Module 1 : Overview Of Computer Architecture & Organization

What is a Combinational Circuit?

•The output of a Combinational Circuit depends entirely on the present input.

•It works at a comparatively faster speed.
•It is comparatively easier to design.
•No feedback is present between the input and output.
•The combinational circuit depends on time.
•One can make use of it for both boolean and arithmetic operations.
•They don’t hold the capacity of storing any state.
•These circuits do not have a clock- thus, they don’t require triggering.
•They do not have any memory element.
•Users can practically use as well as handle them.
•Example – Demultiplexer, Multiplexer, Decoder, Encoder, etc.

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What is a Sequential Circuit?

•The output of a Sequential Circuit depends on both- past as well as present inputs.
•It works at a comparatively slower speed.
•The design of these circuits is comparatively much harder than the Combinational Circuit.
•A feedback path exists between the output and the input.
•The circuit is time-dependent.
•People mainly use them for storing data and information.
•Because a Sequential circuit depends on a clock, it usually requires triggering.
•They always have a memory element.
•A user may not be able to handle and use these circuits easily.
•For Example – Counters, Flip-flops, etc.

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Difference

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Binary number

• A binary number system is one of the four types of number system.

• A binary number is a number expressed in the base-2 numeral system or binary
numeral system, a method of mathematical expression which uses only two symbols:
typically "0" (zero) and "1" (one).

• Binary arithmetic operations

Types of Binary Operation

•Binary Addition.
•Binary Subtraction.
•Binary Multiplication.
•Binary Division.

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 •Binary Addition.

A B Sum Carry
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

•Binary Subtraction.

A B Difference Borrow
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
•Binary Multiplication.

A B Result
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

•Binary Division.
A B Result
0 0 Not Defined
0 1 0
1 0 Not Defined
1 1 1
Basic Computer Organization

• The basic organization of a computer system is the processing unit, memory unit, and input-output devices

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Basic Computer Organization

The main component of basic organization of a computer system is micro-processor(C.P.U), memory

unit(MU), and input-output devices.

1.Central processing unit: CPU is a brain of computer. It controls the computer system. It converts data to
information.

2.Arithmetic and logic unit: This is a part of CPU. It consists of two units. One is arithmetic unit and another
one is logic unit.

3.Input unit and output unit: This unit controls input and output devices. Input devices are keyboard,
mouse etc and output devices are printer, monitor, plotter, etc.

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Introduction of Computer Organization

• Computer architecture can be defined as a set of rules and methods that describe the functionality,
management and implementation of computers.

• Computer organization is a field which explains about structure and behavior of digital computers . its main
objective is to make us understand the over all computer hardware structure and all its peripheral devices .

• Computer Organization and Architecture is the study of internal working, structuring, and implementation of
a computer system.

• Computer Organization and Architecture Tutorial provides in-depth knowledge of internal working,
structuring, and implementation of a computer system.

• Organization of a computer system defines the way system is structured so that all those catalogued tools
can be used. The significant components of Computer organization are ALU, CPU, memory and memory
organization.

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 Computer Architecture Computer Organization

Computer Architecture is concerned with the way hardware Computer Organization is concerned with the structure and
components are connected together to form a computer behaviour of a computer system as seen by the user.
system.

It acts as the interface between hardware and software. It deals with the components of a connection in a system.

Computer Architecture helps us to understand the Computer Organization tells us how exactly all the units in
functionalities of a system. the system are arranged and interconnected.

A programmer can view architecture in terms of Whereas Organization expresses the realization of
instructions, addressing modes and registers. architecture.

While designing a computer system architecture is An organization is done on the basis of architecture.
considered first.

Computer Architecture deals with high-level design issues. Computer Organization deals with low-level design issues.

Architecture involves Logic (Instruction sets, Addressing Organization involves Physical Components (Circuit design,
modes, Data types, Cache optimization) Adders, Signals, Peripherals)

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Evolution of Computers

• First Generation Computers (1940-1956)

• Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)
• Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)
• Fourth Generation Computers (1971-Present)
• Fifth Generation Computers (Present and Beyond)

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First Generation Computers: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)

• The technology behind the First generation computers was a fragile glass device, which was called vacuum
tubes.

• These computers were very heavy and very large in size.

• Not very reliable and programming on them was a very tedious task as they used high level programming
language and used no operating system.

• First generation computers were used for calculation, storage and control purpose.

• They were too bulky and big that they needed a full room and consume rot of electricity.

Examples :
ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, built by J. Presper Eckert and John V. Mauchly was a
general purpose computer. It was very heavy, large and contained 18,000 vacuum tubes.
EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was designed by Von Neumann. It could store
data as well as instruction and thus the speed was enhanced.
UNIVAC: Universal Automatic Computer were developed in 1952 by Eckert and Mauchly.
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Second Generation Computers: Transistors (1956-1963)

• Second generation computers used the technology of transistors instead of bulky vacuum tubes.

• Another feature was the magnetic core storage.

• Use of transistors made it possible to perform powerfully and with due speed.

• It reduced the size and cost and thankfully the heat too, which was generated by vacuum tubes.

• Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming language and input and output units were also
came into the force in the second generation

• Programming language was shifted from high level to assembly language and made programming
comparatively an easy task for programmers.

• Languages used for programming in this era were FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1958) and COBOL (1959)

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Third Generation Computers: Integrated Circuits. (1964-1971)

• Technology shift from huge transistors to integrated circuits, also known as IC.

• Here a number of transistors were placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors.

• The main feature of this era’s computer was the speed and reliability. IC, were made of silicon and
also called the silicon chips.

• The cost size were reduced and memory space and working efficiency was increased in this
generation.

• Programming was now done in Higher level language such as BASIC (Beginners All purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code).

• Mini computers find their shape in this era.

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Fourth Generation Computers: Micro-processors (1971-Present)

• In 1971 First microprocessors were used, large scale of integration LSI circuits built on a single silicon
chip called microprocessors.

• The main advantage of this technology is that a single microprocessor can contain all the circuits
required to perform arithmetic, logic and control functions on a single chip.

• The computers using microchips were called microcomputers.

• This generation provided even smaller size of computers, with larger capacities.

• That is not enough, after that Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits replaced LSI circuits.

• The Intel 4004chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer from the central
processing unit and memory to input/ output controls on a single chip and allowed the size to reduced
drastically

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Fifth Generation Computers:

• The technology behind the fifth generation computers is of artificial intelligence.

• It allows the computers to behave like humans.

• It can be seen in programmes like voice recognition, area of medicines and entertainment.

• In the field of games playing also it has shown remarkable performance where computers are capable of
beating human competitors.

• The speed is highest, size is the smallest and area of use has remarkably increased in the fifth generation
computers.

• Though not hundred per cent artificial intelligence has been achieved till date but keeping in view the current
developments, it can be said that this dream will also become a reality very soon.

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Von Neumann model

• Von-Neumann proposed his computer architecture design in 1945 which was later known as Von-Neumann
Architecture.
• It consisted of a Control Unit, Arithmetic, and Logical Memory Unit (ALU), Registers and Inputs/Outputs.
• Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program computer concept
• This design is still used in most computers produced today

Components of Von-Neumann Model:

Central Processing Unit
Buses
Memory Unit

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Von Neumann model

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Central Processing Unit

• The part of the Computer that performs the bulk of data processing operations is called the Central Processing
Unit and is referred to as the CPU.

• The Central Processing Unit can also be defined as an electric circuit responsible for executing the instructions
of a computer program.

• The CPU performs a variety of functions dictated by the type of instructions that are incorporated in the
computer.

• The major components of CPU are Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and a variety of registers.

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Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

• The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) performs the required micro-operations for executing the
instructions.

• In simple words, ALU allows arithmetic (add, subtract, etc.) and logic (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) operations to
be carried out.

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Control Unit

• The Control Unit of a computer system controls the operations of components like ALU, memory and
input/output devices.

• The Control Unit consists of a program counter that contains the address of the instructions to be fetched and an
instruction register into which instructions are fetched from memory for execution.

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Registers

• Registers refer to high-speed storage

areas in the CPU. The data processed by
the CPU are fetched from the registers.
• Following is the list of registers that plays
a crucial role in data processing.

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Buses

• Buses are the means by which information is shared between the registers in a multiple-register
configuration system.
• A bus structure consists of a set of common lines, one for each bit of a register, through which binary
information is transferred one at a time.
• Control signals determine which register is selected by the bus during each particular register
transfer.
• Von-Neumann Architecture comprised of three major bus systems for data transfer.

Bus Description

Address Bus Address Bus carries the address of data (but not the data) between the processor and
the memory.
Data Bus Data Bus carries data between the processor, the memory unit and the input/output
devices.
Control Bus Control Bus carries signals/commands from the CPU.

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Memory Unit

• A memory unit is a collection of storage cells together with associated circuits needed to transfer information in
and out of the storage.
• The memory stores binary information in groups of bits called words.
• The internal structure of a memory unit is specified by the number of words it contains and the number of bits in
each word.

Two major types of memories are used in computer systems:

RAM (Random Access Memory)
ROM (Read-Only Memory)

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Performance measure of Computer Architecture

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Computer performance

• Computer performance is the amount of work accomplished by a computer system.

• The word performance in computer performance means “How well is the computer doing the
work it is supposed to do?”.

• It basically depends on response time, throughput and execution time of a computer system.

• When it comes to high computer performance, one or more of the following factors might be
involved:
➢ Short response time for a given piece of work.
➢ High throughput (rate of processing work).
➢ Low utilization of computing resource(s).
➢ Fast (or highly compact) data compression and decompression.
➢ High availability of the computing system or application.
➢ High bandwidth.
➢ Short data transmission time.

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Computer performance

It basically depends on response time, throughput and execution time of a computer system.

1. Response time is the time from start to completion of a task. This also includes:
• Operating system overhead.
• Waiting for I/O and other processes
• Accessing disk and memory
• Time spent executing on the CPU or execution time.

2. Throughput is the total amount of work done in a given time.

• Throughput is a measure of how many units of information a system can process in a
given amount of time.
• It is applied broadly to systems ranging from various aspects of computer and network
systems to organizations.

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3. CPU execution time is the total time a CPU spends computing on a given task. It also excludes
time for I/O or running other programs.
• This is also referred to as simply CPU time.

Performance is determined by execution time as performance is inversely proportional to

execution time.
Performance = (1 / Execution time)
And,
(Performance of A / Performance of B) = (Execution Time of B / Execution Time of A)

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How to Improve Performance?

• To improve performance you can either:

❑ Decrease the CPI (clock cycles per instruction) by using new Hardware.
❑ Decrease the clock time or Increase clock rate by reducing propagation delays or by
use pipelining.
❑ Decrease the number of required cycles or improve ISA or Compiler.

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System bus structure

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Computer bus

• A bus is a communication system in computer architecture that transfers data between components inside
a computer, or between computers.

• The term includes all the components related to hardware (wire, optical fiber, etc.) and software, including
communication protocol.

• A computer bus is also known as a local bus, data bus, or address bus, a bus is a link between components
or devices linked to a computer.

• A bus, for instance, carries data through the motherboard between a CPU (Central Processing Unit) and the
system memory.

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The following are a few points to describe a computer bus:

• A bus is a group of lines/wires which carry computer signals.

• A bus is the means of shared transmission.

• Lines are assigned for providing descriptive names. — carries a single electrical signal, e.g. 1-bit memory
address, data bits series, or timing control that turns the device on or off.

• Data can be transferred from one computer system location to another (between different I / O modules,
memory, and CPU).

• The bus is not only cable but also hardware (bus architecture), protocol, program, and bus controller.

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The different components of a bus

• The address bus, a one-way pathway that allows information to pass in one direction only, carries
information about where data is stored in memory.

• The data bus is a two-way pathway carrying the actual data (information) to and from the main memory.

• The control bus holds the control and timing signals needed to coordinate all of the computer’s activities.

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The different components of a bus

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 Functions of a computer bus

Data sharing – All types of buses used in network transfer data between the connected computer
peripherals. The buses either transfer or send data in serial or parallel transfer method. This allows 1, 2, 4,
or even 8 bytes of data to be exchanged at a time. (A Byte is an 8-bit group). Buses are classified according
to how many bits they can move simultaneously, meaning we have 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, or even 64-bit
buses.

Addressing – A bus has address lines that suit the processors. This allows us to transfer data to or from
different locations in the memory.

Power – A bus supplies the power to various connected peripherals.

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Structure and Topologies of Computer buses

Power line provides electrical power to the components connected

Data lines carrying data or instructions between modules of the system

Address lines indicate the recipient of the bus data

Control lines control the synchronization and operation of the bus and the modules linked to the bus

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Types of Bus structure:

• Address bus
• Data bus
• Control bus

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The different types of computer buses

System bus – This is the bus that connects the CPU to the motherboard’s main memory. The system bus is also
known as a front-side bus, a memory bus, a local bus, or a host bus.

A number of I / O Buses, (I / O is an input/output acronym) connecting various peripheral devices to the CPU. These
devices connect to the system bus through a ‘bridge’ implemented on the chipset of the processors. Other I / O bus
names include “expansion bus,” “external bus” or “host bus”

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Buses – Data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another, connecting all major internal
components to the CPU and memory, by the means of Buses. Types:

Data Bus: It carries data among the memory unit, the I/O devices, and the processor.

Address Bus: It carries the address of data (not the actual data) between memory and processor.

Control Bus: It carries control commands from the CPU (and status signals from other devices) in order
to control and coordinate all the activities within the computer.

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1. Address Bus:

• Address bus carry the memory address while reading from writing into memory.

• Address bus carry I/O post address or device address from I/O port.

• In uni-directional address bus only the CPU could send address and other units could not address the
microprocessor.

• Now a days computers are having bi-directional address bus.

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2. Data Bus:

• Data bus carry the data.

• Data bus is a bidirectional bus.

• Data bus fetch the instructions from memory.

• Data bus used to store the result of an instruction into memory.

•
• Data bus carry commands to an I/O device controller or port.

• Data bus carry data from a device controller or port.

• Data bus issue data to a device controller or port.

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3. Control Bus:

Different types of control signals are used in a bus:

Memory Read: This signal, is issued by the CPU or DMA controller when performing a read operation with the
memory.

Memory Write: This signal is issued by the CPU or DMA controller when performing a write operation with the
memory.

I/O Read: This signal is issued by the CPU when it is reading from an input port.

I/O Write: This signal is issued by the CPU when writing into an output port.

Ready: The ready is an input signal to the CPU generated in order to synchronize the show memory or I/O ports
with the fast CPU.

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Important Questions

1. Explain Von Neumann system.

2. List and Explain the various performance measure metrics of a computer.
3. What are the functions of following registers?
1. PC 2. SP 3. MAR 3. MDR 4. CIR
4. Compare Computer architecture and computer Organization
5. Explain In detail System Bus Structure.
6. What is Bus? Explain In details types of Bus.
7. Write detailed note on: Evaluation Of Computers
8. How to improve computer performance?
9. Explain computer Organization
10. Explain Central processing Unit in Detail.

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