Manufacturing science &Technology

KME 403
Semester : 4th
Under U.P.T.U
College : ABES Engineering College
FIRST UNIT

what is Manufacturing?
Manabendra saha
Dept of Mmechanical Engg
Manufacturing is the term used to refer to the process of using tools, machines and
labour to produce goods that are either for use or for sale. the term is commonly
used or applied to industrial production but it may also refer to human activity,
handicraft and also high-tech processes. the process of manufacturing turns raw
materials into processed goods which can either be for sale or for local use.
 Rolling process
Rolling is a process of reduction of the cross-sectional area or shaping a
metal piece through the deformation caused by a pair of rotating in opposite
directions metal rolls.
 Condition

The gap between the rotating rolls is less than the thickness of the entering bar therefore a friction force is
necessary in order to bite the bar and to pull it through the rolls.

A metal bar passing through the rotating rolls is squeezed, and it elongates while its cross section area
decreases.
A machine used for rolling metal is called rolling mill. A typical rolling mill consists of a pair of rolls
driven by an electric motor transmitting a torque through a gear. The rolls are equipped with bearings
and mounted in a stand with a screw-down mechanism.
 Rotating rolls perform two main functions

• Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between work
part and rolls
• Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross section
Equipment – Picture 1
Equipment – Picture 2
pictures showing the rolling process
Types of Rolling

Based on work piece geometry :

– flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross section
– shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a shape.
based on work temperature :
– hot rolling – most common due to the large amount of deformation
required
– cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate stock
Diagram of Flat Rolling

Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and

after thicknesses, work velocities, angle of
contact with rolls, and other features.
 Flat rolling Terminology

Flat rolling terminology

draft = amount of thickness reduction
▲h = t o - t f
where, d = draft;
ho = starting thickness;
hf = final thickness
 Rolling of Metals

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by

Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
Figure 13.1 Schematic outline of various flat-
rolling and shape-rolling processes
 Flat-Rolling Process

Figure 13.2 (a) Schematic illustration of the flat-rolling process. (b) Friction forces acting on strip
surfaces. (c) Roll force, F, and the torque, T, acting on the rolls. The width of the strip, w, usually
increases during rolling
Roll Arrangements

Figure 13.3 Schematic illustration of various roll arrangements: (a) four-high rolling mill
showing various features. The stiffness of the housing, the rolls, and the roll bearings are
all important in controlling and maintaining the thickness of the rolled strip; (b) two-hill
mill; (c) three-high mill; and (d) cluster (or Sendzimir) mill.
Bending of Rolls(camber problem)

Figure 13.4 (a) Bending of straight cylindrical rolls

caused by roll forces. (b) Bending of rolls ground
with camber, producing a strip with uniform
thickness through the strip width. Deflections have
been exaggerated for clarity.
Spreading in Flat Rolling

Figure 13.5 Increase in strip width (spreading) in flat rolling. Note that similar
spreading can be observed when dough is rolled with a rolling pin.
Effects of Hot Rolling

Figure : Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain wrought metals

during hot rolling. Hot rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in metals for
improved strength and ductility. Cast structures of ingots or continuous castings are
converted to a wrought structure by hot working.
Roller Leveling

Figure 13.7 (a) A method of roller leveling to flatten rolled sheets. (b)
Roller leveling to straighten drawn bars.
 Defects in Flat Rolling

Figure 13.8 Schematic illustration of typical defects in flat

rolling: (a) wavy edges; (b) zipper cracks in the center of the
strip; (c) edge cracks; and (d) alligatoring.
• Wavy Edges: the strip is thinner
Residual Stresses Developed in Rolling

Figure 13.9 (a) Residual stresses developed in rolling with small-diameter rolls or at small reductions in
thickness per pass. (b) Residual stresses developed in rolling with large-diameter rolls or at high
reductions per pass. Note the reversal of the residual stress patterns.
Tandem-Rolling

Figure 13.11 An example of a tandem-rolling operation.

.
Shape Rolling of an H-section part

Figure 13.12 Steps in the

shape rolling of an H-section
part. Various other structural
sections, such as channels and
I-beams, also are rolled by this
kind of process.

.
Roll-Forging

Figure 13.13 Two examples of the roll-forging operation, also known as cross-rolling. Tapered leaf
springs and knives can be made by this process. Source: After J. Holub.
Production of Steel Balls

Figure 13.14 (a) Production of steel balls by the skew-rolling process. (b) Production of steel balls
by upsetting a cylindrical blank. Note the formation of flash. The balls made by these processes
subsequently are ground and polished for use in ball bearings.

.
Ring-Rolling

Figure 13.15 (a) Schematic illustration of a ring-rolling operation. Thickness reduction results in an
increase in the part diameter. (b-d) Examples of cross-sections that can be formed by ring-rolling.
 Thread-Rolling Processes

Figure 13.16 Thread-rolling processes: (a) and (c) reciprocating flat dies; (b) two-roller dies. (d)
Threaded fasteners, such as bolts, are made economically by these processes at high rates of
production. Source: Courtesy of Central Rolled Thread Die Co.
Machined and Rolled Threads

Figure 13.17 (a) Features of a machined or rolled thread. Grain flow in (b) machined and (c)
rolled threads. Unlike machining, which cuts through the grains of the metal, the rolling of
threads imparts improved strength because of cold working and favorable grain flow.
Cavity Formation in Bar

Figure 13.18 Cavity formation in a solid, round bar and its utilization in the rotary tube-piercing
process for making seamless pipe and tubing. (see also Fig. 2.9.)
 Various Tube-Rolling Processes

Figure 13.19 Schematic illustration of various tube-rolling processes: (a) with a fixed
mandrel; (b) with a floating mandrel; (c) without a mandrel; and (d) pilger rolling over a
mandrel and a pair of shaped rolls. Tube diameters and thicknesses also can be changed by
other processes, such as drawing, extrusion, and spinning.
Forging
Definition
Forging is a Bulk Deformation
Process in which the work is
compressed between two dies.
According to the degree to which the
flow of the metal is constrained by
the dies there are three types of
forging:

ŒOpen-die forging
•Impression-die forging
ŽFlash less forging
Flow process of forging
Forging
Stages in Open-Die Forging

(a) forge hot billet to max diameter

(b) “fuller: tool to mark step-locations

(c) forge right side

(d) reverse part, forge left side

(e) finish (dimension control)

[source:www.scotforge.com]
Stages in Impression-die (Closed-Die) Forging

[source:Kalpakjian & Schmid]

Stages in Impression-die (Closed-Die) Forging
Flash less forging
Forging grain flow
 Grain Structure

• Parts have good strength

• High toughness
• Forgings require additional heat treating

Fig : A part made by three different procedures, showing grain flow (a) casting (b) machining (c) forging
Quality of forged parts

Surface finish/Dimensional control:

Better than casting (typically)

Stronger/tougher than cast/machined parts of same material

[source:www.scotforge.com]
Upsetting : the open die forging can be expressed by a solid work piece
placed between two flat die and reduce in height by compressing it. This
process is also called upsetting and flat die forging . The die surface in
open die forging May have simple cavities to produce relatively simple
forging . The deformation of the work piece under ideal condition.

Cogging : it is also called drawing out, it is basically an open die forging

operation in which the thickness of the bar is reduce by successive
forging step at specific interval because the contact area per stroke is
small , a long section of a bar can be can be reduce in thickness without
requiring large force or machinery . Blacksmith perform such operation.
With a hammer and anvil using hot pieces of metal.
 Extrusion

• Introduction • Extrusion Defects

• The Extrusion Process • Extrusion Equipment
• Extrusion Practice • Analysis
• Hot Extrusion
• Cold Extrusion
• Impact Extrusion
• Hydrostatic Extrusion
 Introduction

Extrusion – It is a process where a billet is forced through a die.

• Parts have constant cross-section
• Typical Products of Extrusion – Sliding Doors, tubing having
various cross-sections, structural and architectural shapes and
door and window frames.
 Extrusions

Fig : Extrusions and examples of products made

by sectioning off extrusions.
 The Extrusion Process

Types of Extrusion :
Direct Extrusion (or) Forward Extrusion – Billet is placed in a
chamber and forced through a die opening by a hydraulically-driven ram or
pressing stem.

Indirect Extrusion – Die moves towards the billet.

Hydrostatic Extrusion – The billet is smaller in diameter that the

chamber, which is filled with a fluid, and the pressure is transmitted to the
billet by a ram.

Extrusion Ratio = Ao/Af

Ao – cross-sectional area of the billet
Af - cross-sectional area of extruded product
 Direct Extrusion

Fig : Schematic illustration of direct extrusion process.

 Another Types of Extrusion

Fig : Types of Extrusion (a) indirect (b)

hydrostatic
Process Variables in Direct Extrusion

Fig : Process variables in direct

extrusion. The die angle,
reduction in cross-section,
extrusion speed, billet
temperature, and lubrication
all affect the extrusion
pressure.

Fig : Method of determining the

circumscribing-circle
diameter (CCD) of an
extruded cross-section.
Types of Metal flow in extruding with square dies.

Fig : Types of metal flow in extruding with square dies. (a) Flow pattern obtained at low friction, or in indirect
extrusion. (b) Pattern obtained with high friction at the billet-chamber interfaces, (c) Pattern obtained at high
friction, or with cooling of the outer regions of the billet in the chamber. This type of pattern, observed in
metals whose strength increases rapidly with decreasing temperature, leads to defect known as pipe, or
extrusion defect.
 Hot Extrusion
• Extrusion is carried out at elevated temperatures – for metals and
alloys that do not have sufficient ductility at room temperature, or
in order to reduce the forces required.
 Cross-sections to be extruded

Fig : Poor and good examples of cross-sections to be extruded. Note the importance of eliminating sharp
corners and of keeping section thickness uniform.
 Cold Extrusion
Combination of operations, such as direct and indirect extrusion and forging.
Advantages :
• Improved mechanical properties
• Good control of dimensional tolerances
• Improved surface finish
• Elimination of the need for billet heating;

Fig : Two examples of cold

extrusion. Thin arrows
indicate the direction of
metal flow during
extrusion.
 Impact Extrusion
• Similar to indirect extrusion
• Punch descends rapidly on the blank, which is extruded backward

Fig : Schematic illustration of the impact-extrusion process. The extruded parts are
stripped by the use of a stripper plate, because they tend to stick to the punch.
 Examples of Impact Extrusion

Fig : (a) Two examples of products made by impact extrusion. These parts may also be made by casting, by forging,
or by machining; the choice of process depends on the dimensions and the materials involved and on the
properties desires. Economic considerations are also important in final process selection. (b) and (c) Impact
extrusion of a collapsible tube by the Hooker process.
 Hydrostatic Extrusion
• The pressure required for extrusion is supplied through and incompressible fluid medium
surrounding the billet
• Usually carried at room temperature, typically using vegetable oils as the fluid
• Brittle materials are extruded generally by this method
• It increases ductility of the material
• It has complex nature of the tooling

Fig : General view of a 9-

MN (1000-ton) hydraulic-
extrusion press.
 Extrusion Defects
1. Surface cracking.
2. Pipe.
3. Internal Cracking

Fig : (a) Chevron cracking (central burst) in extruded round steel bars. Unless the products are inspected, such internal
defects may remain undetected, and later cause failure of the part in service. This defect can also develop in the
drawing of rod, of wire, and of tubes. (b) Schematic illustration of rigid and plastic zones in extrusion. The tendency
toward chevron cracking increases if the two plastic zones do not meet. Note that the plastic zone can be made
larger either by decreasing the die angel or by increasing the reduction in cross-section (or both).
Problem

1.
A billet that is 75mm long with diameter=35mm is directly extruded to
a diameter of 20mm. The extrusion die has a die angle of 75°. For the
work metal, K=600MPa and n=0.25. In the Johnson’s equation, a=0.8
and b=1.4. Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain, (c) extrusion
strain and (d) ram pressure at L=70 mm
2.
A copper billet 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm long is extruded at 850
degree c.at a speed of 300 mm / s. using square die and assuming poor
lubrication, estimate the force require in this operation if the final diameter
is 75 mm .Take K=240MPa,m= 0.06.
 Drawing process

Contents
1. Definition
2. Drawing process
3. Drawing pressure and force require
4. Die design
5. Die material
6. Lubrication
7. Defects
WHAT is DRAWING?

Drawing is an operation in which the cross-section of solid rod, wire or

tubing is reduced or changed in shape by pulling it through a die.

The principle of this procedure consist of reducing the thickness of a

pointed ,tapered wire by drawing it through a conical opening in a tool
made of a hard material.The wire will take shape of the hole.
 Drawing Process
• In this process the cross section of a round rod or wire is typically reduced or
changed by pulling it through a die
• Die angle has great influence on the drawing force and the quality of the drawn
product

Drawing FORCE :
F = Yavg Af In (Ao/Af) ; Yavg – average true stress of the material in the die gap
WHAT is DRAWING?

Drawing is an operation in which the cross-section of solid rod, wire or

tubing is reduced or changed in shape by pulling it through a die.

The principle of this procedure consist of reducing the thickness of a

pointed ,tapered wire by drawing it through a conical opening in a tool
made of a hard material.The wire will take shape of the hole.
 DRAWING TOOLS

• The most important tool in the drawing process is without doubt the
drawplate.This consist of a plate of high grade steel into which similar
shaped holes have been placed whose size in evenly reduced from one
hole to another.

• The most common drawplate have round holes and are used to reduce
the size of round wire.

Drawing wire with the draw tongs drawbench

Powder Metallurgy
 Definition of Powder Metallurgy

It may also be defined as “material processing technique used to

consolidate particulate matter i.e. powders both metal and/or non-
metals.”
 Process of Powder Metallurgy:
The process of P/M in general consists of a series of
steps/stages to form a final shape. These stages are shown
by a simple flow sheet diagram.
Powder Production

Powder Characterization & testing

Mixing - Blending

Processing - Compacting

Sintering Operation

Finishing Operations

Finished P/M Parts

Example Parts
Basic Steps In Powder Metallurgy (P/M)
• Powder Production
• Blending or Mixing
• Compaction
• Sintering
• Finishing
 Powder
Production
• Atomization the most
common
• Others
• Chemical reduction of
oxides
• Electrolytic deposition
• Different shapes
produced
• Will affect compaction
process significantly
Other types

1. Reduction
2. Electrolytic deposition
3. Carbonyls
4. Mechanical alloying
5. Other method
6. Nano powder
 Particle size,distributionand shape

Particle size is usually measured by screening that is by passing the metal powder through
screen with the mesh size becoming fine as the powder flow downward through the screen .
Several method for particle size analysis
1. Sedimentation (which involves measuring the rate at which particle settle in a fluid )
2. Microscopic analysis (which may included the use of transmission and scanning electron
microscopy)
3. Optical means (such as particle blocking a beam of light that is then sensed by a photo cell )
4. Suspending particles (in a liquid and the detecting particle size and distribution by electrical
sensor )
Blending or Mixing
• Can use master alloys, (most commonly) or elemental powders
that are used to build up the alloys
• Master alloys are with the normal alloy ingredients
• Elemental or pre-alloyed metal powders are first mixed with
lubricants or other alloy additions to produce a homogeneous
mixture of ingredients
• The initial mixing may be done by either the metal powder
producer or the P/M parts manufacturer
• When the particles are blended:
• Desire to produce a homogenous blend
• Over-mixing will work-harden the particles and produce variability in
the sintering process
• Mixed by steric acid a proportion by 0.25% to 5% by weight
Compaction
• Usually gravity filled cavity
at room temperature
• Pressed at 60-100 ksi
• Produces a “Green”
compact
• Size and shape of finished
part (almost)
• Not as strong as finished part
– handling concern
• Friction between particles is
a major factor
 Isostatic Pressing

• Because of friction between particles

• Apply pressure uniformly from all
directions (in theory)
• Wet bag (left)
• Dry bag (right)
Sintering
• Parts are heated to ~80% of melting
temperature
• Transforms compacted mechanical
bonds to much stronger metal bonds
• Many parts are done at this stage.
Some will require additional processing
 Sintering ctd
• Final part properties
drastically affected
• Fully sintered is not always
the goal
• Ie. Self lubricated bushings
• Dimensions of part are
affected
Die Design for P/M
• Thin walls and projections create fragile tooling.
• Holes in pressing direction can be round, square, D-shaped, keyed, splined or any
straight-through shape.
• Draft is generally not required.
• Generous radii and fillets are desirable to extend tool life.
• Chamfers, rather the radii, are necessary on part edges to prevent burring.
• Flats are necessary on chamfers to eliminate feather-edges on tools, which break
easily.
 Advantages of P/M
• Virtually unlimited choice of
alloys, composites, and
associated properties
• Refractory materials are popular
by this process
• Controlled porosity for self
lubrication or filtration uses
• Can be very economical at large
run sizes (100,000 parts)
• Long term reliability through
close control of dimensions and
physical properties
• Wide latitude of shape and
design
• Very good material utilization
Disadvantages of P/M
• Limited in size capability due to large forces
• Specialty machines
• Need to control the environment – corrosion concern
• Will not typically produce part as strong as wrought product. (Can
repress items to overcome that)
• Cost of die – typical to that of forging, except that design can be more
– specialty
• Less well known process
Financial Considerations
• Die design – must withstand 100 ksi,
requiring specialty designs
• Can be very automated
• 1500 parts per hour not uncommon for
average size part
• 60,000 parts per hour achievable for
small, low complexity parts in a rolling
press
• Typical size part for automation is 1”
cube
• Larger parts may require special
machines (larger surface area, same
pressure equals larger forces involved)
Plastic Injection Molding
Injection Molding

3 major functional units; injection, mold, clamping

Plastic Injection Molding
• is a manufacturing technique for making parts from
thermoplastic and thermoset materials
• In contrast to the extrusion (which makes continuous
parts of constant cross section), injection molding
make discrete parts (with complex and variable cross
section)
• Molten plastic is injected at high pressure into a mold,
which is the inverse of the desired shape.
• The mold is made from metal, usually either steel or
aluminium
• widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from
the smallest component to entire body panels of cars
Plastic Injection Molding
• The key to success in injection molding are to have;
• Proper machine for good melting and injecting of the resin
• The proper resin to appropriate part performance
• A good mold for part definition and removal
• Proper operation for efficient molding cycle (mold cycle depends on the
design of the mold and manufacturing parameters)
• The most commonly used thermoplastic materials are;
• polystyrene (low-cost, lacking the strength and longevity of
other materials)
• ABS or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (a co-polymer or
mixture of compounds used for everything from Lego parts
to electronics housings)
• nylon (chemically resistant, heat-resistant, tough and
flexible - used for combs)
• polypropylene (tough and flexible - used for containers
• PVC (more common in extrusions as used for pipes,
window frames, or as the insulation on wiring where it is
rendered flexible by the inclusion of a high proportion of
plasticiser).
 Injection Unit
• Purpose: to liquify the
plastic materials and then
inject the liquid into mold
• Resin is introduced through
hopper
• Some machines can have
several hoppers (to fed
filler, colorants, other
additives)-Injection molding
act as mixer
• However, due to limited
size of barrel, mixing
capability is poor
The process cycle for injection molding is very short, typically between 2 seconds and 2 minutes, and
consists of the following four stages:

• Clamping
• Injection
• Cooling
• Ejection
Reciprocating Screw Injection Molding Machine
• Advantages
• More uniform melting
• Improved mixing or additives and dispersion throughout the resin
• Lower injection pressure
• Fewer stresses in the part
• Faster total cycle
Ram Injection- Injection Molding Machine
• In this type of injection molding, the resin is fed from a hopper
into the barrel, and heated through thermal energy from the
heaters
• The molten resin is collect in a pool in a barrel celled injection
chamber
• The molten resin is then push forward by the action of plunger
(ram or piston)
• To five better mixing, the molten resin is pushed past a
torpedo/spreader, impart shear to the melt
Gate Design
• Small rectangular opening at the
end of the runner channel,
connect to the edge of cavity
• Edge gate can be below the parting
line if the channel and part are
also below the parting line
• Or it can be symetricaly about the
parting line, if the runner channel Edge gate
and part are at both side of parting
line
Submarine Gate
• Starts from the edge of the runner,
and goes into the cavity edge at an
angle
• It narrows to a point as it moves
from the runner to the cavity
• The advantage; separation of the
parts and the runner is automatic
• Disadvantage; gate cannot be used
for some resins because of high Submarine Gate
shear
Tab Gate
• By connecting the runner directly
into the cavity with no reduction in
runner cross-section
• Used for very large parts where a
reduction in flow would disturb the
resin’s flow pattern and might result
inadequate flow into the cavity
Fan Gate
• Made by reducing the thickness and
not the diameter of the runner
channel as it goes into the cavity
• Used for intermediate size, and when
reinforcement in the resin cannot
flow through the edge gate
Ring Gate
• Used to make hollow cylinder
parts
• The ring gate covers the entire
top of the cylinder part so that
the resin flow is downward into
the wall of the part
Shapes
• A hollow part with a hole on the side is even more
complicated (the core pin is used)
• The core pin slide into position after the mold is
closed
• The core pin seals against the surface of the moveable
plate, prevent flow of resin into the area
Sheet Metalworking
 Punching
Blanking
Fine blanking
Stamping
Shearing embossing
Slitting
Sheet plate Deburring
Cutting
Cleaning
sawimg
coating
Roll
forming Bending
Roll forming
Stretch forming
Deep drawing
Rubber forming
Spinning
Superplastic forming
Explosive forming
Cutting Operations
Shearing by two sharp cutting edges.
Plastic deformation penetration fracture
Sheet-metal Cutting
c = at
c = clearance
a = allowance
t = thickness

Blanking:
Blanking punch dia. = Db- 2c
Blanking die dia. = Db

Punch
Hole punch dia. = Db
0.25 to 1.5
Hole die dia. = Db+ 2c
Shearing, Blanking and Punching
Shearing - Cutting on sheet-metal with straight edges.
Blanking - Cutting sheet-metal with a closed contour.
Punching - Making holes on sheet-metal.
Sheet-metal Cutting

Small clearance

Cutting force = StL

S = Shear strength of sheet-metal
t = Sheet-metal thickness
L = Length of cutting edge
or, Cutting force = 0.7TtL Large clearance
T = Ultimate tensile strength of sheet-metal
Sheet-metal Cutting Operations
Cut-off

Parting

Slotting Perforating Notching / Seminotching

Sheet-metal Cutting Operations
Fine blanking -
close tolerances
and smooth
edges in one
step.

Trimming - Cutting operation to remove excess metal

Shaving - Shearing with very small clearance to obtain
accurate dimensions., secondary or finishing operation.
Bending

V- bending Edge - bending

Bending Analysis

Spring back

Die-opening
dimension
Bending Operations

Straight flanging Stretch flanging Shrink flanging

Hemming Seaming Curling

Bending Operations

Channel bending U-bending air-bending

Offset-bending Corrugating Tube forming

Drawing
c = Clearance
Db = blank diameter
Dp = Punch diameter
Rd = die corner
radius
Rp = Punch corner
radius
F = drawing force
Fh = holding force
Deep Drawing

Initial step bending of edge straightening of side wall

Thinning and drawing final cup shape

 Drawing Analysis DR 
Db
Dp

Drawing ratio,  2.0

where Db = blank diameter
Db  D p
Dp = punch diameter r
Dp
t = thickness of the starting blank Db
Reduction,  0.5 F  DptT (  0.7)
D p
t / Db
Thickness to diameter ratio,  1%
Drawing force, , max. at 1/3 stroke.

Holding force,

Fh  0.015Y Db2  ( Dp  2.2t  2Rd ) 2 
Holding pressure may be set at 0.015 of the yield strength
T = Tensile strength, Y = Yield strength, Rd = die corner radius
Drawing Analysis
• Blank diameter can be calculated from the conservation of volume based on the
final volume of the part.
• If the limits on the drawing ratio, reduction and thickness-to-diameter ratio are
exceeded, the blank must be drawn in steps or having annealing between the
steps.
• Process optimization
• Punch and die corner radii
• friction
• depth of draw (per step)
• material characteristics
Drawing Defects

a)Wrinkling in flange - small holding force

b) Wrinkling in the wall - insufficient holding force, wrinkling initially occurring
on the flange.
c) Tearing - high stress, sharp die radius
d) Earing - anisotropy of the material
e) Surface scratches - Die or punch not having a smooth surface, insufficient
lubrication
Other Sheet-metal Operations
Ironing - squeezing and
drawing in conjunction
Corning & Embossing - to
produce surface details
Lancing - combination of
cutting and forming
Other Sheet-metal Operations
Rubber forming processes:
Guerin process - low cost,
small volume, pressure
up 10 MPa.
Hydroforming - Higher
pressure, up to 100 MPa.
Dies

Components of a punch and die for blanking operation

Dies

Progressive dies
and final part
Press
crankshaft Knuckle joint
eccentric

Press are driven mechanically or

hydraulically.
Stretch Forming

Stretching and forming with a die at the same time.

Roll Forming
Similar to the
the rolling
process but
working on
sheet-metal or
tubes.
Spinning
Conventional
spinning

Shear spinning - thinning

and bending occur at the
same time.
Spinning

Tube spinning - similar to shear spinning but working on a

tube.
High Energy Forming

Explosive forming
Electrohydraulic forming
Electromagnetic forming
Tube Bending

Stretch bending

Drawing bending

Compression bending

R/D  3.0 with mandrel

R/D  1.5 without mandrel
 Casting
Casting is a manufacturing process for making complex shapes that is
difficult or costly to make through other methods. Liquid metal is poured
into a mold of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solid part
is also called a casting and it is ejected from the mold once solidified.
 Steps involve in the casting process
• Pattern making
• Core making
• Moulding
• Melting and pouring
• Cooling and solidification
• Cleaning
Pattern and pattern allowances
Pattern is define as a replica or true copy of shape that to be casted. Pattern is used for moulding a
cavity in the moulding cavity in the moulding sand mixture such formed cavity is similar to the shape
of the casted part. Pattern is allaways larger in the shape as compared of part to be casted.
Function of pattern :
Selection of pattern material
Requirement of good pattern material
Pattern material
• Wood
• Metals (aluminium and its alloy,CI,brass,white metal)
• Plastic
• POP (plaster of paris)
 Types of pattern
• Single piece pattern
• Split pattern
• Multi piece pattern
• cope and drag pattern
• Segmental pattern
• Gated pattern
• Match plate pattern
• Skeleton pattern
• Loose piece pattern
 Pattern allowances
• Draft allowances
• Machining allowances
• Distortion allowances
• Shrinkage allowances
Draft allowances :