, and may be
made to produce a continuous current. Such a machine is
the common direct current dynamo, or motor.
:^^¥ffl]a
^^— '^ -^-^
Fig. 235.
A dynamo transforms mechanical into electrical energy, and

a inotor transforms electrical into mechanical energy. The two
operations are reversible, and may be effected in the same
machine a dynamo may be used as a motor, or a motor may
;
become a dynamo.
A
dynamo is a inotor tvJien it is driven by a current of
and it is a dynamo when it is driven by mechanical
electricity,
power and produces an electric current. If a motor be driven
by an engine, it can deliver a current of electricity which is
able to operate other motors or electrical apparatus or lights.
A simple form of electric machine is shown in Fig. 236, which
is a general form of the electric motor. In this there are
two projections of steel, H
and G, which are made electro-
magnets by the current flowing through the wires wound around
Electric Pumps. 261
them from any source of electricity, such as a battery at /

and J. These magnets have poles facing toward an armature,
"
A', on a shaft. The poles G and // are called the " salient
poles; the poles J/ and P are called the "consequent" poles.
The magnetic flow or field is shown by the dotted lines. On
the periphery of the armature are wires in the slots shown.
As this armature revolves, there will be a tendency for electricity
to flow through the wires.
"..-•'.'•fi:.:'';'.!'".';
Fio. !S6.
In order to distribute a current of electricity through these

wires it is necessary to make a complete circuit. As each of the
wires in the slots passes in front of a pole, a pressure or
electro-motive force will be generated, and its direction will
depend upon whether the pole is a North or a South pole, i. e.,
-f or—.
Note. —in the above illustrations I and J represent the ordinary electric
battery ; in electrical literature such marks always indicate a battery.

The pressure or electro-motive force generated in the wires

moving in front of the North, or positive field poles, will be in
one direction, while that of those in front of the South, or
negative field poles, will be in the opposite direction. Therefore,
if two such wires be connected together at one end of the
armature, the free terminals of the wires at the other end of the
armature will have the sum of the electro-motive forces gene-
rated in the two wires. The wires so connected can be con-
sidered as a turn of a single wire instead of two separate
wires, and this turn may be connected in series with other
turns, so that the resulting electro-motive force is the sum
of that in all the turns and all the wires so connected. It is
customary to connect the coils of an armature so that the
electro motive force given is that obtained from half the coils
in series. The other half of the coils is connected in parallel
with the first half, so that the currents flowing in the two
halves will unite to give a current in the external circuit equal
to twice the current in the two armature circuits or paths.
It is evident that, as the armature revolves, wires which
were in front of the positive pole will pass in front of the
negative, and that in order to maintain the electro-motive force
it will be necessary to change the connections from the ar-
mature winding to the external circuit in such a way that all
the wires between the two points of connection will have their
electro-motive forces in the proper direction. The connection
to the armature m.ust therefore be made not at a definite
point in the armature itself, but at a definite point with ref-
erence to the magnets, so that all the wires between two

field
points or contacts shall always sustain the same relation to

the field magnets.
For this purpose a device known as a "commutator" is
provided. The commutator is made up of a number of seg-
ments, as shown at ^, in Fig. 237, which are connected to the
armature winding. On the commutator, rest sliding contacts, or
brushes, which bear on the segments and are joined to an ex-
ternal circuit, making a continuous path through which current
may flow. As the commutator revolves, the different segments
Electric Pumps. 263
come under the brushes, so that the relative position of the

armature wires between the brushes is dependent on the po-
sition of the brushes. The armature wires which connect the
brushes are those sustaining the desired definite position to
llie field magnets, so that the currents from the armature at
all times flow properly into the external circuit, although in-
dividual armature wires carry currents first in one direction and

then in the other direction, depending on the character of the
pole in front of which they may be moving.
/y/////////////// / y /x
Fio. 237.
On two-pole machines there are two brush-holders, each

containing one or more brushes. On the four-pole machine
there may be eitb.cr two or four brush-holders, and on a six-pole
machine, either i vo, four, or six brush-holders.
A single path of the current through the commutator and

armature winding is shown by the arrows on Fig. 237. The
brushes B and C are placed on the top side of the commu-

tator to make them more accessible, and this shows a peculiar
but simple armature winding.
For the sake of simplicity, the batteries /andy, of Fig. 236,
are not used on common
forms of generators or motors, but the
current that flows from the armature through the commutator
is made to flow through the electro-magnets either in whole
or in part. If all of the armature current flows around the
electro-magnets or fields of the machine, it is a " series " ma-

chine ; if only a part of the current is used in this way, it is a
"
" shunt " machine ; that is,some of the current is " shunted
through the fields. Sometimes both the shunt and series
windings are used, and in that case the machine is called a
" compound wound " machine. Such a machine has a large
wire through which the main current passes, and a fine wire
through which the shunted current flows. Fig. 237 shows how
the commutator and the fields are connected, and how the
current flows from the wires in the armature through the
commutator in a series machine.
If the current delivered by a dynamo does not flow in the
desired direction, it can be reversed by shifting the wires in
the binding posts or by throwing a switch. If the motor does
not revolve in made to do so
the desired direction, it can be
by reversing the connections to the armature or field-coils; so
that, without knowing which way a current of electricity is to
be generated, any practical man can make a motor revolve in
a proper direction by simply changing its connections.
It is natural that a machine which gives out electric energy

when driven by an external power, should, when electric energy
is delivered to it, reverse its action and give out mechanical
power and do work.
Perhaps the simplest way to explain the cause of t'nc
movement of an electric motor, when supplied with a cuirent,
is to compare its action to the well-known attraction of unlike
poles or magnets and the repulsion of like poles. Unlike poles

are North and South like poles are two North or two South. In
;
ECectric Pumps. 265
all motors a current through the field causes a North or South

pole to be maintained, and a current through the armature
and brushes causes an opposite polarity. These constantly-
maintained unlike poles attract each other and pull the arma-
ture around on its axis.
It has been explained that if a motor be driven by a belt
an electro-motive force is produced and the machine acts as a

dynamo. It is also a fact that an electro-motive force is pro-
duced whether the power for driving the machine is received
from a belt or from the electric current, that is, whether the —
machine be driven as a dynamo or as a motor. In a dynamo,
however, the current follows the direction in which the electro-
motive force is acting. In a motor, the electro-motive force
produced has a direction opposed to that of the flow of cur-
rent. This may be illustrated by the following experiment.
Two similar machines are driven independently at 600 rev-

olutions and give an electro-motive force of 100 volts. Similar
terminals of the two machines are connected together; no cur-
rent flows between the machines, because the two pressures
are the same and are in opposite directions. If now the belt be
thrown off from one machine, its speed will begin to fall ; this
will lower its electro-motive force below that of the other ma-
chine or dynamo, but will not change the direction of the force.
There will now be a difference of pressure in favor of the ma-
chine which is driven, and it will deliver a current through
the other machine and run it as a motor. The speed of the
motor will continue to fall until the difference in pressure or
electro-motive force between the two machines is only sufficient
to cause the flow of enough current to keep the motor runniiig

against whatever frictional resistance, and other resistance there
may be. The electro-motive force generated in the motor,
which is against, or counter to that of the current in the circuit,
is called the " counter electro-motive force."
In order to determine how fast a motor will run without

doing work under any given pressure, it is not necessary to
knov/ anything about the dynamo that furnishes the oressurt.
The pressure alone is sufficient to determine the speed of the

motor. For instance, if a motor will give a pressure of 500
volts when ru;:.»;ng free at lOO revolutions, it will always run
at about 100 r.rolutions when not doing work on an electric
circuit where the pressure is 500 volts.
MAGNETIC NEEDLE,
Thefigure on page 242 shows a magnetic compass ntedle.
This used to test the direction of an electric current flowing
is
through a wire or cable conductor. The plus sign, +, is the

positive and the minus, —
sign is the negative end or pole.
,
A continuous current always flows front the positive to the

negative end or pole, hence the north end or pole, N, is the
positive end of the needle and the south pole, S, is the south
pole of the needle.
When one of these devices is held in close proximity to a
conductor of electricity it immediately assumes a parallel
position to the conductor and indicates the direction in which
the current is flowing. The long, upper arrow, as shown in
the figure, tells the direction of the flow. A small pocket
compass may be used in place of this device and is often
carried in the pocket of electricians for the purpose of indicat-
ing the direction of the current.
PUE^SURE IS NECESSARY TO PRODUCE AN

ELECTRIC CURRENT.
should be understood that an electric dynamo cr battery

It
does not generate electricity, for if it were only the quantity of
electricity that is desired, there would be no use for machines,
as the earth may be regarded as a vast reservoir of electricity,
of infinite quantity. But electricity in quantity without pres-
sure is useless, as in the case of air or water, we can get no
power without pressure, a flow of current.
;
Electric Pumps. 267
As much air or water must flow into the pump or blower at

one end, as flows out at the other. So it is with the dynamo
for proof that the current is not generated in the machine, we
can measure the current flowing out through one wire, and in
—
through the other it will be found to be precisely the same.
As in mechanics a pressure is necessary to produce a current
of air, so in electrical phenomena an electro-motive force is
necessary to produce a current of electricity. A current in

either case can not exist without a pressure to produce it.
ELECTRIC PUMPING MACHINERY.

Since the conditions surrounding pumping plants are so
widely different, it is impossible to treat every practical
application in detail, hence, the space allotted to this subject
lias been used in the preceding succinct and plain discussion of
the principles upon which electric power is applied to the
operation of pumps.
The following are some of the advantages claimed for
electric pumping machinery :
'•
Economy in operation and maintenance is the first and
must vital consideration demands the attention in the
that
installation of pumping machinery. In respect to economy,
the electric system has many important advantages. It is
saving in the transmission of power, and thus enables a pump-
ing installation to be situated at a considerable distance from
the source of power where the first cost and maintenance
expense of other systems would be almost prohibitive.
" The economy in space required is also worthy of considera-
tion. The driving mechanism of a modern electric pumping
outfit occupies a small amount of room and the space required
for wiring is negligible. In case of accident, any mechanical
injury to wires can be quickly and easily repaired — thus the
cco:iomy in time and expenditure for repairs. There is no
large loss by condensation. The only loss sustained with the
electric ^^ystQm in the transmission of power is a small loss due
2G8 Pumps and Hydraulics.
to line resistance, increasing directly with the amount of

water being pumped and ceasing entirely when the pump
is not in operation."
A well designed electric pump will give an efficiency of
.'rom 75 to 80 per cent. ; and, as the transmission loss depends
upon the weight of copper in the transmission line it can be
iTiade as low as the cost of power, and, 2, the investment in
copper will warrant,
DIRECTIONS FOR INSTALLATION.

1. It is important to locate the electric pump where it will
be dry and clean and where it will be thoroughly accessible

for proper care.
2. No pipes should be allowed to pass above the electric
motor where liquids are likely to drip upon it.

3. The suction or supply pipe must be as short and straight
as possible and must be air tight, as air entering the pump

through the suction reduces its capacity or prevents it from
working altogether.
4. A tight foot valve and a strainer should invariably be
used on the bottom end of the suction pipe when the water is
to be lifted from 8 ft. to 10 ft. below the pump. Where the
lift is excessive or for any reason the supply be limited, an air
chamber placed on the suction pipe near the pump will prove
beneficial in preventing slamming of the valves.
5. Provision should be made for draining both pumps and
pipes in cold weather by a proper application of frost cocks.

6. If the electric pump is kept dry, clean and well oiled, it
will prove the most desirable and least expensive apparatus to

be had for the service.
7. Ascertain the nature of electric current to be used.
Direct or alternating? Voltage? (If alternating, note phase and

number of alternations.)
Also record any unusual or peculiar circumstances con-
8.
nected with the installation or operation of the apparatus and ;
if so, what ?
Electric Pumps. 2G9
DOMESTIC ELECTRIC PUMPS.

In many
places the pressure on the mains is insufficient to
raise thewater to the upper floors or through improperly de-
signed systems of piping the pressure may be so diminished as
to make the flow extremely weak or the difficulty in securing
Fig. 238.
proper water supply may be due to inconvenient location with

reference to water mains. The autoviatic electric house tank
pumping playit has been designed and perfected to meet these
conditions; the electric plant is connected to some power or
lighting circuit and provided with an automatic attachment
0«livary
Suction c
Fig. 239.
requiring no more care than can be given by any casual attend-

ant. Such an installation avoids the smoke, ashes, dust and
objectionable odors that accompany steam or gas plants.
The accompanying diagram shows the general arrangement

of the automatic electric house system used with a tank in the
upper part of the building and the pump in the basement or
cellar. The operation is as follows :
Whenwater is being delivered to the tank, the float rises

until the upper knob makes forcible contact with the switch
lever, opening the switch and stopping the pump. When
water is withdrawn from the tank, the float falls until the
lower knob makes contact with the switch lever, which
again closes the switch and starts the pump. The supply
of water is thus maintained within the tank without the
aid of an attendant. The accompanying illustration, Fig. 238,
shows a Worthington house tank pump of 500 gallons per
hour capacity belted to a General Electric direct current motor,
the pump and motor being mounted on the same base.
Table of Capacity.
a,
Electric' Pumps. 271
ELECTRIC MOTOR AND AIR PUMP.

Fig. 240 isintended to show the application of the electric
motor to a triplexpump of small size, the plungers being 3^
inches in diameter. The Stroke is 4^ inches which gives a
capacity of 108 cubic inches per revolution, with a pressure c-f
50 lbs. to the square inch. The pumps require about one-half

horse power applied at the motor.
Fig 240.
The high speed of the motor is reduced by two belt pulleys

and two chain wheels. These pumps may be worked in-
dependently to produce pressure or vacuum as desired by a
separate pipe for each pump.
MOTOR AND CENTRIFUGAL PUMP.

Fig. 241 is intended to show the application of the electric
motor to a centrifugal pump these two machines are mounted
;
on one bed plate, directly connected by a flange coupling be-

tween them. The motor shown, is almost identical with the
machine illustrated. Fig. 217, and described on page 251. The
pump is so arranged that the discharge can be turned in any
direction desired. Wherever electric power is available and the
centrifugal pump is the form best adapted to the work, this
combination presents advantages over a steam engine operated
by a plain slide valve such as is generally used.
Fig. 241.
DIRECT DRIVEN MOTOR PUMP.

Fig. 242 shows a double pump driven directly, without gears
or belt, from the shaft of an electric motor. The pump cross-
heads are connected directly to cranks each end of the motor
at
shaft. The cranks are set at right angles and each pump is
double acting, or has two plungers connected by outside rods
and with outside packed stufifing-boxes, so that this portion of
the pump is always accessible.
Electric Pumps. 273
The plungers are 3^ inches diameter and 5^^ inches stroke.

The pump and motor are mounted upon a rigid box girder
frame : this unit is self-contained and occupies a relatively
small floor space.
Electric Drive for Fire Puvips. The importance of instantly
operating fire extinguishing apparatus can scarcely be exag-
gerated. The largest conflagrations are but little flames at <^hc
beginning, and if caught at the critical moment they make no
record of destruction for such service the electric current is
;
Pig. 242,
the ideal agent. A notable installation of electric-driven pumps

for fire service is in the Marshall Field store. Chicago, a
building occupying an entire city block. The outfit consists
of a Laidlaw-Dunn-Goidon duplex Underwriter pump connected
by single reduction gearing to a ivaterproof electric motor.
The pump cylinders, 8x12 inches, have a computed capacity
of 700 gallons per minute at 140 pounds water pressure. The
pump, besides its other special features, is claimed to be rust
proof throughout so that it will not get out of ready running

condition.
:
Electric Pumps. 275
ELECTRIC-MINING PUMPS.
The electric system luis especidl conveniences for mine
pumping because of its adaptability to long transmissions of
power; electric power can be transmitted to almost any distance,
and the pumps can be supplied with either direct or alternating
current motors. A mining outfit can be easily divided into a
number of parts, to facilitate lowering into a mine, after which
the assembling of the parts is a simple operation.
Stationary pumps for mine use are made in two classes
first, vertical pumps having cylinders in a vertical position in
which the over all height is comparatively great and the
horizontal dimensions as small as possible second, horizontal
;
pumps with cylinders in a horizontal position and having for

cross dimensions the over all length. The class of pump to be
selected, of course, depends upon the limitations of the location.
In either case, the motor used for driving the pump is mounted
on an extension of the pump base, making a self-contained and
compact outfit.
Engraving, Fig. 243, represents a Quintuplex pump used
principally in mining operations, or wherever large quantities of
water arc to be delivered under high pressure in the shortest
possible space of time. The pump here shown was designed
to deliver 225 gallons of water per minute under a head of i,2CXD
feet. It has five plungers 4 inches in diameter each and having
a uniform stroke of 12 inches.

These pumps driven by electric motors it is said represent
the most economical method of transmitting power, as com-
pared with the best designs of steam pumps. An efficiency of
80 per cent, is claimed for these pumps.
Note. — It is interesting to know

that in one of the largest electric pump-
ing installations which has ever been made for mining work, the power is
carried 2,500 feet underground at a jjotL-ntial of 3.500 volts and then
transformed into 220 volLs at the motors. i\o trouble has thus far re-
sulted from the high \ oltage or any other cause in regard to danger from
;
underground electric pumps, it can be stated that accidents due to the use
of electricity in such installations are almost unknown Induction inolors
are arranged to operate without moving contacts. They are there'ôre free
from sparks and can be used in mines where the presence of gases compels
the use of safety lamps.
276 Piimps and Hydraulics.
Fig. 244 exhibits an electric induction motor operating a

51^x8 portable track pump.
Portabilityan important feature in all pumps for mine
is
use ; pumps may be put into service immediately

and, as track
at any point on a system of tracks, they meet this requirement
better than pumps of any other form.
Such an outfit can be hauled to any point in the mine and
there operated from some convenient circuit such, foi instance,
as the circuit supplying power to mine locomotives.
Fio. 244.
The pump and motor shown in Fig. 244 are mounted on an

iron truck, no wood whatever being used in construction, so
that adjustment cannot be affected by moisture and an easy

running and durable pump is assured. The pumps are made
as compact and strong as possible for mine service, which is
usually exceptionally rough and continuous. They are of the
horizontal type which is best adapted for low passageways and
are designed so as to afford easy access to all parts. The pumps
are single acting and the plungers are provided with outside
stuffing-boxes, which can be packed, and being in sight, any
leakage can be quickly detected. Access to all valves is made
easy by the removal of one large hand-hole cover on the valve
chest.
THE STEAM PUMP.
The on the opposite page represents
illustration, Fig. 245,
steam piiuip ever made; on pages 67-69 will
:he first practical
be found an interesting account of it. The water end is single
acting ; the steam end is, of necessity, double acting to produce
the reciprocating motion. From this original design has been
evolved the piston Naive as well as many otherdesigns of valve
motion for pumps.
Having already taken up in some detail the construction of

" pump " and the necessary appliances con-
the parts of the
nected with its use, it now remains to consider the means by
which the steam power generated is made available and the
mechanism by which the energy is transformed from pressure
vita pumping power.
It may be well to consider at some length the " Steam
end" of the pump. This consists primarily of cylinders, to-
gether V. ith their connections; these constitute the muscular
system of the pump. The muscular or operating end is
separate and distinct from the water end so far as construction
is concerned but in operation the two are closely allied. It is
them in one
therefore necessary as well as convenient to unite
equipment and thus enable the propelling mechanism to furnish
a constant source of power.
So steam itself is concerned its

far as the elastic force of
history dates back to a periodtwo hundred years B. C, when,
as described by Hero, the force generated by steam was
utilized for actuating certain devices constructed rather for
curiosity than for any benefit which might be derived from
their use. Very little advance was made in the construction
of practical devices until the latter part of the eighteenth
century when James Watt by his improvements placed the
stationary engine on an operative basis and gave to the world
what has proved to be the greatest invention of all tim^
279
The first stationary steam engines were used for pumping

water and were of the single acting type, in which tlie steam
was admitted at one end of the cylinder, the opposite end being
open to the atmosphere. The steam acting on the piston
forced it to the h'mit of its stroke when the supply was cut off.
The steam then condensed in the cylinder, forming a partial
vacuum, and the force of the atmosphere upon the opposite
side of the piston forced it back, causing it to complete its
stroke before another supply of steam was admitted. This
was a slow process, wasteful of steam and attended with
many other inconveniences.
An improvement on this device was made in an engine
built by Watt in 1774. This was a single acting engine but
the condenser was separated from the cylinder. The valves
were so arranged as to admit live steam into the upper end of
the cylinder on the top of the piston and at the same time
open the lower end of the cylinder to the condenser. The
steam followed the piston in its downward stroke in which
action it was aided by the partial vacuum formed in the con-
denser. At the completion of the downward stroke the valves
were changed so as to close the ports to the steam supply and
the condenser, and at the same time open a communication
between the two ends of the cylinder equalizing the pressure
above and below the piston. The weight of the pump rod
on the beam or lever connection overbalanced the weight of
the piston and caused it to complete the return stroke.
In 1782 the double acting steam engine was patented by
Watt. This was a device in which the live steam acted on
each side of the piston alternately, the opposite side of the
Note. —This invention was of great historical importance as it covered

all the essential detail of modern practice in steam engine building and
constituted the fundamental principle of all steam engines.
Improvements have been made in form and construction, necessitated
by new adaptations which have been constantly developed. The require-
ments for higher speed, increased pressure which implies greater power,
and the constant desire for greater economy in fuel have produced a variety
of changes in detail but have not altered the fundamental idea.
y he Steam Pump. 281
cylinder being in communication with the condenser. The

same patent covered the method of applying the principle of
expansion of steam in the cylinder; a non-condensing engine
was also described.
When the steam after being utilized in the cylinder makes
its exit directly to the open air, the engine is called single
expansion for the reason that the action of the steam takes
place in one cylinder during a single stroke, and what expan-
sion takes place must be during one half of a revolution.
When the steam from one cylinder instead of exhausting into
the open air, is passed to a second cylinder, of larger area, and
by expanding exerts a pressure on a second piston to aid in
the completion of the revolution, the engine is called double
expansion- or conipouud, because the steam instead of completing
its work in a single operation is afforded a double opportunity
for expansion and an increased range of action. /;/ the single
temperature of the zvalls is reduced in each rev-
cylifider the
olution to correspond tvith that of the steam at the exhaust
pressure.
This temperature must be restored by incoming steam at
the beginning of a new stroke which means a reduction of
power. With a double cylinder owing to the greater range of
expansion, a higher temperature can be maintained in the first
cylinder and a large amount of initial condensation is prevented.
A still greater use of expansion may be obtained by the ifitroduc-
tionof a condenser which allows the final exhaust to be carried
below the atmospheric pressure to the extent of the vacuum
formed. In stationary and marine practice triple and quad-
ruple expansion engines are common. These are used in large
units to give the greatest possible economy in fuel.
Properties of Steam. — Before taking up in detail the valve
and other mechanism of the steam pump it may not be out of
place to consider briefly the action of steam and its expansive
properties. Heat is identical with mechanical force and the
one can be converted into the other. Aside from the means
used in converting or developing the action a certain quantity
of heat always produces a certain quantity of zvork^
1^
F^
;Jiau'_'« 'J'ilL'ltlUU
a
-^^
I
8f-
It
I
c
I ^
I
I I X
/JS Of, in
I
I
I I
Fig. 246.
The Steam Pump. 283
The temperature of steam at atmospheric pressure (14.7

lbs. absolute) is 212° Fahr. As the pressure increases th*.^
temperature rises, always the same for a gi\en pressure.

but is
The sensible heat required to raise the temperature of water

from 32*^ to 212° is "180° and the heat absorbed by the water
or latent heat at 212° is 996*^ making the total amount of heat
expended 1176°. As the temperature rises the latent heat
decreases in the same proportion as the sensible
nearly
heat increases. This number may therefore be taken as a con-
stant to express the unit of heat in one pound of steam from
^^1° up to the temperature at which evaporation takes place.
Then 1176 X 772=907,872 pounds raised one foot which
represents the mechanical equivalent or maximum theoretical
duty of the quantity of heat contained in one pound of steam.
One cubic inch of water if converted into steam at the

pressure the atmosphere (14.7 pounds) will occupy the
of
space of 1642 cubic inches or nearly one cubic toot. As the
pressure increases the Volume
is relatively diminished and if
the same quantity of water converted into steam say at 200

is
pounds pressure it will occupy a space of only 133 cubic inches.

Assuming that no loss occurred by condensation, if released at
this pressure it would expand and again occupy its relative
volume at atmospheric pressure.
This is illustrated by the accompanying diagram, Fig. 246,

showing a cylinder with an internal capacity of 1642 cubic
inches provided with a movable piston. A quantity of steam
representing that formed from one cubic inch of water is
forced into it, supposing the weight on the piston to be 200
lbs. per square inch, this weight will be raised until the space
under the piston occupied by the steam will be 133 cubic

inches. If the supply is now cut ofT (assuming that no con-
densation takes place) the piston will remain at this place

supporting its load. If the load on the piston is diminished
the volume of steam will expand and the piston will be coi iv -
spondingly raised in the cylinder. This action will be contiiiiu

until all the load is removed and only the weight of t:
284 Primps and Hydraulics,
atmosphere remains. Tlie volume of steam under the piston

will then be 1642 cubic inches. It will therefore be seen that
the same quantity of steam has exerted a lifting pressure upon
the piston due to its relative volume commencing at 200 pounds
per square inch and gradually decreasing until the pressure of
the atmosphere is reached.
The English unit of heat is that which is required to raise

the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit
and is known as the British Thermal Unit, or B. T. U. Dr.
Joule demonstrated by an ingenious device, Fig. 247, in which
a weight operated a
paddle wheel agitat-
ing water in a closed
vessel, that it required
"jji foot pounds to
raise the temperature
of one cubic foot of
water one degree, or,
on the other hand, it
was deduced that one
unit of heat was cap-
able of raising 772
^^" ^*'"
pounds one foot high.
The mechanical equivalent of heat is therefore accepted as 772
foot pounds for one B. T. U. based on Joule's experiment.*
The theoretical efficiency of the use of steam by expansion
can never be realized, owing to losses occasioned by condensa-
tion, caused by contact with the cooler walls of the cylinder,
the unavoidable friction of the working parts, and from the
fact that a certain portion of the pressure must be utilized to
create a draft for the fire. All these losses must be taken into
consideration in calculating the work actually done.
From the foregoing it will be readily understood that if thr
steam is allowed to exhaust from the cylinders at or near t^.
pressure at which it is admitted the work which it might h;iv
* Note. —This unit has been recently changed to 778.

The Steam Pump. 285
accomplished by expansion will be lost. This means not only

a loss of the steam but of a part of the fuel used to generate it.
It is therefore advisable to get all the work out of the

steam that is possible and the nearer to atmospheric pressure
the exhaust can be brought the greater will be the economy.
USEFUL DEFINITIONS RELATING TO STEAM.

Stcatn is water in a gaseous state the gas or vapor of
;
water; it liquifies under a pressure of 14.7 and temperature

of 212° F.
Steam is a joint production of the intermingling of water

and heat. Water is composed of two gases which have neither
color nor taste, and steam is made up of the same two gases
with the addition only of that mysterious property called heat
by which the water becomes greatly expanded and is rendered
invisible. The French have a term for steam which seems
appropriate when they call it water-dust.
This is what takes place
the formation of steam in a
in
vessel containing water in free communication with the atmos-
phere. At first, a vapor is seen to rise that seems to come
from the surface of the liquid, getting more and more dense as
the water becomes hotter. Then a tremor of the surface is
produced, accompanied by a peculiar noise which has been
called the singing of the liquid; and, finally, bubbles, similar to
air bubbles, form in that part of the vessel which is nearest to
the fire, then rise to the surface where they buist, giving forth
fresh vapor.
The curious fact must be here noted that if water be intro-

duced into a space entirely void of air, like a vacuum, it
vaporizes instantaneously, no matter how hot or cold, so that
of r.n apparent and fluid body there only remains an invisible
gas like air.
That steam is dry at high pressure is proved by an experi-

ment which is very interesting. If a common match head is
held in the invisible portion of the steam jet close to' th"
S86 Pumps and Hydraulics. '
Mozzle, it at once lights, and the fact seems convincing as to

complete dryness, as the faintest moisture would prevent
ignition even at the highest temperature. This experiment
proves dryness of the steam at the point of contact, but if
throttling exists behind the jet, the steam supplied by the
boiler may be in itself wet and dried by wire drawing.
Dead steam is the same as exhaust steam.
Live steam is steam which has done no work.

Dry steam is saturated steam without any admixture of
mechanically suspended water.
High-pressure steam is commonly understood to be steam
used in high pressure engines.
Low-pressure steam is that used at low pressure in con-
densing engines, heating apparatus, etc., at 15 lbs. to the inch
or under.
Saturated steam is that in contact with water at the same

temperature saturated steam is always at its condensing
;
point, which is always the boiling point of the water, with

which it is in contact in this it differs from superheated
;
steam.
Superheated steam, also called steam-gas, is steam dried
with heat applied after it has left the boiler.
Total heat of steam is the same as steam heat.

Wet steam, steam holding Avater mechanically suspended,
the water being in the form of spray.
Specific gravity of steam is .625 as compared to air under
Lhe same pressure.
The properties which make it so valuable are:
1. The ease with which we can condense it.
2. Its great expansive power.

3. The small space in which it shrinks when it is condensed
cither in a vacuum chamber or the air.
^^ cubic inch of water turned into steam at the pressure of

the atmosphere will expand into 1,669 cubic inches
The Steayn Pump. 2SY
THE DAVIDSON.
The Davidson pump is shown complete in Fig, 248 ; the
valve motion consists principally of a valve, valve pistons, valve
pin and cam. The main valve is operated by a positive me-
chanical connection between it and the main piston rod, also

by the action of steam on the valve pistons. The engraving,
Fig. 249, shows the details of valve gear and steam cylinder.
The steam end consists of the cylinder,
M, valve, A, and valve pistons, B and B.
These pistons are connected with suf-
ficient space between them for the
valve. A, covering the steam ports,
F and F,, Fig. 250.
Pia. 248.
The valve is operated by the steel cam, C, acting on a steel

pin, D, which passes through the valve into the exhaust port,
N, in which the cam is located. In addition to this positive
motion steam is alternately admitted to and exhausted from
the ends of the valve piston through the ports, E and E,, which
moves the pistons, B and B,.
Assumed that this pump is at rest with the valve, A, cover-
ing the main steam ports, F and, F,. in which position the cai.
288 Pumps and Hydraulics
C, holds themain valve by means of the valve pin, D, so that

ports, E and
E,, admit steam to one end of the valve piston at
the same time connects the other end with the exhaust port.
The steam, acting on the valve pistons, moves both, opening
the main ports, F and F,, admitting steam to one end of the
steam cylinder and open-
,fr3
ing the other end to the
exhaust. If the valve oc-
cupies any other position
than the one described, the
main ports, F and F,, will
be opened for the admis-
Fig. 249.
sion and exhaust of steam
consequently it is evident
that this pump will start
from all points of the
stroke.
On the admission of
steam to the cylinder the
main port, F, the main
Fig. 2oU.
piston,cam and valve will move in the direction indicated

by the arrows. The first movement of the cam oscillates
the valve, preparatory to bringing it into a proper position
for the opening of the auxiliary steam ports, E, to live
The Steam Pump. 280
steam, and E, to exhaust also to close the valve mechanically

just before themain piston reaches the end of its stroke. This
causes a slight cut-off and compression, and fully opens the
auxiliary ports, E, to steam, and E,, to exhaust. By the ad-
mission of steam to one end, the other being open to the ex-
haust, the valve pistons move the valve to allow the admission
and exhaust of steam from the cylinder for the return stroke.
This main valve is as much under the control of the piston
rod as is the valve of an ordinary
steam engine worked by an ec-
centric which insures a positive
action, the pump being capable
of starting from all positions
and maintaining a uniform and
full stroke.
To set the valve piston, push
the main pistons to the end of
D the stroke until the inner edge
of the port and the piston coin-
cide, then loosen the side lever,
turn the cam, C, until the valve
piston uncovers the auxiliary
B steam port, E, leading to the.
same end of the steam chest
occupied by the main piston.
After setting, secure the
cam and then connect the side
lever to the connecting rod.
Fig. 251.
The side lever and cam occupy
correct relative positions, therefore, the lever should be secured
to the cam shaft while in this position. The stroke may be
regulated by raising or lowering the end of the connecting rod
in the slotted end of the slide lever. Raising the connecting
rod shortens the stroke and lowering itlengthens the stroke.
When making the foregoing adjustments it is well to have the
connecting rod at or near the bottom of the slot as shown in
the engravings.
LAJDLAW-DUNN-GORDON.
The single cylinder pumps of this make are equipped with
the gear illustrated in Fig. 252, in sizes varying from 4 inclu s
in diameter by 5 inches stroke to 28 inches in diameter by 2\

inches stroke.
The arrangement of valves and ports is shown in the cr.
gravings, Figs. 253 and 254.

The admission of live steam to the cylinder and of exhaust
steam to the atmosphere is controlled by a valve piston, A.
shown in Fig. 252.
flG. 252.
Assume that the piston is in position shown, Fig. 253, arid

that both the main a/.d auxiliary valves cover their respective
steam ports. By means of a starting bar, operating through a
stufifing-box in the valve chest, the piston valve, A, is moved to-
ward the head of the steam chest, D, thus opening the ports, E
and L, and admitting live steam through L, from the cavities, S,
of the valve piston to the housing end of the main steam
cylinder, through the port, F, Fig. 255, forcing the main piston,
P, toward the opposite end of the stroke, or toward the left in
the figure. The port, E, Fig. 253, being open, the exhaust
The Steam Pump, 291
steam capes from front of the main piston through the port,
F, Fi^^ 255, into the main exhaust port, Ci, through the
IKJit, E. The extreme left position
piston, V, travels to its
and the auxiliary slidebeen drawn to such a
valve has
position in the direction indicated by the arrow in the smaller
drawing in Fig. 352, as to bring valve piston, A, toward
Fig. 2;53. Fig. 2'4.
the opposite end ; the exhaust steam from the steam chest
escapes from before it, through the exhaust port, K. the open-
ing of which into the chest is at such a distance from the
head as permit sufficient exhaust steam to remain to

will
afford a cushion to the valve piston.
•
O"
^^ 2^
Fig. 2.V>. Fig. 253.
With the auxiliary slide valve in position to bring the

hole, H, over the port, J, Fig. 256, it is plain that the exhaust
through the port, K, will pass into the main exhaust through
the port, L. With the main piston at its extreme travel to-
ward the right, the ports, E and L, which correspond to F
and F, respectively, in Fig. 255, are opened in such a manner
as to exhaust steam to the atmosphere from the housing end
of the steam cylinder through the port, F, and live steam
from the chest to the head end of the main cylinder, through
the port, F, thus driving the main piston, P, toward the hous-
ing end of the cylinder, or toward the right. The piston and
reciprocating parts traveling in this direction move the auxiliary
slide valve to its maximum point of travel in the opposite
direction, thus opening the opposite auxiliary steam and ex-
haust ports and again driving the valve piston toward the head,
D, of the steam chest, whence a new stroke begins.
Lost motion in the valve gear is taken up by adjustable
links, on all sizes above 7 inches diameter by 10 inches stroke
and on some smaller sizes.
Cushioning of the steam pistons in the larger sizes and up-
wards is accomplished by means of suitable valves called
cushion valves. In the smaller sizes sufficient cushioning is
done by exhaust steam passing from the clearance space next

the head through a small hole drilled into the main steam port.
To set the valve of this pump it is only necessary to place
the piston in its central position and adjust the lever so that
the valve will occupy its central position. By this proceeding
the travel of the valve is equalized.
THE FOSTER.
Fig. 257.
The Foster single cylinder pump valve motion is a compound

valve piston and slide valve in one piece and performs the office
The Steam Pump. 293
of both a main and auxiliary valve. It seats over the main

steam cylinder on the web or casting connecting together the
valve pistons, and is provided at the bottom with vents or open-
ings, A and B, Fig. 257, for opening and closing the main steam
ports to the main steam cylinder. The sides of this valve are
cut to form the recesses, C and D^ which are for the purpose cA
opening and closing the small steam ports, which admit steam
to the valve pistons it is also provided with L shape slots for
;
the purpose of alternately exhausting steam from the valve

pistons through the steam ports.
In operation the main piston rod commences its,forwaid

stroke,motion is communicated to the vertical arm, which
moves forward on the rod until it engages with one of the
cams, Ey Fig. 259, adjusted on the valve stem. The arm com-
ing in contact with the inclined faces of the cam imparts a
rollingr or oscillating movement to the stem and valve, opens
29-1 Pumps and Hydraulics.
one of the recesses, C or D, cut in the side of the valve and ad-
mits steam through a port to one of the valve pistons. At the
same tilSid this oscillating movement of the valve opens the
slot, i^. Fig. 260, opposite the first, and exhausts steam through
the alternate port from the other piston.
Steam thus admitted to one of the
pistons (while exhausts from the other
piston), carries the valve over its seat,
and by means of the vents, A and B,
steam is admitted through one of the
main ports and exhausts through the
other. When the main piston has com-
.
pleted one stroke, it moves backward

on its return the arm strikes against
;
the other cam on the valve stem and

'////////////////////////////////////////!.
communicates a reverse motion to
Fig. 260. the valve which closes and opens the
alternate ports to admit and exhaust
steam to and from the pistons. It also cushions the piston at
the end of each stroke which prevents the piston from striking
the heads.
To set This can best be done by starting the
the valves.
pump slowly and adjusting the cams, E, so as to open the valve
at the proper time to compel the piston to inake a full stroke.
A little experimenting combined with good judgment is all
that is necessary, unless the piston valve be badly worn, in

which case a 7iew valve must be substituted and fitted to the
valve chest.
—
The Steam Pump. •2D5
THE CAMERON.
The plunger Cameron pump is reversed by means of
in the
two plain tappet valves, shown in the accompanying engraving,
Fig. 261, and the entire valve mechanism consists of four
pieces, all of which work in a direct line with the main piston.
This pump is simple and has no delicate parts.
As here represented A is the steam cylinder; C, the main

piston ; Z, the steam chest ; F, the valve piston, the right-hand
Fig. 261.
end of which is shown in section G, the slide valve H, a lever,

; ;
by means of which the valve piston, F, may be moved by hand

when expedient /, /are reversing valves; K, A" are the revers-
;
ing valve chamber bonnets, and E, E are exhaust ports leading

from the ends of steam chest direct to the main exhaust. The
passages, M, M, lead directly into the exhaust (although the
connection is not shown, being cut away in the sectional view),
and closed by the reversing valves, /, /.
The piston, Cy is driven by steam admitted under the B

slide valve, G, which, as itbackward and forward, alter-
travels
nately supplies steam to opposite ends of the cylinder, A. The
slide valve, G, is operated by the valve piston, F ; F hollow at
the ends, which arc filled with steam, which, issuinj^ through a
hole in each end, fills the spaces between it and the heads of the
steam chest in which it works.
The pressure being equal at each end, the valve piston, F,
under ordinary conditions, is balanced and motionless; but
when the main piston, C, has traveled far enough to the left
to strike and open the reverse valve, /, the steam exhausts
from behind the valve piston through the port, E. The
pressure being now unequal behind the two ends, the valve
piston immediately shifts accordingly and carries with it the
slide valve, G, reversing the piston. No matter how fast the
piston may be traveling, it must instantly reverse when it
touches the valve, /.
In its movement the valve piston, F, acts as a slide valve to

close the E, and is cushioned on the confined steam
port,
between the ports and steam chest cover. The reverse valves,
/, /, as soon as the piston, (T, leaves them, close by the constant
pressure of steam behind supplied direct from the steam chest

through the ports, N, N, shown by dotted lines.
To set the valve, it is only necessary to keep valves tight
by occasional grinding. The piston as it nears the end of each
stroke strikes the stem and lifts the valve off its seat ; this
allows the exhaust steam behind the piston valve to escape.

The live steam pushes the piston towards the exhausted end
carrying the main slide valve along with it.
297
The Steam Pump.
THE MASON.
pre-
The Mason pump has a valve piston, a main valve, a
connected directly to the valve stem,
liminary valve and a yoke
as shown in Fig. 262. The valve piston is contamed a m
and moves the main valve by
cylinder above the steam chest,
the top.
means of a pin, which projects into a pocket in
valve travel on the same
The main valve and preliminary
the yoke, E, Fig. 263. which
seat and receive their motion from
preliminary valve neatly,
surrounds them. This yoke fits the
the main^valve and valve
allowing an independent movement of
piston.
Fro. 202.
The preliminary valve is the ordinary D type and controls

steam ports are con-
three ports, as shown in Fig. 263, the two
cylinder and the ex-
nected with either end of the auxiliary
haust, with the small port. A, in the
main valve seat. The duty
of the preliminary valve to alternately connect each end of
is
the auxiliary cylinder with this port.

The main valve controls
four ports, and is also of the type, having an extended cavity
D
valve with the
connecting the exhaust from the preliminary
the main steam
main exhaust. The main valve also controls
and exhaust ports of the pump cylinder.
Steam enters the chest through the steam pipe, passes

around the central portion of the valve piston and through the
passages in the piston to both ends of the valve cylinder, thus
balancing the valve piston.
Suppose that the yoke and preliminary valve have been
carried to the back end of the chest, and have moved the main
valve to bring its auxiliary cavity over the auxiliary port, A,
Fig. 263, in the main valve seat, which connects the back end
of the auxiliary cylinder with the main exhaust. The steam
from the end of the chest passes up through port, B, down
through port, C, and up through port, A, into the exhaust
port, D, in the main valve. This unbalances the auxiliary pis-
ton, which is driven back by pressure on the opposite end, and
carries the main valve inde-
pendent'ty of the yoke. The
travel of the main valve causes
it to cut off the exhaust from
the auxiliary cylinder, and the

remaining steam cushions the
valve piston.
The main valve
travel of the
also opens the main steam port
to the forward end of the pump FiQ 363.
cylinder, and connects the back
end of the cylinder with the main exhaust, thus reversing the
motion of the piston.
This action is repeated at the end of each strcnoe.
Whatever position of the piston, the pump will start
when steam is turned on, as there is always a connection
either directly from the steam inlet to one of the steam ports,
or, if the main valve has covered both steam ports, it is in a
position to connect the auxiliary cavity in the main valve seat
with the main exhaust, which at once releases the steam from
one end of the valve piston, and the pressure on the other end
drives the piston, thus moving the main valve and giving direct
communication between the steam inlet and one of the main
steam ports.
The Steam Pump. 299
Thus it is seen that the piston cannot get into a position

where it is impossible for it to respond to the steam pressure.
To set tJic valve place the piston in the mid-stroke position

and set the auxiliary valve with rocker arm plumb, and
the preliminary valve covering all its ports equally.These
positions may be secured by adjusting the position of the
clamp on the valve stem and move the main piston sufificiently
so that the auxiliary valve will open one of its ports.
THE BLAKESLEE.
Fig. 364.
The accompanying engraving, Fig. 264, shows a section of

the slide valve chamber, which is fitted to the top of cylinder.
The slide valve, B, is the valve chamber. A, the tut-off
fitted in
valve, C, works on top of the slide valve and is operated oy the
valve stem, D. The lever, F, which moves the valve, is attached
to the crosshead on the piston rod. While the crosshead moves
the length of the stroke, the cut-off valve, C, moves twice the
300 Pumps and Hydraului>.
width of the steam ports in the cylinder. The opening in the
cut-off valve, C, is equal to the length of the dog, E, plus the

throw of the slide valve, B, plus one-sixteenth inch. The length
of the valve chamber on the inside is equal to the length of the
cut-off valve minus the throw of the cut-off valve. The valve
stem, D, is connected to the cut-off valve, C, so that it moves
the latter valve a distance proportional to the movement of the
steam piston. The opening through the cut-off valve is equal
in width to the distance from inside to inside of the ports on
top of the slide valve. As the piston moves to the right, as
shown in the drawing, the cut-off valve moves to the left, so as
to open the right-hand end of the valve box and admits steam,
which acts upon the slide valve and moves it to the left-hand
end of the valve box. This opens the port wide in the slide
valve, which corresponds with the port leading to the cylinder
while in the upper side of the slide valve the port is nearly
closed by the cut-off valve, so that little steam is admitted to
the cylinder; consequently, the piston is gradually started on
its return stroke. On the return stroke the cut-off valve be-
gins to move and opens one of the ports on top of slide valve,
which stands still until the piston has made a half stroke.
By this time the valve is wide open "full port" to the
cylinder. The cut-off valve, C, coming in contact with the
dog, E, both the slide valve and cut-off valve move together
to the end of the stroke. Notice that as soon as the cut-off
valve, C, engages the slide valve and it begins to move, the
port to the cylinder closes so that at the end of the stroke but
little steam can get to the piston. The cut-off valve opens the
valve box, A, to admit steam to complete the stroke of slide
valve, and should the steam fail to throw the slide valve, the
piston, by means of the cut-off valve, C, coming in contact with
the dog, E, moves the slide valve, thereby opening the opposite
port and preventing the piston from striking the cylinder head.
The lower corner of the slide valve, B, is removed and a slot
cut to the exhaust port, the slot being of sufificient sjze to
release the steam from the ends of the valve box and exhaust
pressure of it into the pocket of the slide valve.
The Steam Pump. 301
The movement of this valve very much resembles that pro-

duced by means of an eccentric. The movements of the valves
are so timed that as the main piston nears the end of the stroke
its movement is sufficiently retarded to permit the water valves
to seat quietly and without jar, also on the return stroke, the
steam is so gradually admitted that the piston starts with ease
and gradually increases its speed to the middle of the stroke,
from which point it gradually decreases toward the opposite
end. A proper adjustment of the cut-ofif valve allows the piston
to stop momentarily at the ends of the stroke without any possi-
bility of striking the cylinder heads.
To Set tlie Valve. Adjust all joints so that there will be no
lostmotion in the valve gear. Then move the crosshead to
the end of its stroke, and see that the
opens the
cut-off valve
valve chamber one-sixteenth of an inch, and that the steam
valve closes the port leading to the cylinder to within one-six-
teenth of an inch. Next move the crosshead to the other end
of its stroke and note that the valves are in the same relative
position. from any cause the cut-off valve does not open
If,
correctly to admit steam to the valve chamber at the ends of

the stroke of the piston, the valve can be shortened by filing
off the ends. This should not be done, however, until all lost
motion has been taken up in the valve gear.
THE HOOKER, WITH OUTSIDE VALVE GEAR.

In this pump (see Figs. 266, 267) the steam is admitted to
the center of the valve chamber which contains the main valve,
A, and the supplemental slide valve, B. The recess in the center
of the valve piston, C, receives the main valve and moves it
when steam is supplied to or exhausted from either end of the

valve piston.
In operation live steam passes through the left-hand ports,
D and E, drives the main piston to the right and the exhaust
passes out of the right-hand port, F, into the cavity in the
main valve. A, thence through the exhaust port, G, into the
atmosphere.
Asthe main piston nears the right-hand port, the valve

lever H, attached to and moving with piston rod brings the
dog. I, on plate, J, in contact with the valve arm, K. This
moves the supplemental valve, B, to
the right and supplies live steam to
the right of the valve piston, C,
and exhausts the steam from the left-
hand end through the ports, L. The
main valve, being enclosed by the
valve piston, moves with it to the Fig. 265.
Fig. 266. Fig. 267.
left. As the steam enters the right hand main port and ex-
hausts from the left hand port, the main piston commences its
return stroke and the operation just described becomes practi-

cally continuous. As the main piston closes the main port, F,
to the right, it cushions on compressed exhaust stoam, because
the main valve, A, has then closed the auxiliary port, M, lead-
ing to that end of the main cylinder. The steam in this case
is supplied through the main and auxiliary ports, but exhausts
through the main port only.
The slow movement of the main piston near the ends of
the stroke allows the pump valves to seat quietly, and gives
the pump cylinder time to fill with water, thus effectually pre-
venting shock and noise. The valve piston, C, is cushioned by
The Steain Pump. 303
cushion valves, which arc simply loose valves inserted near the
ends in the valve piston. By removing the steam valve
chamber, the main and supplemental valves may be readilj'
examined or repaired. These valves are the ordinary plain flat
slide withwhich all cnsîneers are familiar.
To set the I'lihc of //lis pump. Place the piston in the
center of its travel with the valve lever, H, plumb and also
valve arm, K, plumb ; adjust the supplem.ental valve so as to
cover equally all the posts, which is done by lengthening or
shortening its valve stem.
THE NATIONAL.
The main valve in this pump is moved by steam acting
upon a valve piston. The steam admitted to and released
from the auxiliary cylinder is
controlled by a small slide valve

operated by the valve gear.
This small slide valve is in everj'
essential feature identical with

the slide valve of a steam
engine, admitting and releasing
the steam in precisely the same
Fig. 269.
manner. In this pump the usual collars and tappets on the

valve stem are dispensed with, the stem receiving motion
by means of a roller carried by a slide block to which the valve

stem is attached.
The roller is given a lateral motion by set screws in the

forked ends of the rocker arm, as shown in the engraving,
Fig. 269. Wy adjusting these set screws the travel of the small
slide valveis made to suit the speed of the pump, thus pre-
venting the main piston from striking the cylinder heads.
A sectional elevation of the cylinder and main valve is
also shown ; the connection of the valve piston to the main

valve, also the construction of the small slide valve. The
valve gear is provided with roller bearings to reduce the
friction.
To set the valve. The main piston must be moved to the

end of the stroke, so tha^ 'he face of the piston and the edge
of the steam port arc flush, as a preliminary step to set the
small slide \alve, then the set screw in the rocker arm nearest
the roller on the valve stem should be adjusted so that when
the roller is in contact with the set screw the small slide valve
will have opened the steam port corresponding to the position

of the main piston.
Now push the main piston to a corresponding position at

the opposite end of the stroke and adjust the other set screw
nearest the roller on the valve stem in the same manner as the
first one.
Mark the striking points of piston on the piston rod

close to the stuffing-boxes. Start the pump slowly, and if the
parts work smoothly, gradually increase the speed, keeping
close watch of the striking points to see that the piston has
ample clearance.
If the stroke is too short, the set screws should be backed

out until the stroke is found to be right. Screwing the set
screws in shortens the stroke and increases the clearance at
the ends of the stroke. A full stroke should always be re-
quired of every pump.

The Steam Pump. 305
THE HILL.
This pump isdeep wells it has a valve piston and two

for ;
slide valves operated by valve stem, also supplemental port

valves to regulate and control the up and down strokes of the
main piston. The main and auxiliary valves are both flat
slides, each covering five ports, as shown in Fig. 271. The
main valve is actuated by means of a valve piston, the steam
being admitted to and exhausted from the ends of the valve

piston in precisely the same manner that the main valve con-
trols the admission and release of steam in the main pump
cylinder.
One of the auxiliary ports
enters the end of themain
steam chest, and the other
enters at a point nearer the
middle of the chest. The end
ports are admission only and
Fig. 271.
the inner ones exhaust. When the auxiliary valve reaches the
upper end of its travel, as shown in the engraving, the admis-
sion port opens at the bottom of the steam chest, while the one
at the top closes.
At the same time, the upper end of the main cylinder
is open to the exhaust. The admission of steam drives the
valve piston upward, but before reaching the end of its stroke
it closes the exhaust port, thus entrapping a portion of the
exhaust steam, which cushions the valve piston at the ends of

the stroke.
The auxiliary slide valve is operated by means of a double-

cone tappet on the piston rod, which strikes a rocker bar
pivoted to the frame of the pump. The rocker bar carries an
arm or lever at right angles to it and to this arm the valve rod
is connected.
A short shaft runs across and through the upper part of the
steam chest and provided with a toe, as shown, by means of
is
which the valve piston may be moved by hand when necessary

and without disconnecting any part of the pump or valve gear.
The port valves pro-
vide a simple means of
contracting these pas-
sages and regulating the
velocity of the up and
down strokes to meet
the requirements of the
water ends of the pump
so that uniform strokes
are obtained regardless
of the resistance against
the main piston.
When adjusting the
auxiliary valve, place
the rocker bar parallel
to the piston rod and so
that the arm to which
the valve rod is con-
Fig. 272. nected will stand at right
angles to the piston
rod. The must then cover all the ports equally.
auxiliary valve
The upper or outer end of the arm on the rocker bar is slotted,
hence moving the valve rod pin toward the end of the arm
lengthens the stroke and moving it toward the piston rod
shortens it.
To set the valve of this pump it is necessary only to square

the levers and equalize the Iravcl.
The Steam Pump. 307
THE GUILD AND GARRISON.

The steam chest of this pump differs somewhat from other
pumps in which valve pistons are employed to operate the
main valve. See accompanying engraving, Fig. 272. This
pump has a steam chest with a cover for inspection and repairs.
This chest is bored at each end to form suitable cylinders to
receive the valve piston, E. By the side of the valve piston, E, in
FlO. !?73.
the steam chest is an auxiliary slide valve, G, Figs. 273 and 274,
which admits and releases the steam from the ends of the valve
piston. The valve piston, E, has two slots at the center, the
lower one receiving the lug on the back of the main valve and
the upper one the toe on the rocker shaft, D. The rocker
shaft has two toes, the larger one, F, engaging with the valve
Fig. 274.
piston, and the smaller one with the auxiliary slide valve, G,
as shown in Fig. 274. The auxiliary, as well as the main,
valves arc plain slides designed to take up the wear automati-
cally. The pendulum lever, J, Fig. 273, is connected with the
piston rod as shown and rotates the shaft, D, and by means of
the toes the valves move to<jether.
308 Piujips and Hydraulics.
Theauxiliary slide valve, G, admits and exhausts the steam

to and from the ends of the valve piston. Steam being
admitted, the piston moves toward one end. The two valves
also move in the same direction by means of the rocker shaft
and the toes. This movement continues until the piston has
nearly completed its stroke, when the auxiliary valve opens
one of the small ports leading to the end of the valve piston,
thus admitting steam at one end and exhausting it from the
other. The valve piston moving from one end of the steam
chest to the other, shifts the position of the main valve and
reverses the motion of the main piston. The valve piston is
moved the greater part of its travel by the toe on the rocker
shaft, thus reversing the steam distribution, by steam pressure,
which brings the opposite end of the slot in the driver to a
second engagement by the toe on the rocker shaft which begins
the return stroke.
The steam acts tothrow the main valve only near the ends
of the valve travel, and being already in motion the valve requires
but very slight help to complete its stroke quickly without
shock.
The motion of the auxiliary valve synonymous with the
is
main piston so there can be no practical dead center. The

valves are very durable under such easy motion.
With this arrangement of valves no setting is necessary
because when assembling the parts the centers of the pendulum
lever and the toes on the rocker shaft are adjusted parallel with
one another.
THE McGOWAN.
The McGowan steam pump and section is
single cylinder
shown in Fig. 275. main valve is of the B form and is driven
Its
by a valve piston. Steam enters the central port in valve seat
and into the cylinder through one of the cavities in the
valve and exhausts through the opposite. The two tappet
valves cover the auxiliary ports, shown by dotted lines, leading
to the ends of the steam chest and connect with the main
exhaust ports. These tappet valves are raised by means of
The Steam Pump. 309
levers, the ends of which project, downward and into the

cylinder so that when the piston ncars the end of a stroke it
conies in contact with the lever and raises it sufficiently to

lift the tappet valves.
Each tappet valve lever is pivoted on a pin which fits into

a recess near the main ports, as indicated by the dotted lines.
When the piston reaches the end of its stroke it lifts one
of the tappet levers and with it the corresponding valve is

raised from its seat, opening the port leading from the end of
the steam chest to the main ex-
haust port. The pressure is thus
relieved on one end of the valve
piston and the steam pressing on
the opposite end forces the valve
piston to the opposite end of its
stroke, thus reversing the dis-
tribution of steam
to the cylinder and
starting the piston
on its return
stroke. The valve
piston thus moves
back and forth, the
ends of the steam
chest being filled
with steam at
/^<yy?»^»»y^x?;»t»^^^
initial pressure.
Steam escaping from one end of the steam chest causes a differ-
ence of pressure on the two ends of the valve piston, from which
we realize the power to move the main valve. The tappet
valves, having a very slight lift, operate without shock or noise.
The main valve is connected with the valve piston so that all
lost motion is taken up automatically.
A rocker shaft, extending through the steam chest carries

a toe moving in a slot in the top of the valve piston, so that
the valve can be moved by hand.
310 rnui/s iX'ui HydrauUcs.
To set the valves of this pump.

Simply keep the valves in
order. The motion of the piston as it nears the end of the
stroke opens and closes the valves.
THE KNOWLES.
In the Knowles pump a valve piston, G, Fig. 277, in the
steam chest moves the main valve. This valve piston is driven
B
Fig. 276.
alternately backward and forward by the pressure of steam,

carrying with the main valve, which admits steam to the
it
main steam piston that operates the pump. The main valve is
a plain slide whose section is of g
form, working on a flat seat.
Fig. 277
The valve piston is back and forth by the

slightly rotated
rocker bar, H this rotative
;
movement
places the small steam
ports, D E F, Fig. 276, which are located in the under side of
the valve piston in proper position with reference to the cor-
responding ports, A B, cut in the steam chest. Steam
enters through the port at one end and fills the space between
The Steam Pump. 311
the valve piston and the head, drives the valve piston to the
end of its stroke and carries the main slide valve with it. When
the valve piston has traveled a certain distance, a correspond-
ing port in the opposite end is uncovered and steam enters,
stopping its progress by giving it the nccessar)' cushion, in
other words, when the reciprocating rotative motion is given to
the valve piston through the outside mechanism, it opens the
port to steam admission on one end, and at the same time
opens the port on the other end to the exhaust. There is
no point in the stroke at which either the valve piston or the
main piston is not open to direct steam pressure, hence the
immunity from any dead position or dead center.
The operation of the pump is as follov/s : The piston rod
with its tappet arm, J, Fig. 277, moves backward and forward
with the piston. At the lower part of this tappet arm is attached
a stud or bolt. K, on which is a friction roller, I. This friction
roller, lowered or raised, adjusts the pump for a longer or
shorter stroke. This coming
roller in contact with the rocker
bar at the end of each stroke, and this motion is transmitted
to the valve stem, causing the valve to This roll slightly.
action opens the ports, admits steam and moves the valve
pis'on, which carries with it the main slide valve which admits
steam to the main piston. The upper end of the tappet arm
does not come in contact with the tappets, L M, on the valve
rod, unless the steam pressure from any cause should fail to
move the valve piston, in which case the tappet arm moves it
mechanically.
To set the valve, loosen the set screws in the tappets
on the valve stem. Then place the piston at mid-stroke, and
have the rocker bar, H, in a horizontal position, as shown in
the engraving. The valve piston should then occupy the
position shown at C, Fig. 276. The valve piston may be rotated
slightly in on.ler to obtain this position by adjusting the length
of connection between the rocker bar, H, and the valve stem.
Then turn the valve piston, G, one way or the other to its ex-
treme position, put on the chest cover, and start the pump
slowly.
312 Pumps and Hydraiiizcs.
If the pump should make a longer stroke on one

end than on
the other, simply lengthen or shorten the rocker
connection so
that the rocker bar, H, will touch the rocker roller,
I, equally
distant from the center pin,
J.
In case the pump hesitates in making its return

stroke, it is
because the rocker roller, I, is too low and does not
come in
contact with the rocker bar, H, soon enough. To raise
it, take
out the rocker roller stud, K, give the set screw in this
stud a
sufficient downward turn, and the stud with its
roller may at
once be raised to its proper height.
(atal.^.,«lllH:.W,H„,j^W
When the valve rod has a tendency to tremble, slightly

tighten the valve rod stuffing-box nut. When the
valve motion
is properly adjusted, the vertical
arm should not quite touch
the collar, L, and the clamp, M. Rocker roller, I, coming in
contact with the rocker bar, H, reverses the stroke.
The water piston is packed by means of segments that

will
be seen by taking off the follower. The packing
may be quickly
set out to insure a good vacuum and at
the same time not to
be so tight as to bind. All wearing parts are made
adjustable.
The Steam Pump. ^^"^
THE MOORE.
The valve for admitting steam to and exhausting it from
the cylinder of this pump is contained within the cylinder and
moves simultaneously with the steam piston, having no outside
mechanism. See Fig. 278.
The piston, and also the valve, are of the form of spools,
each representing a hollow sleeve with a ring packed piston
head at cither end. The piston is secured to the piston rod
and the sleeve connecting the two heads serves as the valve
seat for the cylindrical valve. The sleeve of the piston con-
tains two longitudinal one port communicating with one
ports,
end of the cylinder, and the other port communicating with
the opposite end. Suitable holes drilled through the walls of
the sleeve and communicating with the longitudinal ports,
act as admission and exhaust ports, with which the holes and
cavities in the sleeve coincide at proper positions in the stroke.
Referring to the accompanying engraving. Fig. 279, which
represents the valve and piston in the position occupied when
ready to commence a stroke from left to right, the reader will
easily understand the action of these parts. When the piston
reaches the end of the stroke steam enters through the steam
pipe at A, between the pistons, and forces the valve to the
leftas shown. This movement opens the port, B, and also
brings the cavity, C, in communication with port, D, steam being
admitted through ports, B and D, into the longitudinal port, F,
thence into the clearance, G, of the c) linder. This causes the
piston to move toward the right. When the piston has moved
a short distance to the right steam is admitted into the space,
H, surrounding the valve, and passing into the cavity, C, and

through the port, D, furnishes steam to complete the stroke.
Should the piston stop at mid-stroke it will start again as
soon as steam turned on, because the port, D, remains open
is
until the valve is reversed at the opposite end of the stroke.

When the piston reaches the latter position, Fig. 280, the
valve is reversed, due to steam entering at A, and again forcing
the pistons apart, as shown. The steam, which drove the
piston from left to right, now escapes through the port, I, into
the cavity, J, and around the sleeve to the holes, K, Fig. 279,
where it enters the hollow piston, and finally escapes through
the hollow rod, L, and the port, M. The live steam for the
next stroke from right to left, now enters through ports, N and
O, Fig. 280, and flows through the longitudinal port, P, into

the end, Q, of the cylinder.
The exhaust steam may be allowed to flow into the atmos-
phere or into the suction chamber as desired. A valve is
The Si earn Pump. 315
located in the base of the pump, which changes the course of

the steam from the atmospheric discharge to the suction
chambf r. The valve is operated by a lever shown by dotted
lines. When the lever is turned down toward the steam end,
the steam is directed into the atmospheric exhaust, and when
turned in the opposite direction the steatn will enter the pump
suction and be condensed.
Tlure is no valve setting to be done on this pump. Should
the pump fail to work properly, due to the failure of the steam
end, all that is necessary is to take out the valve and piston
and clean them thoroughly and after replacing them and
starting the pump to see that these parts are properly lubri-
cated. The remainder of the pump requires the same care
and attention that is, or should be, given all pumps.
THE SNOW.
The auxiliary valve of this pump is a plain flat slide
operated by a valve stem, the latter being moved back and
forth by means of a rocker shaft, as shown in the engraving,
the upper end of which alternately comes in contact with the
collars on the stem.
The outer end of the valve stem passes through a sleeve
attached to a pin in the upper end of the rocker arm, as shown.
A knuckle joint near the stuffing-box permits the rod to vibrate
without causing any derangement in the alignment of valve
stem through the stuffing-boxes.
On the valve stem at either end of the auxiliary valve is a
spring, which tends to keep the valve in a central position, so
that when the rocker arm engages one of the collars, the valve
is drawn against the spring toward that end of the stroke.
The result is that the stem and valve follow the rocker arm on
the return stroke to its mid-position, and are started on the
latter half of the stroke by the stem, but without shock or lost
motion. This arrangement is particularly valuable in the case
of condensers, and in pumps where the first part of the stroke
i; made quickly, and ihc piston is then suddenly stopped by

316 Pumps and IFydraulics.
coming in contact with a solid body of water, the latter part

of the stroke being made much more slowly. The springs on
either side of the auxiliary valve take up lost motion and keep
the parts in absolute contact, thus preventing shocks and un-
necessary wear.
The auxiliary valve controls the admission and exhaust
of steam for the steam chest and valve piston in the manner
Fig. 281.
common
"^W^
to all slide valve engines.
Fig. 282.
The valve piston is con-

nected to the main valve, which allows the valve to find its
own bearings on the seat and not only takes up the wear auto-
matically, but produces even wear.
To set the auxiliary valve, see that the valve is in its central
position when the rocker arm
plumb, and that the collars on
is
the valve stem are located at equal distances from each end of
the sleeve. When the piston moves to one end of the stroke, the
auxiliary valve will open the small port at the opposite, end,
The Steam Pump. 317
provided the collars on the valve stem have been properly

placed. Setting the collars closer together shortens the stroke
of the piston, and moving them farther apart lengthens the
stroke. The piston should always make a full stroke without
danger of striking the cylinder heads.
THE DEANE,
The details of the valve gear used on the Deane single
cylinder steam pumps are shown in the accompanying engrav-
ing. The main valve is operated by a small piston called the
valve piston, shown in Fig. 286. The ears on the main valve
fit freely but without lost motion into a slot cut in the valve
piston, so that when the valve piston moves in either direction
it carries the main valve with it.
The valve piston is fitted to the valve chest and is operated

by steam admitted alternately to the opposite ends of the chest.
The movements of this valve piston are controlled by a second-
ary valve, which admits and exhausts the steam to the valve
piston through the small ports at the sides of the steam chest.
The secondary valve derives its motion from the valve stem,
tappets, links and the piston rod as shown.
The steam jacketed which insures equal ex-
valve piston is
pansion of the parts the pump and prevents the

in starting
seats from pinching the valve piston before these parts have
acquired a uniform temperature.
The action of this pump is as follows: Suppose the piston
moving in the direction of the arrow nears the end of thc-
stroke the tappet block comes in contact with the left-hand
;
tappet and throws the secondary valve to the left until it

edge. A, Fig. 284, uncovers the small port, S, Fig. 283, admit
ting steam to the valve piston.
The port, E, and chamber, F, in the secondary valve pro-
vide for the exhaust of steam from the left-hand end of valve
piston in the same manner and at the same time that steam is
admitted behind the right-hand end. The exhaust ports in the
chest allow for properly cushioning the valve piston. The
318 Pump:; and Hy.. rciUi.cs
small ports on the other side of the steam cylinder, Fig. 283,
control the motion of the valve in the other direction and act
in exactly the same manner as those just described. In case
the steam pressure should for any reason fail to start the valve
/P A
rr
r
Fig. 284.
Fig. 285.
piston in time there is a lug, B, Fig. 286, which forms a part of

the valve stem and comes in contact with the valve piston and
the entire power of the steam cylinder starts it. The correct
timing of the valve movements is controlled by the position of
Fig. 286.
the tappets. If they are too near together, the valve wnl 1
thrown too soon and thus the stroke of the pump will i
shoitcncd, while on the other hand if too far apart, the pa'
will Complete its stroke without moving the valves. Th.
tappets are set and keyed securely before leaving the factory.
The Steam Pump. 319
The exhaust from the cylinder is cut off when the piston
covers the inner port, and forms a steam cushion for the piston
to prevent it striking the heads.
To set the valve. Place the steam piston at the end of
stroke nearest stufTing-box and the secondary valve so that it
will uncover the steam port, S, Fig, 283. Set the tappet next
to the steam cylinder on the valve stem against the tappet
block and secure it in this position.
Slide the secondary valve forward until the opposite
steam port is uncovered and place the steam piston in its ex-
treme outward position, then set the other tappet against the
tappet block. Now set the valve so that the inside main steam
port is open and the valve piston in position to engage the main
steam valve, put the valve chest on the cylinder and secure it
in place. The pump will then be ready to start on the admis-
sion of steam to the steam chest.
If when steam is turned on the pump refuses to start,
simply move the valve rod by hand to the end of its stroke and
the pump will m^^ve without trouble.
In renewing the packing between the steam chest and cyl-
inder extreme caution should be observed to cut out openings
for the small ports.
THE BUFFALO SINGLE CYLINDER PUMP.

The engravings, Figs. 287, 288, show the valve gear, also
section of steam cylinder and steam chest. The piston and
valves are in their central position, which condition never occurs
in the operation of this pump if it did the pump would stop.
;
The valves and pistons being at one end or the other of the stroke
uncovers the ports, and the moment steam is admitted the
pump will start. Referring to the engravings, A, is the main
steam pipe, and B, the auxiliary steam pipe. These pipes are
one, inside the casting, so that one pipe supplies both. Assume
the valve, C,moved to the left so that the port, D, is uncovered.
Live steam then flows through the port, D, and pushes the
balanced piston valve, E, to the left, carrying the slide valve, F,
320 Pumt>s and Hydraulics.
VJ
The Steam Pump. 321
with it to the left, is opened to the steam

so that the port, G,
cylinder. The steam
enters through the port, G, pushes the
main piston, H, to the left, completing one stroke of tht:
piston. As the piston travels to the left the lever, pushc.^- J,
the crosshcad, to the right, which opens corresponding port,
I,
in the left-hand end of the cylinder, and the piston valve, E.

is pushed which admits steam on the left-hand
to the right,
side of the main through the port, K, pushing the
piston
piston to the right, completing the second stroke of the piston.
The auxiliary slide valve, C, is operated by the crosshead, I,
coming in contact with the tappets, L L.
The auxiliary tappets and stem, M
M, theoretically could
be dispensed with, but they are put in place for the reason that
occasionally the valve, E, might stick, due to the pump standing-
for some time unused or from some other cause. In such a
contingency the crosshead, is pushed to the right by th-
I,
action of the main piston and comes in contact with the tappets,
M M, which causes the piston valve to start, after which steam
willcomplete the work. When the pump is running, the cross-
head, I, never quite touches the tappets, M, because it M
engages the tappets, L L, admitting steam to the piston valve
and shifts it before the tappets, M, are touched. M
The reason ofdouble ports in the auxiliary steam
the
chest is to have one port, D, for steam, and one port, N,
for the exhaust. Steam being imprisoned between these two
ports forms a cushion, preventing the piston valve from striking
the heads of the chest. The tappets, L L, set closer together
or farther apart control the stroke of the main piston, H.
When the pump i.-, running very fast the momentum of the
moving parts increases and the tappets will have to be set
closer together for high speed than for slow. The tappets.
M M, ace adjustable to their right relation with the tappets,
L L. The general design and easy means of adjustment make a
reliable single cylinder valve motion.
To set the valves. There are no complicated internal parts
requiring adjustment, and almost all parts requiring manipula-
tion can be handled while the pump is running.
THE WEINMAN.
The accompanying engraving, Fig. 289, represents the
Weinman pump and the sectional engraving. Fig. 291, the valve
motion.
The motion main piston is controlled by steam valve,
of the
A, which is a hollow cylinder combining a valve piston and
slide valve in one and the same casting and sliding horizontally
in steam chest, D. This valve is prevented from revolving by
a cap screw, B. Small drilled openings, C, C, permit the steam
to pass from the steam valve
to each end of the steam chest,
D. This valve, A, is moved hor-
izontally in either direction by
steam pressure, and the movement is controlled by an auxiliary

valve, E. The openings, F,F(Fig. 290), conduct the steam from
the eiulsof the steam cl.est to the auxiliary valve, which is con-
nected to the piston rod by a tappet rod and the sid? arm, X.
Steam being admitted to steam chest, it passes through
steam valve, A, to ports, H, H. As the construction permits
but one of the ports, H, H, to be in communication at a time
with one of the passages, I. I, leading to the opposite ends of
the steam cylinder a dead center becomes an impossibility.
The Steam Pump. 323
While one of the ports, H, II, is in communication with one

of the passages, I, I, the opposite passage, I, is in communica-
tion with the exhaust, J.
Suppose that the steam piston has moved to the end of its
stroke, the auxiliary vaKe, which, as stated above, is connected
to the piston rod, is shifted.
This releases the steam from
one end of the steam chest, D,
through port, K, to exhaust, L.
The steam pressure at the op-
posite end of the steam chest
causes the steam valve to slide
to opposite end of the steam
chest, thus reversing the motion
Fig. 290.
of the main steam piston.
To set the auxiliary valve, remove the pendulum or tappet

lever, X, and the cap or bonnet, O, and take out the auxiliary
valve, E. With a straight edge and scriber indicate the work-
ing edges on the end of the valve, and mark the edge of the
port on the valve seat so that it can be seen when the auxiliary
Fig. 29L
valve is in its proper place. Replace the valve, and the

pendulum lever, omitting the bonnet.
Push the steam piston to one end of the stroke, then swing
the pendulum lever toward the end of the cylinder correspond-
ing to the piston, and until the auxiliary valve uncovers the
324 Pumps a7id Hydraulics.
port leading to the end of the valve chest farthest from the
piston. Connect the horizontal rod to the bottom of the
pendulum lever. Then remove the lever from the auxiliary
valve stem and replace the and pendulum lever,
bonnet
shown by dotted lines. The length of the stroke may be
regulated by raising or lowering the end of the horizontal rod
in the slotted lower end of the pendulum lever. Lowering the
rod produces a longer stroke, and raising it shortens the stroke.
THE BURNHAM.
Fig. 292.
The accompanying engravings illustrate the cylinder valves

and valve motion of the Burnham single cylinder pump. Fig,
294 is a plan of the main cylinder valve face, having the same
arrangement of ports as the cylinder shown in Fig. 293.
A longitudinal section of the steam cylinder is shown in
Fig. 292. Motion is imparted to the slotted arm and cam, A,
by means of a crosshead and a roller on the piston rod.
The cam works between and in contact with two blocks on
the valve stem, and by adjusting these two blocks the stroke
may be shortened or lengthened, as the case may require. The
valve stem of the auxiliary valve, H, Fig. 293, always moves in
a direction opposite to that of the piston.
The Steam Pump. 325
The action of this valve alternately admits steam through

the double ports, J J, and K
K, to each end of the valve cylin-
der, causing the valve piston, I, to move the main slide valve,
D, which, in turn, admits steam to the main cylinder through
the double ports, E E, and L L. As the travel of the cam is
only one-fifth that of the piston travel, the valve moves slowly,
and without jar or noise which is often caused by long travel
and rapid motion.

Steam enters the
steam chest at B, and
fills the space, F,
between the valve
piston heads and the
auxiliary valve chest,
G, shown in Fig. 292.
With the auxiliary

valve, H, in the posi-
tion shown. Fig. 293,
steam passes into
both ports, J and K,
but as the port, J,, is
closed by the valve
piston, I, no steam
can enter the valve
cylinder through it,
but the other port, K

Fio. m.
(extending to the ex^
treme end of the valve cylinder), never being covered by the
piston, is open, and admits steam into the space, M.
As this port is quite small the space fills slowly and the
piston moves gradually until it uncovers the last port, J,, when
the full volume of steam is admitted, which quickly moves the
piston to the opposite end of the valve cylinder. During this
movement of the valve piston, the large port, J, remains open
to the exhaust until it is covered by the valve piston. When
the port, J, is covered by the valve as at J,, it has no connec-
tion with the exhaust, consequently, there being no outlet for
the exhaust vapor, compressed and forms a cushion for the

it is
valve piston, I. The it the main valve,

valve piston carries with
D, which admits steam to the main steam cylinder through the
double ports, E, Ei, and L, Lj, Fig. 294. The same cushioning
and slow starting of the piston occurs in the main as in the
valve cylinder, each having double ports.
This arrangement insures a uniform travel of piston under
varying degrees of load. A momentary pause of the piston at
each end of the stroke permits the water valves to seat quietly,
without shock or jar, and the slow initial movement of the pis-
ton (whereby the water columns are started gradually) relieves
the pump and piping of excessive strains.
To set the valve. Set the lever, A, plumb and the valve to
cover all the ports equally.
THE DEAN BROS. PUMP.

The Dean Bros, pump is shown in Figs. 295, 296 and 297.
The auxiliary valve, A, Fig. 297, has in its face two diagonal
exhaust cavities, B Bi. The ports, C Ci, and the exhaust port,
D, are placed in a triangular position with
one another, the diagonal cavities diver-
ging so that the cavity B, when the valve
Fig. 295.
is connects the ports, Ci and D. Cavity B, connects the

in place,
ports C and D, when the valve, A, is at the end of the stroke:
The three small cuts show relation of auxiliary valve to ports.
The Steam Pump. 327
The piston starts from left to right when the valve. A.
moves in an opposite direction, opens the port, C, admitting'

steam to the auxiliary cylinder at the moment the main piston
has reached the end of its stroke. The auxiliary piston, E, is
forced to the left, opening the main port and admitting steam
to the main cylinder,
reversing the movement
of the main piston the
return stroke of the
main piston reverses the
movement of the aux-
iliary valve, whereby
the port, C, is closed, at
the moment the main
piston reaches the end
of its outer stroke. The
port, C, is opened by
the valve. A, and re-
verses the valve piston,
E. opens the main port and reverses the motion of the main
piston.
This port arrangement admits of a short valve with a long
travel. The stroke of the pump can be regulated by moving
Fig. 297.
--0
^ (5--"
9--
B, c, i
the stud up or down segmental slot, Fig. 296, which varies

in the
the travel of the auxiliary valve and reverses the stroke of the
main piston as desired. By raising the stud the pump will make
shorter strokes, and by lowering it will make longer strokes.
The motion of the auxihary steam slide valve is like that

derived from an eccentric. The ports leading to the valve
piston, E, Fig. 297, remain closed, except at the moment the
main piston is reversed; hence, there can be no waste of steam
from leaks when .the valve piston becomes worn.
Having a long stroke and a rapid motion, the auxiliary
valve insures a certain reversal of the piston at the proper
time.
To set the valve, turn the steam chest upside down. Put
valve stem through the stuilfing-box and secure in place the
clamp for small slide valve. The diameter of valve stem is
smaller where the clamp is attached.
Now screw up the stuffing-box nut (having previously re-

moved the packing), then move the valve and stem so that
the small port at right of valve will be open -^^ inch and make
a scratch upon the stem close to stuffing-box nut. The valve
should then be moved in the opposite direction to open the
other small port -^ inch and make a second scratch upon the
valve stem next to stuffing-box nut. Prepare joint and re-
place steam chest on cylinder. To square the valve, slacken the

screw in crosshead and move the latter to the end of stroke
with edge of crosshead flush with the end of guide, then set
the valve stem so that the first scratch is flush with the face of
nut, same as when the scratch was made. Tighten screw in
set screw under valve rod dog and move the crosshead to the
opposite end of stroke, and note the position of second scratch.
If it does not come to the position in which it was made, split
the difference by slackening the set screw under valve rod dog
and move tjte valve rod to equalize the travel of valve.
In replacing steam chest on cylinder, cover the opening

with a thin board, or piece of sheet iron, before turning it over
tO prevent the valve from dropping out of place.
This slide valve has a fixed travel and the process of setting
is precisely the same as for that upon a steam engine with a
plain slide valve.
The Steam Pump. 329
SMITH- VAILE SINGLE PUMP.
The accompany-
ing sectional view of
steam end of the
" Smith-Vaile " ex-
hibits some very
novel features. So
far as the piston and
cylinder in this pump
are concerned they
are not unlike the
average first class
pump, but with this
difference. It has
only one set of cored
ports, B, B. The
supplemental ports,
C, C, are drilled.
The main valve,

A, is a slide and is
moved by a valve
piston, D. Almost all
the valve pistons as

now made are simply
plugs turned accur-
ately to fit the holes
in the chest and with-
out any means of ad-
justment to compen-
sate for wear. After
these valve pistons
become they worn
have to be replaced
with new ones, but
there is a period be-
tween the time when Figs. 298, 299.
the valve piston becomes so leaky as to render the action of

the pump uncertain and the time when the worn valve is re-
placed by a new one that the pump is very wasteful of steam.
The pump is provided with packing

valve piston in this
rings, E, E, which compensate for wear of these parts so that
this valve is expected to do efficient service long after a slow
valve. The supplemental valve, F, has a reciprocating rotary'
motion which is communicated to it by the rock arm, G, and
pitman, H, connecting with the crosshead, I, secured to the
piston rod. It will be observed that the piston rod, J, and the
rod, K, of the water end are separated so that should either

one give out through wear or accident it can be replaced will.-
out sacrificing both, as would be the case if they were solid in
one piece. This supplemental valve, F, in general appearance
very closely resembles the "Corliss" valve, and its action is
somewhat similar, in controlling the action of the valve piston,
which will be understood from the engraving without further
description. These pumps all have removable water ends and
can be rebored or otherwise manipulated without disturbing
the steam end of pump. The cylinder can be separated from
the foot by removing the bolt, M.
The duplex pump is also shown in the accompanying en-
graving, where. A, A, represents the steam cylinders, secured
to the foot, B, by bolLs, as previously described.
The usual slide valves have been replaced by piston valves,

r., in this instance and are provided with removable seats, D, D.
These piston valves have packing rings, E, E, also to com-

pensate for wear and the valves are cast hollow to reduce their
weight as much as possible consistent with good workmanship,
also to serve as ports for steam admission. When these valve
seatsbecome worn they may be easily removed and rebored or
replaced by new ones, as desired. It will be observed that
these ports are very short to reduce the clearance as much as

possible, and to secure a more satisfactory cushion. Each valve
is op-srated by the rockarm connected with the opposite engine
in th ' usual way.
Fio. 300.
;
THE DUPLEX STEAM PUMP.

The word duplex means
two fold, or double, and has
a wide application, as the
duplex lathe, the duplex
watch, etc., hence, the well-
known duplex-pump is one
in which tivo direct acting^
FiQ. 801. J
pumps are placedJ side
-J
, ,
by side
and so connected that the steam piston of one operates the
valve of the other. See Fig. 300.
Fig. 301 shows one of the smallest manufactured patterns
of this type of pumps. Its dimensions are as follows: 2-inch
diam. steam cylinder; iînch water cylinder 2| inch stroke. ;
Its capacity is .044 gallons per revolution ; rev. per minute, 80

gallons per minute, 3.5. Steam pipe, |-inch ; exhaust pipe,
|-inch ; suction pipe, i-inch ; discharge, |-inch. Floor space
occupied, 9" x "]" wide requires \ H.P.
i' ;
The valve motion (see Figs. 302, 303) of one cylinder is

communicated or produced by the piston of the other through
the medium of rocker arms and links. By means of the small
lost motion of the levers the pistons have a slight pause at the
end of each stroke, which allows the water valves to seat
quietly, thus preventing any slam or jar.
With this arrangement, as one of the steam valves must
always be open, there can be no dead point, thus removing the
liability of the pump to stick. The simplicity of the duplex
movement is at once evident, each valve is dependent upon
its counter part, and both directly control the action of the
steam, which is supplied through one simple throttle valve.
Note. — Of
the effect produced by the steam-moved direct-acting pump
of much greater capacity it may be said there are now in use pumps of this
class, exerting over 250 horse-power, delivering five million gallons of water in
twenty-four hours through main pipes, say thirty inches diameter and four-
teen miles long, without the use of an air chamber, and which do their work
so quietly, steadily, and gently, that a nickel coin set on edge on the
extreme end of the pump would not be overthrown by any jar or motion of
the pump while it was doing this work.
833
FiO. 302.
Kio. 303.
The Duplex Sleam Pump. 335
The adoption of the WortJiiyigton design of duplex pumps,

has been well nigh universal, especially so since the expiration
of the earlier patents. Nearly all leading manufacturers now
Tiiake "duplex pumps." Single, compound and triple ex-
'ânsion.
Compounding consists of adding a second steam cylinder

'>n the end of the high pressure in use, both using the same
piston rod, the steam from the boiler being first used in the
smaller cylinder, and at the end of the stroke of the piston
being exhausted behind the piston of the larger cylinder on its
return stroke. In this way

the measure of the expansion of the
steam used, was the relation of one cylinder to the other.
By this arrangement a much smaller steam cylinder, for
using the high pressure steam, could be adapted to do the same
^" ork, for in addition to the pressure of steam working full
stroke in the small cylinder, was to be added the pressure of

the steam being expanded in the large cylinder.
In addition to this, for large compound and triple expai\sion
engines was added the further economy realized by attaching
a condenser to form a vacuum in the large steam cylinders.
Adapting these newer improvements in the marine engine
coupled with what had previously been accomplished in the
direct-acting steam pump, they were at once brought up in
size, capacity, and economy alongside the previously con-
structed rotative pumping engines.
The history of the invention of this pump is given on pages

69 and 70; to these pages a careful attention is advised, as
they briefly describe also the fundamental principles of its
operation. This form of steam pump has been so long and
generally in use that the valve mechanism is already familiar
to most engineers.
The simplicity of both its theor>' and its practical application
obviates the necessity of devoting very much space to its con-
sideration. The final improvement made by Worthington in
connection with the steam duplex pump was in the adaptation
of triple expansion in its steam ends.
336 Piimp^ and Hydraulics.
THE WORTHINGTON DUPLEX PUMP.

The illustrations, Figs. 302 and 303, are sectional views of
one side, or half, of the Worthington steam pump, showing
two different designs. They illustrate the interior arrangement
of the pump. The valve, as may be seen at, E, is an ordinary
slide valve; the motion of this valve is controlled by a vibra-
ting arm, F, which swings through the whole length of the
stroke. The moving parts are always in contact, which ensure :,
smooth and even motion.

This valve motion is the prominent and distinguishing
characteristic of the Worthington duplex pump. Two steam
pumps are placed side by side and so combined that one piston
acts to give steam to the other, after which it finishes its own
stroke and waits for its valve to be acted upon by the other
pump before it can renew its motion. This pause allows the
water valves to seat quietly, and removes any harshness of
motion. As one or the other of the steam valves is always
open, there is no dead point, and therefore the pump is always
ready to start when the steam is admitted.
hi the plunger and-ring pattern, Fig. 302, there is a double-
acting plunger, B, working through a deep metallic ring bored
to fit the plunger. The plunger is located some inches above
the suction valves, leaxing a settling chamber, into which any
foreign substance may fall out of the way of the wearing sur-
faces. Both the plunger and ring can be taken out and either
refitted or, when necessary, renewed. The valves consist of
small discs of rubber, or other suitable material, and are easily
accessible through convenient handholes. This pattern is
recommended where the liquid to be pumped contains small
quantities of grit or foreign material, or where there is an
unusually long or high suction lift.
In the piston-pattern pump, Fig. 303, there is a packed water
piston, G, working in a brass-lined cylinder, H. Both the
suction and the discharge valves are located above the water
pistons, so that the pistons may be at all times submerged.
This pattern is recommended where the liquid to be pumped
contains no grit or foreign material.
The Duplex Si earn Pump. 337
.^t5f^=-^fc5».««
Fig. 304 shoivs the IVorth-
ingtoji Admiralty pattern
boilerfeed pump \vhich is de-
signed to meet the require-
ments of the United States
Bureau of Steam Engineering
for steam boiler pressure up
to 250 lbs. to the square
inch. The ordinary slide
valves are replaced by piston
valves with outside, adjust-
able, lost-motion links,
making it possible to readily
adjust the stroke. The water
end is made of composition,
gun metal, or cast-iron, as
desired. When made of cast
iron the water end is brass-
fitted throughout.
FXQ. 304.
Table of Sizes, Capacities, Etc.

9.
A notable feature in this pump is the location of the ex-

haust passage ; tJiis ope7iing is tindcrneath the cradle — or the
part that the pump rests upon — just forward of the steam
cylinciers. The end and cylinders and the
flanges of the steam
steam chest cover have been made heavier than the regular
and strengthened to withstand the higher pressures.
Fig. 305 is a sectional view of a larger size duplex pump
than the one shown in Fig. 302. The plunger, B, packing "s
identical, but the number of water valves is double access for
;
cleaning the suction chamber, C, is had by removing the hand

hold plate at the side and in the center. The dibchn;gc valves
are reached through the hand hold at D.
r\
FlO. 305
SETTING THE VALVES OF THE DUPLEX PUMP.

The following rule applies to nearly all duplex pumps of
the Worthington type. The valves arc usually of the common
"
D " valve type, working on the cylinder iron, or bronze seats,
r.iid suitably "set." Sufficient cushion at the end of each

.'troke is provided by separate valves in the oTts.
The Duplex Steam Pnmp. 330
Rule. — i , Locate the steatn piston in the center of the cylinder^

Fig. 305. This is accomplished by pushing the piston to one end
of its stroke against the cylinder head and marking the rod with
a scriber at the face of the stuffing-box, and then bringing the
piston in contact with the opposite head ; 2, divide exactly the
leuotJi of this contact stroke. Shove the piston back to this
half mark, which brings the piston directly in the center of the
steam cylinder, F; 3, perform the same operation zvith the other
Side; 4, place the slide valves, which have no lap, to cover all
the ports, E 5 pass the valve stein through the sttiffing-box and
; ,
gland. The operation of placing the pistons in the center of

their cylinders will bring the levers and rock shafts in a vertical
position ; 6, screzu the valve stem through the nuts until the
hole in the eye of the valve stem head comes in a line wich the
hole in the links, connecting the rocker shaft; then put the
pins in their places; adjust the nuts on both sides of the lugs
7,
of the valves to leave about \" or y
loss motion on each side.
This process of adjustment being performed with both cylin-
ders, the steam valves arc set." In short the travel of the two
valves is simply equalized.
DUPLEX OIL PUMPS*

The pattern of pump shown in Fig. 306, is especially
designed for use in and cranes,
connection with hydraulic lifts
cotton presses, testing machines, hydraulic riveting and

punching machines, and hydraulic presses of all kinds. Also
for oil pipe lines {see Table, page 341), mining purposes, and such
services as require the delivery of liquids under heavy pressures.
There are four single acting outside packed plungers, which
work into the ends of the water cylinders, the latter havingcentral
partitions; each individual valve has its own cover or bonnet.
The arrangement of compound steam cylinders is shown. The
water valves are easily accessible, and are contained in small
chambers, capable of resisting very heavy pressures. The general
arrangement shown in the engraving is subject to numerous alter-
ations, according to various requirements, but the general charac-
teristic of four outside packed plungers is in all cases preserved.
The Duplex Steatn Pump. 341
SPECIAL DUPLEX PUMP.

{Ôutside paiktd f lunger Pattern Jor High Pressure.^
Table.
34- Pumps and Hydraulics.
Fio. 807.
The Duplex Steam Pttmp. 843
COMPOUND DUPLEX PUMPS.

{}Vith The Dcane Suntch Valve.)
The is shown in Fig. 307, on the

application of this valve
opposite page. can be attached to any regular Compound
It
or Triple Expansion Pump, and if not in use does not in any
way impede the regular running of the machine.
The Deane switch valve is a device by which compound

low service pumps may be converted into powerful fire pumps.
This appliance consists of a valve of such construction that
steam may be allowed to enter the cylinders as usual for
compounding, or may be diverted by simply moving a lever,
when all four cylinders receive steam at boiler pressure, each
exhausting independently to the atmosphere. The change
makes each steam cylinder available for its maximum power,
all four cylinders develop their full power, and its effect can be
utilized in powerful fire streams.
It should be borne in mind in justice to the manufacturers

that the Deane switch valve is not to be classed with the ordinary
two or four-valve arrangement, which, while admitting initial
steam to the second cylinders, develops no power in the first,
or, as it is sometimes arranged, uses initial steam in all four
cylinders and develops less power than if the second cylinders

were used independently.
This valve is recommended by the Insurance companies,

and compound duplex pumps fitted with the Deane switch
valve will be accepted in place of the Underwriter pump of
similar capacity. This valve is also frequently used where two
widely differing water pressures are required for other purposes
than for fire protection.
Every machine is subject to rigorous tests before leaving

ihe factory, including a 300-pound test of the water cylinders.
Every pump i • [guaranteed to be in full accordance with the
specifications.
UNDERWRITER FIRE PUMPS.
The Insurance Companies have issued detailed specifications
for the construction of fire
pumps to be known as Underwriter
Fire Pumps. They have agreed that such pumps with their
specified attachments be recognized as the
approved type,
and that pumps built and fitted up less perfectly
be not
approved in future installments.
The wide experience and systematic methods of the

Insurance
Companies place them in position to give valuable suggestions
as a result of their observation and experiment, and these are
embodied in carefully drawn regulations issued by their
Engineering Department.
The specifications are very exacting in every particular,
entering into the design, material, and workmanship
in inimite
detail. They call for a number of fittings and attachments not
usually furnished, and a most rigid test at
the factory before
shipping, and by the Inspecting Engineers
of the Insurance
Companies after the pump is installed, which secures
for the
purchaser the certainty of having a machine which
beyond any
reasonable doubt can be relied upon to do its
full duty when
emergency arises calling for its use.
There are a few quite important features not

found in
pumps of usual construction. The pumps are composition
fitted throughout, the water cylinder bushings and
plungers
and linings to stuffing-boxes are of composition,
the piston and
valve rods, made unusually heavy, are of Tobin
bronze. The
mixture of the copper and tin composing the
plungers and
bushings varies for the two so as to prevent
their cutting.
Owing to the very high speed at which these pumps are
liable
to be run during a fire, all the working
parts are made exces-
sively strong,and the valve area and water passages are
larger
than usual. The interior of each Underwriter pump
is treated
with a rust-proof coating, and every precaution
taken so that
the pump will start instantly after an indefinite period of disuse.
844
Pumps and Hydraulics. 345
Figs. 307 and 308 exhibit two somewhat varying but

acceptable forms ot the duplex steam pump.
Among the attachments included in an outfit for the under-
pump may be mentioned an elbow or tee for the suction
writer :
connection with a large suction air chamber, a set of brass

priming pipes with special gate and check valves for the same,
an automatic water pressure relief valve fitted to a cone and over-
flow pipe, a steam gauge and a
special water gauge with duplex
spring,each of which in the
Underwriter Pump is mounted
on an ornamental plate rigidly
attached to the machine.
Straightway hose valves for the proper number of streams

are placed in the neck to a very large discharge chamber, and
there is also a large discharge opening for connection to the
system of hydrants and sprinklers.
A stroke pointer is attached which travels between grad-
uations marked on the yoke, indicating the length of stroke
which pump travels, a one-point sight feed cylinder lubricator,
a capacity plate with enamelled face giving instructions for
operating, etc., is attached to each machine.
SPECIFICATIONS
OF THE
National Board of Fire Underwriters
FOR THF MANUFACTURE OF
STEAM FIRE PUMPS
AS RECOMMENDED BY THE
National Fire Protection Association.
EDITION OF 1904
: ;
THE NATIONAL STANDARD PUMP.
This pump is merely a pump of the well-known "duplex"

type, built in a very substantial manner, and with certain
improvements suggested by the experience of inspectors with
Fire Pumps.
The principal points of difference between the National
Standard Pump and the ordinary commercial pump are
1st. steam ports and water passages and air chamber are made
Its
much common trade pumps, so that a larger volume of
larger than in
water can be delivered in an emergency without water hammer.
^nd. It is "rust proofed" that it may start instantly after disuse, by

making its piston rods and valve rods of Tobrn Bronze, instead of steel
its water pistons, stuffing boxes and rock-shaft bearings of brass, instead
of cast iron. Its valve levers are made of steel or wrought-iron forgings,
or of steel castings.
Sd. The following necessary attachments are all included in the price
of the "National Standard Pump," viz. :
—
a vacuum chamber, two pressure
gauges, a relief valve, a set of brass priming pipes, 2 to 6 hose valves, a
stroke gauge, a capacity plate, an oil pump, a sight feed lubricator and a
cast-iron relief-valve discharge-cone.
By reason of the larger ports, passageways and pipes, its larger number
of valves, and the added attachments, and general superior construction a
"National Standard" pump costs more than a common trade fire pump,
but the cost per gallon which these pumps can deliver in an emergency
by reason of their large passageways, etc., is no greater than for the old
style of fire pump and is well worth this extra cost.
Finally should be remembered that these specifications cover only the

it
outlines of the design, and that all pumps built under them are not of equal
merit, for certain of the pump factories possess a broader experience and
better shop facilities than others, and that the responsibility for first-class
workmanship and strength of materials rests on the pump manufacturers,
and not on the insurance companies.
Uê advise that all contracts call for strict conformity to the National
Standard Steam Fire Pump specifications of the National Board of Fire
Underwriters.
UNIFORM REQUIREMENTS.
The following specifications for the manufacture of Steam
Fire Pumps, developed from those originally drawn by Mr.
John R. Freeman, are now used throughout the whole country,
having been agreed upon in joint conference by representa-
tives of the different organizations interested in this class of
work. They will be known as " The National Standard," and

have been up to this time adopted by the following associa-
tions : Associated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies,
National Board of Fire Underwriters, National Fire Protection
Association.
NATIONAL STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
For the Manufacture of
STEAM FIRE PUMPS
1. Workmanship.
a. The general character and accuracy of foundry and
machine work must throughout equal that of the best steam-
engine practice of the times, as illustrated in commercial
engines of similar horse-power.
This refers to strength of details, accuracy of foundry work, accuracy of

alignment, accuracy of fits, quality of steam joints and flanges, construction
of steam pistons and slide-valves, etc., and does not apply particularly to
exterior finish.
2. Duplex Only.
a. Only " Standard Duplex pumps ''
are acceptable.
So-called " Duplex " pumps consisting of a pair of pumps with "steam-
thrown valves " actuated by supplemental pistons are not acceptable.
Experience shows that duplex pumps are more certain of starting
after long disuse. The whole power of the main cylinder is available for
moving a corroded valve or valve rod, whereas on a single pump with a
"steam-thrown " valve no such surplus of power is available.
Further, the direct acting duplex has the great advantage over a fly-
wheel pump of not suffering breakage if water gets into steam cylinder.
3. Sizes of Pumps.
a. Only the four different sizes given on the next page

will be recognized for " National Standard *'
pumps.
The multiplicity of odd sizes of "Trade Pumps'' is confusing, and

different makers have, in the past, estimated the capacity in gallons according
to different arbitrary standards.
NATIONAL STANDARD PUMP SIZES.
Pump Sizes.
steam Fire Pumps. 363
Often, especially with large pumps, "4 to i" construction is a mistake,

and gives no additional security, although the pump might start and give a
few puffs with 30 lbs. of steam on banked fires because, if any pump of
;
whatever cylinder ratio draws 50 or 100 Jiorse-power of steam from boilers

with dead fires, it can run effectivel}- only a very short time (ordinarily, per-
haps, 3 to 5 minutes), unless fires are first aroused to make fresh steam to
replace that withdrawn.
Steam pressures stated above must be maintained at the pump, to give
fullspeed and 100 lbs. water pressure. Pressure at boilers must be a little
more, to allow for loss of steam pressure between boiler and pump. Pumps
in poor order, or too tightly packed, will require more steam.
The boiler horse-powers above are reckoned on the A. S. M E. basis of

34}^ water evaporated from and at 212 degrees Fahrenheit as the unit
lbs. of
of boiler horse-power. From 12 to 15 square feet of water-heating surface

in the boiler is commonly assumed necessary for the generation of one
horse-power.
Smaller boilers than called for above, if favorably set, and having excel-
lent chimney draft, can sometimes be forced to nearly double their nominal
capacity for a short run, as for fire service.
c. 2^0 gallons per minute is the standard allowance for a

good I \-inch {smooth nozzle) fire stream.
A so-called "Ring Nozzle" discharges only three-fourths as much water

as a smooth nozzle of thesame bore, and is not recommended.
From fifteen to twenty automatic sprinklers may be reckoned as dis-
charging about the same quantity as a i>^-inch hose stream under the
ordinary practical conditions as to pipes supplying sprinkler and hose
systems respectively.
4. Capacity.
Plunger diameter alone will not tell how many gallons

a.
per minute a pump can deliver, and it is not reasonable to con-

tinue the old time notion of estimating capacity on the basis
of 100 feet per minute piston travel.
b. The capacity of a pump depends on the speed at which

it can be run, and the speed depends largely on the arra igc-
inent of valves and passageways for water and steam.
c. It is all right to run fire-pumps at the highest speed that

rs possible without causing violent jar or , hammering within the
cylinders. Considerations of wear do not affect the brief periods

of fire services or test, hence these speeds are greater than those
allowable for constant daily duty.
d. experiments on a large number of pumps of

Careful
various makes at full speed, show that in a new pump with
clean valves, and an air-tight suction pipe, and less than 15 feet
lift,the actual delivery is only from i^ to 5 per cent, less than
plunger displacement. This slip will increase with wear, and
for a good average pump in practical use, probably 10 per cent,
is a fair allowance to cover slip, valve leakage, slight short-
stroke, etc.
e. Largely from tests, but partly from "average judgment,"

and recognizing that a long stroke pump can run at a higher
rate of piston travel in lineal feet per minute than a short
stroke pump, and that a small pump can make more strokes
per minute than a very large one, the speeds given in the pre,
ceding table have been adopted as standards in fire service for
direct acting (non-fly-wheel) steam pumps, which have the large
steam and water passages herein specified.
f. Rated capacity is to be based on the speed in the pre.

ceding table, correcting the plunger displacement for one-half
the rod area and deducting 10 per cent, for slip, short-
stroke, etc.
Men sometimes ask why, (if they can run a pump smoothly so as to get a
delivery of 1,000 gals, per minute,) we should not accept as "a thousand
gallon pump," irrespective of its suction valve area or its exhaust port area
or the size of its cylinders.
To this we reply that when new and favorably set almost any pump
built accoiding to these specifications can run at a much greater delivery
than here rated, but when lift is unusually high or suction pipe long, or
when the pump takes its suction under a head, no pump can be run so
fast as on, for instance, a 5-foot lift. A solid foundation is also a great and
indispensable aid in running a pump fast.
Standard 500-gallon pumps have often delivered 800 gallons, and 1,500-
gallon pumps have delivered 2,000 gallons but some margin must be
;
allowed for unfavorable conditions and for deterioration as a pump grows

old, or for the absence of an expert to get its utmost duty.
—
5. Capacity Plate.
a. Every steam fire-pump must bear a conspicuous state-

ment of its capacity securely attached to the inboard side of
air chamber, thus :
NATIONAL STANDARD FIRE PUMP

16 X 9 X 12
CAPACITY
750 GALLONS PER MINUTE, OR
3 GOOD -IN. SMOOTH NOZZLE
I
FIRE STREAMS
FULL SPEED
70 REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE
NEVER LET STEAM GET BELOW
50 POUNDS, NIGHTS, SUNDAYS
OR AT ANY OTHER TIME
The name "Underwriter" has been largely used for a considerable time
to designate the type of pump covered by the principal features of these
specifications. While our preferences are against the use of this word
as designating any piece of apparatus objections will not be raised at the
present time to its being continued on name plates in place of the words
"National Standard,' if manufacturers so desire-
b.This plate must have an area of not less than one square
foot,and must be made cf an alloy at least two-thirds aluminum
and the remainder zinc. The letters must be at least one-half
inch in height, plain and distinct, with their surfaces raised on
a black background and buffed off to a dead smooth finish.
The name of pump manufacturer may also be placed on this plate, if

desired.
c. A smaller plate of composition must be attached to

steam chest bearing the size of pump, the shop number, and
the name of shop in which the pump was built.
356 Pumps and Hydrautics.
6. Strength of Parts.
a. The maker must warrant each pump built under these
specifications to be at time of delivery, in all its parts, strong
enough to admit of closing all valves on water outlet pipes
while steam valve is wide open and steam pressure eighty
pounds, and agree to so test it before shipment from his works.
b. The pump must be warranted so designed and with

such arrangement of thickness of metal that it shall be safe to
instantly turn a full head ot steam on to a cold pump without
cracking or breaking the same by unequal expansion.
7. Shop Inspection.
A systematic shopinspection must be given to each pump
I
to ensure completed workmanship, and to prevent the use of
defective parts, improper materials, or the careless leaving of
foreign matter in any part of the cylinders or chests.
Several instances have occurred in which chisels, bolts, or core irons

have been found in steam chests or steam cylinders. This has resulted
in a serious crippling of the pump and in some cases requiring repairs to
be made before the pump could be used for fire purposes.
THE STEAM END.

8. Steam Cylinders.
a. These must be of hard close iron with metal so dis-
tributed as to ensure sound castings and freedom for shrink
cracks. The following are the minimum thicknesses accept-
able :
14" Diam. |" thick 18" Diam. \" thick.

16" " II" " 20" " i\"
b. The inside face of the steam cylinder heads and the

two faces of the piston must be smooth surfaces, fair and true
so that if the piston should hit the heads it will strike uniformly
all around, thus reducing to a minimum the chances of cramp-
ing the piston rod or injuring the pump.
c. All flanged joints for steam must be fair and true and
must be steam tight under 80 lbs. pressure if only a packing

of oiled paper i-ioo inch thick covered with graphite were
used. Jenkins, " Rainbow or equivalent packing of not

''
exceeding 1-32 inch original thickness is acceptable. Oiled

paper is not acceptable as a final packing, as it burns out.
For size of steam and exhaust pipes, standard flanges and

bolting, see Art. 39.
The specifications originally required machine facing for all these sur-
faces. The art of machine molding from metal patterns with draw plates,
etc., has, however, attained such excellence in certain shops, that in reg-
jlar practice "foundry faced" cylinder heads and piston faces can be made
true and fair, and steam joints can be made, tight under 80 lbs. pressure
with a packing of oiled paper only i-loo inch thick.
Under proper assurance that this precision can be obtained in regular

practice at the shop in question, foundry finish may be accepted on cylin-
der heads and piston faces, steam chests and steam-chest covers.
In the case of built-up pistons, of separable form, it must be con-
clusively shown that the boring and finishing are carried on by such
methods as will ensure the faces of pistons being exactly square to the
piston rod and exactly parallel to the cylinder head.
In the case of solid pistons the two faces must be machine faced, as
proper parallelism cannot well be obtained by foundry methods.
Ordinary foundry finish secured by the old methods and wooden
patterns is not acceptable and acceptance of any foundry-finish can only
be secured after a special investigation of shop practices.
d. at both ends of cylinder must be beveled off

Heads
^rery over a ring about one inch wide, or equivalent
slightly
means provided to give steam a quick push at piston, should it
stand at contact stroke.
p. Bolts and Studs.

a. The stress on bolts or studs in connection with steam
cylinders must not exceed 7,500 lbs. per square inch under a
test pressure of 80 lbs. steam, disregarding such initial strain
as may be due to setting up. (Compute pressure area out to
center line of bolts.)
358 Ptimps and Hydraulics.
No stud or bolt smaller than \ inch should be used to

assemble parts subject tp the strain of steam pressure as
smaller bolts are likely to be twisted off.
10. Yoke.
a. The steam cylinders and water cylinders must be con-
nected by such a form of yoke as requires no packing, a met.il
to metal joint at this connection being considered necess;ir>'.
The piston-rod stuffing box heads should concentrically fit ihc
counter-bore of the yoke.
If packing is put into these joints, there is a chance of the steam and
water ends getting out of alignment and leaking at the joint between
cylinders and yoke.
11. Steam Ports.

a. The area of each exhaust steam passage, at its smallest
section,must not be less than 4 per cent, of the area of the
piston from which it leads.
This is common, but indicator
a large increase over the size heretofore
cards which we have taken from pumps makes indicate
of several different
this to be one of the points in which improvement is most needed to
accommodate the high speeds at which fire pumps are always supposed to
run, and this unrestricted exhaust aids very materially in giving steadiness
to the jet of water.
b. Each admission port must be not less than 2\ per cent,

of area of its piston, and to avoid wasteful excess of clearance,
these passages should not be bored out larger in interior of
casting than at ends or passage.
c. The edges must be accurately

of the steam-valve ports
milled, or chipped and exactly filed to templets, true to line,
and the valve seat must be accurately fitted to a plane surface,
all in a most thorough and workmanlike manner and equal to
high-grade steam-engine work.
d. To guard against a piston ring catching in the large

exhaust ports, these ports must have a center rib cast with
cylinder at cylinder wall. See also Art. 13 d.
12. Steam-Clearance Space.

Clearance (including nut-recess, counter-bore, and valve
a.
passages) must not exceed 5 per cent, for contact stroke or
about 8 per cent, for nominal stroke (/. e., contact stroke
should overrun nominal stroke not more than one-half inch or
not less than one-fourth inch, at each end).
b. The clearance space between face of piston and

cylinder head must be reduced to smallest possible amount,
and these contracting surfaces be flat, without projections or
recesses other than the piston rod nut and its recess.
Some makers, with the idea that a fire pump need not be economical,
have not taken pains to keep these waste spaces small.
Securing small clearance costs almost nothing but care in design, and
is often of value, since at many factories boiler capacity is scant for the
large quantity of steam taken by a fire pump of proper size.
13. Steam Pistons.
a. May be either built up or solid, as maker thinks best.
It is believed that "solid" (cored) pistons with rings "sprung in," are
for fire-pumps much preferable to built-up pistons, since follower bolts
do sometimes get loose.
b. Piston must not be less than four inches thick between

faces. If solid, walls should be not less than \ inch thick, and
special care should be given to shop inspection to determine
uniformity of thickness.
c. If built up pistons are used, involving follower bolts,

such bolts must be of best machinery steel, with screw thread
cut for about twice the diameter of the bolt and fitting tightly
its whole length.
d. The width of each piston ring must exceed the length

of the large exhaust port by at least \ inch.
This b to avoid the possibility of piston ring catching in the port.
See also Art. \\ d.

14. Steam Slide Valves.

a. Slide valves must be machine fitted on all four of the
outer edges, the exhaust port edges, and the surfaces in con-
tact with rod connections.
b. The slide valve itself must have its steam and exhaust
edges fitted up " line and line " with their respective steam
*nd exhaust ports.
The adding of lap to these edges in lieu of lost motion is not acccpt-
ible further than a possible 1-32 of an inch to cover inaccuracies of edges.
c. The
valves must be guided laterally by guide strips
cast insteam chest, and these strips must be machine fitted.
The lateral play at these surfaces should not exceed 1-16 inch.
The height of these guide strips should not be less than \ inch,
measuring from valve seat.
The construction must be such as to absolutely preclude
the possibility of the valve riding up on top of this guide strip.
d. The valves must be guided vertically by the valve-rod

itself, the inside end of which must be kept in alignment by
the usual form of tail-rod guide.
The vertical play at these parts should not exceed \ of an
inch.
e. The surface of valves must be machine faced and ac-

curately fitted to a plane surface, and be steam tight when in
contact with the seat of steam valve.
15. Steam Slide Valve Adjustment.

a. The motion at the valves and the setting of them
lost
must be determined by a solid hub on the rod, finished in the
pump shop to standard dimensions, so that no adjustment is
possible after the pump is once set up.
This hub may be forged on the rod and then lathe-finished to standard
dimensions, or it may be made by turning down a rod of the size of the
hub. It is believed that Tobin bronze can be safely forged after a little
experience, if care is taken to maintain the proper heat

:
It is recognized that the practice of making adjustable valve tappets

located outside of the steam chest is a good thing in a large pump in
constant service and operated by a skilled engineer, but for the infre-
quently used ordinary- fire-pump, the utmost simplicity is desirable, and
it is best not to tempt the ordinarj- man to readjust the valve gear.
The common form of lost motion adjustment consisting of nut and

check nut at each end of the slide valve is not acceptable, as these nuts
are liable to become loose and may be incorrectly reset by incompetent
persons. A long rectangular nut in the center of the valve is also not
acceptable, as it can be moved out of adjustment. A solid hub made as a
part of the rod is required, as it absolutely avoids the possibility of the
hub becoming loose, an accident possible with a separate hub attached to
the rod.
The amount of lost motion should generally be such that admission

takes place at about ^ of the stroke of the piston, i. e., for 12-inch stroke
R. H. valve will be about to open when L. H. piston has moved "jVz inches
to 8 inches from the beginfling of stroke. When piston is at end of stroke
the ports should be full open.
16. Rock Shafts, Cranks, Links, Etc.
a. Rock shafts must be either forged iron, forged steel, or

cold rolled steel. Cast iron is not acceptable. The following
are the minimum diameters acceptable
500 gallon pump . . . . i^ in.
750 gallon pump .... i| in.

1000 gallon pump .... 2 in.
1500 gallon pump .... 2 to 2^ in.
b. The rock shaft bearings must be bushed with bronze

and the bushings pinned firmly in place. The length of each
of these non-corrosive bearings must be not less than 4 inches.
c. Rock shaft cranks, valve rod heads, valve rod links, and
piston rod spools or crossheads may be wrought iron or steel
forgings, or steel castings. If of a heavy, strong pattern, these
parts, with the exception of valve rod links, may be of semi-
steel or cast iron.
d. The sectional area of all connections between rock shatt

cranks and valve rod must be such as to give a tensile or com-
pressive strength substantially equal to that of the valve rod
17. Valve Motion Levers.

a. The valve motion levers must be steel, wrought iron,
or steel castings. Cast iron is not acceptable. Steel castings,
if must be deeply stamped with the name of the makers,
used,
with letters one-eighth inch high, near the upper end of each
lever, where it can easily be seen, thus " —
^teel Castings^
Cast-iron arms, bulky enough to be safe against external blows,
if
are awkward in shape. The sectional area necessary for any arm depends
upon the means provided for preventing a sidewise strain on the lever, due
to rotation of piston or friction of its connection to piston rod. The spool
or crosshead on the piston rod should be so designed that no sidewise
strain can be thus produced on the lever.
b. The levers must have a double or bifurcated end at

crosshead. ,
The double end is less likely than a single end to put an undue strain
on the lever as the rod turns, and is also likely to give trouble from
lack of lubrication or from a loosening of any small parts, and has proved
to be the most satisfactory arrangement.
18. Valve Motion Stand.

a. The valve motion stand must be securely dowel-pinned
to the yoke castings, to prevent any movement after being
once adjusted.
19. Cushion Valves.

a. Cushion-release valves regulating the amount of cushion
steam retained at ends of stroke must be provided.
b. The cushion
release must be through an independent
port as shown in Figs. 2 and 3, so located as to positively retain
a certain amount of cushion steam.
The form of cushion release through bridge between ports is not
old
acceptable. This form while leading into the exhaust passage as formerly,
differs by starting from a small independent port (about J^-inch wide
X 2^ inches long) through the cylinder wall, located about Y^ or Vz inch
back from the cylinder head. (The exact position for affording the best
action has to be determined by experiment with each different make of
pump, as it depenQs somewnai on tne extent 01 clearance space and on tnc
Steam Fire Pumps. 3fi:
point of closure of exhaust by piston and somewhat on the weight of re-

ciprocating parts.)
This style of cushion port makes the pump safer in case cushion valves
are unskillfully left open too wide and tends to prevent a pump from pound-
FiG. 3.
ing itself to pieces in case of a sudden release of load, as by a break in

suction or delivery mains, or by a temporary admission of air to suction
pipe.
Pumps made with this form of cushion release, have given very satis-
factory results, and if the ports arc properly located, there will be no re-
bound of piston.
c. Cushion valves must be always

provided with hand-wheels marked as per
sketch, for the reason that very few men in
charge of fire-pumps are found to clearly
understand or to remember their use.
The
lettering must be very open,
clearand distinct, not liable to be obs-
cured by grease and dirt, and of a per-
Fig. 4
manent character.
It is desirable that spindle or wheel be so formed that
a monkey wrench can get a grip to open a jammed valve.
Fig. 5 shows the stem flattened for this purpose.
d. The valve and stem of cushion valve

must be in one piece without any swivel joint.
Swivel joints are apt to come apart and make it im-

possible to operate the valva Fig. 6.
20. Piston Rods.

a. Piston rods for their entire length must be of solid
Tobin Bronze, and the distinguishing brand of the manufac-
turers of this metal must be visible on at least one end of
each rod.
b. The sizes must be not less than in table below.
Sizt of Pump.
This device combines the ad%-antage of a taper key and a split pin, and
the elongated key-slot gives sufficient leeway to always insure that the key
can be driven up tight against the nut and thus prevent it from even start-
ing to work off. Other methods will be approved in writing, if found
satisfactory.
21. Valve Rods.

a. Valve Rods for their entire length must be of solid
Tobin Bronze, with sizes not less than in table below.
Size of Pump. |
500 gal. 750 gal. | 1,000 gal. 1,500 gal.
Diameter of rod i i inch. \}i inch. \\i inch, j \% inch.
b. The net area of valve-rod at its smallest section subject

must not be smaller than at bottom of U.
to tensile stress, S.
standard screw thread on rod of diameter given above.
The construction of this rod as affecting lost motion at slide valve
is specified under Article 15.
22. Stuffing Boxes.

All six stuffing boxes must be bushed
a.
at the bottom with a brass ring with suit-

able neck and flange, and the follower or
gland must be either of solid brass, or be
lined with a brass shell ^V-inch thick, having
a flange next the packing, as shown in the ^^ r^
sketch.
The bottom of stuffing boxes and the end of glands should
taper slightly towards the center as per sketch.
b. These glands should be strong enough to withstand
considerable abuse, so as not to break from the unfair treat-
ment of unskilled men.
23. Pressure Gauge.

a. A pressure gauge of the Lane double tube spring pat-
tern with 5 inch case must be provided and attached to the
steam chest inside the throttle valve.

B66 Pumps and Hydraulics.
The dial of gauge should be scaled to indicate pressures up

to 120 lbs. and be marked "STEAM."
This kind of gauge is used on locomotives and is the best for withstand-
ing the vibration which causes fire-pump gauges to be often unreHable.
Moreover, this double spring is safer against freezing.
24. Drain Cocks.

a. Four brass drain cocks, each with lever handle and of .
one-half inch bore, are to be provided, and located one on each «

end of each steam cylinder.
Care should be taken to select a pattern of cock whose passageway is
the full equivalent of a ^-inch hole. Some patterns of 5/2-inch commercial

cocks although threaded for 5<^-inch pipe thread have but a j4-inch hole
through them. Such are not acceptable.
25. Oiling Devices.

a. A one-pint hand
oil pump, to be connected below the
and a one-pint sight feed lubricator, to be connected

throttle,
above the throttle, must be furnished with each pump.
b. Oiling holes must be provided for all valve motion pins,

and for each end of both rock shafts.
26. Stroke Gauge.

a. A length-of-stroke-index must be provided for each side
of pump. These must be of simple form for at all times
rendering obvious the exact length of stroke which each piston
is making, and thus calling attention to improper adjustments
of cushion valves or stufifing boxes.
b. The gauge piece over which the index slides must have
deep, conspicuous marks at ends of nominal stroke, and also
light marks at extreme positions; it need contain no other
graduations.
c. This stroke index must be rigidly secured to cross-head

in such a way that it cannot get loose or out of adjustment.
Steam Fire Pumps, 367
THE WATER END.
27. Water Cylinders.
a. These must be of hard close iron with metal so dis-

'tributed as to ensure sound castings, and freedom from shrink
cracks.
b. The design should be along lines best calculated to re-

sist internal pressure so as to avoid as much as possible the
need of ribs for stiffening.
c. They must be capable of withstanding, without showing

signs of weakness, the pressures and shocks due to running
under the conditions mentioned in Chapter "Tests for Accept-
ance," Art. 48-54.
The suction chamber should be able to withstand a water

pressure of 100 lbs.
Although suction chambers are not regularly subject to a pressure, it

is sometimes desired to connect them to public water supplies, and where
foot valves are used there is a chance of getting pressure on the suction,
so that ample strength is necessary.
Foundry finish may be permitted on the joints at water cylinder heads

and at hand-hole plates, provided surfaces are so true that a rubber packing
not over 1-16 of an inch in thickness is sufficient to secure perfect tightness.
d. Conveniently placed hand-holes of liberal size must be

provided for the ready examination and renewal of valve parts
at the yoke end of water cylinders and in the delivery chamber.
This will necessitate holes not less than 6x8 inches, or its equivalent,
for the two pumps, and holes. proportionately as large for the
largest-size
500 and 750-gallon pumps. The easy access to the valve parts is of vital
importance, and must receive careful attention.
e. The thickness of metal for cylinder shell, valve decks,

partitions, ribs, etc., will depend largely upon the form of con-
struction, but, in a general way, to establish safe minimums for
the average water cylinder, of nearly cylindrical

form, whose
flat surfaces are stiffly ribbed, we
submit the table below :
Size of Pnmp. 600 gal. 750 gal. 1,000 gal. 1,500 gal.
Thickness of cylinder shell Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches.

when of nearly cylindrical
form I
Thickness of valve decks
when well ribbed
Thickness transverse par-
tition, depending on rib-
bing i^ to 1%. toij4
^74 lyi to 2 I'A to 2
Thickness of longitudinal
partition, depending on
ribbing iX to l^ iX to 1/2 1% to 2 I'A to 2
Thickness of ribs 'A I I
Thickness of suction
chamber. H 'A
Thickness of delivery
chamber H
Lighter construction than herein specified will not be re-

garded as satisfactory, and any construction will be finally
passed upon on examination of drawings.
/. The bolting of all parts of the water end is to be of

such strength that the maximum stress at bottom of screw
thread will not exceed 10,000 1' s. per square inch (disregarding
for the moment the initial stress due setting up nuts) for a
water pressure of 200 lbs. per square inch, computed on an
area out to centre line of bolts.
No stud or bolt smaller than |-inch should be used to as-
semble parts subject to the strain of water pressure, as smaller
bolts are likely to be twisted off.
Although these pumps are not expected to be designed for a regular

working water-pressure of 240 or 320 lbs., it is expected that bolts, shells,
rods, etc., will be figured to stand this comparatively quiet,
temporary,
high pressure, exclusive of further allowance for initial strain due setting
up of bolts, with a factor of safety of at least four.
This high test pressure is analogous to the custom of proving all common
cast-iron water pipes to 300 lbs- and all common lap-welded steam pipes
to 500 lbs. per square inch, and common water-works gate valves to 400
even though these are to be regularly used at much less pressure.
lbs.,
We are assured that castings no heavier than at present used by the

best makers will stand this lest, if (ropcrly sha/^cd and liberally bolted.
g. For requirements for stuffing boxes, see Art. 22.
28. Water Plungers and Bushings.

a. The "inside plunger and bushing" is preferred for all
situations where the water is free from grit or mud.
Water-plungers must be of solid brass or bronze, and

b.
the bushing in which they slide must also be of brass or

bronze. The composition of the plunger and its bushing
should be of very hard, though dissimilar alloys, to ensure good
wearing qualities.
For material and size of piston rods and lock for nuts, see
Art. 20.
With poor alignment or bad workmanship or lack of skill in mixing
the alloys, brass plungers are liable to score and give trouble; but with
proper selection of alloys and true cylinders accurately aligned, they can
be made to run all right wherever iron ones can. It is quite a fine point
to get thesewearing surfaces just right; and this is z^'herein the experience,
skilland shop practice of one maker is likely to be much superior to that
of another n'orking under the same specification.
c. The
length of machined cylindrical bearing within the
partition must be not less then 2 inches. The plunger bush-
ing must have a faced seat transverse to its axis against par-
tition, forming a water-tight ground joint not less than one-half
inch wide.
Any rubber gasket or other compressible packing for mak-
ing this joint water-tight is not acceptable.
d. The construction of bushing and hole in partition must

be such that a cylindrical shell for use with a packed piston
can be interchangeably inserted in its place and secured by the
same bolts.
This can readily be arranged and enables a packed piston to be inserted

in place of a plunger subsequent to the installation of the pump with a
minimum of expense, should this become desirable from change of con-
ditions at any future time.
Small transverse grooves cut within the sliding surface

e.
of the plunger bushing, with a view to lessen the leakage, are

not acceptable.
Although a slight advantage in this respect for clean water, they are
a disadvantage on the whole, as dirt catches in them in the ordinary situa-
tion and cuts the plungers.
29. Standard Dimensions of Plungers and Plunger

Bushings.
To bring all these expensive parts to the same standard
a.
of weight and bearing surface, the following dimensions are

specified as the least that will be acceptable. These are based
on a length of plunger which uncovers the bushings one inch
at end of nominal stroke.
SOLID BRONZE PLUNGERS AND BUSHINGS.

500 750 1000 1500
Size of Pump. gal. gal. gal. gal.
Plunger.
Diameter 7 or 7X-in. 9-in. 10 or loj^-in. i2-m.
" 24 "
Length 17-in. 17 i8-in.
Thickness of transverse
partition
Thickness next to parti-
tion
Thickness next to end. . . 5/16
Number of ribs 4 4 6 6
Thickness of ribs "
5/16 5/16
Bushing.
" 10
Length 7 7
" "
Thickness at end 5/16 Yi Yi
Thence tapered evenly to
a thicknes next to bear-
ing of not less than . . . ^-s
Thickness at the center

bearing not less than . .
H 13/16"
30. Water Pistons and Bushings.

a. The " water piston with fibrous packing " is preferred
for many situations in the West or South, or for water contain-
ing grit or mud, like that of the Ohio River ; and, for the com-
paratively few cases where pump pressure governors are used,
the packed piston will give better service and longer wear.
b. The removable bushing or cylinder in which this piston
works must be of solid bronze.
c. As stated in Art. 28 d, this bushing should be so con-
structed as to be readily interchangeable with the bushing of
the inside plunger type.
d. The length of bushing must be such that the ends of
piston will barely come short of the edges of cylinder at contact
stroke and not uncover.
e. The thickness of the cylindrical bushings must be not
less than is given in the following table :
BUSHINGS FOR PACKED WATER PISTONS.
Size of Pump.
h. The water piston must be of simple and strong

con-
struction, with follower bolts tightly fitted, and
with fibrous
packmg so cut as to prevent by-passing.
/'.
All materials used in construction of piston, except
packmg, must be brass, bronze, or other
non-corrosive metîl.
J. Bushing studs must be of Tobin Bronze,
and of such
size and number, that the maximum
stress at the bottom of
the screw thread shall not exceed
10,000 lbs. per square inch,
in the event of plunger becoming
fast in the bushing with 80
lbs. of steam in the steam cylinders.
For each bushing stud there must be provided
k.^
a com-
position nut and check nut.
/. All minor parts exposed to the action
of water in water
cylinder, that are not herein specified,
must be of brass, bronze,
or other non-corrosive material.
31. Pump Valves.

a. All the suction and discharge valves in
any one pump
must be of the same size and interchangeable.
b. There must be a clear space around each
rubber valve
between it and the nearest valve, equal to at least
one-fourth
of the diameter of the valve, or between
it and the wall of the
chamber of at least one-eighth of the diameter of
the valve.
c. These valves must be of the very best quality
of rub-
ber, of medium temper, with a face
as soft as good wearing
quality will permit.
They must be double-faced, so they can be reversed when
one face is worn.
The quality of rubber is almost impossible of determination
by brief
mspection or by chemical analysis. The relative
amount of pure gum and
of cheaper composition may vary, or
good material may be injured by
defective vulcanization. The only safe way
to secure excellence and
uniformity is for the pump manufacturer to
test samples of each new lot
under severe duty (as by a week's run in a
small special pump, with say
150 pounds pressure and heavy water hammer, or
by some equivalent
means) and to furthermore require the rubber
manufacturer to mould a
date mark as "(Name of pump manufacturer,
lot 201— April 3, 1904.)"
on the edge of every valve, by which the pump
manufacturer can keep
track of those which prove defective.
Steatn Fire Pumps. 373
32. Size and Number of Pumt Valves.

a. The diameter of the disc of rubber forming the
valve must not be greater than 4 inches or less than 3 inches.
Three and a half inches diameter is probably the most favor-
able size, but is not insisted upon.
There is some confusion between different shops about designating size
of valves. The practice is here adopted, which much the most widely
is
used, of naming the diameter of the disc of rubber which covers the ports,
and it is hereby specified that this shall be about ^-inch greater than
the diameter of the valve-port circle which it covers, thus affording about
j4-iiich overlap or all around its edge.
bearing for the rubber disc
If valves are larger an increased tendency to valve-
than 4-inch there is
slam at the very high speed at which the pump is designed to run, and if
valves are smaller than 3 inches diameter the greater number tends to
unnecessary multiplication of parts, and the ports being so small are a
little more liable to become obstructed by rubbish.
b. The thickness of the rubber valve must in no cases be

less than |-inch.
33. Suction Valve Area.

a. The total lift of suction valves must not exceed ^-inch.
b. The net suction valve port area and the total suction
valve outlet area under valves lifted \ inch high must not be
smaller than the figures given in the table below.
?
^"^^
Pumps a7id Hydraulics.
By "valve-outlet area," we mean the vertical cylindrical surface

over
the outer edge of the valve ports, i. e., the distance
L multiplied by the
circumference at the outer edge of the valve ports C, Fig. 8. Thus
for a 4-inch
valve, with ports inscribed in a zVi-mch circle, whose
circumference is
3.5x3.1416=11 inches; the valve "outlet area" for J^-inch
lift would be
S'/2 inches.
The actual velocity of piston during the
middle portion of stroke is from 2.0 to 2.4 ffFTI
(average 2.2) times as great as the piston travel Tpfci^ J
per minute (as determined in experiments by
^^^^Bb^
Mr. J. R. Freeman on several duplex pumps of jaJ^^^^Sa _
different manufacture). This because each
is I-" '
"^StKB^
piston stands nearly half the time, or while
still '
'~7^^L^^'^
its mate is working, and, moreover, moves
more g
rp 1
''
i_J ^^ ^j"
slowly near start and finish of stroke. The

words "piston speed" are commonly incorrectly
\
*; l^^M
.
M
) 1: ^Ô^ -Wt
used and refer to "piston travel." A clear apMiJIiBiMiliJK
understanding that the actual piston speed is
\
W^ Wm
more than twice as great leads to more generous ^^°' *'
valve design.
Large aggregate valve areas are necessary for pumps designed to run
as fast as these, and experience has shown that to prevent valve slam at
high speed and to accommodate high suction lifts, it is just
as important
to have a large "valve outlet area" as to have a large
area of valve port-
It is valve slam or water hammer which commonly
limits the highest
speed at which a pump can be run. This water hammer may
originate
from the pulsations in a long or small suction pipe. The vacuum
chamber
lessens it, but there is comnxonly some point of high water
in the vacuum
chamber that will give much smoother action than any other.
Valve slam in this style of pump is caused chiefly by the short rebound
of the steam piston against the elastic steam cushion
at the end of the
stroke. This
in turn snaps the valves down with a jump when the
speed
is Dividing this impact or slam on numerous valves of low lift,
high.
tends to break up and lessen the shock, therefore with valves
of the size
and style used in fire-pumps, other things being equal, the less they have
to rise and drop to let the water through them, the less will be the valve
slam. This height of rise and drop is governed by the circumference rather
than the port area. Experience and practice has shown that
a '/^-inch
limit of lift is reasonable and does ensure a smooth working
pump under
all ordinarj' conditions.
c. The following table gives minimums for aggregate valve
port area and aggregate valve outlet area, for the different size
plungers, figured on a basis of 56^ of plunger area for a 12-inch
stroke, and 64^ for a 16-inch stroke.
The exactnumber and size of valves will, however, not be

insisted upon provided the aggregate valve area and the ag-
gregate valve outlet area for each section is not less than that
given in the table under c for the limiting lift of \ inch.
Manufacturers will note that with the established lift of Vz inch, the
35/2-inch valve will permit a valve outlet area more nearly equal
to its port
area than will either the 3-inch or 4-inch valves, and a relatively less
number of valves will satisfy the specifications.
34. Delivery Valves.

a. The total lift of delivery valves must not exceed one-
half inch.
This is to avoid valve slam, as explained in Art. 33.
The aggregate valve-port area should be restricted to

if.
about two-thirds the suction-valve area.

A small restriction of water-way through the delivery valves steadies
the action of the pump and tends to prevent undue pulsations of pressure
in the delivery pipe or fire hose. Fewer delivery valves than suction valves
are, therefore, preferred,and if extra holes in the delivery deck are cast
for shop purposes these had better be plugged than fitted with valves.
The suction valves require more generous port-circumference and port-
area than delivery valves because when a pump has to suck its supply
through a considerable height or through a long pipe there should be the
least practicable waste of the atmospheric pressure in getting the water
into the plunger chamber, or in retarding it from following the plunger
in full contact. With the water once into the plunger chamber there is
plenty of steam pressure available to force it out through the delivery
valves.
35. Valve Springs, Guards and Covers.

a. All valve springs must be of the best spring brass wire,
and must be coiled on a cylindrical arbor.
Conical valve springs are not approved because the strain is not uniform
throughout spring, thereby increasing the liability to breakage and the
chance of their getting out of center and becoming "hooked up."
d. The valve spring must be held centrally at its top by

resting in a groove in valve guard, substantially as shown in
Fig. 9.
Steam Fire Pumps. 37?
c. A light, rustless metallic plate must be interposed

between the bottom of the spring and the rubber valve, and
must be the full area of the valve. This plate must also be
formed with a raised bead to guide the spring at the bottom.
The weight of this plate should be small, for the inertia of the lifting
parts of the valves should be the least possible, to permit quick action and
to avoid pounding.
d. For the average condition of a lo or 15-foot lift, the

stiffness of suction valve springs should be such that a force of
about one pound per square inch of net port area will lift valve
^ inch off its seat.

The springs on the delivery valves should ordinarily be
from two to three times as stiff as just specified, but any other
reasonable degree of stiffness which is proved to work well in
practice will not be objected to.
For suction under a head, the greater snap with which water enters
the plunger chamber when thus pushed in by say twice the atmospheric
pressure renders it difficult to avoid water hammer at high speed. Extra
stiff suction valve springs will commonly aid in controlling this and should
I)e used wherever pumps are to work under a head.
An approved type of indicator water gate on the suction pipe near the
pump, which can be partly closed, will enable the pump to run quietly at
high speed- Such a gate is an extra not included in price of the pump.
36. Sticking of Valves.

a. Steam fire-pumps should be started, to limber them up,
at least once a week.
Although vulcanized India-rubber is much the best material yet used
for fire-pump valves, unfortunately the brass is sometimes corroded by the
free sulphur contained in the rubber, so that if the pump is left standing
for several weeks the rubber valve discs may become stuck to their brass
seats, and, if suction has a high lift, there may not be vacuum enough to
tear all the suction valves open when pump is started.
37. Valve Seats.

a. All water valve seats must be of bronze composition.
They may be on a taper or forced
either screwed into the deck
in on a smooth taper fit. With cither arrangement, the seat
must be either flanged out on the under side all the way round
378 Pumps and HydrauCics.
or be provided with a substantial lug opposite each rib, these

lugs being expanded out after the valve is inserted.
If the valve seats are not expanded after being put in place, there
is a
possibility that now and then a valve seat will work loose and come out,
thus crippling the pump.
b. The under side of the valve deck must be rounded over

to give good bearing for the expanded part of the seat.
c. Three-inch valves must have four or five ribs, three and
a half inch valves five or six ribs, and four inch-valves six ribs.
Enough ribs must be provided to give proper support to the rubber
valve, but too many are objectionable, as small ports w'ould be liable to
obstruction by refuse.
d. The edges of the valve-seat ports must be moderately

rounded over, to remove such sharp edges and points, as would
be liable to cut, or damage the rubber valve when under
pressure.
38. Valve Stems.

a. All valve stems must be of |-inch Tobin bronze and of
the fixed type, and must have the guard fastened on by one
of the methods shown in Figs. 9 and 10.
¥v*. 9. Fig. 10.

Other methods may be approved, in writing, if found by test and ex-

perience to»have especial merit.
These stems must be screwed into the seats on a straight,

b.
and the lower end then well headed over

tightly fitting thread,
into a countersink. The valve guard and nut must be of com-
position.
In Fig. 9 the upper part of the stem is slabbed of? on two opposite
sides and fits a corresponding hole in the guard.
The guard, therefore, cannot turn. The outside of the special nut is
fitted on a taper to the inside of the guard, and the nut tapped out to fit
the H U. S. thread on the stem.
The action of the valve, whether with the spring or without, tends to
drive these taper fits together, producing a frictional lock similar to that
of a friction clutch ; and although the nut may be loose on the thread,
it cannot possibly work off.
It will be apparent that the taper fit on the nut must be so made as
to always bear on the taper fit in the guard, and not bottom in the guard.
It is believed that with the present screw machine practice in shops of

to-day these small parts can readily be turned out accurately and cheaply
in large quantities. The nuts and guards made in any one shop must be
exactly of standard dimensions, so that the product of different periods
will be interchangeable.
The taper should be about one inch to one foot. With this taper the
nut can be readily turned in or out, but there is friction enough to hold
the guard and nut together even if the spring is off.
In Fig. lo, the top of the guard is recessed in the form of a hollow
inverted pyramid of six sides, to correspond to a hexagonal nut. The
angle of two opposite sides of this recess, which should be about 75 degrees,
will both surely lock the nut and still permit of its being turned with a
wrench.
The guard is kept from turning by slabbing off the stem, rn the same
manner as described and shown in Fig. 9.
To facilitate the removal of the nut, the edges should be slightly
champfered. An unfinished nut simply drilled and tapped is all that is
desired. Any hexagonal or square nut within the size of the tapered recess
will be locked.
With this construction, the nut cannot turn in either direction without
compressing the spring and is therefore locked, and, in the event of the
spring breaking or being left off. the nut is well ©rotected in its recess
380 Pumps and Hydraidics.
from the possible turning effects of water currents, and experiments have
shown that it will still stay in place.
With machine molding it will be possible to make these guards complete

in foundry, requiring no machine work further than a possible broaching
out of hole to fit the stem, as a fairly good fit is necessary.
While both of these devices are effective even though not tightened
down to a shoulder, they should be so tightened for greater safety and to
fix the lift at the half-inch limit.
39. Pipe Sizes.
a. Water ?.nd steam pipe connections must have standard

flanges to connect with pipes of the sizes given below.
Size of Pump.
Gal. Per Min.
c. Standard flanges and standard bolt layouts as adopted

by the Master Steam Fitters, July i8, 1894, must be used on all
the above pipe connections, as per table given below.
SCHEDULE OF STANDARD FLANGES.
Size of Pipe x
SIZE OF VACUUM AND AIR CHAJVIBERS.
Vacuum Chamber is Air Chamber

to contain : to contain :-
500-gallon pump. 13 gallons.

750 " 18
1,000 " "
24
1,500 30 -
—
Steam Fire Primps. 383
42. Hose Valves.

a. Hose valves must be attached to the pump ând in-
cluded in its price) as follows :
For the 2 stream or 500-gal. pump, 2 hose valves.

For the 3 stream or 750-gal. pump, 3 hose valves.
For the 4 stream or 1,000-gal. pump, 4 hose valves.
For the 6 stream or i, 500-gal. pump, 6 hose valves.
These are to be 2'/{>-inch straightway brass valves, without cap, and

similar and equal in quality to those made by the Chapman Valve Com-
pany, the Ludlow Valve Company, or the Lunkenheimer Company.
The hose-screw at end of these valves is to be fitted to a hose coupling
furnished by the customer, or where this cannot be procured may be left
with the thread uncut-

To accommodate locations where all the lines of hose must lead oflf
—
from one side of the pump makers can furnish a spool piece or special
casting to which the hose valves can be attached but this is an extra —
not included in the regular price.
43. Safety Valve.

a. A safety or relief valve of the Ashton, Crosby, American,
or other make agreed upon in writing with this office, is to be
regularly included in the price, and is to be attached to each
pump ;
preferably extending horizontally inboard from base of
air chamber, as shown in Fig. 12, so that its hand- wheel for
regulating pressure is within easy reach. This hand-wheel must
be marked very conspicuously as shown in Fig. ll.
b. This valve is to be set ordinarily at a working pressure

of 100 pounds to the square and
inch, is to be of such
capacity, that when set at 1 00 pounds it can pass all the
water discharged by the pump at full
speed, at a pump pressure not exceeding
125 pounds per square inch.
For 500-gallonpumpa3 inch valve.

For 750-gallon pump 3^ inch valve.
For 1,000-gallonpump 4 inch valve.
For 1,500-gallon pump 5 inch valve. Fio IL
The relief valve must discharge in a vertical downward

direction into a cone or funnel secured to the outlet of the
valve. (See Art. 44.)
The valve must be so at-
tached to the delivery elbow

and discharge cone by flange
connections as to permit of its
ready removal for repairs with-

out disturbing the waste piping.
44. Discharge Cone.
a. This cone should be so

constructed that the pump
operator can easily see any
Fig. 12.
water wasting through the relief
valve, and its passages should be of such design and size as to
avoid splashing water over into the pump room.
b. The cone must have a one-inch tapped connection

also
for the air-vent pipe required by Art. 45, and the arrangement
must be such that the pump operator can easily tell whether
water is coming from the air pipe or is wasting through the
relief valve.
c. The cone should be piped to some point outside of

the pump house where water can be wasted freely, the waste
pipes being as below.
Size of Pump.
:
some in the pump room, suggest the covering of the cone in any way, as it
is desirable that the pimip operator should always be able to see instantly
any waste from the relief valve or air vent.
This cast-iron cone, connected to the safety valve and air vent, is in-
cluded in price of pump, but the waste pipe beyond it is not.
45. Air Valve.
a. An air vent with a brass gate valve and brass pipe for
connecting up, must be provided and connected with deHvery
elbow and discharge cone.
3. The size of this air vent should be

one inch for 500-gallon and 750-gallon
pumps, and one and one-fourth inches for
the looo-gallon and I5oogallon sizes.
c. The hand wheel of this valve must

be marked as per Fig. 13. The lettering
must be very open, clear and distinct, not
liable to be obstructed by grease and dirt,
FiQ. 13.
and of a permanent character.

Th€ object of this valve is to reduce the pressure above force valves and
secure a prompt riddance of all air that may come through the water
cylinders when first starting up.
This valve, of course, should be closed when once pump is under way,
to prevent waste of water.
46. Priming.
a. Each pump must be fitted with a set of b^ss priming

pipes and valves, according to either one or the other of
the following methods
d. For 1,000 and 1,500 gallon pumps, th"; priming pipes
must be i^ inches. For the 500 and 750 gallon pumps, the pipes
must be i inch. Pump-makers are to furnish hese pipes and the
fittings called for below, and are to connect them up providing
a 2-inch outlet, looking upwards, ready for the supply from the
priming tank.
386 Pumps a?icC Hydraulics.
The pipe from the priming tank to this outlet should be at least 2-inch,
and may be of iron, and is to be furnished by the purchaser. All parts
furnished by the pump-maker are to be of brass, and are to be included
in the price of the pump.
Controllable Valve Arrangement. 1

c. Four 2-seat controllable valves, one for each pulsation
chamber, and of the general type illustrated in Fig. 14, must be
provided. In these the inlet of water and outlet of air are m
simultaneously opened and closed by the pump operator. "
Fig. 14,
Objection has been raised to this double-seated valve from the possible
keeping both seats tight. If desired, the valve may be fitted
difficulty of
with a flange instead of a screw connection, and the stem between the
two seats somewhat enlarged and provided with a suitable spring, thus
giving flexibility between the two seats and preventing all trouble from
uneven wear.
d. The hand-wheel of
each of these valves must
be marked as per Fig. 15,
so that the pump operator
may clearly understand their
use. The lettering must
be very open clear and
distinct, not liable to be
FiQ. 15.
obscured by grease and
FiQ. 16.
dirt, and of a permanent character.
e. There must be provided and fitted to each combined
valve a check and umbrella-top air vent, as shown in Fig. 16.
This fitting must have a clear passageway through it, the full
equivalent of a ^-inch bore.

The check-valve is to permit the outflow of air, but to prevent the
influxwhen the plunger is sucking.
This method is preferred to the one using rubber priming checks, as
now and then a rubber valve will stick on its seat and thus prevent priming
of one of the chambers. In this arrangement the pump operator has
absolute control over the priming water into each chamber.
Another advantage is that the connection of the air-vent with the prim-
ing valve ensures that the air-vents will be opened; and further, by the
vigorous spurting out of water as soon as the pump is primed, the pump
operator is reminded that the priming valve should be closed.
Should the pump operator, however, through a mistaken idea of the
proper method of operation, think that the priming should be continued
until all air was exhausted from the suction pipe and the pump running in
normal condition, there would be some by-passing between chambers, but
as there is a free vent for the air, the main result would be simply to limit
the amount of air exhausted per stroke, from the main suction, by the
amount of water which entered a chamber in this way. The amount of
water thus entering, however, would not be appreciably greater than that
vhich would enter from the priming-tank with the check-valve arrange-
ment.
If, even in spite of the warning given by the spurting air-vents, the
pump operator should neglect to close the priming-valves when the pump
was running normally, the priming-tank would eventually be overflowed;
but this would not be as serious as the drawing in of air from an exhausted
priming-tank, which would result with the check-valve method, were the
main 2-inch valve similarly neglected.
Rubber Check Valves.

/. Four rubber check valves, one for each pulsation
chamber, and similar to ordinary pump valves, must be pro-
vided. The chambers for these should preferably be made as a
part of thepump cylinder, thus securing a compact arrangement.
Figure 12 shows this arrangement in outline.
g. The valve seat should have three ribs to the central hub,
supporting the rubber valve. The net port area through the
valve should be not less than i^ square inches.
This valve seat should rest in an inverted position, and can be so fitted
up as to be readily removed. The valve stems can be of the removable
type screwing into the seat, but must be made long enough to receive a
check nut on the opposite side of seat. This will effectually lock the stem
in place.
Ji. Care must be taken to arrange the water passages

through and about these priming checks, so as to avoid all air
pockets and so as to reduce to a minimum the possibility of
the valves becoming choked up by refuse.
i. The valve seats, stems and must be of com-
all parts
position and of strong rugged design, so fitted up that there is
the least chance for the rubber valves to stick, and with all
parts securely put together the valves must be readily accessible.
j. The valve springs must have only sufficient strength to

keep the valves on their seats, so that they will freely open
even with the low head of priming water often existing.
k. There must be provided, and attached
to the top of each plunger chamber, a brass
check valve and air cock with umbrella top,
as shown in Fig. 17. This cock and valve
must have a clear passageway through them
— the full equivalent of a |-inch bore.
The check valve is to permit the outflow of air, but
to prevent the influx when the plunger is sucking.
Cocks with lever handles are used, as these show
clearly whether they are open or shut.
/. There must also be provided a 2-inch

brass gate valve for the general control of -fiq. 17.
the water to the four-check valves. The hand wheel of this

valve must be marked as per Fig. 15. The lettering must be
very clear, open, and distinct, not liable to be obscured by-
grease, and of a permanent character.
It is essential for a properly working pump that the main 2-inch priming-
valve should be closed as soon as the pump is primed. Otherwise, water
will be drawn from the priming tank, lessening the lifting power of the
pump through the main suction, and if this is continued the priming tank
will often be exhausted and air drawn into the pump, interfering with its
proper action. It is for this reason that the marking on the priming valve
is required.
For all average situations, either method of priming permits of getting
the pump under way in a very few minutes, but, for cases where the suction
pipe is over 300 or 400 feet in length, or sometimes where the lift is over
18 feet, or where there is a combination of long length and lift within these
limits, so much time is consumed in exhausting the air from the suction
pipe that it becomes desirable to supplement this method-

For such situations, a steam ejector connected to the suction pipe near
the pump is advised, and may be required in addition to the regular priming
pipes and tank. The size of the ejector should be sufficient to exhaust
the suction pipe within about three minutes. Such ejectors will be con-
sidered as extras not included in the ordinary pump fittings.
For cases where pump can only take its suction under a head, if abso-
lutely certain that the level of the suction water will never fall below level
of center of pump, these priming pipes may be omitted, but openings for
them into the pump shell must be provided and capped or plugged.
A foot valve on a fire-pump suction is not advised except in very rare
cases, as with a lift of 18 feet or a suction pipe 500 feet or more long. A
foot valve is not needed when there is a good efficient set of priming
arrangements as described above and it is commonly found this gives a false
sense of security, and that with a fire-pump left standing several days the
water will often be found to have leaked back, so that it is no better than
if no foot valve had been used.
A foot valve must of necessity generally be located where it is inacces-

sible for quick repairs, and as they grow old, foot valves are often a source
of trouble. Where a suction pipe is exposed even slightly to frost, a foot
valve is specially objectionable.
A priming tank is provided /or tA€ purchaser in all cases where there
is ever to be any lift on the suction. It is generally advised that this tank
have a capacity of one-half of what the pump can throw at full speed in
a minute. This means 250 gallons for a 500-gallon pump and 500 gallons
for a 1,000-gallon pump, etc. It is the intention to make the pump a truly
"independent source" of supply, therefore the need of a special priming tank

Older Priming Arrangements.

The form of priming arrangement heretofore used, with
metal check valves, one main 2-inch priming valve, and i-inch
priming pipes, separate controllable air cocks, may be retained
on all pumps at present in service, and will be considered satis-
factory, if kept in good order.
If in any case such checks give trouble the priming arrange-
ment may be changed and valves like Fig. 14 or rubber checks
as described in sections Z^^', made up in detachable form,* may
be put on if desired, where the connections on the pump per-
mit them.
Where neither method is desired or where neither is feasible
the faulty checks may be replaced by a special type such as are
now made for this use, by the Locke Regulator Company, of
Salem, Mass. These are i-inch check valves, adapted to use a
small disc of medium hard rubber, similar to a pump valve.
These very near the dimensions of the com-
fittings are
mercial check valve, so that with slight shortening of piping
connections they. will fit into the present arrangements, and
give satisfaction.
47. Drain Cocks.

a. Five brass drain cocks, each with a lever handle and of
înch bore, are to be provided, and located one on each end
of each water cylinder, and one above the upper valve deck.
Care should be taken to select a pattern of cock whose passageway is
the practical equivalent of a H-inch hole. Some patterns of ^-inch com-

mercial cocks although threaded for H-incli pipe thread have but a j4-irich
hole through them. Such are not acceptable.
TESTS FOR ACCEPTANCE.

48. Test for Smoothness of Action.
Provide outlets for the water start the pump slowly,
a. ;
gradually open steam-throttle to bring the pump to full speed.
*Such detachable rubber check valves are now made up in regular form
hy the George F. Blake Mfg. Co., East Cambridge, Mass.
.
Steam Fire Pumps
The pump should run smoothly at the rated full speed of 70

revolutions per minute (or 60 revolutions if a i.soo-âllon
pump) with full length of stroke, and meanwhile maintain a
water pressure of 100 lbs. per square inch.
If the hose lines arc short, or discharge is too free, partly

close the water outlet valves, thus throwing an extra back pres-
sure on the pump equivalent to that which would be produced
through a greater length of hose.
During this trial it is preferable to discharge the water through lines

of 2'/3-inch cotton rubber-lined hose, preferably each 150 feet long, each
connected directly to the hose outlets on the pump, and each line having
a iJ/^-inch smooth nozzle at its outer end. Two lines should be connected
for a 500-gallon pump, three for a 750, and so on, having as many lines as
rating of pump requires.
A hose line 150 feet long, with an inside surface of average smoothness,
and with a ij^-inch nozzle attached, will require about 80 pounds pressure
at the pump to discharge 250 gallons per minute, and the nozzle pressure
will be about 45 pounds. Therefore, with lines attached as above, a pres-
sure at the pump of about 80 pounds should represent a discharge about
equal to the rated capacity of the pump, and would ordinarily correspond
with the rated full speed revolutions.
If the pump runs smoothly under these conditions, it is well to open

the throttle somewhat further, pump up to
and bring the pressure at the
100 pounds. This will give a discharge of about 280 gallons per stream,
or about 12 per cent, in excess of the rated capacity. The revolutions will,
of course, correspondingly increase, and under all ordinary conditions a
pump should run smoothly at this higher capacity though a little more
vibration and pounding would De expected than when running simply at
its rated speed.
After cushion valves are adjusted there should be no noteworthy water

hammer or valve-slam. Sometimes valve-slam is not the fault of the pump,
but arises from an obstructed suction pipe. It is objectionable to doctor
water hammer in a pump by "snifting" air into the suction, as this cuts
down the efficiency and is a poor expedient.
The quietness of that part of the hose near the pump, or its freedom
from rubbing back and forth crosswise an inch or more with each pulsation
of the pump, is a good index of the pump maker's skill in securing uniform
delivery. Bad pulsation quickly wears holes in the hose, and to reveal
this is the object of testing with hose connected directly to the pump.
39!8 Pumps and Hydraulics.
49. Test of the Internal Friction.

a. This is shown by the reading of steam gauge compared
with water pressure gauge at air chamber.
Tests have generally run about as follows, for pumps run-
ning at full rated speed :
Capacity.
Gallons
Minute
Size
Per
Suam Fire Pumps. 393
c. If boiler above 85 pounds, the safety valve

pressure is
on pump down only enough

should be attached and screwed
to hold the required pressure. For with 100 pounds or more
of steam the water pressure might be carried too high.
After completing the above test slack off on safety valve,
setting it so that it will begin to open at about 100 pounds
pressure.
51. Test of Capacity of Safety Valve.

a. The relief valve may next be tested by first adjusting
it to "pop" main outlet to pump,
at 100 pounds, then shut the
and then shut the hose gates one by one, and thus force all the
discharge through the relief valve, meanwhile opening steam
throttle, so as to run pnrxxp first at two-ihirds speed or about 50
revolutions per minute, andspeed (70 revolutions).
finally at full
The safety valve (relief valve) should carry all this and not let
the pressure rise above 125 pounds.
The pressure in a quick-moving fire-pump necessarily fluctuates 5 to
15 pounds at different points in stroke, and an air chamber of reasonable
size cannot wholly remove this. Therefore the safety valve must be set at
about 15 pounds higher than the intended average working pressure; other-
wise it will get to jumping with almost every stroke.
52. Test of Internal Leakage or Slip.
a. Set safety-valves at 115 lbs., shut all water outlets,

admit steam enough to give 100 pounds water pressure, then
pump will move very slowly under the influence of the leakage
past plungers. About one revolution of pump per minute
shows a proper accuracy of fit. Anywhere from 1-3 to 2
revolutions per minute is satisfactory.
Too tight a fit is bad, as if not exceedingly uniform it induces scoring
or cutting of the metals. Moreover, should the pump happen to be run dry
for a few minutes before catching its suction a slight warming and expan-
sion of the plunger may cause it to stick and cut.
53. Test with Maximum Working Pressure.

a. For this, alternately shut down the main outlet gate and
adjust the hand-wheel of the safety valve, and open up on the
throttle asmay be required, running pump at say one-half speed

(or, in experienced hands, at full rated speed), and note the
greatest water pressure which the full boiler pressure (unless
boiler pressure is above 85 lbs.) will yield with pump at full
speed.
Sometimes it may be necessary to force water through very long lines

of hose, or to an unusual height.
Steam fire engines are not infrequently called on to give 200 pounds
per square inch water pressure.
To test short hose lines with anywhere near so high a pump-pressure

is dangerous, lest nozzle kick and pull itself away from the man holding
it and thrash around; but the ability of the pump may be tested by putting
this high pressure-delivery mainly through the safety valve, or in part

through the partially closed main outlet gate.
not advisable to carry this zvater pressure above 200 pounds in this
It is
test atthe factory, ( although in the shop test the water pressure is carried
to 240 pounds) and engine driver should stand with his hand on the throttle.
54. Test for Maximum Delivery.
a. This can best be tried by adding one or, in some cases,

two more streams than the pump is rated to deliver by attach-
ing the extra lines of hose to some hydrant near, and then
speed up the pump gradually, to see how fast it may be run
before violent pounding or slamming of valves begins.
Sometimes the increased delivery can be drawn off through an open

hydrant-butt meanwhile holding sufficient back pressure to show 100 pounds
on the water gauge by partly closing the discharge valve.
The engine driver should stand with his hand on or near the throttle
when thus speeding the pump.
It is all right to run a fire-pump up to the utmost speed possible before

water hammer begins, and very often a pump, while new and if favorably
set up, can deliver 25 to 50 per cent, more than rated capacity nevertheless,
;
although expert treatment can force 1,000 gallons from a 16x9x12 pump
we can rate it as only a 750-gallon pump. There must be some margin to
allow for wear and for the possible absence of the expert at time df fire.
:
The main points of Difference between the " National

Standard " and the " Trade Pump " are :
Brass Plungers instead of cast-iron plungers.

Wrought iron side levers instead of cast iron.
Bronze piston rods and valve rods instead of iron or steel.
Pump has brass-lined stuffing boxes instead of cast iron.
Rock shafts are brass bushed.
Area of water valves is 25 to 50 per cent, greater.
Steam and exhaust passages 20 to 50 per cent, greater.
Suction pipe connections two to four inches greater diameter.
Cushion valves better arranged.
Air chamber is made much larger.
Shells and bolting are warranted especially strong.
The following necessary fittings are included in the price,

and regularly furnished as a part of this pump, viz.
A capacity plate.
A stroke gauge.
A vacuum chamber.
Two best quality pressure gauges.
A water relief valve of large capacity.
A cast iron relief valve discharge cone.
A set of brass priming pipes and special priming valves.
From two to six hose valves.
A sight feed cylinder lubricator connected above throttle.
A one-pint hand oil pump connected below throttle.
Information regarding tests made under these specifications
can be obtained by addressing Underwriters' Laboratories,
Chicago, 111.
INDEX TO PUMP SPECIFICATIONS.
Article No.
and section.
Acceptance, tests for 48 to 54
Air chamber 40
Air valve 45
Automatic sprinklers, discharge of 3 <
Boiler power required for driving pumps 2)<^
Bolts, allowable stress and size 9,27/

Bolting standards required 39 c
Bushings for packed water pistons 30
Bushings for plungers 28, 29
Capacity of pumps, method of computing 4
Capacity plate 5
Chambers, air and vacuum 40
Clearance in steam cylinders 12
Cone, discharge 44
Cover plates for water valves 35
Cranks 16
Crossheads 16 c
Cushion valves 19
Cylinders, steam 8
Cylinders, water 27
Delivery, test of maximum 54
Discharge cone 44
Drain cocks 24, 47
Duplex pumps required 2
Fire stream, standard 3 ^
Flanges, standards required 39 <^
Friction, internal, tests for 49

Guards for valves 35
Gauges, pressure 23, 41
Gauges, stroke 26
Hose valves 42
Inspection at shop 7
Leakage, test of internal 52
Levers, valve motion i?
Links •
16
Name plates 5
Oiling devices • 25
Pipe, sizes, steam and water 39
Piston areas, ratio 30

Pistons, packed water 30
Piston rods and nuts 20
Pistons, steam , 13
Plunger bushings 28, 29
Plunger, water 28, 29
Pressure, maximum, working tests for 53
Priming, methods required 46
Rock shafts 16
Rods, piston 20
Rods, valve 21
Safety valves 43
Safety valve, test of capacity 51
Shop inspection 7
Single pumps not acceptable 2
Sizes of pumps, standards 3 a
Slip 4/
Slip, test of internal 52
Smoothness of action, test for 48
Speed of pumps 3 '». 33 ^
Speed of pumps, revolutions per minute 3 and 4
Springs, valve 35
Steam cylinders 8
Steam, clearance space 12
Steam joints 8 c
Steam pistons 13
Steam ports 1
Steam slide valves I4> ^5
Strength of parts 6
Strength, tests for ".
5°
Stuffing box 22
Tests for acceptance 48 to 54
Tightness, tests for 5o
Vacuum chamber 40
Valves, water valve areas 33-34
Valve, air 45
Valve, cover plates 35
Valves, delivery 34
Valve guards 35
Valves, hose 42
Valve motion stand 18
Valves, pump, general requirements 3i
Valves, pump, size and number 32

Valve rods ^^
Valve rod heads \6 c

Valves, safety 43
Valve seats, water, construction of 2;j
Valve springs 35
Valve, steam slide 14
Valves, steam slide adjustment - 15
Valve stems, types required 38
Valves, sticking of water valves 36
Valve, suction valve area 33
Water cylinders 27
Workmanship, character of i
Yoke « 10
INDEX
TO PART ONE
I
A
Any one, and more especially the attentive student, can
with the least trouble avail himself of the subject matter
contained in this zvork by doing as indicated in the following
old English couplet quoted by Chas. Reade.
*' For index-reading turns no student pale,

Yet takes the eel of science by the tail.**
THE INDEX
TO Part One of Rogers Pumps and Hydraulics.
Paob PAGE
Accumulator, an, des 151 Air pump 13
hydraulic, ills, and
171-173
des. . . and electric motor, ills, and
rule for calculating capacity des 271
of 172 valve, marking of, for the
Acid, muriatic, specific g^vity of 96 underwriter pump 385
sulphuric, specific gravity of 96 Alcohol, specific gravity of 96
Adjustment of the slide valves Alcometer, def 94
of the underwriter steam Alien, Frank, annotations .IV, VIII .
pumps
fire 360 Alternating motor, des. and ills. 252
Advantages of a duplex pump Ammeters, des. and ill- 256
as a fire pump Ampere, def 256

351
Angle for crank positions of
Aeriform fluids, des 15
duplex, triplex and quad-
Air, des., composition of 15, 16 ruplex pumps 230
and vacuum chambers for the of check valve, ills, and des . . 227
underwriter pump 381
Animal power 187
Practicallj the reverse of each
Animals, when drinking are
other 221
natural bellows pumps, Note 199
Alr-bound, def 17
Annular valve, def 17
Air chamber of pump, ills 223 Antimony, specific gravity of . . . 96
chambers, ills, and des 220 Apparatus, hydraulic, def 157
Alr-cock, def 17 Archimedes and the hydro-
Air, gravity and elasticity of 16 static balance 93
401
Area, def 17 Bolts and stubs to be used in the

Armature, des. and ills 247, 251 underwriter steam fire pump 356
Armored pump valves, ills, and Bonnets, def 18
des 217 ills 223
Armstrong, Sir William, de- Boss, def 19
signer of the hydraulic ac-

Boulton, Matthew, inventor of
cumulator 171 hydraulicram note 175
Bourdon spring, of metallic
Arsenic, specific gravity of 96
barometer des 115-116
Asphalt, melted, raised by pumps 18S
Bounarbashi fountains of, his-
Assembling, def 17
torical def 30
Atmospheric electricity 245
Braden pump valve, ills, and
pressure, def . . . . 17
des 215-216
Attraction, capillary, def 103
Bramah, time of his invention of
of gravitation S5
the hj'draulic press 169
Auxiliary, def 17
Brass specific gravity of
, 96
Breast, water wheel des. and ills. 122
Bag pump, ills, and des 19S Brick, specific gravity of 96
Balanced valve, def iS Bronze, specific gravity of 96
Ball check=valve, def iS Brotherhood three cylinder
Barrel or C3-Iinder of a pump, des. 1S9 hydraulic engine, 150-152
ills 195 Brushes, dynamo, des. and
Base of hand pump, ills 195
ills 251, 262
Basket, def 18 Buckets, gaining and losing,

Battery, how indicated by the historical, des. and ills. .59, 60 .
signs and + — 261 part of water wheel 130

Buffalo single cylinder pump,
BelIows=pump, illustrated and
ills, and des 319-321
des 1S6, 19S, 199
Burnham steam pump, ills, and
Belted pumps, des. and ills 225 des 324-326
Belt=pumps, hj-draulic 200
Bushing, def 19
pumps, why so called 187
Bends, def 18
Bethesda, pool of, historical def. Caffee» Alberto H., dedication of
49
Bibb=cock, def iS work to V
Blakeslee steam pump, ills, and Calabash, des 38
des 299-301 Cameron steam pump, ills, and
Bodies soluble in water, how des 295, 296
weighed 94 Capacity of a pump, depends

Boiler feed pump duplex power, upon speed, etc 353-354
and des
ills, 230-231 Capacity . plate of the under-
pumps ills, and des 225-234 writer steam fire pump .... 355
table of capacity of 226 Capillary attraction, def 103
Boiling point of water, 76 facts and ills 103, 104
Bolt=extractor, des. and ills 164 note, containing examples of 104
. 1
Index. 403
Care and management of elec- Compound duplex pumps, with

tric pumps 26S the Deane switch valves. . .
34^
Carlyle, quotation IV steam pumps 65
Cases for turbines, des. and ills. 136 Compounding, what it consists of 335
Castor oil, specific gravity of . . . 96 Compression gauge cock, def. . . 20
Cauldron, ills 35 Compton hydraulic motor, des.
Centrifugal pump and electric and ills 153
motor, ills, and des 272 Computation of capacity of the
pumps, why so called iSS underwriter fire pump,
Chain of pots, des. and ills 63 method of 353-354
pumps, why so called 1S7 Computation relatingto specific
Chambers, air and vacuum for gravity of various bodies, 95-98
the underwriter pump 38 relating to the velocity of fall-
Charcoal, specific gravity of 96 ing bodies S9, 90

Check-nut, def 19 Conditions of service required of
valve, def 19 a pump 224
oflSce of 38.S Cone, discharge, of the under-
of the underwriter pump, writer pump I, 384
method of use 387, 388 Construction of the water ends
wing pattern, ills, and des. . . 227
of single cylinder and du-
Chemicals, pump for handling, jjlex pumps 209
ills, and des 233 Contents, Table of, part one 15
Chinese windlass, des. and ills., 47, 62 Controllable valve arrange-
*' Chutes " of water wheel, ills.
139 ment, des. and ills., for
Circuit breakers 255 underwriter pump 3.S6
Circulating pump, def 19 Copper, specific gravity of 96
Clack valve, def 19 Copyright, page VIII
Classification of pumps 185 Cork, specific gravity of 96
Clay, specific gravity of 96 Corliss valves applied to the
Clearance, def 19 Reidler belt driven pumps 240
space of the underwriter steam Cornish (engine) pump, des 65 . .
fire pump 356 pumping engines, history of . 65

Clepsydra, des. and ills 39 Corrosion, def 20
Coal, specific gravity of 96 Covers, valve springs and
Cock, def 19 guards for the underwriter
Cocks, drain, for the underwriter pump 376
pump 390 Crane, Anglo-Saxon, historical
Coefficient of friction, def 99 ref. and ills 48
Collecting-brushes, part of dy- Cranes, lifts aud hydraulic 180
namo 24S Crow, def 20
Column pipe, def 19 Cup leather packing 20, 154, 190
Commutator, ills, and des. . .247, 262 Current delivered from a
bars, des. and ills 251 dynamo, how reversed. . . . 264
Compensator 256 Current electricity 244
44 Pumps and Hydrautus.
PAOS
Current water wheel, des and Domestic electric pumps, ills.
•"5 125 and des 269
Cushioning, def 20 Double acting power pump,
Cushion valves erf the under- with 4 check valves, ills.
pump
v.Ti:er £re 362 and des 221
Cylinder head or cylinder pumps, how they do their
cover, def 20 ^•ort 187, 188
of hydraulic jack, des. acd pump, when invented 53
ills 158, 159 Double-eye or knuckle Joint,
or twrrel of a ptunp, des. ... 189 'ê-'
20
pu — ps. why so ca'.led iSS 5.eated p<;pp)et valve, def 21
Cylinders for the water end c: Drafting water, des 21
the unitrv ' :-r steani 5re Draft tube of a water wheel., des.
-=' • 3^7 Drain cocks for the underwriter
135
r
:'
:..t j . 1 e r-:vriter fire pnmp,
^^^^^^^-^- of P'-^P 390
556
Drip. pipe, des 21
Driven or tube writs 202
Davidson 8tea.m pump, ills. Dry steam, def 286
and des 2S7-2S9 Duct, def 21
Dead end of a pipe, def 20 Duplex fire pump, shop name
Dean Bros, pump, ills, and and shop number required
-i^s 32^328 on piate attached to under-
Deane single jicting triplex waters 355
power pump underwriters steam end.. .356-366
234
oil pumps, ills and des
svritcb va"ve, special features 339
pK • - r '-"p not to be con-
34
fîr. > -Lrap, ijls. and
'
- ^ t : v,-iih " Duplex
' des, 317-319 .
pumps "
D-î cation of work 230
V pump
Delivery valves and des ills, 331-398
-::' the under-
outside packed plunger pat-
^^ -^ P-^7 376
tern for high pressure 341
Dial of pressure gauge of the setting valves of 338
ur.de r-.'.- r: :e r pump, hovr pump>s, history of 65, 69
=^^''-^^ 382 only acceptable for fire pumps 351
Dianhragra pumps, -^rhv 5.0 car.ed 1S7 with Deane switch valve. 343 . . .
Direct acting duplex steam Worthington admiralty pat-

pump, des 69 tern of, ills, and des
337
pu=p;, des 66-68 steam fire pump, under-
Direct current motor, dt3 249 .
writers, water end of. .367-380 . .
Discharge cone of the under- steam pump, important note. 333

v.r;:er pump 584 valve motion 333-334
p:p^ connection, ills 223 underwriters steam, fire
now made 204 P'i™P .M3-398
Dls-c or disc, def 20 '* Dutchman," def 21
Index. 405
PAGE PAGE
•• t)uty " of pumps, def 20 Electric motor and air pump,
Dynamics, def 245 pumping machinery 267-276
Dynamo, def 247 pumps, care and management 268
early Fxiison type 248 prof)erly power pumps 2r>S
electric carrent from a, hoir why so called 1S7

roersed 264 Electric -rheostat, transformer,
five principal parts 247 compensator 256
•when it becomes a motor. . . . 260
Electric-switches and switch-
Dynamometer, turbine, des 128
boards 254-255
Electro-magnets, i'.ls. and des. 259 .
Eccentrics triplex
of the Electro-motive force, def 246
power pump, how set . . . 232 Elementary hydraulics 71-73
Edi^son d\ aamo, early tvy^- . 248 Elements, phial of four, (mer-
Efficiency of an electric pump. 26S cury, water, alcohol and
Efflux of water under petroleum) des 81
pressure 105-113 Elevator pomps, why so called . . 187
Elbow, def .. 21 Emery, specific gravity of. ... . 96
shown and
in piping, ills, des. 223 E. M. F,, def 246
Electric circuit breakers 255 Energy, mechanical and elec-
Electric current, action of 257 trical, how transformed 260
fron: a dyi:aiiio. how reversed 264 Engineering, as a branch of hy-
Electric drive for fire pumps, draulics 74
ills, and des 273 Engine, Rife hydraulic 177-179
honse tank pumping plant, English unit of heat, ills, and
ills, and des 269 des 284
Electricity and electrical ma- Equilibrium of superposed
chinery- 2^3 liquids, data 81
how classified and defined . . . 2x4 Equilibrium = valve, def 21
how measured . . 246 Ewbank, Thomas, a'-thor, ref. to 46
important note 243 " Ewbank's hydraulics," credit
in vibration 244 g:-. en for use of 52
vitreous, negative. p>ositive,etc. 245 Ewers, golden, used by rich
whence denved 243 Egyptians 38
Electric mining pumps, ills, and Expansion jsint, das 21
des 274-276
Electric motor 2md air pump, Face, def 21
ills, and des. 271 Factor of safety, def 22
motor, tdes 249 Feather, or sunk key, def. 22
operating a portable track Field magnets 247
pump, ills, and des 276 Field, .\\arshall, reference to. . .
273
pump, ills, and des 272-273 Field spider, electrical, def 253
pump 241-276 Fire-engine. •----• reference 35
pumping installation, notable Fire-pumps. irive for.
example . .
275 ills, and des. 273
Fire-pumps, national standard Friction and viscosity of fluids,

specification for the manu- def 99
facture of 351 sliding, def 100
steam to be started once a two kinds of 99
week 377 Fulcrum of the lever of a hand
underwriter 344 pump 195
uniform requirements for the Fusee windlass, historical note. 62
underwriter's steam 350
Flange packing, hydraulic, ills.
and des 154 Gaining and losing buckets,

historical, des. and ills. . . 59-60
Flanges, table of standard sizes
for underwriter pump 381 Gang pumps, triplex power, ills.
and des 231

Flax, plaited, recommended for
packing power pumps .... 230 Garner, Maj. Abram B., dedi-
Flow, def 22
cation of work to V
Gas a condition or state of matter
of water result of gravity .... 89
def 73
under pressure, 3 cases of . . . . 105
Gaseous condition of matter ... 73
Fluid condition of matter 73 Gases, permanent, des 73
Fluids, aeriform, des 15
Gas pumps, why so called 187
data relating to 77-84
Gate valve, des 22
division into liquids and
of the underwriter pump, tiow
vapors or gases 73 marked 389
elastic, two classes of 73 Gate 'Wheel of turbine water
friction of, des 99 wheel, ills , 139
Plume, def 22 Gauge, pressure, for the under-
for water wheel, size of 138 writer pump 382
water, how to construct 138 Gauges, hydraulic, des. and ills. 115
Flutter-wheels, des 121 Generator, electric, def 247
Foot valve and strainer, ills, and four-pole, des. and ills 251
des 223 Gland, def 22
Force pumps, classification of. ... 187 and stuffing-box, ills, and des. 211
two-cylinder 192 Glass, specific gravity of 96
when invented 53 Globe valve, def 22
Formula for obtaining the effi- Glossary of pump and hydraulic
ciency of hydraulic rams. 177 . . terms 17-34
Foster steam pump, ills, and Gold, specific gravity of 96
des 292-294 Goose neck, def 22
Foundations for hand pumps, des. 204 Gould triplex single acting
Fourneyron's turbine, historical power pump, ills, and
note 128 des 236, 237
Francis Weir table formula 122 Gourd, ills 35. 38
Frictional Electricity 244 Granite, specific gravity of 96
resistance of water, three laws Gravitation, important note 88
of 100 universal 85
Index. 407
PAGE
Gravity, law of 85 ills, and des.
Horizontal jack, 163, 164
iuflueuce in weight of water, pumps, why so called 187
note 80 turbine wheel, des 133
specific 91 Horse power apparatus, com-
Gridiron valve, def 23 bined pump 201
"Guides" of water wheels, ties. 131 theoretic, of Niagara Falls
Guild and Garrison steam water wheels 143
pump, ills, and des 307-30S of a pump, def 23
Gutter, double, des. and ills 54 Hose valves, sizes for the under-
Gyleand gyle-tun, def., also note 157 writer pump 383
Gypsum, specific gravity of 96
" Hump," def 23
Hydrant, def 23
Hand-nut, def 23 Hydraulic accumulator, ills, and
Hand pumps, classification of. . 1S7 des 171-173
points for erecting and opera- Hydraulic apparatus 154-184
ting 204. pumps as 181
Hand rotary force pump, ills. Hydraulic belt, def 23
and des 197 pump 200
Hand wheel for safety valve of Hydraulic belt extractor, ills.
the underwriter pump, ills. 383 and des 164
"Hat" or flange hydraulic data 77-84
packing, ills, and des 154 engine of Huelgoat, interest-
« Head of water," def 23 ing note 149
Heat units, def 23 Ramsbottom's, des. and
Hercules (turbine) wheel, des. ills 148, 150-152
and ills 132, 133 Brotherhood three-cyl'der, 150-152
Hero, his first mention of steam, gauges, des. and ills . . 115
200 years B. C 279 Hydraulic intensifier, des 173
Hero's water clock, des. and ills. 39 Hydraulic jack, des. and ills. 158-162 .
" Hesitates," def 23 Hydraulic jacks, pulling, hori-

High pressure steam, def . . . 286 zontal, etc 163, 164
Highspeed in pumps, disadvan- relating to repairs and use, 161 , 162

tages of 215 lifts and cranes 180
machinery, broadly divided. 119
Hill steam pump, ills, and .
machine tools 183, 184

des 305-306
motors 147-153
History of hydraulic engines. 149 .
motors, resemblance to high

invention of the duplex steam
pressure steam engines. ... 149
punip 335 Hydraulic motor, the Compton 153
Holloway, J. F., historical quo- packings 153, 154
tation 37 pivot, def 24
pumping oil
note relating to . 341 press, des. and ills 169, 170
Hooker steam pump, with out- when invented 53
side valve gear 301-303 punch, des. and ills 165-167
Hydraulic ram, double i77 Inventions, successive 65

table of capacity I74 water lifting 53
des. and ills . .
i8o Iron cases for turbine water
wheels, des. and ills 136
Hydraulics, as a branch of en-
Iron draft tube, des 137
gineering 73. 74
how formed Iron, specific gravity of 96
as a term, 74
def 73
Italian mode of raising water,
des. and ills 51
Hydraulics, elementary. .
.71, 73-"6
Hydraulic shears, def 24
shock, def I45 Jantu, the historical, des. and
tourniquet, des. and ills 126 ills 54
valve, def 24 Jet pumps, why so called. ..... 188
wheel, def 24 of, from orifices.
Jets, direction . 113
Joseph's well, Cairo, ills 45
Hydro-dynamics, def 73, 74
use of chain of pots in 63, 64
Hydro- mechanics, def 74
Joule's experiment 284
as a branch of natural philos-
ophy 74
stress considered in a pressure, Knowles steam pump, ills, and
is always i47 des 310-312
Hydro=meters, see note 92 Knuckle*joint, def 20
HydrO'pneumatics 15, 75
Hydrostatics, def 74 L,aidIaw~Dunn-Gordon duplex
Hydrostatic balance, des. and underwriter pump, ills.
ills 93 and des. 273
paradox, data, ills. .......... 78
steam pump, ills, and des., 290-292
Laminated pole piece, def. and
I mpact, def 24 ills 254
water wheels 121 Law of gravity 85
India rubber best for fire pump Laws of falling bodies 86

Table 87
valves 377
Lead, specific gravity of 96
Induction motors, as used in •• Leakage," def 24
mines 275
Leather collar hydraulics, the
special electrical quality of . 252
invention of Bramah
.
153, 154 . . .
Inspection shop, required of the the, of a hand pump, how

underwriters steam fire held in place 191
pump makers 356 valve of hand pump, ills 195
I istallation of electric pumps. . 268 Leffel-Samson turbine water
J iitensifier, hydraulic, des 173 wheel, des. and ills 130
Introduction, historical 35-7° Leffel water wheel, ills., 128, 130
Sntruductory Considerations. 70 . 132, 134, 136, 144
invention of pressure engines, Levator, quotation from X
a new mode employingof "Lift and drop of a valve," def. 24
water as a motive agent. 147 . . . Lifting-jack, def 29
1 .
Index. 409
PAGE PACK
Lifts and cranes, hydraulic. .. . iSo Millstone, specific gravity of . . . . 96
Line of direction, or line of a Miner's inch, def 25
falling botly 88 Mining outfit, how divided 275
•* Liner," clef 24 Mississippi River gauge cock,
Liquid, def 73 def 25
Liquids, as a condition or state of Model of suctions and force
matter 73 pumps, glass 181
equilibrium of superposed, ••Modulus" of a steam pump,
data Si def 25
three cases of flow under Momenta, equal, principle of
pressure . . 105 applied to flvjids 83
veins, form and constitul: n\ Montgolfier's hydraulic ram,
of K'6, 107 note 175
Live steam, def 2S6 Moore steam pump, ills, and
" Losing water," def 25 des 313-315
•' Lost motion," def Motor, alternating
25 induction,
Low pressure steam, def 286, 25 des. and ills 252
•Lug," def 25 and centrifugal pump, ills.
and des 272

direct current, des 249
riagnetic current, pressure
electric, and air pump, ills.
necessary to produce a. . . . 242
and des 271
field of how produced 260
electric, des 249
needle, des., 266 ; ills 242
electric, why revolves, ex-
Magnetism 244
p'anation 25S
Magneto-electricity 245
Motors, division of water, des. . . 119
Magnets, electro, ills, and des 259 . .
giving names to pumps. . 1S7

Magnitudes, three-time, length
hydraulic 147, 153
and quality 87, 88
induction, as used in mines. 275
" Main," def 25
.
Motor, water, simplicity of 120

Manual power 187
note 120
Marble, specific gravity of 96
when becomes a dynamo.
it 260 . .
Mason, Chas. J., quotation from VII

Mason steam pump, Mud, pump for handling, ills.
ills, and
and des 233
des 297-299
Matter, def 88
solid, liquid and gaseous, National standard duplex fire
states of 73 pump, iHs. and des 343-398
three physical conditions, des. 73 points of difference between
McQowan steam pump, ills, and it and the trade pump 395
des . . 308-310 pump 349
Mean gradient, def 25 specifications for the manu-
Measurement of water pressure 113 facture of steam fire
Mercury, specific gravity of 96 pumps 349. 351
Mica, specific gravity of 96 National steam pump, ills, and
Mica, where used 25 des 303, 304
410 Pumps ancC Hydraulics.
Natural philosophy, hydro-me- Pine, specific gravity of 96

chauics as a branch of 74 Piston, actual velocity of 374
Needle, magnetic, des. 266 ills, 242 ; Piston and valve rods of the
Negative electricity 245 underwriter fire pump, ills.
Newcomen pumping engines, and des 364
history of 65 Pistons, steam, of the under-
Thomas, historical ref 36 writer steam fire pumps. 359 . .
Niagara Falls turbine wheels, Piston, the, is nucleus of power

notes 142, 143
of pumps and engines 149
des. and ills 140, 144
Pitcher pump, def 26
Nipple, def 26
spout pump, des. and ills. . 195 . .
Nitrogen, what part of air 15 *' Pitman " of a pump, des

190
Noria, the, or Egyptian wheel, Pipe-clamp, def 26
des. and ills 57 Pipe sizes, table of, for under-
Nozzles, kind of, to be used in
writer pump 380
connections with the ••Pipette," def 26
national steam fire pump 353 .
Piping a pump,
.
ills, and des.. 222, 223

Pipkin, ills 35
Oak» specific gravity of 96 Phial of four elements (mercury,
Oil pump, ills, and des 233 water, alcohol and petro-
duplex, ills, and des.
339 leum ) des , 81
Olive oil, specific gravity of 96 Phosphorus, specific gravity of . . 96
Oscillating pumps, why so called 188 Plate, capacity, of underwriter
Outboard delivery pipe, def 26 steam fire pump 355
" Outfit " of underwriter pump 273 Platinum, specific gravity of ... . 96
" Out=put " of electric motor. 249 .
Plug=valve, def 26
Over=shot water wheel, des. PIumb=bob, def 26
and ills 123, 125 Plunger of a pump, how in-
Oxygen, what part of air 15 dicated in Fig. 181 and suc-
ceeding ills 209
Packings, hydraulic 153, 154 ofhand pump, ills 195
most suitable for power pumps 230 pumps, single acting, ills, of
Packing of hand pumps 204 two 228, 229
loss of power in use of hy- Plungers, proportion of water
draulic 154 and steam, advised by the
Parts of a pump 209 Underwriters Associat'n, 352, 353
Parts of pitcher pump, ills, and water, of the underwriter
des. 195 steam fire pump .... 368
Penstock, ills „ 134, 135 Pneumatics 15
' def 26 def 74
Persian wheel, des. and ills 58 hydro 15
Pet-cock, def 26 ••Points" for erecting and
Pewter, specific gravity of 96 operating hand pumps. 2oi . .
Picotah of Hindostan, des. and Pole=piece, laminated, def. and

ills ills 25il
49
Index. 411
Pole-pieces, part of dynamo ... 247 Pump, Burnham steam, ills.
Poplar, specific gravity .>f 96 and des 324-326

Porcelain, specific gravity of. ... 96 Pump-chain, def 27
Positive electricity 245 Pump-cheeks, def 27
Pots, chain of, des. and ills 63
Pump, conditions of service re-
Power or steam ends of pumps 21 1
quired of a 224
Power pump, double acting (4
check valves) ... 227
Pump, Dean Bros., ills, and
des 326-328
duplex, ills and des 230, 231
Deane single acting triplex
classification of 1S7, 207
power pump, ills, and
Power transmission by water des 234, 235
pressure engines 145
Deane steam, and des., 317-319
ills,
Preface 11 double acting low service,
Press, hydraulic, des. and ills. 169, 170 belt driven 227
Pressure s:auge for the under- duplex, ills, and des 331-398
writer pump 382 duplex, outside packed
necessary to produce a mag- plunger pattern for high
netic current 242 pressure 341
of electric currents, how duplex power, ills, and des . . 230
measured 256 duplex steam, explanation. . .
333
of water, table of 114 electric, direct driven motor,
reducing valve, def 27 ills, and des 272-273
Priming, def 27 electric induction motor, ills.
arrangement, des 390 and des 276

pipe of pump connections. . . . 223 electric mining, ills, and
place for the under^vriter des 274-276
pump, ills, and des 387 Gould single acting triplex
Prizometer or pressure guage, power pump, ills, and
def 115 des 236, 237
Properties of steam, explana- Pump, Guild and Garrison

tion 281-285 steam, ills, and des .307-308 . .
Pulley and bucket,

hand rotaiy force, ills, and
historical
des 197
des. and ills 46, 48
hydraulic belt 200
and windlass, historical, des. 60, 61
Pulllng-jack, hydraulic, des. and

Pumping engine, historical ref-
erence 36
ills. 161, 163
Pump and combined horse Pumping machinery, elec-
power apparatus 201 tric 267-276
bag, and das
ills, 198 Pump, Knowles steam, ills, and
bellows, ills, and des., 186, 198, 199 des 310-312
Pump-box, def 27 Laidlaw-Dunn-Gordon, ills.
Pump-brake, def 27 and des 290-292
Pump, Buffalo single cylinder, Laidlaw-Dunn-Gordon duplex
ills, and des 319-321 under^vriter, ills, and des 275 .
Pump, Knowles steam, Pump, single acting, triplex

McGowan steam, ills, and power, gang, ills, and des. . 231
des 308-310 two-cylinder force 193
Moore steam, and des., 313-315
ills, underwriter fire 344
Pump parts, ills, and des 209 water ends of, des. and ills. . . 209
Pump, parts of a 189 Pump, the air 13
pitcher spout, des. and ills. . . 195 the Blakeslee steam, ills, and
quintuplex, used for mining des 299-301
operations 275 the Cameron steam, ills, and
rope, ills, and des 200 des 295, 296
Pumps and Hydraulics, in two the Davidson steam, ills, and
parts. Part One I-III des 287-289
Pumps as hydraulic apparatus. 181 the Foster steam, ills, and
Pumps, des 292-294
belted, des. and ills. ... 225
the Hill steam, ills, and
boiler feed, ills, and des. 225-234
. .
duplex des 305-306

oil, ills, and des 339
for thick stuff
the Hooker steam, with out-
233
high speed in, a disadvantage 215 side gear, ills, and des. .301-303
single acting triplex plunger,

the National steam, ills, and
ills, and des des 303, 304
233
the practical operation of a,
Pump sizes and capacities,
note 189
standard of, given in under-
the Reidler belt driven, ills.
writer table 352
and des , 238-240
Pump or slippage
slip 214 the Reidler express 240
Pump, Smith^Vaile single, ills. the theoretical action of a. . . . 189
and des 329-330
Pump valves, des. and ills 209
Snow steam, ills, and des., 315-317
of the underwriter steam fire
Pumps, power driven, how clas- pump 372
sified 207 reinforced, des. and ills 215
Pump, spray hand, ills, and des. 201 size and number of, for the
ûmps, single acting, ills, of underwriter pump 373
two 228, 229 Pump, Weinman steam, ills, and
stationary, for mine use, how des 322-324
classified 275
Pump=well, def 27
steam end of, explanation, 279-285
Pump, Worthington duplex 336
steam, and des
ills, 277-330
Worthington house tank, ills.
suction and force, models of,
and des 269-270
glass 181
suction, for vessels and irri-
Punch, hydraulic, des. and
ills 165-166
gation 193
steam, the Mason, ills, and
des 297-299 Quintuplex pump, used In min-
their operation and manage- ing operations 275
ment 208 Quotations i, n
Index. 413
PAOE
Radiated electricity 245 Rule for calculating capacity of
Raln-gauce, def 28 accumulator 172
Ram, double hydraulic 177 for finding the specific gravity
hydraulic, table of capacity. . 174 of a solid body 95
des. and ills 180 for velocity of water in flume,
of hydraulic jack, des. and pipes and tail race 138
ills 158, 159 relating to the velocities of
Rife hydraulic 177 fluids flowing from ori-
Ramsbottom hydraulic en^ne, fices 105, 106
des. and ills 148, 150-152 relating to velocity of falling

bodies 89
Reaction turbine water wheel. 127
to find weight of a cubic foot
water wheel, des. and ills. ... 126
of anything in the table of
Reducing-coupling, def 28
specific gravities
Reidler express pump 240 97
the belt driven pump, ills.
"Runner" of turbine wheels, des. i.î
Rust-joint, def - 28
and des 238-240
Reinforced pump valves, des.
and ills 215 Safety valve for the underwriter
Relief valve of the underwriter pump, des 3S3
pump 384 Salt, specific gravity of 96
Resinous electricity 245 Sand, specific gravity of 96
Resistance, def 28 Saturated steam, def 286
three laws of, in flow of water 100 Savery, Capt. Thomas, histor-
Rheostat, des 256 ical ref 36
Rife hydraulic ram. or engine. 177-179 Scoop wheel, des. and ills 56
Ri^t-hand thread, def 28 Screw jack or lifting jack, def .
29
Rock shafts, cranks, links, etc., Roman, for raising water, des.
of the underwriter fire and ills 52
pump 361 Sea injection, def 29
Racks, water, for water wheels, Seats, valve, of the underwriter
how best made 131 pump 377
Roberts torpedo for clearing Sea water, how many cubic feet
wells, note 202 to ton 97
Roman screw for raising water, specific gravity of 96
des. and ills 52 Selden's packing, recommended
wells, historical ref 48 for packing power pumps. 230 .
Rope pump, ills, and des 200 Semi-liquids, def 75

pumps, why so called 187 pump for handling, ills, and
socket, def 28 ês 233
Rotary, hand, force pump, ills. Setting of a turbine wheel in
and des 197 penstock, des. and ills. ... 134
pumps, why so called 188 Setting chamber of duplex
Rotative engîne pumps, des 65 pump, des 336
Rubber, how to determine quality Sewage, pump for handling, ills.
of 372 and des 232

S'lawinigan turbine wheel, des. 133 "Spread," def 29
ills 11, TV Spring, a conical, employed to

'
hold the valve to its seat. . . i>
Gliield for prevention of acci^
Spring=seat, def i
dent in gear pumps... 233 .
Springs, valve, guards and

3hip pumps, working, by ropes,
covers for the underwriter
ills 14
pump 37'
" Shocks," def 29
Standard, National, specification
Shop name, and shop number re- for the manufacture of
quired on plate attached to
steam fire pumps 35
the underwriter steam fire
Statics, def 244
pump 355
what treats of
it 74
Siloah's fountain, historical ref. 49
electricitj' 244
Silver, specific gravity of 96
Steamendof apump, def.30, 279-2S5
Single acting pumps, how they
of the underwriter steam fire
do their work. 188
pump, details of 356-366
why so called 187
Steam engines, compound,
"Slams," def ^ 29
adapted to pump 70
Slate, specific gravity of 96
Steam fire pumps, to be started
SIeeve=coupling, def 29
once a week 377
Sliding friction, def 100
Steam gas, def 2^.6
"Slippage," def 29
history of steam and the
of water in pumps 214
steam engine 280
Sluice, def 29
how produced 285
Slurry pump, def 29
or power ends of pumps 209
Smith=Vaile single pump, ills.
parts of the underwriter steam
and des 329-330
fire pump 356
Snow steam pump, ills, and
properties of, explanation 281-285
.
des 315-317
properties which make it
Soap, pump for handling, ills.
valuable 286
and des 233
Solid, def ... 73
Steam pump, and early
ills,
patent of H. R, Worthing-
: olids, a condition or state of
matter ton 278-330
73
;*ocket=wrench, def 29 how classified 18S
Spanner, def. 29 why so called 187
Speciiic gravity of liquids 96 Steam, relative volume of, dia-
of steam 286 gram 282

rule for finding the, of a solid specific gravity of 286
body 9S thrown valves, def 30
standard for 91 total heat of 286
weight of
tables, rule to find useful definitions relating
anything in 97 to 285-286
Spline or feather, def 29 Steel, specific gravity of 9*^
Split-pin or cutter, def 29 Stems, valve, of the underwriter

Spray pump, ills, and des 201 pump 379
Index. 415
Step for water wheel, danger of Switch -cock or valve, (kf 31

heating 137 S^^'itches and switch boards,
•' Sticking of valves," def 30 des. and ills 254-2^5
ili-s 377 Switch valve, Deane, with
Strainer, def 30 duplex pump 393
foot valve, ills, and des 223
Syphon, des 40; ills 41-44
for suction pipe, ills 204
cock, def 31
for lube wells, ills, and des. . 203
Syringe, des
Streams, velocities of, ills no 44
•• Stroke" of pump, def. . . 30
Stub-end, dtf 30 Xable for underwriter pump,
Stud-bolt, def 30 pipe sizes 3S0
Stuf fing=box, def 30 of capacity, etc., of boiler feed
and gland, ills, and des 211 pumps 226
of the undersvriter steam fire etc., of triplex power pumps. 231
pump 365 for single acting triplex
Submerged pump, def 30 plunger pump 233
Sucker-rod, couplings, des. and of hydraulic ram 174
ills. 203. 204 of Worthington house tank
•' Sucking wind," def pump
31 270
Suction and force pumps, clas- sizes, etc., of two-cylinder
sification of 187 force and suction pump ... 196
glass models of 181 Table of Contents of Part One. . 15
two-cylinder, arranged with diameters of waste pipe of the
extension levers, ills 196 underwriter pump 3S4
Suction-force pump with air temperatures of water 75
chamber, ills, and des 226 National standard of sizes for
Suction or lift pumps, classifi- duplex steam fire pumps. . . 352
cation of 1S7 pressure of water 114
pump, for vessels, ills 193 pressure of water at different
pipe, how made and placed. . 204 depths . 77
pipe, proper, ills, and des. . . . 223 size, capacities, etc., Worth-
valve are" of the underwriter ington admiralty pattern
pump 373 boiler feed pump 337
of the Reidler express pump, sizes, etc., of belted pumps. . . 225
peculiarities of 240 sizes of vacuum and air
Sulphur, specific gravity of 96 chambers for the under-
Superheated steam, def 286 . writer pump 382
Supplemental piston, def 31 Table of specific gravities 96
Supply channel, leading water standard flanges for the under-
from falls 119 writer pump 381
Swape or sweep, historical ref. suction valve area of the
and ills 48 underwriter pump 373
Sw ing check valve, def 31 test of the internal friction of
Switch, automatic 269 the underwriter pump 392
Table of specific gravities, valve Transmission of power by

port area and valve outlet water pressure engines. 145
area for underwriter pumps 375 Triplex power gang pump, table
volume of one pound of water 76 of capacity, etc 231
weight of one cubic foot of pump, how to set the 6 ec-
water 7^ centrics 232
inch of water 7^ •« Trompe," def 32
weight, volume and pressure Tube, or driven wells 202
of water 75*77 Tube-plug, def 32
Table, showing relation of time, wells, how driven, ills, and des. 203
space and velocity 87 Turbine, def. 32
Tail race leading from water Turbine-dynamometer, des. of. 128
falls 119 Foumeyron's, des. and ills.. 128 .
water, des 131 pump, def 32

level of, ills 1 34. 136 water-tight, des. and ills 139
of turbine, des 135 water-wheels, des. and ills .126-144 .
house pumping outward, vertical and central

Tank, electric
plant, ills, and des 269 discharge of 127
des. of parallel flow 1 28
r .n-Iiquor, pump for handling,
the Hercules, des. and ills. 132, 133 .
ills, and des 233

horizontal, des 133
Tar, pump for handling, ills, and
Turbine wheels, Niagara Falls,
des 233
des. and ills 140-144
Test for acceptance of the
Turbine wheel, setting of, in
underwriter pump Sg^^'SQS
penstock, des. and ills. . . .
134
maximum delivery 394
Turpentine oil, specific gravity of 96
Test of the quality of rubber. . . 372
Tweddel, design of the hydraulic
Thumb-nut, def 32
accvmiulator 172
Tide water wheel, des. and ills. 123
Tin, specific gravity of 96 Two cylinder force pump 192
arranged with extension levers 1 96
Tobin-bronze, def 32
'Toe" upon a disc of pump, Tympanum, The, des. and ills . . 55
des 190
Tools, hydraulic machine 183 Undershot water wheel, des.
Torpedo, Robert's, for clearing and ills 122
wells, note 202
Underwriter fire pumps 344
Torricelli's theorem, relating to
listof attachments for 345
flow of fluids flowing from
area for suction valve for the .
373
an orifice, and note 105
test for acceptance of 391
Tourniquet, hydraulic, des. and
ills 126 Underwriter steam fire pump,
des. and ills 543-398
Trade pumps, underwriters crit-
icism of 351 Union, def 33
" Trailing water," def 32 Unit of heat, English, ills, and
1 ransformer. des 256 des 284
Index. 41?
PAOB FAOB
V packing, hydraulic, ills, and Valve setting of the Blakeslee
des 154 steam pump, Laidlaw 292
Vacuum, def 33 Mason steam pump 299
and air chambers practically McGowan steam pump 310
the reverse of each other. . . 221 Moore steam pump 315
for the underwriter pump. . . . 381 National steam pump 304
ills, and des 220 Smith-Vaile single steam pump 330
Vacuum pumps, how classified 1S8 Snow steam pump 316
Valve, def 33 Weinman steam pump 323
air, def., and marking of, for Valve slam, def 374
the under-writer pump 385 Valve springs, guards and covers
areas, size necessary for 374 for the underwriter pump.. 376
gate of the underwriter pump, Valve stems of the underwriter
how marked 389 pump 379
motion of duplex pump. .333, 3^4 .
Valves, delivery, of the under-

of the Worthington duplex
writer pump 376
pump 336 hose, size for the underwriter
of hand pump, lower or suc-
pump 383
tion, ills 195 pump, des. and ills 209
Value of Reldler belt-diiven
Valves, pump, size and number
pump, ills, and des 238-240
of,forthevmderwriterpump 373
Valve port area and valve outlet reinforced pump, des. and
area, table of, for under- ills 215-216
writer pump 374, 375 small ones preferable 213
relief of the underwriter pump 384 steam slide of the underwriter
seats, bolts and springs should fire pump 360
be of the best composition, Valves, sticking of, def 377
metal, etc 218 the lift of valves 214
Valve setting of the Blakeslee Vapors, des 73
steam pump 301 Vapor, when it becomes a gas.. 73
Buffalo single cylinder pump 321 Velocity of falling bodies, valves
Bumham steam pump 326 to find 89
Cameron steam pump 296 fluids flowing from an ori-
Davidson steam pump. . , .287-289 fice, 105, 106
Dean Bros' steam pump 528 streams, ills no
Deane steam pump 319 water in flumes and pipes. . . . 138
Dtiplex steam pump 338 in tail-race, Rule 13&
Foster steam pump 292-294 in water pressure engines. ... 145
Guild and Garrison steam Ventres, def 106
pump 308 Vertical pumps, why so called. . 187
Hill steam pump 306 Vinegar, specific gravity of 96
Hooker steam pump with out- Viscosity, def 33, 75
side valve gear 303 of fluids, des 99, 102
Knowles steam pump 311 Vis viva, def , los
Dunn-Gordon steam pump. .. 290 Vitreous electricity 34.S
418 Piimps arid Hydratdics.
PAGE PAGE
Vitruvius, quotation from 57 Water pressure machines. .. 1 17-154
Volt, def 256 measurement of 113
Voltaic electricity 246 due to its weight, data 83
Voltmeters, def 256 pressure of, table 114
V thread, def 33 pressure on column of, data. .
77
how transmitted, data and ills. 79
proportioned to its depth,
^Vasher, def 33
data 83
Waste channel of water=faHs. . 119
table
Waste pipe, sizes for the under- 77
writer pump 3S4
Water pressure or hydraulic
motors, des 147
Water and steam, one an elastic
and the other a non-elastic
Water pumps, why so called 187
liquid 149
racks for turbine wheels, how
Water arch, def best made 131
33
Water as an example of a fluid
Water ram, def 34
73
Water=belIows, def rises to same level in opposite
33
arms of tube, data 83
Water, boiling point of 76
salt, boiling point of 76
cap, def 33
chemical composition of
sea, how many cubic feet to
75
ton 97
clocks, des. and ills 39
tables of weight and volume,
conditions of 75-77
etc 76
considered from a chemical
temperature of, for calcula-
standpoint 75
tions 75
data relating to 75
Water dust, French term for Water, theoretical and actual
steam 285 flow, note 106
end, def 33 three laws of frictional resist-
of the underwriter steam fire ance of 100
pump, ills, and des 367-380 Water=tight turbine, ills, and
pumps, des. and ills 209 des 139
Waterfalls, des. of supply and under pressure, efflux of. .105-113
waste channels .. 119 velocity of, in flumes and
division of parts deriving pipes, rule 138
energy 119 tail race, rule. 13S
Water, flow of, result of gravity 89 weightandvolumeof, tables.. 76, 77
four notable temperatures of.. 75 in round numbers 76
Water=hammer, def 34 one cubic foot of 76
or valve slam, def 374 Water wheel .... 132, 133
influence of gravity on weight Water wheels 119-144
note
of, 80 des. and ills, of "chutes,"
Water=lifting inventions. ... .53-70 gate-seats, '•
gates " and
of what composed 285 " buckets " of turbine, des.
practically non-elastic, data.. 75-77 and ills 139
pressure engines, care of, to des.and ills, of flutter wheels,
prevent freezing, etc. ...145, 146 etc 121-125
Index. 419
Water wheels, ilcs. of " run- >\hecl, the Egyptian, des. and
ners," " guides" and water ills
57
racks 130 Wheel, the Noria, des.and ills.. 57
des. of the "step" buckets, th(j Persian, des. and ills
58
etc 130 >\'hirlpoo!-chainber, def 35
des. " tail water " and " draft Why an electric motor revolves 258
tube" 135 Willow, specific gravity of ... 96
setting of, in penstock 134 Windlass, Chinese, historical
Iêffets 130 ref. and ills 47, 62
when the water is measured . . 130 Wind pumps, why so called, ... 187
Water will rise as high as its Wing-nut, def 35
source, data S3 ])attern check valve, ills, and
Watt, Jas., account of his dis- des 227
covery of the properties of Working barrel, def 34
steam 280, 2S1 Work, useful, done in water pres-
Watt, Jas., historical, ref 35 sure engines 145
Weinman ste?m pump, ills, and Worlhington, Henry Rossiter,
lies 322-324 historical notes 68-70
Weirs, def 122 engraved portrait of, vi. ;
Weir tables, allusion to in note. . 122 death of 70

Wells, des. and ills 45-52 ills, of first patented steam
driven or tube 202 pump 278
historical note 50 Worthington duplex pump 336
Roman, historical ref 48
tube, how driven, ills, and Y.def 35
des 203 Yoke, def 35
with stairs, historical des . 51 . of the underwriter steam fire
Wet steam, def 286 pump 356

Wheel and axle, use of. in wells. 64
Wheel, scoop, des. and ills 56 înc, specific gravity of 96
PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY
TJ
8M0
H38
1905
PT.l
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ENGI

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' AR90R j

Mrs. Maiy B. Wakeham

ENGINE UNDEE'WKITERS' PUMPS MINING PU^MPS AIK AND

VACUUM PUMPS; COMPRESSOKS CENTRIFUGAL AND ROTARY

PUMPS THE PULSOMETER JET PUMPS AND THE INJECTOR

ITTILrnES AND ACCESSORIES VALVE SETTING MAN-; ;

AGEMENT CALCULATIONS, RULES AND TABLES.

CHANICS, HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS GEAVITY AND FRICTION ;

HYDRAULIC MEMORANDA; LAWS GOVERNING FLUIDS; WATER

THEO. AUDEL & COMPANY

Protected by International Copyright in Great Britain and all

her Colonies, and, under the provisions of the

Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Tunis,

Printed in the United States.

trated on the pages shown :

"Among the first things a practical engineer should know,

" Whenever a full mind meets an empty one, it is

a call to teach, not to scoff.^^ —Anon.

" //(? zvho sedulously attends, pointedly asks, calmly

speaks, coolly answers and ceases when he has no more

It should be a matter of thankfulness to author and

designed to be an educational work, that the Laws of Nature

From age to age and co-extensive with the globe the

The silent, mighty, unanswering physical characteristics of

The author in planning the outlines of this work has

application. A knowledge of the real things in the objective

relations is of practical value to every man; all branches of

he must have something to be interested in, and if he has no

the further research and investigation of the reader, as, in a

It should be borne in mind by the reader, that the work

This is said in the way of an introduction to the Table of

In the back of the volume may be found a Ready Refer-

WHAT A STEAM PUMP WOULD SAY IF IT

more forcibly than anyiiiing that could be said or written in the

''Please do not gorge me with oil, as it zvill give my steam

" Two me a good dose of kerosene,

do if it could complete its full stroke. My steam piston is sup-

The hand wheels on the side of my steam cylifider are for

controlling the amount of this cushion. For slozv speeds these

" Once in a while take a look at my ivater cylinder. See that

GLOSSARY OF PUMP AND HYDRAULIC

Air-bound. This word applies to both pump and piping and

Air-cock. Is the same as

to relieve pipes that

Annular Valve. From an-

Area. The extent of sur-

Assemblitig. Putting to-

Atmospheric Pressure. The pressure of atmospheric air, not

Auxiliary. Something to " help out," as an auxiliary cylinder

Ball Check-valve. One in which a metal ball is used in place

Basket. The outer casing or

Bends. In pipe, the turns in

Bibb-cock. This is a plug cock having an elbow or curved out-

Bibb-Cock. Bibb Compression.

Boss. round protuberance on a casting to support a stud

Check Valve. A valve through which fluid

tween pump and reservoir or boiler.

second nut screwed against the to hold

firmly in place ; also called a lock-nut.

Clack Valve. This takes its name from the