Aqa 7404 7405 Collins Sample

CHEMISTRY
AQA A-level
Year 1 and AS
Student Book
Lyn Nicholls
Ken Gadd
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CONTENTS
To the student v
Practical work in chemistry 1
1 – Atomic structure 4 4 – The Periodic Table 89

1.1 Early ideas about the composition 4.1 Classification of the elements in s, p
of matter 5 and d blocks 90
1.2 Relative mass and relative charge of 4.2 Properties of the elements in Period 3 94
subatomic particles 8
1.3 Working with very small and very large
numbers 9
1.4 Atomic number, mass number 5 – Introduction to organic chemistry 102
and isotopes 11 5.1 Organic and inorganic compounds 103
1.5 Relative atomic mass, Ar 17 5.2 Molecular shapes 105
1.6 Relative molecular mass, M r 17 5.3 Types of formulae 105
1.7 Describing electrons 18 5.4 Functional groups and homologous
1.8 Ionisation energies 22 series 108
1.9 Evidence for shells and 5.5 Naming organic compounds 112
sub-shells 23 5.6 Reaction mechanisms 117
5.7 Isomers 119
2 – Amount of substance 30
2.1 Relative masses 31 6 – The alkanes 128
2.2 The mole and the Avogadro constant 32 6.1 Fractional distillation of crude oil 129
2.3 The ideal gas equation 36 6.2 Cracking 132
2.4 Empirical and molecular formulae 41 6.3 Combustion reactions of alkanes 136
2.5 Chemical equations 43 6.4 Problems with alkane combustion 138
2.6 Ionic equations 48 6.5 Reactions of alkanes with chlorine 141
2.7 Reactions in solutions 49

7 – Energetics 147
3 – Bonding 61 7.1 Exothermic and endothermic reactions 148
3.1 Ionic bonding 62 7.2 Enthalpy change 148
3.2 Covalent bonding 64 7.3 Standard enthalpy of combustion,

∆c Hq 149
3.3 Metallic bonds 66
7.4 Standard enthalpy of formation, ∆f Hq 150
3.4 Bonding and physical properties 67
7.5 Measuring enthalpy changes 151
3.5 Shapes of molecules and ions 71
7.6 Using Hess’s law to measure enthalpy
3.6 Bond polarity 74 changes 158
3.7 Forces between molecules 77 7.7 Bond enthalpies 162
iii
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CONTENTS
8 – Kinetics 171 13 – Halogenoalkanes 263

8.1 What affects the rate of a reaction? 172 13.1 What are halogenoalkanes? 264
8.2 Collision theory 172 13.2 Chemical reactions of
halogenoalkanes 265
8.3 Activation energy 173
13.3 Ozone in the stratosphere 272
8.4 The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
of energies 176
8.5 The effect of temperature on the rate 14 – Alkenes 280
of a reaction 176 14.1 Structure and bonding in alkenes 281
8.6 The effect of concentration on the 14.2 Addition reactions of alkenes 283
rate of a reaction 177
14.3 Addition polymers 290
8.7 Catalysts 183
15 – Alcohols 295
9 – Equilibria 191 15.1 Alcohols 296
9.1 The dynamic nature of equilibria 192 15.2 Ethanol production 298
9.2 The equilibrium constant, KC 195 15.3 Chemical reactions of alcohols 301
9.3 Changes that affect a system in a 15.4 Elimination reactions of alcohols 307
homogeneous equilibrium 197
9.4 Industrial processes and equilibria 203
16 – Analytical techniques 314
10 – Redox reactions 209 16.1 Identifying functional groups 315
10.1 Oxidation and reduction 210 16.2 Mass spectrometry 320
10.2 Oxidation states 211 16.3 Infrared spectroscopy 322
10.3 Redox equations 217 16.4 The global warming link 328
11 – Group 2, the alkaline Answers 334

earth metals 225 Glossary 350
11.1 Trends in physical properties 226 Index 355
11.2 Extracting titanium 229 Acknowledgements 359
11.3 Trends in chemical properties 230
11.4 Uses of Group 2 hydroxides 232
11.5 The relative solubilities of the
Group 2 sulfates 235
12 – Group 7(17), the halogens 242

12.1 Trends in physical properties 243
12.2 Trends in chemical properties 245
12.3 The halide ion 247
12.4 Uses of chlorine 254
iv
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To the student
TO THE STUDENT
The aim of this book is to help make your study of advanced chemistry interesting and successful. It includes examples
of modern issues, developments and applications that reflect the continual evolution of scientific knowledge and
understanding. We hope it will encourage you to study science further when you complete your course.
USING THIS BOOK

Chemistry is fascinating, but complex – underpinned by some demanding ideas and concepts, and by a great deal of
experimental data (‘facts’). This mass of information can sometimes make its study daunting. So don’t try to achieve
too much in one reading session and always try to keep the bigger picture in sight.
There are a number of features in the book to help with this:
• Each chapter starts with a brief example of how the chemistry you will learn has been applied somewhere in the
world, followed by a short outline of what you should have learned previously and what you will learn through
the chapter.
• Important words and phrases are given in bold when used for the first time, with their meaning explained. There is
also a glossary at the back of the book. If you are still uncertain, ask your teacher or tutor because it is important
that you understand these words before proceeding.
• Throughout each chapter there are many questions, with the answers at the back of the book. These questions
enable you to make a quick check on your progress through the chapter.
• Similarly, throughout each chapter there are checklists of key ideas that summarise the main points you need to
learn from what you have just read.
• Where appropriate, worked examples are included to show how important calculations are done.
• There are many assignments throughout the book. These are tasks relating to pieces of text and data that show
how ideas have been developed or applied. They provide opportunities to apply the science you have learned
to new contexts, practise your maths skills and practise answering questions about scientific methods and
data analysis.
• Some chapters have information about the ‘required practical’ activities that you need to carry out during your
course. These sections provide the necessary background information about the apparatus, equipment and
techniques that you need to be prepared to carry out the required practical work. There are questions that give you
practice in answering questions about equipment, techniques, attaining accuracy, and data analysis.
• At the end of each chapter are practice questions. These are examination-style questions which cover all aspects of
the chapter.
This book covers the requirements of AS Chemistry and the first year of A-level Chemistry. There are a number of
sections, questions, assignments and practice questions that have been labelled ‘Stretch and challenge’, which you
should try to tackle if you are studying for A-level. In places these go beyond what is required for the specification but
they will help you build upon the skills and knowledge you acquire and better prepare you for further study beyond
advanced level.
Good luck and enjoy your studies. We hope this book will encourage you to study chemistry further when you complete
your course.
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PRACTICAL WORK
IN CHEMISTRY
While they may not all wear white coats or work in a marks at AS and 15% at A-level. The practical skills
laboratory, chemists and others who use chemistry in assessed in the written examinations are:
their work carry out experiments and investigations to
gather evidence. They may be challenging established Independent thinking
chemical ideas and models or using their skills, › solve problems set in practical contexts
knowledge and understanding to tackle important
problems. › apply scientific knowledge to practical contexts
Chemistry is a practical subject. Whether in the

laboratory or in the field, chemists use their practical
skills to find solutions to problems, challenges and
questions. Throughout this course you will learn,
develop and use these skills.
Figure 1 Most chemists and others who use chemistry in their work
spend time in laboratories. Many also use their practical skills outside
of a laboratory.
Use and application of scientific methods and

practices
› comment on experimental design and evaluate
scientific methods
› present data in appropriate ways
WRITTEN EXAMINATIONS › evaluate results and draw conclusions with
reference to measurement uncertainties and errors
Your practical skills will be assessed in the written
examinations at the end of the course. Questions on › identify variables including those that must be
practical skills will account for about 15% of your controlled
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PRACTICAL WORK IN CHEMISTRY
Numeracy and the application of mathematical Throughout this book there are questions and longer
concepts in a practical context assignments that will give you the opportunity to
› plot and interpret graphs develop and practise these skills. The contexts of some
of the exam questions will be based on the ‘required
› process and analyse data using appropriate
practical activities’.
mathematical skills
› consider margins of error, accuracy and precision ASSESSMENT OF PRACTICAL SKILLS
of data
Some practical skills can only be practised when you
are doing experiments. For A-level, these practical
competencies will be assessed by your teacher:
› follow written procedures
› apply investigative approaches and methods when
using instruments and equipment
› safely use a range of practical equipment and
materials
› make and record observations and measurements
› research, reference and report findings
You must show your teacher that you consistently and
Figure 2 Chemists record experimental data in laboratory routinely demonstrate the competencies listed above
notebooks. They also record, process and present data using
during your course. The assessment will not contribute
computers and tablets.
to your A-level grade, but will appear as a ‘pass’
alongside your grade on the A-level certificate.
Instruments and equipment
These practical competencies must be demonstrated
› know and understand how to use a wide range of
by using a specific range of apparatus and
experimental and practical instruments, equipment
techniques. These are:
and techniques appropriate to the knowledge and
understanding included in the specification › use appropriate apparatus to record a range of
measurements (to include mass, time, volume of
liquids and gases, temperature)
› use a water bath or electric heater or sand bath for
heating
› measure pH using pH charts, or pH meter, or pH
probe on a data logger
› use laboratory apparatus for a variety of
experimental techniques including:
• titration, using burette and pipette
• distillation and heating under reflux, including
setting up glassware using retort stand and clamps
• qualitative tests for ions and organic
functional groups
• filtration, including use of fluted filter paper, or
filtration under reduced pressure
› use a volumetric flask, including accurate technique
Figure 3 You will need to use a variety of equipment correctly and safely. for making up a standard solution
› use acid–base indicators in titrations of weak/
strong acids with weak/strong alkalis
2
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Required practical activities
› purify: REQUIRED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES

• a solid product by recrystallisation
During the A-level course you will need to carry out
• a liquid product, including use of a twelve required practical activities. These are the
separating funnel main sources of evidence that your teacher will use to
› use melting point apparatus award you a pass for your competency skills. If you are
doing the AS, you will need to carry out the first six in
› use thin-layer or paper chromatography
this list.
› set up electrochemical cells and measuring voltages
1. Make up a volumetric solution and carry out a
› safely and carefully handle solids and liquids,
simple acid–base titration
including corrosive, irritant, flammable and toxic
substances 2. Measurement of an enthalpy change
› measure rates of reaction by at least two different 3. Investigation of how the rate of a reaction
methods, for example: changes with temperature
• an initial rate method such as a clock reaction 4. Carry out simple test-tube reactions
to identify:
• a continuous monitoring method
• cations – Group 2, NH4+
• anions – Group 7 (halide ions), OH−,
CO32−, SO42−
5. Distillation of a product from a reaction
6. Tests for alcohol, aldehyde, alkene and
carboxylic acid
7. Measuring the rate of reaction:
• by an initial rate method
• by a continuous monitoring method
8. Measuring the EMF of an electrochemical cell
9. Investigate how pH changes when a weak acid
Figure 4 Many chemists analyse material. They are called analytical reacts with a strong base and when a strong
chemists. Titration is a commonly used technique.
acid reacts with a weak base
10. Preparation of:
• a pure organic solid and test of its purity
• a pure organic liquid
11. Carry out simple test-tube reactions to identify
transition metal ions in aqueous solution
12. Separation of species by
thin-layer chromatography
Information about the apparatus, techniques and
analysis of required practicals 1 to 6 are found in the
relevant chapters of this book, and 7 to 12 in Book 2.
Figure 5 pH probe
You will be asked some questions in your written
For AS, the above will not be assessed but you will examinations about these required practicals.
be expected to use these skills and these types of
apparatus to develop your manipulative skills and Practical skills are really important. Take time and
your understanding of the processes of scientific care to learn, practise and use them.
investigation.
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1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
NASA’s Curiosity Rover landed in the Gale Crater
on Mars in August 2012. Its main mission was to
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE investigate whether Mars has ever possessed the
environmental conditions that could support life,
You may know that substances are made from atoms as well as finding out about Martian climate and
and that an element is a substance made from just geology. Curiosity Rover contains an on-board science
one sort of atom. You will probably have learnt that an laboratory, equipped with a sophisticated range of
atom consists of a nucleus, made up of protons and scientific instruments. Many of these instruments have
neutrons, with electrons moving around it in shells been specially designed for the mission.
(or energy levels). You may also know about relative
The task of the on-board mass spectrometer is to
electrical charges and masses of protons, neutrons
investigate the atoms that are the building blocks of
and electrons.
life – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur.
The spectrometer is making precise measurements
LEARNING OBJECTIVES of the carbon and oxygen isotopes found in carbon
dioxide and methane from the atmosphere and the soil.
In this chapter, you will reinforce and build on these After one Martian year (687 Earth days) of the mission,
ideas and learn about more sophisticated models scientists have concluded that Mars once exhibited
of atoms. environmental conditions that were favourable for
microbial life.
(Specification 3.1.1.1, 3.1.1.2, 3.1.1.3)
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1.1
Early ideas about the composition of matter
1.1 EARLY IDEAS ABOUT THE COMPOSITION compounds. Particles were in fixed positions in solids,
but free to move in liquids and gases. Forces between
OF MATTER particles made materials solid.
The nature of matter has interested people since the Boyle studied the nature and behaviour of gases,
time of the early Greeks. The ideas that you have especially the relationship between volume and
learnt about atomic structure have resulted from the pressure. His theory of matter supported his
work of many people over many centuries. You do not experimental observations. He was the first scientist
need to remember all of this information but here are to keep accurate records.
some of the major events since 460BCE that led to our
understanding of the atom. 1766–1844, John Dalton
John Dalton was an English chemist and physicist, who
named the tiny particles atoms. His scientific idea
Evidence for atomic structure
was that atoms are indivisible and indestructible. All
460–370BCE, Democritus atoms of an element are identical and have the same
The Greek philosopher Democritus proposed that mass and chemical properties. Atoms of different
matter was made up of particles that cannot be elements have different masses (he called them atomic
divided further. They became known as atoms from weights) and different chemical properties. Atoms
the Greek word atomos, meaning ‘cannot be divided’. react together to form ‘compound atoms’. These later
became known as molecules.
His ideas were based on reasoning – you cannot keep
dividing a lump of matter for ever. Dalton studied the physical properties of air and gases.
This led him to analytical work on ethene (olefiant gas),
384–322BCE, Aristotle methane (carburetted hydrogen) and other gases. His
Aristotle was another ancient Greek philosopher, who atomic theory explained his chemical analyses. He
proposed that all earthly matter was made from four summed up 150 years of ideas with his atomic theories.
elements: earth, air, fire and water. These elements
have their natural place on Earth and when they are 1850–1930, Eugen Goldstein
out of place, they move. So, rain falls and bubbles of The German physicist Eugen Goldstein’s scientific idea
air rise from water. was that cathode rays contained negatively charged
particles with mass. He assumed that these particles
A tree grows in the earth, and it needs water and air.
were produced when the gas particles in the cathode
So, a tree is made from earth, water and air. Aristotle
ray tube were split. Cathode rays could be deflected
could analyse most matter in this way.
by a magnetic field. Goldstein also detected heavier
1627–1691, Robert Boyle positive particles.
Robert Boyle was a Fellow of the Royal Society of He experimented with electrical discharge tubes – he
London. His scientific ideas included the notion that passed an electric current between a cathode and
matter is made up of tiny identical particles that an anode in a sealed tube containing gas at a very
cannot be subdivided. These tiny particles made up low pressure. He adapted his experiment, inserting a
‘mixt bodies’ (we now call them compounds). Putting perforated cathode, as in Figure 1.
the particles together in different ways made different
negatively charged particles positively charged particles

glass tube forming cathode rays forming canal rays
anode gas at very low pressure perforated cathode

Figure 1 An electrical discharge tube with a perforated cathode, as used by Goldstein
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1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
1856–1937, Joseph John Thomson many electrons with

Thomson’s idea was that atoms contained negative charge
electrons. He proposed that atoms could be
divided into smaller particles. Electrons have very
negative and positive
small mass, about one two-thousandths of the mass charges cancel out
of a hydrogen atom. They are negatively charged.
The negative charge is cancelled out by a sphere of
spherical cloud of
positively charged material, as in Figure 2.
positive charge
Thomson measured the deflection of the negative Figure 2 Thomson’s plum pudding model of the atom
particles in cathode rays very accurately and
1 The metal cathode is heated, and energetic electrons 5 The beam reaches the
leave its surface as negatively charged cathode rays. phosphor-coated screen.
2 The rays travel from the cathode towards the anode. The energy of the
electrons is transferred
3 A small beam passes through to the phosphor,
the centre hole of the anode. which glows.
4 Plates produce a varying electric field.
As the beam passes between the
plates, the field deflects it at
varying angles.
+
plate
anode –
electric field
high voltage source glass tube

near-vacuum
phosphor coating
Figure 3 Cathode ray tubes were used in televisions and computers before flat screens.
calculated their mass. The cathode ray tubes he used These findings came from his interpretation of the
were the forerunners of the cathode ray tubes used results that are shown in Figure 4 (obtained from the
in televisions and monitors (Figure 3) before the experiment described in Figure 5).
development of flat screens. Alpha particles are deflected when they pass close to the
nucleus, while the very few that actually hit the nucleus
Thomson’s model of the atom became known as the are reflected
‘plum pudding’ model. tiny positive nucleus
gold
‘cloud’ of
atom
electrons
1871–1937, Ernest Rutherford positively
charged
From work carried out in Manchester with his alpha particle
research students Hans Geiger and Ernst Marsden,
Ernest Rutherford put forward the idea that the mass
alpha particle
of the atom is not evenly spread. It is concentrated passes straight
in a minute central region called the nucleus. through
Rutherford calculated the diameter of the nucleus to
be 10−14 m.
All the positive charge of the atom is contained in
the nucleus.
alpha particle
The electrons circulate in the rest of the atom, being is reflected
kept apart by the repulsion of their negative charges.
Figure 4 Deflection of alpha particles by gold foil
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1.1
Early ideas about the composition of matter
screen emits a flash when

an alpha particle strikes it
slightly deflected
alpha particles
undeflected particles:
sometimes a particle most take this route
is deflected through
nearly 180°
gold foil about

2000 atoms thick
beam of
alpha particle alpha particles
source (radium)
lead shield to
confine radiation
Figure 5 Rutherford’s experiment: the deflection of alpha particles through gold foil
1888–1915, Henry Moseley and 1891–1974, James Chadwick

Ernest Rutherford Chadwick identified the neutron in 1932. Neutrons
Rutherford continued the work that he had started, have no charge. They have the same mass as a proton.
together with Moseley. Their idea was that the
He bombarded a beryllium plate with alpha particles
nucleus contained positively charged particles called
and produced uncharged radiation on the other side
protons. The number of protons (the atomic number)
of the plate. He placed a paraffin wax disc (which
corresponds to the element’s position in the Periodic
contains many hydrogen atoms) in the path of the
Table. Protons make up about half the mass of
radiation and showed that the radiation caused
the nucleus.
protons to be knocked out of the wax (Figure 6).
Moseley studied X-ray spectra of elements.
Mathematically, he related the frequency of the 1885–1962, Niels Bohr
X-rays to a number he called the atomic number. Bohr’s scientific idea was that electrons orbit the
This corresponded to the element’s position in the nucleus in energy levels. Energy levels have fixed energy
Periodic Table. Sadly, Moseley was killed in action values – they are quantised. Electrons can only occupy
at Gallipoli in World War 1. In 1919, Rutherford these set energy levels.
fired alpha particles at hydrogen gas and produced
Bohr studied emission spectra and produced
positive particles, which he called protons. His
explanations that incorporated the ideas of Einstein
calculations also showed that the mass of the
and Planck. Electrons orbited the nucleus in
protons only accounted for half of the mass of
energy levels, where each energy level has a fixed
the nucleus.
energy value.
alpha particle source beryllium paraffin wax
alpha particles uncharged neutrons protons

0
charged particle detector

Figure 6 Chadwick’s experiment
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1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
QUESTIONS
1. Aristotle’s theory of earth, fire, air and water c. the proton

lasted for about 2000 years and was a major d. the neutron?
setback to ideas about atomic structure. Why
did it last so long? 3. Why was the neutron the last major subatomic
particle to be discovered?
2. What evidence led to the discovery of:
a. the electron Stretch and challenge
b. the nucleus 4. Describe how ideas about atomic structure
changed from 1897 to 1932.
1.2 RELATIVE MASS AND RELATIVE CHARGE Charges on subatomic particles are also given relative to
one another. A proton has a relative charge of +1 and
OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES an electron has a relative charge of −1. A neutron has
no charge. The protons and neutrons together are called
Further experiments established the masses and nucleons. Protons in the nucleus do not repel each
charges of protons, electrons and neutrons. These are other because a strong nuclear force acts over the small
summarised in Table 1. size of the nucleus and binds all the nucleons together.
Because the values for mass are so small, the idea of Since atoms of any element are neutral, the number
relative mass is used. The relative mass of a proton of protons (positive charge) must equal the number
is 1 and that of a neutron is 1. The relative mass of of electrons (negative charge). The atoms of all
1
the electron is 5.45 × 10−4 or 1837 . elements, except hydrogen, contain these three
fundamental particles.
Particle Mass/kg Charge/C Relative mass Relative charge

Electron 9.109 × 10−31 1.602 × 10−19 5.45 × 10−4 −1
Proton 1.672 × 10−27 1.602 × 10−19 1 +1
Neutron 1.674 × 10−27 0 1 0
Note: The mass of the electron is so small compared to the mass of the proton and neutron that chemists often take it to be zero.
Table 1 The fundamental atomic particles, their mass and charge
The electrons are
kept apart by their
negative charge.
KEY IDEAS
› All matter is composed of atoms. protons

› The nucleus of an atom contains positive protons, neutrons nucleus
with a relative mass of 1 and relative charge of
+1, and neutral neutrons (except hydrogen), with electrons
a relative mass of 1 and no charge.
› Electrons orbit the nucleus in energy levels
Nuclear binding
(shells). An electron has a very small mass and
forces allow
relative charge of −1. protons to be
› The number of electrons in an atom equals the
close together.
number of protons, to give an uncharged atom. Figure 7 This diagram summarises the model of the atom that
scientists often use nowadays.
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1.3
Working with very small and very large numbers
1.3 WORKING WITH VERY SMALL AND VERY metre, you have kilometre, millimetre and nanometre.
But other intervals can be used if they are convenient
LARGE NUMBERS for the task in hand.
Working with very small numbers can be confusing. A system of prefixes is used to modify units. Prefixes
To help avoid this, scientists use standard form that are commonly used are listed in Table 2.
and standard prefixes when communicating their
Prefix Symbol Multiplier Meaning
numerical work.
mega M 106 1 000 000
Standard form
kilo k 103 1000
Numbers with many zeros are difficult to follow, so
scientists tend to express these in standard form. deci d 10−1 0.1
Standard form is a number between one and 10. So, centi c 10−2 0.01
how is the number 769 000 expressed in standard
milli m 10−3 0.001
form?
micro µ 10−6 0.000 001
› Locate the decimal point: 769 000.0
nano n 10−9 0.000 000 001
› Move the decimal point to give a number between
pico p 10−12 0.000 000 000 001
1 and 10: 7.69000
› Multiply the number by ten raised to the power x, Table 2 Standard prefixes
where x is the number of figures the decimal point Significant figures

was moved: 7.69 × 105 When carrying out calculations based on
Sometimes the decimal point may move the other way. measurements made, you must be confident that the
Take the mass of the electron (0.000 545 units) as answers you give are as precise as the measurements
an example. allow. This is done by counting the number of
significant figures (sig figs) in the number given for a
› Find the decimal point and move it. This time it
measurement. So, for example, a measured mass of:
goes to the right: 00005.45
3.4 g (two sig figs) means you are confident to the
› Multiply the number by ten raised to the power
nearest 0.1 g
x, where x is the number of figures the decimal
point was moved. But, this time, the index will be 3.40 g (three sig figs) means you are confident to the
negative: 5.45 × 10−4 nearest 0.01 g
3.400 g (four sig figs) means you are confident to the
Calculations using standard form nearest 0.001 g.
Standard form makes multiplication and division of
even the most complex numbers much easier to handle. Worked example 1
When you multiply two numbers in standard form, you
Using data from Table 1, calculate how many electrons
multiply the numbers and add the indices. For example:
have the same mass as a nucleus containing one
(3 × 102) × (2 × 103) = 6 × 105 proton and one neutron.
If you divide numbers in standard form, you divide the
mass of nucleus = (1.672 × 10−27) + (1.674 × 10−27)
standard number and subtract the indices. For example:
number of electrons with the same mass =
(1.672 × 10−27 ) + (1.674
8 × 104 9.109 × 10−31
= 2 × 102
4 × 102
number of electrons with the same mass =
(1.672 × 10−27 ) + (1.674 × 10−27 )
9.109 × 10−31
Units and standard prefixes
Science is based on observations and measurements. answer given on calculator = 3673.290153
When making measurements, it is essential to use the
Since the mass of each particle is given to four
correct units.
significant figures, the answer must contain no more
Again, to make numbers more manageable, scientists than four significant figures. The answer must be
use prefixes that usually have intervals of a thousand. rounded up or down. The answer is 3673 electrons.
For example, attaching preferred prefixes to the unit
(Maths Skills 0.0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 1.1)
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1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Remember: › The answer to a chemical calculation must not have

more significant figures than the number used in
› Do not round calculations up or down until you
the calculation with the fewest significant figures.
reach the final answer because errors can be
carried through.
Fact Example
all non-zero digits are significant 275 has three sig figs
zero between non-zero digits is significant 205 has three sig figs
zero to the left of the first non-zero digit is not significant 301 has three sig figs, 0.31 has two sig figs
zero to the right of the decimal point is significant 2.9 has two sig figs, 2.90 has three sig figs
numbers ending in zero to the left of the decimal point: the a mass of 840 g has two sig figs if the balance is accurate to
zero may or may not be significant ±10 g, and three sig figs if the balance is accurate to ±1 g
Table 3 Significant figures
ASSIGNMENT 1: SIZE, SCALE AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

(MS 0.0, 0.1, 0.2; PS 1.1, 1.2, 3.2) Questions
A single carbon atom measures about one Give your answers to the appropriate number
ten-billionth of a metre across, a dimension so small of significant figures, and in standard form
that it is impossible to imagine. The nucleus is a where appropriate.
thousand times smaller again, and the electron a
hundred thousand times smaller than that! A1. a. An atom of hydrogen contains only a
proton and an electron. Calculate the
mass of the hydrogen atom in kilograms.
b. A molecule of hydrogen contains two
atoms. Calculate the mass of a hydrogen
molecule in grams.
c. How many electrons have the same mass
as a single neutron?
A2. Convert these quantities into measurements
in grams, expressed in standard form:
Figure A1 A single carbon atom measures about a. The mass of a neutron.
one ten-billionth of a metre across.
b. 200 million electrons.
Because the numbers are so unimaginably small, c. 10 gold coins weighing a total of 0.311 kg.
scientists do not use grams and metres to describe
A3. A uranium atom contains 92 electrons.
atoms and subatomic particles. They use a different
Calculate the mass, in kilograms, of protons
set of units.
in the atom.
You have already come across the idea of relative
A4. How many times heavier is the nucleus
masses. Protons and neutrons both have a relative
of a helium atom (two protons and two
mass of 1. We say these have a mass of 1 relative
neutrons) than its electrons?
mass unit. The electron is a mere 0.000 545 relative
mass units. Clearly, even with relative masses you
have some awkward numbers.
10
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1.4
Atomic number, mass number and isotopes
1.4 ATOMIC NUMBER, MASS NUMBER

AND ISOTOPES
1
1 H
Different elements have different numbers of Mass number

hydrogen The mass number is equal to the number of
electrons, protons and neutrons in their atoms. It is
protons (Z) plus the number of neutrons (n)
the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom that in an atom. It is given the symbol A.
identifies the element. Remember that, if an atom 4
He
forms an ion by gain or transfer of electrons, it is still 2
Atomic number
an ion of the same element. An atom can also have
The atomic number is equal to the number of
one or two more or fewer neutrons and still remain helium protons in an atom (and therefore the number
the same element. Using this information, you can of electrons). It is given the symbol Z.
define an element using two numbers: the atomic
number and the mass number (Figure 8).
Atomic (proton) number (Z ). The atomic number
7
of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus 3 Li
of the atom. It has the symbol Z and is also known
as the proton number. Its value is placed in front of
Mass number and atomic number
the element’s symbol, below its mass number. Since are linked by the equation
atoms are neutral, the number of protons equals the A=Z+n
lithium
number of electrons orbiting the nucleus. All atoms of
the same element have the same atomic number. Figure 8 Mass number and atomic number
Mass number (A). The mass number of an element

is the total number of protons and neutrons in
QUESTIONS
the nucleus of an atom. It is a measure of its mass
compared with other types of atom. Even in heavy 5. How many protons, neutrons and electrons
atoms, the electron’s mass is so small that it makes do the following atoms and ions have?
little difference to the overall mass of the atom. a. An element with mass number 19 and
Protons and neutrons both have a mass of 1, so: atomic number 9.
mass number (A) = b. An element with mass number 210 and
number of protons (Z) + number of neutrons (n) atomic number 85.
c. An ion with one positive charge, a mass
A=Z+n number of 23 and atomic number 11.
d. An ion with three negative charges, a mass
The symbol for the mass number is A, and its
number of 31 and atomic number 15.
value goes above the atomic number in front of the
element’s symbol. e. An ion with three positive charges, a
mass number 52 and atomic number 24.
You can calculate the number of neutrons in the
nucleus using:
Isotopes
number of neutrons (n) = All atoms of the same element have the same number
mass number (A) – atomic number (Z). of protons and the same atomic number, Z. However,
they may have a different number of neutrons and so a
different mass number, A. Atoms of the same element
with different mass numbers are called isotopes.
14 15
Nitrogen has two isotopes, 7N and 7N . Both isotopes
14
have seven protons, but 7N has seven neutrons and
15
7 N has eight neutrons. The notation for an isotope
shows the mass number and the atomic number:
mass number 12 This is also

Carbon written as
atomic number 6 carbon-12
11
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1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
The isotopes of carbon and their sub atomic particles are summarised in Table 4.
Name No. of No. of No. of Relative

protons neutrons electrons abundance %
carbon-12 6 6 6 98.93
carbon-13 6 7 6 1.07
carbon-14 6 8 6 10 –10
Table 4 Isotopes of carbon
Properties of isotopes
The chemical properties of an element depend on the
number and arrangement of the electrons in its atoms. KEY IDEAS
Since all the isotopes of an element have the same
number and arrangement of electrons, they also all › The atomic (proton) number, Z is equal to the
have the same chemical properties. However, because number of protons in the nucleus.
of the difference in mass, isotopes differ slightly › The mass number, A is equal to the number
in their physical properties, such as in the rate of of protons plus the number of neutrons in
diffusion (which depends on mass), and their nuclear the nucleus.
properties, such as radioactivity.
› Isotopes of an element have the same
Isotopes that are not radioactive, such as chlorine-35 number of protons but different numbers of
and chlorine-37, are called stable isotopes. neutrons.
Data books give you the relative abundance of
each isotope present in such stable, naturally
occurring elements.
Relative abundance of isotopes

ensure that the competition is fair. An athlete may
Most elements have isotopes. The percentage of each
be asked to produce a urine sample and, sometimes,
isotope that naturally occurs on Earth is referred to
a blood sample. This is sent to a testing facility. The
as its relative isotopic abundance. Chlorine has
35 35 drug tests detect the presence of compounds that
two isotopes, 17 Cl and 17 Cl. Any sample of naturally
are produced by chemical reactions in the body as it
occurring chlorine will contain 75.53% of chlorine-35
processes the drug. Mass spectrometers are used
and 24.47% of chlorine-37.
to help analyse the sample. Drug analysis is just one
1 2
Hydrogen has three isotopes: 1H , 1H (called of a vast range of applications of mass spectrometry in
3
deuterium) and 1H (called tritium). Elements that analytical chemistry.
occur in space may contain different percentages
There are several different types of mass
of isotopes. These percentages are known as its
spectrometer. They can be used to identify the
isotope signature.
mass of an element, an isotope or a molecule.
Knowing the mass of a particle helps scientists
Mass spectrometry to identify the particle. One type of spectrometer
Performance enhancing drugs are illegal in most is called a time-of-flight mass spectrometer
sports and most organisations use drug tests to (Figure 11).
12
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1.4
ASSIGNMENT 2: ISOTOPE DETECTIVE

(MS 0.0, 0.1; PS 1.1, 1.2, 3.2) Chemical reactions involve electrons; the presence
of extra neutrons in isotopes does not affect these
Human beings have long been obsessed with the
reactions. So, methane molecules may contain a
idea that life might exist or have existed on Mars,
mixture of these different isotopes. The three most
one of the closest planets to Earth. In 2003 the
common methane molecules are formed when
European Mars Express detected methane gas,
one carbon-12 combines with four hydrogen-1
CH4. We use methane to heat our homes and
atoms, one atom of carbon-13 combines with
for cooking food. On Earth, 90% of all methane
four hydrogen-1 atoms, and when one atom of
comes from living things, such as the decay of
carbon-12 combines with three hydrogen-1 atoms
organic material. This is how the gas in our homes
and one hydrogen-2 atom. These can be written as:
originated. The remaining 10% was produced from
geological activity. 12CH , 13CH and 12CH3D respectively. (D stands for
4 4
deuterium, which is the name given to hydrogen-2.)
The big question is: ‘What is the origin of the
methane gas on Mars?’. Perhaps it was formed Methane Natural percentage
by the decay of organic material billions of years formula abundance on Earth
ago. Or maybe it is being given off by present-day
12CH 0.99827
microbes that exist under the surface in areas 4
13CH
heated by volcanic activity. Alternatively, was the 4 0.01110
methane gas a result of geological processes? The 12CH D 0.00062
3
answer may be found in isotopes.
Table A1 The isotopic signature of naturally occurring methane
Carbon has three isotopes: carbon-12, carbon-13 on Earth
and carbon-14. Their abundances on Earth, as When scientists determine the isotopic signature of
shown by the isotopic signature of methane, are Martian methane, they can compare it with that on
given in Table A1. Earth. They may then be a step nearer to deciding
Hydrogen has two naturally occurring isotopes: its origin.
hydrogen-1, which has a 99.9885% abundance
Questions
on Earth, and hydrogen-2, which has a 0.01115%
abundance. (The other hydrogen isotope, A1. What are the atomic numbers and mass
hydrogen-3, is not naturally occuring. It is numbers of:
produced in nuclear reactors.) a. the isotopes of carbon
b. the isotopes of hydrogen?
A2. Why is carbon-14 ignored in possible
methane formulae?
A3. What is the difference in mass between
12CH and 13CH ?
4 4
A4. What is the difference in mass between

12CH and 12CH D?
4 3
A5. Which form of methane is most common

and why?
A6. Suggest a formula for an extremely rare
type of methane.
A7. When scientists compare the isotopic
Figure A1 Nili Fossae, one of the regions on Mars emitting signature of Martian methane with that of
methane. Are the plumes of methane gas evidence for life methane on Earth, what assumptions are
on Mars? they making?
13
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1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Figure 9 Athletes undergo drugs tests during training and Figure 10 Inside the flight tube of a triple quadrupole time-of-flight
competition. Any found using performance enhancing drugs face mass spectrometer
bans from the sport.
Electrospray ionisation. The sample being tested

is vaporised and injected into the spectrometer.
A beam of electrons is fired at the sample and
knocks out electrons to produce ions. A technique Ion detector. The ions are distinguished
called electrospray ionisation is used because this by different flight times at the ion
reduces the number of molecules that break up or detector. The electronic signal is used
Acceleration. The electric field by computer software to produce a
fragment. Most atoms or molecules lose just one has a fixed strength – the potential
electron, but a few lose two. Positively charged mass spectrum. The position of each
difference is constant. It accelerates peak on the mass spectrum is related to
ions are produced. Only the most energetic the ions so that all the ions with the
electrons can knock out two electrons, so most the m/z charge of the ions. Since most
same charge have the same kinetic ions have a +1 charge, this will be the
ions have a single positive charge. If M is a energy – they are travelling at the
molecule of the sample, then: same as the mass of the ion. The size
same speed. of each peak is proportional to the
M(g) → M+(g) + e− or, M(g) → M2+(g) + 2e−. abundance of the ion in the sample.
flight path
time measurement
Abundance
Ion drift. The ions reaching the drift region will have two variables – their mass and
their charge. This is described by the mass-to-charge ratio, or m/z ratio. An ion with
a mass of 18 and a charge of +1 has an m/z ratio of 18. An ion with a mass of 36
and a charge of +2 also has an m/z ratio of 18. The m/z ratio affects the time taken to
reach the detector. There is no accelerating field in this region – ions are m/z
‘free-wheeling’. Heavier ions move slower than lighter ions and singularly charged ions
move slower than ions with two or more charges. The time taken to reach the ion detector
is called the ‘flight time’. For example, if the flight path is 0.6 m long and an ion has a mass of
26 atomic units, the flight time will be 6 x 10−6 seconds.
Figure 11 The basic principles of a time-of-flight mass spectrometer
14
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1.4
The mass spectrum of magnesium Calculating the relative atomic mass from
isotopic abundance
100
You can use information from mass spectra to
Percentage abundance
78.60% calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar, of an

element (see Section 1.5).
50 For magnesium, the isotopes 24Mg, 25Mg and 26Mg
are present in the ratio 78.60 : 10.11 : 11.29. This
10.11%
means that the mass of 100 magnesium atoms will be:
11.29%
(78.60 × 24) + (10.11 × 25) + (11.29 × 26)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
m/z The average mass of one magnesium atom will be:
Figure 12 Mass spectrum of magnesium
(78.60 × 24) + (10.11 × 25) + (11.29 × 26)
The chart produced by a mass spectrometer is called a 100
mass spectrum (plural: mass spectra). = 24.3 (to one decimal place)
When a sample of magnesium vapour is fed into
This is the relative atomic mass of magnesium. The Ar
the mass spectrometer, it is bombarded by high
value for magnesium in your data book is 24.3.
energy electrons in the ionisation region. These
fast-moving, energetic electrons knock electrons off Note that atoms of magnesium with this actual mass
the magnesium atoms to produce positively charged do not exist. This is the average mass of all the
magnesium ions, Mg+. naturally occurring isotopes of magnesium, taking
Mg(g) → Mg+(g) + e− abundance into account.
If bombarded with very high energy electrons, some The mass spectrum of lead
magnesium ions lose a second electron: 100
Mg+(g) → Mg2+(g) + e−
These positively charged magnesium ions pass

through the spectrometer and are accelerated by an 52.3%
50
electric field to give all ions with the same charge
the same kinetic energy. The sample then passes 23.6% 22.6%
into the drift region. Magnesium has three isotopes:
1.50%
magnesium-24, magnesium-25 and magnesium-26.
If ions of all isotopes have the same charge, then 200 205 210
m/z
the lighter magnesium-24 will take a shorter time
to reach the ion detector than the heavier ions. The Figure 13 Mass spectrum of lead
flight time will be less.
A mass spectrum is produced. The y-axis is the The mass spectrum of lead (Figure 13) shows that lead
percentage abundance. The x-axis is the mass/charge has four isotopes with mass numbers of 204, 206,
(or m/z) ratio (Figure 12). 207 and 208. The heights of the lines show that these
are in the ratio of 1.50 : 23.6 : 22.6 : 52.3. These are
The spectrum of magnesium has three lines. These
percentage abundances and add up to 100.
correspond to the three isotopes of magnesium. The
heights of the lines are proportional to the amounts To calculate the relative atomic mass of lead:
of each isotope present. The sample in Figure 12
mass of 100 atoms
contains 78.60% of magnesium-24, 10.11% of
magnesium-25 and 11.29% of magnesium-26. = (1.540 × 204)+(23.6 × 206)+(22.6 × 207)+(52.3 × 208)
The mass spectrum of an element shows: relative atomic mass

› the mass number of each isotope present (since mass (1.540 × 204)+(23.6 × 206)+(22.6 × 207)+(52.3 × 208)
=
numbers are masses compared with carbon-12, this 100
number is called the relative isotopic mass) = 207.2
› the relative abundance of each isotope.
15
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1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
a. How many isotopes does

QUESTIONS antimony have?
100 b. What are their mass numbers?
c. What is the percentage abundance of

each isotope?
57.25% d. Calculate the relative atomic mass of
50
42.75% antimony from this spectrum.
7. Find the relative atomic mass of naturally
occurring uranium that contains 0.006%
100 105 110 115 120 125 130 uranium-234, 0.72% uranium-235 and
m/z
99.2% uranium-238.
Figure 14 Mass spectrum of antimony 8. Silver has two isotopes, silver-107 and
silver-109. These are present in the ratio of
6. Look at the mass spectrum of a sample of 51.35 : 48.65 in naturally occurring silver.
antimony (Figure 14). Calculate the relative atomic mass of silver.
ASSIGNMENT 3: ANALYSING HAIR

(MS 1.1, 1.2; PS 1.1, 1.2, 3.2) and where you have been. This is a very useful tool
in cases such as deciding whether a terrorist suspect
has been to a particular location.
Questions
A1. Strontium has an atomic number of 38.
How many protons, neutrons and electrons
are in one atom of strontium-87 and in one
atom of strontium-88?
A2. Naturally occurring strontium has four
isotopes with these percentage abundances:
Strontium isotope Percentage abundance

strontium-84 0.56
strontium-86 9.86
strontium-87 7.00
strontium-88 82.58
Figure A3 Scientists analyse hair to provide forensic evidence.
Table A2
Hair grows at a fairly uniform rate. Its composition
depends partly on diet and the water you drink. a. Sketch strontium’s mass spectrum.
The ratios of different isotopes in the water supply
b. Calculate the relative atomic mass
vary with your location and the rocks the water
of strontium.
percolates through. For example, the isotopes of
strontium (87Sr and 88Sr) and the isotopes of oxygen A3. The data given in Table A2 for strontium
(16O, 17O and 18O) vary all over the world. As your isotopes are average figures for all
hair grows, the isotope ratios from your environment naturally occurring strontium isotopes
are captured in your hair. on Earth. What information do forensic
scientists need when using hair analysis to
For the forensic scientist, analysing the isotopes in
track people?
a sample of your hair can tell where you are from
16
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1.6
Relative molecular mass, M r
1.5 RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS, Ar molecule in the same way as they did with a sample of
atoms. This produces a positively charged ion called
Atoms have very small masses, from 10−24 g to the molecular ion, M+.
10−22 g. Instead of using these masses, scientists M(g) → M+(g) + e−
use relative atomic mass (symbol Ar). Relative
here means the mass of one atom compared with Most of these molecular ions are now split into
another. Originally, the mass of each atom was fragments by the bombarding electrons, but some
compared with the mass of a hydrogen atom, where remain intact.
hydrogen had a mass of one. As mass spectroscopy
The line produced by these molecular ions on the mass
developed and gave more accurate values for the
spectrum represents the relative molecular mass of the
masses of atoms, it was discovered that hydrogen’s
sample – if the atoms in the molecule have isotopes,
mass is slightly more than one.
there will be more than one molecular ion peak. The
Relative atomic mass is now defined as the mass spectrum of methane (Figure 15) shows the
average mass of an atom compared with 12 1
molecular ion peak at m/z = 16 and another at m/z
the mass of a carbon-12 atom. = 17. The one at 16 is due to 12CH4+ and the much
smaller one at 17 is due to 13CH4+. These can be used
average mass of one atom of an element
relative atomic mass, Ar = to calculate the relative molecular mass of methane.
1
the mass of one carbon-12 atom
12
average mass of one atom of an element You will find more information about relative atomic

relative atomic mass, Ar =
12 the mass of one carbon-12 atom
1 mass and relative molecular mass in Chapter 2.
Relative atomic masses have no units because they

show how many times heavier one atom is compared 100
with another. Books give different numbers of decimal

places for these values. The Ar for magnesium is
given as 24 in most GCSE Periodic Tables. You will 50
now need to use the more precise value of 24.3 for
most calculations.
Remember, relative atomic mass is the average mass 0
5 10 15
of all isotopes of an element, taking relative abundance
m/z
into consideration. These values can be found using
mass spectroscopy and the calculations you did earlier. Figure 15 The mass spectrum of methane, CH4
1.6 RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS, Mr KEY IDEAS

In chemistry, you also need to know the mass of
molecules. The same relative atomic mass scale is
› In a time-of-flight mass spectrometer, samples
are ionised, accelerated to constant kinetic
used. The relative molecular mass is the mass
1 energy, allowed to drift and detected.
of a molecule compared with 12 the mass of a
carbon-12 atom. ›
A mass spectrum can be used to find the
relative isotopic mass and abundance of
average mass of one molecule
relative molecular mass, Mr = isotopes of an element.
1
12 the mass of one carbon-12 atom
relative molecular mass, Mr =
average mass of one molecule › The mass spectrum of a compound can be
1
12 the mass of one carbon-12 atom used to find its Mr and provide clues about
its structure.
Finding Mr values › Relative atomic mass is the average mass

1
The mass spectrometer can also be used to find of an atom compared with 12 the mass of a
relative molecular mass values. This is dealt with in carbon-12 atom.
more detail in Chapter 16. If a sample of vaporised › Relative molecular mass is the average mass
molecules is introduced into the mass spectrometer, 1
of a molecule compared with 12 the mass of a
the bombarding electrons can knock an electron off a carbon-12 atom.
17
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1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
1.7 DESCRIBING ELECTRONS 4f

4d
n=4
4p
Main Sub- Max no. Max no. Max. no.
shell shell electron pairs electrons in electrons in 3d
in sub-shell sub-shell main shell n=3 4s
1 s 1 2 2 3p
3s
s 1 2
2 8
p 3 6
s 1 2 Energy 2p
n=2
3 p 3 6 18 2s
d 5 10
s 1 2
p 3 6
4 32
d 5 10
f 7 14 n=1 1s
Figure 16 Shells, sub-shells and number of electrons

Figure 17 The energies of the sub-shells in an atom with many
Electrons are arranged in electron shells around
electrons
the nucleus. Each electron shell has a particular
energy value. Electrons can be described as being
in a particular shell. Within each shell, there are
sub-shells (or orbitals). The number of sub-shells in
each shell is shown in Figure 16. The sub-shells are s orbitals
given the letters s, p, d and f. The letters come from
1s 2s 3s
words used to describe emission spectral lines (this
p orbitals
is discussed further a little later in this chapter). z z
Figure 16 shows that the first shell has a maximum
of two electrons and that they are both in sub-shell
s. The second electron shell has a maximum of eight
electrons, two of which are in sub-shell s and six in y y
sub-shell p. This sequence of sub-shells corresponds
to an increase in energy (Figure 17). Each additional
electron goes into the sub-shell with the next lowest x x
energy. The order of filling is the same as the order p x orbital p y orbital
of the elements in the Periodic Table.
Electron orbitals the three

p orbitals combined
Electrons are constantly moving, and it is impossible
z z
to know the exact position of an electron at any pz
given time. However, measurements of the density of
electrons as they move round the nucleus show that
there are regions where it is highly probable to find an px
y
electron. These regions of high probability are called x
orbitals. Each s, p, d and f sub-shell corresponds to a py
differently shaped orbital. y
x
The shapes of s and p orbitals are shown in Figure 18. p z orbital
Each orbital can hold two electrons, which spin in Figure 18 The three-dimensional (3D) shape of the s and p orbitals
opposite directions. Table 5 shows the numbers of
electrons and orbitals in the sub-shells.
18
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1.7
Describing electrons
Niels Bohr suggested that electrons could only

Sub-level s p d f
exist at fixed energies. He gave each energy level
Number of orbitals in sub-shell 1 3 5 7 (shell) the symbol n and numbered them 1, 2, 3,
Maximum number of electrons 2 6 10 14 and so on, so that n = 1 is the first energy level
and the ground state for hydrogen’s 1 electron (see
Table 5 Number of orbitals and maximum number of electrons per Figure 19).
sub-shell
Each line in hydrogen’s emission spectrum represents
the difference between the energy of the level to which
Emission spectra and electrons the electron becomes excited and the level to which it
When an electrical voltage is applied to a gas at low falls back.
pressure in a discharge tube, radiation in the visible This is the basis of the quantum theory. Whereas
part of the spectrum is emitted. This light can be split Rutherford thought that the electron moved
into its component colours using a spectroscope, an smoothly, Bohr showed that it moved in small jumps,
instrument designed by Robert Bunsen (the same or quanta.
Bunsen as in Bunsen burner).
Emission spectra provide evidence for electrons in
One theory of light considers it to consist of particles, shells. You will read about other evidence later in
called photons, that move in a wave-like motion. Each this chapter.
photon has its own amount of energy, depending
on the wavelength of the photon. The shorter the
wavelength, the more energetic the photon and the far from the nucleus
higher the energy. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation has a n =5
n =4
shorter wavelength than infrared (IR) radiation, so
a photon of UV radiation has more energy than a n =3
photon of IR radiation.
n =2
Many advertising signs are gas-discharge tubes, which
are often filled with neon. When neon absorbs electrical
energy, electrons become excited to higher energy
levels. As the electrons fall back, radiation in the yellow
part of the visible spectrum is emitted. Other colours close to the
nucleus, n =1
are usually obtained by using tinted glass.
The electrons in the atoms of gas in the discharge Figure 19 The staircase model for the levels of the energies emitted
by the hydrogen electron. As shown, energy jumps can be down one
tube absorb electrical energy. This excites the
step or more than one step.
electrons and they move into a higher energy
level. This is not a stable arrangement and the
electrons fall back to their original position, called
the ground state, in one or more steps. You can
QUESTIONS
see this in Figure 19. As the electron returns to a
lower energy level (or shell), energy is emitted as Stretch and challenge
radiation. If this radiation is in the visible range,
9. Why did Bohr suggest that electrons have
you see it as coloured light. A spectroscope will
fixed amounts of energy?
split this radiation into lines of a particular colour.
The energy gaps between the energy levels in the 10. Draw a hydrogen atom with seven energy
atom determine the wavelength of the radiation levels (shells). Show hydrogen’s electron
emitted. All the lines for an element make up its in the first shell. Annotate your diagram
emission spectrum. to show what happens when the electron
absorbs energy and moves to n = 3
If the energies of electrons were not fixed, the before falling back to the ground state.
emission spectra would be continuous, with Label your diagram to show the outcome.
no lines.
19
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1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Electron configuration of atoms Electron 2p1 in boron is:

The arrangement of electrons in an atom can be
written as symbols in an electron configuration.
The electron configuration includes sub-shells as well Electrons 2p2 in carbon are:
as shells, and shows the number of electrons in each.
› Hydrogen has one electron in shell 1, sub-shell s. Its
electron configuration is 1s. Electrons 2p3 in nitrogen are:
› Helium has two electrons with opposite spin. Its
electron configuration is 1s2.
There is now one electron in each orbital. The next
› Lithium has two electrons in 1s and one in 2s. Its
electron goes into the first orbital and spins in the
electron configuration is 1s2 2s1.
opposite direction, so that:
You can also draw a spin diagram for each sub-shell
Electrons 2p4 in oxygen are:
that shows the direction of spin of all the electrons.
So, you can represent the 12 electrons in the shells/
sub-shells of magnesium in two ways, electron
configuration or a spin diagram. Electrons 2p5 in fluorine are:
Shells/sub-shells
1s 2s 2p 3s Electrons 2p6 in neon are:
Electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
Spin diagram
In Table 6, shell one in helium is filled. The next
element with a filled level is neon, which has the
Between hydrogen and argon, electrons of increasing electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6.
energy are added, one per element, in sub-shell order Since the outermost shell is complete, these
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p. Then, for potassium, the next elements are very stable and are known as the noble
electron skips sub-shell 3d and goes into 4s. Though gases. Noble gas configurations are used to write
shell three energies are lower overall than shell four abbreviated electron configurations. For example, the
energies, the 3d sub-shell has a higher energy than full electron configuration for potassium is 1s2 2s2 2p6
the 4s sub-shell as shown in Table 6 (and Figure 17). 3s2 3p6 4s1. The abbreviated form is [Ar] 4s1.
The order of filling is the order of elements in the
Periodic Table and 4s is filled before 3d. Later, you will Similarly, the abbreviated electron configuration for
see that the chemical properties of elements reflect phosphorus is [Ne] 3s2 3p3.
the energy levels of electrons.
Filling orbitals QUESTIONS

You have seen that the arrows in electron spin
diagrams indicate their direction of spin and whether 11. Use Table 6 to help you write abbreviated
there are one or two electrons per orbital. The electron configurations for:
electrons fill the orbitals in a set order. a. sulfur
Electrons organise themselves so that they remain b. aluminium
unpaired and fill the maximum number of sub-shells c. calcium
possible.
d. scandium
As you have seen, for the p sub-shells, this means e. silicon
that electrons first occupy empty orbitals and are
f. iron
parallel spinned. When these orbitals each have
one electron, additional electrons are spin-paired; g. krypton
the second electron in an orbital will spin in the h. copper.
opposite direction.
20
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1.7
Describing electrons
Z Element Electron configuration Electron spin diagram
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p
1 H 1s1
2 He 1s2
3 Li 1s22s1
4 Be 1s22s2
5 B 1s22s22p1
6 C 1s22s22p2
7 N 1s22s22p3
8 O 1s22s22p4
9 F 1s22s22p5
10 Ne 1s22s22p6
11 Na 1s22s22p63s1
12 Mg 1s22s22p63s2
13 Al 1s22s22p63s23p1
14 Si 1s22s22p63s23p2
15 P 1s22s22p63s23p3
16 S 1s22s22p63s23p4
17 Cl 1s22s22p63s23p5
18 Ar 1s22s22p63s23p6
19 K 1s22s22p63s23p64s1
20 Ca 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
21 Sc 1s22s22p63s23p63d14s2
22 Ti 1s22s22p63s23p63d24s2
23 V 1s22s22p63s23p63d34s2
24 Cr 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1
25 Mn 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s2
26 Fe 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2
27 Co 1s22s22p63s23p63d74s2
28 Ni 1s22s22p63s23p63d84s2
29 Cu 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1
30 Zn 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2
31 Ga 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2 4p1
32 Ge 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2 4p2
33 As 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2 4p3
34 Se 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2 4p4
35 Br 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2 4p5
36 Kr 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2 4p6
Table 6 Electron configurations and spin diagrams for the first 30 elements
21
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1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Electron configuration of ions

An ion is an atom in which either:
› An orbital contains a maximum of two
electrons spinning in opposite directions.
› one or more electrons have been removed,
producing a positively charged ion, or
› The electron configuration of an atom specifies
the number of electrons in each shell and
› one or more electrons have been added, producing sub-shell.
a negatively charged ion.
Worked example
What is the electron configuration of the sodium ion,
1.8 IONISATION ENERGIES
Na+?
The energy required to remove an electron from an
The electron configuration of the sodium atom is atom in its gaseous state is called the ionisation
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1. energy. The energy required to remove the first
electron is called the first ionisation energy and
In Na+ the outermost electron, 3s1, has been removed.
can be written as:
This is the electron of highest energy in sodium, and
M(g) → M+(g) + e−
so takes the least energy to remove. The electron
configuration of Na+ is 1s2 2s2 2p6. Inner electron The energy required to remove the second electron
shells have the effect of shielding outermost electrons from an atom is called the second ionisation energy
from the positive charge of the nucleus. A full shell has and can be written as:
a strong shielding effect on a single outermost electron,
M+(g) → M2+(g) + e−
which is then easy to remove, as in the case of Na+.
Ionisation energy values for removing the second
and subsequent electrons are called successive
ionisation energies.
QUESTIONS The ionisation energy for one atom is so small that,

for convenience, ionisation energies are measured per
12. Explain the meaning of 2, p and 6 in 2p6. mole of atoms, in kJ mol−1.
13. Write the electron configuration for

each of:
a. Ca2+ QUESTIONS
b. Cl−
14. Write equations, using M, to show the
c. Al3+
third and fourth ionisation energies.
d. Br−
e. N3−
The first ionisation energy is the enthalpy change
(energy change) when one mole of gaseous atoms
forms one mole of gaseous ions with a single
positive charge.
KEY IDEAS
Ionisation energies have been calculated for all but a
few of the very heavy elements in the Periodic Table.
› Electrons in an atom are arranged in shells, Figure 20 shows the first ionisation energies for the
with the first shell closest to the nucleus and elements from hydrogen to caesium.
with least energy.
› Each shell consists of one or more sub-shells,
also called orbitals, of which there are four
types: s, p, d and f.
22
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1.9
Evidence for shells and sub-shells
2500 He
First ionisation energy/kJ mol –1
Ne
2000
F
Ar
1500 N Kr
Cl
H O Br Xe
P As
1000 Be C Zn
Mg S Fe Ni Se
Si Ca Ti Cr Ge
B Mn Co Cu
500 Al Sc V Ga
Li Na Sr
K Rb Cs
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Atomic number
Figure 20 First ionisation energies of the elements, from hydrogen to caesium
1.9 EVIDENCE FOR SHELLS AND Figure 21 shows how the first ionisation energies
decrease down Group 2. That means that the first
SUB-SHELLS electron becomes easier to remove. This is because:
Patterns in first ionisation energies provide evidence › the number of electron shells between the outer
for the existence of electron shells and sub-shells. electron and the nucleus is increasing; the electron
You can see this if you look at the first ionisation shells shield the outer electron from the attraction
energies down Group 2 and across Period 3. of the nucleus, and
Successive ionisation energies of an element provide › the radius of each atom is increasing as you go
further evidence. down Group 2; the distance between the outer
electron and the nucleus is increasing.
First ionisation energies of Group 2 elements
So, the outer electrons are easier to remove and the
Electron from sub-level: first ionisation energies decease. This is evidence for
900 the existence of electron shells.
2s
First ionisation energy/kJ mol –1
800
3s First ionisation energies of Period 3 elements
700 2200 Electron from sub-level:
2p
2000
First ionisation energy/kJ mol–1
600 4s
1800
5s
6s 1600 3p
500 1400
1200
3p
400 1000
3p 3p
800
300 600 3s 3p
Be Mg Ca Sr Ba
400 3s 3p
Group 2 elements 4s
200
Figure 21 First ionisation energies of Group 2 elements, from 0
beryllium to barium Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K
The Group 2 elements, beryllium to barium, are Period 3 elements (plus Ne and K)
reactive metals. They are also known as the alkaline Figure 22 First ionisation energies of Period 3 elements, from
earth metals because they react with water to sodium to argon
form an alkaline solution. The outer sub-shells of
these elements contain a pair of electrons in an s As you move across Period 3, each element has one
orbital. The first ionisation energy measures how more electron than the last. This electron fills the first
much energy is needed to remove one mole of these available empty orbital. The electron for sodium fills
electrons from a mole of atoms. the 3s orbital. The electrons in the first and second
23
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1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
shells shield the 3s electron from the positive charge › A fall in ionisation energy between magnesium
of the nucleus and it is relatively easy to remove. and aluminium as electrons start to fill a new
sub-shell, 3p. This is evidence that a new sub-shell
Magnesium has one more electron than sodium,
is being filled.
and this completes the 3s orbital and spins in the
opposite direction. Magnesium also has an extra › A fall in ionisation energy between phosphorus
proton, so the positive charge on the nucleus and sulfur as electrons start to pair up in the 3p
has increased. More energy is needed to remove sub-shells. This is evidence that electrons are
magnesium’s first electron. Magnesium’s first pairing up in sub-shells.
ionisation energy is higher than sodium’s.
The extra electron that aluminium has compared Successive ionisation energies
with magnesium is the first to fill a 3p orbital. Magnesium has the electron configuration 2,8,2. Its
p orbitals have higher energy than s orbitals. first three successive ionisation energies are:
Aluminium’s first electron is easier to remove than Mg(g) → Mg+(g) + e−
the 3s electron of magnesium. The first ionisation first ionisation energy = +738 kJ mol−1
energy drops.
Mg+(g) → Mg2+(g) + e−
The extra electron that silicon has compared with
second ionisation energy = +1451 kJ mol−1
aluminium, and that phosphorus has compared with
silicon, fill the remaining empty 3p orbitals. At the
Mg2+(g) → Mg3+(g) + e−
same time, the positive charge on the nucleus is
third ionisation energy = +7733 kJ mol−1
increasing and more energy is needed to remove these
electrons. The first ionisation energies increase from Figure 23 shows a graph of the log10 successive
aluminium to phosphorus. (ionisation energy) against the number of the electron
Sulfur’s first electron enters a 3p orbital already removed (ionisation number) for magnesium. We use
containing one electron. These spin in opposite log10 to make the numbers easier to handle.
directions and repel each other. It takes less energy to
remove the first electron from sulfur than to remove 6
the first electron from phosphorus. Its first ionisation
ionisation energy)
5
log10 (successive
energy is lower.
4
The electrons for chlorine and argon fill the remaining
3
3p orbitals. The positive charge on the nucleus
continues to increase and the first ionisation energy 2
increases as more energy is needed to remove an 1
electron. 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
The general trends for first ionisation energy are:
Ionisation number
› A sharp fall in ionisation energy between neon
and sodium and between argon and potassium Figure 23 The trend in the successive ionisation energies of
magnesium
as electrons enter a new shell. This is evidence
that the outer electron is on its own in a new shell
and is shielded from the charge on the nucleus by The first two electrons are removed from the third
electrons in the inner shells. or outer shell. The increase between the second and
third electron is because the third electron is taken
› An overall increase in the first ionisation energy from the second shell. The gradual increase from
across Period 3 as the positive charge on the the third to the tenth electron shows electrons being
nucleus increases and electrons are attracted removed from the second shell. The large increase
more strongly. between the tenth electron and eleventh electron is
› An increase in ionisation energy for each sub-shell because the eleventh electron is taken from the first
as the charge on the nucleus increases and shell.
electrons are attracted more strongly.
24
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1.9
Evidence for shells and sub-shells
QUESTIONS
Stretch and challenge Ionisation Ionisation energy/kJ mol−1
15. Use Table 7 (which gives the successive
1 738
ionisation energies for magnesium) to plot
a graph of successive ionisation energy 2 1451
divided by the charge on the remaining ion 3 7733
against the number of electrons removed. 4 10 543
16. Using your knowledge of shells and
5 13 630
sub-shells, explain the shape of the graph
you obtained. 6 18 020
17. These are the first five successive ionisation 7 21 711

energies for elements X, Y and Z: 8 25 661
X 578, 1817, 2745, 11578, 14831 9 31 653

Y 496, 4563, 6913, 9544, 13352 10 35 458
Z 738, 1451, 7733, 10541, 13629 11 169 988
12 189 368
In which group of the Periodic Table are these
elements found? Table 7 The successive ionisation energies of magnesium
ASSIGNMENT 4: WHY DO SCIENTISTS THINK ELECTRONS ARE ARRANGED IN

SHELLS AND SUB-SHELLS?
(MS 3.1, 3.2) A4. Why are there dips in the pattern at boron
and oxygen?
One piece of evidence for this theory came from
patterns from ionisation energy plots. These are the A5. Why is there an increase in the first
first ionisation energies for Period 2: ionisation energy between:
a. boron and nitrogen
Element Li Be B C N O F Ne
b. oxygen and neon?
First
ionisation A6. If there was a regular increase in the
520 899 801 1087 1402 1313 1681 2080 first ionisation energy across Period 2,
energy/kJ
mol−1 what might scientists conclude about the
existence of sub-shells?
Questions A7. What is the evidence for the existence of:
A1. Plot a graph of first ionisation energy a. electron shells
against atomic number, Z. b. electron sub-shells?
A2. Why is there an overall increase across A8. How does lithium’s first ionisation energy
Period 2 from lithium to neon? help to predict its reactivity?
A3. Why is the first ionisation energy of A9. How does neon’s first ionisation energy
beryllium higher than that of lithium? help to predict its stability and/or lack of
reactivity?
25
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1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
KEY IDEAS
› The first ionisation energies decrease down › There is an overall increase in the first ionisation
Group 2 because the outermost electrons are energy across a period because of the increasing
increasingly shielded from the attraction of nuclear charge.
the nucleus.
› The first ionisation energies provide evidence for
the existence of shells and sub-shells.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. The element rubidium exists as the isotopes than that of 87Rb. Calculate the relative
85Rb and 87Rb. atomic mass of rubidium in this sample.
a. State the number of protons and the Give your answer to one decimal place.
number of neutrons in an atom of the f. By reference to the relevant part of the
isotope 85Rb. mass spectrometer, explain how the
b. i. Explain how the gaseous atoms abundance of an isotope in a sample of
of rubidium are ionised in a rubidium is determined.
mass spectrometer. AQA June 2012 Unit 1 Question 1
ii. Write an equation, including state 2. The element nitrogen forms compounds with
symbols, to show the process that metals and non-metals.
occurs when the first ionisation energy
a. Nitrogen forms a nitride ion with the
of rubidium is measured.
electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6. Write
c. Table Q1 shows the first ionisation the formula of the nitride ion.
energies of rubidium and some other
b. An element forms an ion Q with a single
elements in the same group.
negative charge that has the same electron
Element Sodium Potassium Rubidium configuration as the nitride ion. Identify the
ion Q.
First ionisation
energy/kJ 494 418 402 c. Use the Periodic Table and your
mol−1 knowledge of electron arrangement to
write the formula of lithium nitride.
Table Q1 AQA Jan 2012 Unit 1 Question 5a, b
State one reason why the first ionisation 3. Mass spectrometry can be used to identify
energy of rubidium is lower than the first isotopes of elements.
ionisation energy of sodium.
a. i. In terms of fundamental particles, state
d. i. State the block of elements in the the difference between isotopes of
Periodic Table that contains rubidium. an element.
ii. Deduce the full electron configuration of ii. State why isotopes of an element have
a rubidium atom. the same chemical properties.
e. A sample of rubidium contains the b. Give the meaning of the term relative
isotopes 85Rb and 87Rb only. The isotope atomic mass.
85Rb has an abundance 2.5 times greater
(Continued)
26
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Practice questions
c. The mass spectrum of element X has d. State and explain the difference, if any,
four peaks. Table Q2 gives the relative between the chemical properties of the
abundance of each isotope in a sample of isotopes 113In and 115In.
element X. AQA Jan 2011 Unit 1 Question 2
m/z 64 66 67 68 5. a. Copy and complete Table Q3.
Relative
12 8 1 6 Relative mass Relative charge
abundance
Proton
Table Q2
i. Calculate the relative atomic mass of Electron

element X. Give your answer to one
Table Q3
decimal place.
ii. Use the Periodic Table to identify the b. An atom has twice as many protons and
species responsible for the peak at m/z twice as many neutrons as an atom of 19F.
= 64. Deduce the symbol, including the mass
number, of this atom.
d. Explain how the detector in a mass
spectrometer enables the abundance of c. The Al3+ ion and the Na+ ion have the
an isotope to be measured. same electron arrangement.
AQA June 2011 Unit 1 Question 1 i. Give the electron arrangement of these
ions in terms of s and p electrons.
4. Indium is in Group 3(13) in the Periodic Table
ii. Explain why more energy is needed to
and exists as a mixture of the isotopes 113In
remove an electron from the Al3+ ion
and 115In.
than from the Na+ ion.
a. Use your understanding of the
d. The first ionisation energies of a group
Periodic Table to complete the electron
of elements provides evidence for the
configuration of indium.
existence of electron shells.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 ______
i. Describe the trend in first ionisation
b. A sample of indium must be ionised before energies down Group 2.
it can be analysed in a mass spectrometer.
ii. Explain how the trend you have
i. State what is used to ionise a sample described in d.i. provides evidence for
of indium in a mass spectrometer. the existence of electron shells.
ii. Write an equation, including state e. First ionisation energies across a period
symbols, for the ionisation of indium provide evidence for the existence of
that requires the minimum energy. electrons in sub-shells.
iii. State why more than the minimum i. Describe the trend in first ionisation
energy is not used to ionise the sample energies in Period 3.
of indium.
ii. Explain how the trend you have
iv. Give two reasons why the sample of described in e.i. provides evidence for
indium must be ionised. the existence of electron sub-shells.
c. A mass spectrum of a sample of indium AQA January 2007 2 Unit 1 Question 1
showed two peaks at m/z = 113 and m/z
= 115. The relative atomic mass of this 6. a. Copy and complete Table Q4.
sample of indium is 114.5
Relative mass Relative charge
i. Give the meaning of the term relative
atomic mass. Proton
ii. Use these data to calculate the ratio Electron
of the relative abundances of the
two isotopes. Table Q4
(Continued)
27
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1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
b. An atom of element Q contains the same iv. Explain why it is difficult to distinguish
number of neutrons as are found in an between an 56Fe+ ion and a 112Cd2+
atom of 27Al. An atom of Q also contains ion in a mass spectrometer.
14 protons. b. i. Define the term relative atomic mass
i. Give the number of protons in an atom of an element.
of 27Al. ii. The relative abundances of the
ii. Deduce the symbol, including mass isotopes in this sample of iron are
number and atomic number, for this shown in Table Q6.
atom of element Q.
c. Define the term relative atomic mass of m/z 54 56 57
an element.
Relative
5.8 91.6 2.6
d. Table Q5 gives the relative abundance abundance
of each isotope in a mass spectrum of a
sample of magnesium. Table Q6
m/z 24 25 26 Calculate the relative atomic mass of iron

in this sample, using the data in Table Q6.
Relative Give your answer to one decimal place.
73.5 10.1 16.4
abundance
AQA June 2005 Unit 1 Question 1
Table Q5 8. a. Titanium is a d block element in Period 4.
Calculate the relative atomic mass of this i. State what is meant by a d block element.
sample of magnesium, using the data ii. Write the full electron configuration
in Table Q5. Give your answer to one for titanium in terms of s, p and
decimal place. d electrons.
e. State how the relative molecular mass of b. Titanium has five stable isotopes, with 48Ti
a covalent compound is obtained from its being the most abundant.
mass spectrum. i. State one difference and two similarities
AQA June 2004 Unit 1 Question 1 between the stable isotopes of titanium.
7. A sample of iron from a meteorite was found ii. Explain why stable isotopes of titanium
to contain the isotopes 54Fe, 56Fe and 57Fe. have the same chemical properties.
a. The relative abundances of these isotopes c. Mass spectroscopy can be used to
can be determined using a time-of-flight determine the relative abundance of
(TOF) mass spectrometer. In the mass titanium isotopes. Why is it difficult to
spectrometer, the sample is first vaporised distinguish between 48Ti2+ and 24Mg+
and then ionised. ions on a mass spectrum?
i. State what is meant by the term isotopes. Stretch and challenge
ii. Give an equation to show a gaseous
9. Scandium is a d block element and is used in
iron atom producing one electron and
alloys to make sporting equipment such as
an iron ion in the ionisation area.
golf clubs and fishing rods.
iii. State the two variables that determine
a. Give the electron configuration
the time taken for an ion to move
for scandium.
across the drift area.
(Continued)
28
90216_P004_029.indd 28 02/06/15 2:32 PM

Practice questions
b. When d block elements form ions, the s 11. How many neutrons are present in an atom
electrons are lost first, then d electrons. 27Al?
of 13
Most d block elements form ions with A. 13
more than one charge, but the scandium
B. 27
ions has a +3 charge in most of
its compounds. C. 14
i. Give the electron configuration for the D. 40

Sc3+ ion. 12. What is 0.00859 in standard form?
ii. Suggest why most d block elements A. 8.59 × 10−1
have ions with a +2 charge.
B. 8.59 × 10−2
c. Like scandium, zinc only forms one type of
C. 8.59 × 10−3
ion. It has a +2 charge. Give the electron
configuration for a Zn2+ ion. D. 8.59 × 10−4
d. Iron forms ions with a +2 charge and 13. What determines the flight time
with a +3 charge. Give the electron of ions in the drift region of a
configuration for the Fe3+ ion. time-of-flight spectrometer?
A. Mass only
Multiple choice
B. Charge only
10.Which element has an isotope with an atomic
C. m/z ratio
number of 35 and a mass number of 79?
D. The number of electrons removed by
A. Chlorine
electrospray ionisation only
B. Gold
C. Bromine
D. Selenium
29
90216_P004_029.indd 29 02/06/15 2:32 PM

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CHEMISTRY

206093_Che_Title page_.indd 2 5/21/15 3:05 AM

1 – Atomic structure 4 4 – The Periodic Table 89

2.3 The ideal gas equation 36 6.2 Cracking 132

2.5 Chemical equations 43 6.4 Problems with alkane combustion 138

2.6 Ionic equations 48 6.5 Reactions of alkanes with chlorine 141

2.7 Reactions in solutions 49

3 – Bonding 61 7.1 Exothermic and endothermic reactions 148

3.1 Ionic bonding 62 7.2 Enthalpy change 148

3.2 Covalent bonding 64 7.3 Standard enthalpy of combustion,

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8 – Kinetics 171 13 – Halogenoalkanes 263

10.1 Oxidation and reduction 210 16.2 Mass spectrometry 320

10.2 Oxidation states 211 16.3 Infrared spectroscopy 322

11 – Group 2, the alkaline Answers 334

12 – Group 7(17), the halogens 242

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USING THIS BOOK

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Chemistry is a practical subject. Whether in the

Use and application of scientific methods and

90216_P001_003.indd 1 02/06/15 1:26 PM

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› purify: REQUIRED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES

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negatively charged particles positively charged particles

anode gas at very low pressure perforated cathode

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1856–1937, Joseph John Thomson many electrons with

high voltage source glass tube

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screen emits a flash when

gold foil about

1888–1915, Henry Moseley and 1891–1974, James Chadwick

alpha particle source beryllium paraffin wax

alpha particles uncharged neutrons protons

charged particle detector

90216_P004_029.indd 7 02/06/15 2:31 PM

1. Aristotle’s theory of earth, fire, air and water c. the proton

Particle Mass/kg Charge/C Relative mass Relative charge

Proton 1.672 × 10−27 1.602 × 10−19 1 +1

Neutron 1.674 × 10−27 0 1 0

› All matter is composed of atoms. protons

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where x is the number of figures the decimal point Significant figures

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Remember: › The answer to a chemical calculation must not have

Table 3 Significant figures

ASSIGNMENT 1: SIZE, SCALE AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

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1.4 ATOMIC NUMBER, MASS NUMBER

Different elements have different numbers of Mass number

Mass number (A). The mass number of an element

shows the mass number and the atomic number:

mass number 12 This is also

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Name No. of No. of No. of Relative

Table 4 Isotopes of carbon