Research Methods for

Engineering Projects

Practical Session on
Qualitative Data Collection

Unit 3 Lesson Summary

Examining Qualitative Data

Qualitative Text Analysis

Thematic Analysis Stage 1

Thematic Analysis Stage 2

Thematic Analysis Stage 3

Doing Good Thematic Analysis

Examining Qualitative
Data
As engineering managers we may conduct field research
involving user observations or interviews with partici-
pants. This is known as an empirical study, where we Example Case Study analysis hierarchy
collect primary data that can take several forms. A
Productivity
researcher usually starts with a literature review, where Performance Reliability
existing theories and models are studied such that when Reporting

the researcher conducts field research involving qualita- Monitoring

Assets
Maintenance
tive data, they already have some background knowl-
edge. However, by its very nature, in many cases the Materials
eCo factors
qualitative data collected during an empirical study is Process Energy Usage
Issue
unstructured, which makes it more challenging to inter-
Health & Safety
pret. We will now discuss this concept further.

It can be helpful when examining qualitative data

concerning engineering management products, process- This visual representation can be a useful aid, particular-
es, and systems to first get an overall impression of the ly if it can be mounted on a wall where it can be
data and start looking for patterns. discussed with other researchers.

The type of thinking varies during these stages, with the

initial open style of working involving Divergent Think-
Example Qualitative data analysis ing. As data analysis progresses and the researcher
gains focus and clarity, this style changes to one where
things start to firm up in terms of the research findings,
which entails more Convergent Thinking. As problems
and issues are encountered, the researcher will move
Recording & Making back into the more open style, and so the cycle repeats.
cataloguing notes &
annotations

Reviewing
Examining Qualitative Data

Divergent Convergent Divergent Convergent

Thinking Thinking Thinking Thinking

Next, observations and individual responses should be

reviewed, making notes and annotations of key points. A
typical approach is to organise these individual points
into a hierarchy showing common categories and
themes.
Source: Design Council's Double Diamond, 2004
This pattern of working is known as the Double Diamond.
It highlights that interpreting qualitative data requires
good cognitive skills on the part of the researcher, which
may be aided by discussions with their supervisor as well
as other researchers, including online forums such as
Research Gate.

In order to start to gain insights into the situation under

review and to begin to recognise patterns, a researcher Repertory Grid example
can carry out synthesis across the notes made against
the individual records, which may lead to the emergence
Participant Ratings
of items such as constructs, themes, or causality. This can
be a challenging part of the research process, as the data Constructs Event 1 Event 2 Event 3 Contrasts

can be overwhelming, and it can be a struggle to sort Item 1 3 2 4 Item A

through it. Item 2 4 2 3 Item B
Item 3 3 4 1 Item C
Item 4 2 3 4 Item D
Item 5 4 1 3 Item E
Example Qualitative data analysis Example: Clear layout (1) ... to ... (5) Confusing layout

We may consider using a Repertory Grid to facilitate a

discussion with an individual or small group concerning
Recording & Making Reviewing Examining
cataloguing notes & “across” for similarities events (such as usage of an industrial process). Items
annotations notes” /differences
raised as constructs (such as user considerations) are
captured and presented visually to the group for further
Reviewing Synergising
clarification. The researcher may prompt the participants
to score each of the events for each construct and its
opposite (or contrast).

Once themes have started to emerge, it’s crucial that as a

There are numerous ways of conceptualising and organ-
researcher you (re-)review all the collated Case Study
ising these items in a visual way. For more information,
materials.
you are advised to access the recommended textbook
by Miles, Huberman, and Saldana and discuss approach-
es with your supervisor. It is not a straightforward matter
to decide on the appropriate way to go about handling
and interpreting qualitative data – in fact, it can be quite
vexing.

As researchers, we may utilise aids to assist us in collect-

ing data from an empirical study in a more structured
way – for example by using index cards with pre-pre-
pared factors during an interview. Participants are asked
to review the cards and sort them into some kind of
priority order – an approach known as card sorting.
This needs to be a comprehensive and rigorous review of
all the comments and other information to see whether
the emerging themes are supported or not. This should
then be followed by a comparison of the findings from
this research project or study against the findings report-
ed from previous research studies (such as articles in
journal papers or recent conference papers). Whichever
approach you take, it’s important to have traceability so
that others can recapture your data analysis steps and
reach the same conclusions.

5 Key Points
1. An empirical study may lead to a large amount of
observational information and qualitative data in a variety
of forms, which is likely to be highly unstructured.

2. Interpretation of qualitative data is not a straightforward

process and may be daunting to an inexperienced
researcher. It usually starts with getting an overview then
Summary moves on to phases that involve repeated examination of
the individual observations and comments from the
empirical study.
As engineering managers we should appreciate that
good qualitative data analysis depends on a researcher’s 3. Sorting through qualitative data and organising the
emerging themes may be assisted by making notes in the
ability to show how they managed to interpret their data margins (or annotations on sketches) that may be used
and obtain their findings for the study. The approach to to aid with the synthesis from which items emerge such
as constructs, themes, or causality.
handling and analysing qualitative data varies greatly;
however, it usually starts with some form of initial phase
where a researcher reviews the observations and 4. The items can be conceptualised and presented visually –
such as in a hierarchical diagram or some other format, of
comments to get an overview. This is followed by phases which there are many possibilities.
with more detailed reviews of individual points, which
may necessitate some type of visual display to aid the
process of identifying emerging themes and patterns.
5. For your research findings to be credible, it’s important
that as a researcher you are meticulous in data handling
and processing. Keep clear notes of your steps taken to
enable traceability.
Qualitative
text analysis

When doing a research project or dissertation, the Summary

researcher can conduct a piece of quantitative or quali-
tative research, or a combination of the two. If conduct- When conducting qualitative research, often the
ing qualitative research, it may be possible for the researcher needs to analyse and interpret text. This text
researcher to work with text, such as interview or focus could be interview and focus group transcripts. The
group transcripts. This text needs to be analysed by any researcher needs to read and code the text so that
given qualitative research method, as long as the themes and categories can be built, interpreted, and
method is in accordance with the research aims and reported.
objectives of the research project or dissertation.

When analysing qualitative text or data, the researcher

should take several steps in order to ensure this process
is done in an organised manner. 5 Key Points
When working with qualitative text analysis, the
researcher moves from establishing a research
1. Once a research idea or question has been
established, the researcher can collect the
necessary data.
idea/question and collecting data to reviewing and
trying to make sense of the text. The researcher then
moves into coding segments of the text, and based on
2. Interviews and focus groups represent ways of
collecting qualitative research.

these codes, builds themes or categories. The process is

finalised by analysing and interpreting the data and by
3. Once the interviews and focus groups have
been conducted, recorded, and transcribed
verbatim, the researcher needs to read and try
writing about and discussing the findings. to make sense of the transcripts.

4. The qualitative text transcripts need to be

coded so that themes and/or categories can
emerge from the data.

5. These themes or categories need to be written

out and discussed.
Thematic analysis
stage 1

To conduct qualitative research as part of a research smallest or shortest segment of the data and are more
project or dissertation, researchers may use focus specific. Codes are different from units of analysis which
groups and/or structured or semi-structured represent themes and are more general. The researcher
interviews. If this is the case, the researcher should, should code for as many patterns and themes as possible
ideally, record these and transcribe them verbatim. The and should code data inclusively. At this stage, individual
transcripts then need to be analysed. One method of parts of the data can be coded under different themes.
analysing qualitative research is represented by
Thematic Analysis. Summary

Thematic Analysis is used when the researcher wants to Thematic Analysis represents one method of analysing
discover themes and sub-themes within the data. qualitative research. The first stage of doing Thematic
Thematic Analysis is considered not to be embedded in Analysis is generation of familiarisation with the data and
any kind of philosophy. The process of doing Thematic generation of initial codes.
Analysis starts off with reading and re-reading the data
and with generating initial codes.

5 Key Points
1. Thematic Analysis can be used as a method of
analysing focus group or interview transcripts
as part of conducting qualitative research.

2. In the initial stage of Thematic Analysis, the

researcher needs to read and re-read the data
in order to become familiar with it.

3. Also in the initial stage of Thematic Analysis,

the researcher needs to generate initial codes.

The researcher needs to familiarise himself or herself 4. Codes are key words that come from
participants’ opinions that the researcher
with the data by re-reading the interview or focus considers to be relelvant to the research idea or
group transcripts to get a feel for the data and how it questions.

may be linked to the research idea and interview

questions. The researcher can then generate initial 5. Coding can be more general at this stage and
refined at the later stages of the Thematic
codes. Codes represent key words that are relevant to Analysis.
the specific research questions and to the overarching
research idea. Codes are normally applicable to the
Thematic analysis
stage 2

Thematic Analysis can be used in order to analyse sub-theme and theme identified. An initial table or mind
qualitative data such as focus group and interview map can help in creating sub-themes and themes at this
transcripts. The initial stage in doing Thematic Analysis stage. Once all the sub-themes and themes have been
has been represented by familiarisation with the data reviewed, some of the themes may be combined, refined,
and generation of initial codes. The second stage of separated, or discarded.
doing Thematic Analysis consists of trying to group
relevant codes in relevant themes and sub-themes. Summary

We can develop initial themes and sub-themes by Thematic Analysis represents one way of analysing
logically grouping relevant codes. Some of these initial qualitative research data. The first step consists of
themes may be kept as they are at the initial stage, but reading and re-reading the data and generating initial
some others may be refined at the later stages of codes. The second stage of doing Thematic Analysis is
Thematic Analysis. represented by grouping codes in relevant sub-themes
and themes.

5 Key Points
1. Thematic Analysis can be used in order to
analyse qualitative research data.

2. The first stage consists of generating initial

codes.

3. The second stage consists of grouping these

initial codes in relevant sub-themes and
themes.

The researcher needs to search for themes. The long list

of codes is sorted out in relevant, meaningful, and 4. It is important to use quotes from participants
in order to illustrate these sub-themes and
logical themes. One can have sub-themes and themes.
overarching themes, so some codes can be grouped in
sub-themes whereas others can be grouped in
overarching themes with the potential to even discard
5. Some of these themes may stay the same
whereas some other ones may be refined at
some of the less relevant codes. Discarded codes could the later stages of conducting the Thematic
Analysis.
form a “miscellaneous” theme. It is important to have
relevant examples of participants’ quotes for each
Thematic analysis
stage 3

Thematic Analysis can be used to analyse qualitative is also possible for themes to overlap or separate.
research data such as focus group or interview Elements to consider at this stage are internal
transcripts. The initial stage of doing Thematic Analysis homogeneity and external heterogeneity. Once a
is to generate initial codes whereas the next stage is to decision is made with regards to final candidate themes,
group these codes in sub-themes and themes. The third another thematic map can be created. This process of
stage of doing Thematic Analysis is to review these finding candidate themes would apply to the entire data
themes. set.

The third stage of conducting Thematic Analysis is to

refine the themes the researcher proposed in the
second stage of doing Thematic Analysis. Some of the
initial candidate themes may be kept while others may
be discarded, especially if there is not enough data to
support or justify them.

Themes need to be defined and named. Although there

must have been some initial working titles for the themes
identified in the data, these titles can be refined in order
for them to better capture the essence of the themes. It is
essential to start thinking what the meanings of the
themes are in relation to the research idea.
Once initial sub-themes and themes have been
generated, they can be reviewed. It may be possible
that some original candidate themes are not really
candidate themes anymore if there is not enough data
or if the data is too diverse for them to be supported. It
Summary

The third stage of conducting Thematic Analysis is to

refine the themes proposed during the second stage of
conducting Thematic Analysis. If the data associated
with some of the initial themes are not enough or if the
data are too diverse, some of these initial proposed
themes may be discarded.

The initial stage of

doing Thematic
Analysis is to
generate initial
codes whereas the
next stage is to
group these codes
in sub-themes and
5 Key Points
themes.
1. The third stage of conducting Thematic
Analysis is to refine the themes proposed
during the second stage of conducting the
Thematic Analysis.

2. Initially proposed themes may stay in and

others may be discarded.

3. Themes may be discarded if there is not

enough data or if the data is too diverse.

4. The researcher needs to pay attention to

internal homogeneity.

5. The researcher needs to pay attention to

external heterogeneity.
Doing good
thematic analysis

After the researcher has collected all of the necessary Braun and Clarke (2006) recommended, in their article
data, these need to be analysed. In qualitative research, on Thematic Analysis, what steps and elements the
it is possible to collect the necessary data by means of researcher should consider in order to ensure the
interviews or focus groups. These interviews or focus Thematic Analysis process has been done correctly. In
groups are transcribed verbatim. It is these interview or this sense, they recommend that the researcher pays
focus group transcripts that will be analysed at a later attention to phases such as transcription, coding,
stage. analysis, and interpretation of the collected data. The
authors recommend that the transcription should be
Among the methods that could be used in order to detailed and accurate and the coding process thorough,
analyse the data, Thematic Analysis has been quite inclusive, and comprehensive, with the emerging themes
often used, probably because it is not considered to be being coherent, consistent, and distinctive. The analysis
embedded in any kind of philosophy. of the data should be convincing and well-organised,
with the researcher trying to find the balance between
We have previously discussed the stages of conducting the analytical narrative and the illustrative extracts. When
Thematic Analysis, from coding the text/data to interpreting and writing up the whole Thematic Analysis
grouping the codes in relevant, meaningful sub-themes process, the researcher should explain all the steps
and themes. Qualitative research is considered to be undertaken in a thorough manner without forgetting that
subjective compared to quantitative research. We have they are taking an active role within the whole research
then seen that objectivity could be brought into process.
qualitative research by implementing a third-party
verification process. However, analysing the data in a
rigorous way can also contribute to the objectivity of
the research process.
Summary

Once the interviews or focus groups have been

transcribed verbatim, these transcripts need to be In qualitative
analysed. Thematic Analysis represents one method of
analysing these transcripts. The process of doing
Thematic Analysis is moving from coding of the data to research, it is
grouping codes in relevant sub-themes and themes.
Braun and Clarke (2006) proposed several points
associated with different phases of the Thematic
possible to
Analysis, which may assist the researcher in doing good
Thematic Analysis. The authors recommend using
extracts to better illustrate the proposed codes,
collect the
sub-themes, and themes and explain the Thematic
Analysis process undertaken in a detailed manner.
necessary data
by means of
interviews or
focus groups.

5 Key Points
1. The transcripts of interviews or focus groups
should be detailed and accurate.

2. The coding process should be thorough.

3. The identified themes should be coherent.

4. The analysis of the data should be backed by

extracts.

5. The interpretation and writing of the data

should be detailed, with the researcher taking
an active role within the entire research
process.