P + 12 + 59 = 147 giving P = 76

Q + 59 + 37 = 102 giving Q = 6

i) Those who did not vote

= 250 – (76 + 12 + 14 + 59 + 6 + 37)
= 250 – 204 = 46

ii) x = 76 + 12 + 14 = 102
y = 12 + 59 + 6 = 77
z = 37 + 14 + 6 = 57

iii) X won the election

BINOMIAL THEOREM

PROGRESSION

CHAPTER TWO

DATA COLLECTION AND PRESENTATION

Specific objectives
At the end of this topic the trainee should be able to:
❖ Discuss the basic consideration for data collection.
❖ Classify collected data into various categories.
❖ Tabulate collected data.
❖ Diagrammatically and graphically present data.

Introduction

28
 a) Statistics
Statistics viewed as a subject is a process of collecting, tabulating and
analyzing numerical data upon which significant conclusions are drawn.
Statistics may also be defined as numerical data, which has been, collected
from a given source and for a particular purpose e.g. population statistics
from the ministry of planning, Agricultural statistics from the ministry of
Agriculture
Statistics may also refer to the values, which have been obtained from
statistical calculations e.g. the mean, mode, range e.t.c.

b) Application of statistics
1. Quality Control
Usually there is a quality control departments in every industry which is
charged with the responsibility of ensuring that the products made do meet
the customers standards e.g. the Kenya bureau of standards (KeBS) is one of
the national institutions which on behalf of the government inspects the
various products to ensure that they do meet the customers specification.
The KeBS together with other control department have developed quality
control charts. They use these charts to check whether the products are up
to standards or not.

2. Statistics may be used in making or ordering economic order quantities

(EOQ).
It is important for a business manager to realize that it is an economic cost
if one orders a large quantity of items which have to be stored for too long
before they are sold. This is because the large stock holds a lot of capital
which could otherwise be used in buying other items for sale.
It is also important to realize that the longer the items are stored in the
stores the more will be the storage costs
On the other hand if one orders a few items for sale he will incur relatively
low storage expenses but may not be able to satisfy all the clients. These
may lose their customers if the goods are out of stock. Therefore it is
advisable to work out the EOQ which will be sufficient for the clients in a
certain period before delivery.
The EOQ will also ensure that minimal costs are incurred in terms of storage

3. Forecasting
Statistics is very important for business managers when predicting the
future of a business for example if a given business situation involves a
dependent and independent variables one can develop an equation which
can be used to predict the output under certain given conditions.

4. Human resource management

29
Statistics may be used in efficient use of human resources for example we
may give questionnaires to workers to find out where the management is
weak
By compiling the statistics of those who were signing it may be found useful
to analyze such data to establish the causes of resignation thus whether it
is due to frustration or by choice.

BASICS FOR DATA COLLECTION

Introduction
A statistical investigation involves a number of stages:
❖ Definition of the problem or issue;
❖ Collection of relevant data;
❖ Classification and analysis of the collected data;
❖ Presentation of the results.
Even before the collection of data starts, then, there are some important
points to consider when planning a statistical investigation.

Preliminary considerations.
It is important to be aware of these issues as they impact on the data which
is to be collected and analyzed.
❖ Exact definition of the problem
This is necessary in order to ensure that nothing important is omitted
from the enquiry, and effort is not wasted by collecting irrelevant
data. The problem as originally put to the statistician is often of a
very general type and it needs to be specified precisely before work
can begin.

❖ Definition of the units

The results must appear in comparable units for any analysis to be
valid. If the analysis is going to involve comparisons, then the data
must all be in the same units. It is no use just asking for ‘output’
from several factories – some may give their answers in numbers of
items, some in weigh of items, some in number of inspected batches
and so on.
❖ Scope of the enquiry.
No investigation should be got under way without defining the field
to be covered. Are we interested in all departments of our business,
or only some? Are we to concern ourselves with our own business
only, or with others of the same kind?

❖ Accuracy of the data

To what degree of accuracy is data to be recorded? For example, are
ages of individuals to be given to the nearest year or to the nearest
month or as the number of completed years? If some of the data is to
come from measurements, then the accuracy of the measuring

30
 instrument will determine the accuracy of the results. The degree of
precision required in an estimate might affect the amount of data we
need to collect. In general, the more precisely we wish to estimate a
value, the more readings we need to take.

Data sources and types

Data constitute the foundation of statistical analysis and interpretation.
Data can be obtained from three sources namely;
• Primary source
• Secondary source
• Internal records

Primary data
Primary data are measurement, observed and recorded as part of an
originals study. There are two basic methods of obtaining primary data
namely;
• Questionnaires
• Observation
• Interviews
• Sampling
Primary data is data which is both original and has been obtained in order
to solve the specific problem in hand. Primary data is, therefore, raw data
and has to be classified and processed using appropriate statistical methods
in order to reach a solution to the problem.

Secondary sources
Secondary data can be obtained from journals, reports, and government
publications, publications of research organization, trade and professional
bodies.
Secondary data must be used with utmost care, before using secondary data
the investigator should examine the following;
1. Whether the data are suitable for the purpose of investigation.
2. whether the data are adequate for the purpose of investigation
3. Whether the data are reliable.
Secondary data is any data other than primary data. Thus, it includes any
data which has been subject to the processes of classification or tabulation
or which has resulted from the application of statistical methods to primary
data, and all published statistics.

Internal data
Internal data refers to the measurement that are the by products of routine
businesses records keeping like accounting , finance, production personnel,
quality control , sales , R&D.
Since internal data originate within the business collecting the desired
information does not usually offer much difficult. The particular procedure

31
depends largely upon the nature of the facts being collected and the form
in which they exist.

Data collection methods and limitations

The methods usually available are as follows:
❖ Questionnaires
❖ Observation
❖ Interview
❖ Use of published statistics

a. Questionnaire
As the name suggest is distinguished by the fact that data are collected by
asking questions from people who are thought to have the desired
information.
A formal list of such questions is called a questionnaire
Questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to questions by using
a form which the respondent fills in it.
b. Observation
The investigator observes the object or action in which he is interested.
Sometime individual makes the observation on other occasions mechanical
device observe and record the desired information.
Observation method does not automatically produce accurate data. Physical
difficulties n the observation situation on the part of the observer may
result in errors.

Classification of Data
Classification is grouping of related facts into different classes. Facts in one
class differ from another class with respect to some characteristics called a
basis of classification.
Sorting facts on one basis of classification and then another basis is called
cross-classification

Rules of Classification
1. the number of classes should preferably be between 5 and 15
2. as far as possible one should avoid odd values of class intervals
3. the starting point i.e. the lower limit of the first class should either
be zero or 5 or multiple of 5
4. to ensure continuity and to get correct interval we should adopt
exclusive method of classification
5. Whenever possible all classes should be of the same size.

Types of classification

❖ Geographical
❖ Chronological

32
 ❖ Qualitative
❖ Quantitative

Geographical classification; in geographical classification data are classified

on the basis of geographical or location difference between the various
items.
Chronological classification; when data are observed over a period of time,
the type of classification is known as chronological classification.

Qualitative classification; in qualitative classification data re classified on

the basis of some attributes or quality such as sex, color of hair, literacy,
religion.

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS DATA COLLECTION LIMITATION OF STATISTICS.

Despite the usefulness of statistics in many fields, impression should not be
carried that statistics are like magical devices which always provide the
correct solution of problems . unless the data are properly collected and
critically interpreted there is every likelihood of drawing wrong
conclusion. Therefore it is necessary to know the limitation and the possible
misuse of statistics.
The following are the important limitation of the science of statistics:
- Statistics does not deal with isolated measurement.
- Statistics deals only with quantitative characteristic i.e quantitative
characteristic such as honesty , efficiency , intelligence, blindness
and deafness cannot be studied directly
- Statistics result are true only an average.
- Statistic is only a means not a end.
- Statistics can be misused.

Classification functions.
Classification of data is a function very similar to text of sorting letters in a
post office. It is well known that the letter collected in a post office are
sorted into different geographical basis i.e in accordance with their
destination as Nairobi , Mombasa , kampala etc .they are then put in
separate bags each containing letters with a common characteristic , or
having the same destination.
Classification of statistical data is comparable to the sorting operation, the
process of classification gives prominence to important information
gathered while dropping unnecessary details facilitates comparison and
enables a statistical treatment of the material collected.

Formation of frequency distribution.

Here we just count the number of times a particular value is repeated
which is called the frequency. In order to facilitate counting prepare a
column of ‘’tally’’ in another column all possible values of variables from

33
the lowest to the highest. Then put a bar( vertical line ) opposite the
particular value to which it relates.
To facilitate counting blocks of five bars are prepared and some space is
left in between each block.
We finally count the number of blocks and bars corresponding to each value
to each value of the variable and place it in the column and frequency.

Example .
Construct a frequency distribution from the following data.
23, 30,20,26,30,30,20,23,40,40,26,20,23,40,28,26,30,40,28,28,30.

class tally frequency

20 111 3
23 1111 4
26 111 3
28 111 3
30 1111 5
40 1111 4
total 22

Classification according to class interval.

The following technical terms are important when data are classified
according to class intervals:
(a) Class limit.these are the lowest and the highest values that can be
included in the class e.g take the class 20-40.the lowest value of this
class is 20 and the highest is 40.
The two boundaries of a class is the value below which there can be
no value in that class, while the upper limit of a class is the value
above which no value can belong to that class.
The class 70- 89 .70 is the lower limit and 80 is the upper limit i.e in
this class there can be no value which is less than 70 or more than
89.

(b) Classs interval .it is the span of a class i.e the difference between
the upper limit and the lower limit is known as class interval , for
example in the class 20-40 , the class interval is 20 (i.e 40 – 20) the
size of the class interval is dertemined by the number of classes and
the total range in the data.
(c) Class frequency . this is the number of observation corresponding to
the particular class.it is also known s the frequency of that class or
34
 the class frequency .if we add together the frequency of all
individual classes , we obtain the total frequency.
(d) Class mid – point.it is the value lying half way between the lower and
the upper class limit of a class interval.
Mid point of a class is ascertained as follows:

Mid point of a class = upper limit of the class + lower limit of the
class
2
There are two methods of classifying the data according to class
interval namely
- Exclusive method.
- Inclusive method.
(a) Exclusive method.
When the class interval are so fixed that the upper limit of one class is
the lower limit of the next class, it is known as the exclusive method of
classification .this can be illustrated as follow.

Class interval No of items

10-20 5
20-30 3
30-40 4
40-50 6
50-60 2
60-70 1

It is clear that the exclusive method ensures continuity of data in as much

as the upper limit of one class is the lower limit of the next class.
Whenever this method is used it is always assumed that the upper limit is
exclusive i.e the observation exactly equals to the upper limit is not
included in that class.

(b) Inclusive method.

Under this method the upper limit of one class is included in that class
itself.this can be illustrated as below:

Class interval frequency

1-10 2
11-20 5
21-30 4
31-40 10
41-50 15
51-60 30
35
61-70 12
71-80 3
81-90 2

Whenever inclusive method is used for equal class interval is obtained by

taking the difference between the two upper limit or lower limit.

DATA TABULATION.
- a table is a systematic arrangements of statistical data in column and
rows.
- Rows are horizontal arrangements whereas columns are vertical
ones.
- The purpose of a table is to simplify the presentation and to
facilitate comparisons.
- The simplication result from the clear cut and systematic
arrangements which enables the reader to quickly locate desired
information.

Parts of a table.
- The various parts of a table may vary from case to case depending
upon the given data, but a good table must contain atleast te
following parts:
(a) Table number
(b) Title of the table
(c) Caption
(d) Stub
(e) Body of the table
(f) Headnote
(g) Footnote

(a) table number.each table should be numbered.

(b) Title of the table.every table must have a suitable title.
(c) Caption.it referstothe column heading .it represent what the column
represent.
(d) Stub .are the designation of the rows or row heading .they are at
the extreme left and perform the same function for the horizontal
rows or numbers I the table as the ollumn heading do for the
horizontal rows or numbers in the table as the column haeding do for
the vertical column or numbers.
(e) Body of the table. It contains the numerical information .data
presented in the body arranged according to description are
classification of the captions and stubs.

36
 (f) Head note. It is a brief explanatory statement applying to all or a
major part of the material in the table and is placed below the tittle
entered and closed in brackets.
(g) Footnote .they are placed directly below the body of the table.

DIAGRAMATIC AND GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION .

Diagrams.
Rules for construction of diagrams.
- There must be the title of the diagram .
- Proper proportion between width and height should be maintained.
- The scale selected should be appropriate
- If necessary footnotes should be given at the bottom of the diagram.
- Diagram should be absolutely neat and clean
- An index illustration different types of lines or different shades ,
column , should be give so that the reader can easily make out the
meaning of the diagram.
- Diagram should be as simple as possible.

Types of diagrams.
- One dimensional diagram e.g bar diagram.
- Two dimensitional diagram e.g squares .
- Picto grams and cartograms.

One dimensional diagrams.

- Bar diagrams are the most common type of diagram used in practice
, a bar is a thick line whose width is shown merely for attention.
- They are called one dimensional because it is only the lengh of the
bar that matters and not the width.

Merits of bar diagrams.

- They are readily understood even by those unaccustomed to reading
charts or those who are not chart minded.
- They posses the outstanding advantage that they are the simplest
and the easiest to make.
- When a large number of observation are to be compared they are the
only form that can be used effectively..

Points to mind when constructing bar diagrams.

- The width of the bars should be uniform throughout the diagram.
- The gap between one bar and another should be uniform throughout.

37
 - Bars may either horizontal or vertical .the vertical bars should be
preferred because they give a better look an also facilitate
comparison.
- While constructing the bar diagram it is desirable to write the
respective figure at the end of each bar so that the reader can know
the precise value without looking at the scale.

Types of bar diagrams.

(a) Simple bar charts.
(b) Sub divided or component bar charts.
(c) Multiple bar charts
(d) Percentage component barcharts.

(a) Simple bar charts.

It is used to represent only one variable i.e show s only totals.
However an important limitation of such diagrams is that they can prefer
only one classification or one category of data e.g for example while
presenting the population for the last five decade , one can only depict the
total population in the simple bar diagram and not its sex- wise
distribution.

(b) Component bar charts.

These diagrams are used to represent various parts of the total , while
constructing such charts, th various components in each bar should be kept
in the same order.
A common and helpful arrangement is that of presenting each bar in the
order of magnitude from the largest component at the base of the bar to
the smallest at the end.
To distinguish between the different component , it is useful to use
different shade or colours.
They usually show component totals and the totals.

(c) multiple bar charts

in multiple bar chart two or more set of interrelated data are represented
.the technigue of drawing such a diagram is the same as that of simple bar
charts.
The only difference is that since more than one phenomenon is represented
,different shades , colours .,dots or crossing are used to distinguish
between the bars.they normally show the component totals only.

(d) Percentage component bar charts.

They are particularly useful in statistical work which require the portrayal
of relative changes in data.

38
When such diagrams are prepared , the length of the bars is kept equal to
100 and segment are cut in these bars to represent the component of an
aggregate.

Illustration.
Using the data below , construct the following charts.
(a) Simple bar chart.
(b) Component bar chart.
(c) Multiple bar charts.
(d) Percentage component bar chart.

Shows the sales of Xyz Ltd.

year biscuits bread cake total

1995 200 150 300 650
1996 150 200 250 600
1997 250 250 300 700
1998 300 300 200 750
1999 100 200 100 400
2000 200 150 50 400

Solution
(a) Component chart

39
b) simple chart

40
 TWO DIMENSITIONAL DIAGRAMS.
As distinguished from one dimensional diagram in which only the length
of the bars is taken into account in two dimension diagram, the length
as well as the width of the bars is considered.
Thus the area of the bar represents the given data. Two dimensional
diagrams are also known as surface diagrams example of this are-
- Rectangles
- Squares
- Circles

Pie chart or diagram

This type of diagram enables as to show the partitioning of a total into
component parts.
In constructing a pie chart , the steps involved are:
- Prepare the data so that the various components values are in
percentage by applying

% component = x x 360
Total

- Draw a circle of appropriate size with a compass.

- Measure points on the circle representing the size of each component
with the help of a protractor.

41
 Pie chart of the above.

Quantitative classification; it refers to the classification of data according

to some characteristics that can be measured such as height, weight,
income, sales.

Tabulation of Data
One of the simplest and most revealing devices of summarizing data and
presenting them in meaningful fashion is the statistical tables.

Types of tabulation
Tabulation may be classified as:
1. simple tabulation
2. complex or matrix tabulation

Simple tabulation only one characteristic is shown hence this type of table
is also known as one –path table. This can be illustrated as follows:

42
Table1: Distribution of workers by workshop

Workshop Number Of Employees

A 600
B 360
C 660
D 840
E 540
Total 3,000
N/B: simple tabulation does not tell us very much – although it may be
enough for the question of the moment.

Complex tabulation has two or more characteristics are shown i.e. two or
more aspects of a problem are dealt with at the same time. It is some times
called two path tables. Such tables show two characteristics and are
formed when either the stub or the caption is divided into two coordinate
parts.

Age (in years) Employees total

Males females
Bellow 25 32 18 50
25-35 40 27 67
35-45 25 18 43
45-55 10 5 15
55 and above 5 - 5
Total 112 68 180

Presentation of data
After the data has been collected the next step is to present them in a
suitable form.

Charting data

One of the most convincing and appealing ways in which data may be
presented is through charts
A chart can take the shape of either a diagram or a graph.

Types of diagrams
❖ One dimensional diagram e.g. bar graphs
❖ Two dimensional diagram e.g. rectangles squares
❖ Pictograms and cartograms (circles)

43
One dimensional diagram
Bar diagrams is the most common type of diagram used in practice.

Merits of bar diagrams

❖ They’re readily understood
❖ They are simplest and easiest to make
❖ They are effective if the large number of observation is to be
compared.
Example

Two dimensional diagrams

As distinguished from one dimensional diagrams in which only the length of
the bar is taken into account in two dimensional diagram the length as well
as the width of the bars is considered. Thus the area of the bar represents
the given data.

Pictograms
Also known as picture grams are very popularly used in presenting situation
data. They are no abstract presentation such as lines or bars
When pictograms are used data are represented through a pictorial symbol
that is carefully selected.
Illustration
The following table gives the production of tea in India by a leading
company.

Year Production ( million kgs)

2004 421
2005 561
2006 587
2007 645
2008 660

Solution for representing the above data by a pictogram we will use the
symbol of a star

Pictogram
Year Production of tea
2004 ◊◊◊◊
2005 ◊◊◊◊◊◊
2006 ◊◊◊◊◊◊
2007 ◊◊◊◊◊◊◊

44
2008 ◊◊◊◊◊◊◊

Merits of diagrams
❖ Pictograms have a greater attraction thus stimulate interest in the
information being presented
❖ Facts portrayed in pictorial form are generally remembered longer.
Limitations
❖ They are difficult to construct

Graphs
A large variety of graphs are used in practice. Graphs can be divided under
the following headings
❖ Time series.
❖ Z- Charts.
❖ Scatter graphs
❖ Semi- logarithmic graphs
❖ Graphs of frequency distribution

Graphs of time series

When we observe the values of a variable or different point of time the
series forms is known as time series. The technique of graphic presentation
is extremely helpful in analyzing change at different point of time.
Graphs of time series can be constructed either on a natural scale or on a
ratio scale.

Graphs of one variable

When one variable is to be represented on x-axis measure time and ion y-
axis in that various points are plotted and joined by one straight line, the
fluctuation of this line show the variation in the variable
Illustration
Represent the following data by suitable graph
Year Imports(in million tones)
2003-04 1.5
2004-05 2.5
2005-06 2.0
2006-07 2.7
Solution
Draw a graph
Graphs of frequency distribution
A frequency distribution can be presented graphically in any of the
following ways;
Histogram
Frequency polygon
Smoothes frequency curve
Cumulative frequency curve

45
Histogram
Histograms are a set of vertical bars whose areas are proportional to the
frequencies represent3ed. Histogram is most widely used for graphical
presentation of a frequency distribution.
Illustration
Represent the following data by a histogram
Marks number of students
0-10 8
10-20 12
20-30 22
30-40 35
40-50 40
Solution
Draw a histogram
Frequency polygon
A frequency polygon is a graph of frequency distribution it has more than
four sides
It is particularly effective I comparing two or more frequency distribution.
Illustration
The daily profits (in thousand rupees) of 100 shops are distributed as
follows
Daily profit No of shops
0-50 12
50-100 18
100-150 21
150-200 20
200-250 17

Solution
The frequency polygon of the above data are shown bellow
Draw graph
Smoothed frequency curve
The following points should be kept in mind while smoothing a frequency
graph.
Only frequency distribution based on sample should be smoothed
Only continuous series should be smoothed
The total area under the curve should be equal to the area under the
original histogram or polygon.
Illustration
Draw a histogram frequency polygon and frequency curve representing the
following information

46
Length of service (in years) Number of employees
5-10 5
10-15 12
15-20 25
20-25 48
25-30 32
30-35 6
1
Histogram frequency polygon and curve
Draw
Cumulative frequency curve / ogives
Sometimes one needs to know the answers to questions like how May
workers of a factory earn more the Rs 1500 per month
There are two methods of constructing a cumulative frequency curve
namely;
The less than method
The more than method
Less than method; in the less than method we start with the upper limit of
the classes and go on adding the frequencies. When these frequencies are
plotted we get a rising curve.
More than method; in the more than method, we start with the upper limits
of the classes and from the total frequencies we subtract the frequency of
each class. When the frequencies are plotted we get a declining curve.
given by less than method
Yearly profit(Rs) Frequency
Less than850 21
Less than 900 50
Less than 950 69
Less than 1000 108
Less than1050 151
Less than 1100 245
Less than 1150 318
Less than 1200 422
Less than 1250 467
Less than 1300 494
Less than 1350 542
Less than 1400 563
Less than 1450 575
Less than 1500 580

Ogive by more than method

47
Yearly Rs Frequency
More than 800 580
More than 850 559
More than 900 530
More than 950 511
More than 1000 472
More than 1050 429
More than 1100 335
More than 1150 262
More than 1200 194
More than 1250 158
More than 1300 113
More than 1350 86
More than 1400 38
More than 1450 17
More than 1500 5

Less than and more than ogive and median

Draw
Limitation of charts
• They can present only approximate values
• They can appropriately represent only limited amount of information
• They are intended mostly to explain quantitative facts to the general
public.
• They can be easily misinterpreted

48