Specific impulse

Specific impulse (usually abbreviated Isp) is a measure of how efficiently a reaction mass engine (a rocket
using propellant or a jet engine using fuel) creates thrust. For engines whose reaction mass is only the fuel they
carry, specific impulse is exactly proportional to the effective exhaust gas velocity.

A propulsion system with a higher specific impulse uses the mass of the propellant more efficiently. In the case
of a rocket, this means less propellant needed for a given delta-v,[1][2] so that the vehicle attached to the engine
can more efficiently gain altitude and velocity.

In an atmospheric context, specific impulse can include the contribution to impulse provided by the mass of
external air that is accelerated by the engine in some way, such as by an internal turbofan or heating by fuel
combustion participation then thrust expansion or by external propeller. Jet engines breathe external air for both
combustion and by-pass, and therefore have a much higher specific impulse than rocket engines. The specific
impulse in terms of propellant mass spent has units of distance per time, which is a notional velocity called the
effective exhaust velocity. This is higher than the actual exhaust velocity because the mass of the combustion
air is not being accounted for. Actual and effective exhaust velocity are the same in rocket engines operating in
a vacuum.

Specific impulse is inversely proportional to specific fuel consumption (SFC) by the relationship
Isp = 1/(go·SFC) for SFC in kg/(N·s) and Isp = 3600/SFC for SFC in lb/(lbf·hr).

Contents
General considerations
Units
Specific impulse in seconds
Rocketry
Specific impulse as effective exhaust velocity
Actual exhaust speed versus effective exhaust speed
Examples
See also
Notes
References
External links

General considerations
The amount of propellant can be measured either in units of mass or weight. If mass is used, specific impulse is
an impulse per unit of mass, which dimensional analysis shows to have units of speed, specifically the
effective exhaust velocity. As the SI system is mass-based, this type of analysis is usually done in meters per
second. If a force-based unit system is used, impulse is divided by propellant weight (weight is a measure of
force), resulting in units of time (seconds). These two formulations differ from each other by the standard
gravitational acceleration (g0 ) at the surface of the earth.
The rate of change of momentum of a rocket (including its propellant) per unit time is equal to the thrust. The
higher the specific impulse, the less propellant is needed to produce a given thrust for a given time and the
more efficient the propellant is. This should not be confused with the physics concept of energy efficiency,
which can decrease as specific impulse increases, since propulsion systems that give high specific impulse
require high energy to do so.[3]

Thrust and specific impulse should not be confused. Thrust is the force supplied by the engine and depends on
the amount of reaction mass flowing through the engine. Specific impulse measures the impulse produced per
unit of propellant and is proportional to the exhaust velocity. Thrust and specific impulse are related by the
design and propellants of the engine in question, but this relationship is tenuous. For example, LH2 /LO2
bipropellant produces higher Isp but lower thrust than RP-1/LO2 due to the exhaust gases having a lower
density and higher velocity (H2 O vs CO2 and H2 O). In many cases, propulsion systems with very high
specific impulse—some ion thrusters reach 10,000 seconds—produce low thrust.[4]

When calculating specific impulse, only propellant carried with the vehicle before use is counted. For a
chemical rocket, the propellant mass therefore would include both fuel and oxidizer. In rocketry, a heavier
engine with a higher specific impulse may not be as effective in gaining altitude, distance, or velocity as a
lighter engine with a lower specific impulse, especially if the latter engine possesses a higher thrust-to-weight
ratio. This is a significant reason for most rocket designs having multiple stages. The first stage is optimised for
high thrust to boost the later stages with higher specific impulse into higher altitudes where they can perform
more efficiently.

For air-breathing engines, only the mass of the fuel is counted, not the mass of air passing through the engine.
Air resistance and the engine's inability to keep a high specific impulse at a fast burn rate are why all the
propellant is not used as fast as possible.

If it were not for air resistance and the reduction of propellant during flight, specific impulse would be a direct
measure of the engine's effectiveness in converting propellant weight or mass into forward momentum.

Units
Various equivalent rocket motor performance measurements, in SI and English engineering units
Specific impulse Effective
Specific fuel
By weight By mass exhaust velocity consumption

SI =xs = 9.80665·x N·s/kg = 9.80665·x m/s = 101,972/x g/(kN·s)

English engineering units =xs = x lbf·s/lb = 32.17405·x ft/s = 3,600/x lb/(lbf·hr)

The most common unit for specific impulse is the second, as values are identical regardless of whether the
calculations are done in SI, imperial, or customary units. Nearly all manufacturers quote their engine
performance in seconds, and the unit is also useful for specifying aircraft engine performance.[5]

The use of metres per second to specify effective exhaust velocity is also reasonably common. The unit is
intuitive when describing rocket engines, although the effective exhaust speed of the engines may be
significantly different from the actual exhaust speed, especially in gas-generator cycle engines. For airbreathing
jet engines, the effective exhaust velocity is not physically meaningful, although it can be used for comparison
purposes.[6]

Meters per second are numerically equivalent to newton-seconds per kg (N·s/kg), and SI measurements of
specific impulse can be written in terms of either units interchangeably. This unit highlights the definition of
specific impulse as impulse-per-unit-mass-of-propellant.
Specific fuel consumption is inversely proportional to specific impulse and has units of g/(kN·s) or lb/(lbf·hr).
Specific fuel consumption is used extensively for describing the performance of air-breathing jet engines.[7]

Specific impulse in seconds

Specific impulse, measured in seconds, effectively means how many seconds this propellant, when paired with
this engine, can accelerate its own initial mass at 1  g. The more seconds it can accelerate its own mass, the
more delta-V it delivers to the whole system.

In other words, given a particular engine and a mass of a particular propellant, specific impulse measures for
how long a time that engine can exert a continuous force (thrust) until fully burning that mass of propellant. A
given mass of a more energy-dense propellant can burn for a longer duration than some less energy-dense
propellant made to exert the same force while burning in an engine. Different engine designs burning the same
propellant may not be equally efficient at directing their propellant's energy into effective thrust.

For all vehicles, specific impulse (impulse per unit weight-on-Earth of propellant) in seconds can be defined by
the following equation:[8]

where:

is the thrust obtained from the engine (newtons or pounds force),

is the standard gravity, which is nominally the gravity at Earth's surface (m/s2 or ft/s2),
is the specific impulse measured (seconds),
is the mass flow rate of the expended propellant (kg/s or slugs/s)

The English unit pound mass is more commonly used than the slug, and when using pounds per second for
mass flow rate, the conversion constant g0 becomes unnecessary, because the slug is dimensionally equivalent
to pounds divided by g0 :

Isp in seconds is the amount of time a rocket engine can generate thrust, given a quantity of propellant whose
weight is equal to the engine's thrust. The last term on the right, , is necessary for dimensional
consistency ( )

The advantage of this formulation is that it may be used for rockets, where all the reaction mass is carried on
board, as well as airplanes, where most of the reaction mass is taken from the atmosphere. In addition, it gives
a result that is independent of units used (provided the unit of time used is the second).
The specific impulse of various jet engines (SSME is the Space Shuttle Main Engine)

Rocketry

In rocketry, the only reaction mass is the propellant, so an equivalent way of calculating the specific impulse in
seconds is used. Specific impulse is defined as the thrust integrated over time per unit weight-on-Earth of the
propellant:[9]

where

is the specific impulse measured in seconds,

is the average exhaust speed along the axis of the engine (in m/s or ft/s),
is the standard gravity (in m/s2 or ft/s2).

In rockets, due to atmospheric effects, the specific impulse varies with altitude, reaching a maximum in a
vacuum. This is because the exhaust velocity isn't simply a function of the chamber pressure, but is a function
of the difference between the interior and exterior of the combustion chamber. Values are usually given for
operation at sea level ("sl") or in a vacuum ("vac").

Specific impulse as effective exhaust velocity

Because of the geocentric factor of g0 in the equation for specific impulse, many prefer an alternative
definition. The specific impulse of a rocket can be defined in terms of thrust per unit mass flow of propellant.
This is an equally valid (and in some ways somewhat simpler) way of defining the effectiveness of a rocket
propellant. For a rocket, the specific impulse defined in this way is simply the effective exhaust velocity
relative to the rocket, ve. "In actual rocket nozzles, the exhaust velocity is not really uniform over the entire exit
cross section and such velocity profiles are difficult to measure accurately. A uniform axial velocity, v e, is
assumed for all calculations which employ one-dimensional problem descriptions. This effective exhaust
velocity represents an average or mass equivalent velocity at which propellant is being ejected from the rocket
vehicle."[10] The two definitions of specific impulse are proportional to one another, and related to each other
by:

where

is the specific impulse in seconds,

is the specific impulse measured in m/s, which is the same as the effective exhaust velocity
measured in m/s (or ft/s if g is in ft/s2),
is the standard gravity, 9.80665 m/s2 (in Imperial units 32.174 ft/s2).

This equation is also valid for air-breathing jet engines, but is rarely used in practice.

(Note that different symbols are sometimes used; for example, c is also sometimes seen for exhaust velocity.
While the symbol might logically be used for specific impulse in units of (N·s3 )/(m·kg); to avoid confusion,
it is desirable to reserve this for specific impulse measured in seconds.)

It is related to the thrust, or forward force on the rocket by the equation:[11]

where is the propellant mass flow rate, which is the rate of decrease of the vehicle's mass.

A rocket must carry all its propellant with it, so the mass of the unburned propellant must be accelerated along
with the rocket itself. Minimizing the mass of propellant required to achieve a given change in velocity is
crucial to building effective rockets. The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation shows that for a rocket with a given
empty mass and a given amount of propellant, the total change in velocity it can accomplish is proportional to
the effective exhaust velocity.

A spacecraft without propulsion follows an orbit determined by its trajectory and any gravitational field.
Deviations from the corresponding velocity pattern (these are called Δv) are achieved by sending exhaust mass
in the direction opposite to that of the desired velocity change.

Actual exhaust speed versus effective exhaust speed

When an engine is run within the atmosphere, the exhaust velocity is reduced by atmospheric pressure, in turn
reducing specific impulse. This is a reduction in the effective exhaust velocity, versus the actual exhaust
velocity achieved in vacuum conditions. In the case of gas-generator cycle rocket engines, more than one
exhaust gas stream is present as turbopump exhaust gas exits through a separate nozzle. Calculating the
effective exhaust velocity requires averaging the two mass flows as well as accounting for any atmospheric
pressure.
For air-breathing jet engines, particularly turbofans, the actual exhaust velocity and the effective exhaust
velocity are different by orders of magnitude. This is because a good deal of additional momentum is obtained
by using air as reaction mass. This allows a better match between the airspeed and the exhaust speed, which
saves energy/propellant and enormously increases the effective exhaust velocity while reducing the actual
exhaust velocity.

Examples
Rocket engines in vacuum

First
TSFC SI EEV
Model Type Application
run lb/lbf·h g/kN·s (s) (m/s)

Avio P80 solid fuel 2006 Vega stage 1 13 360 280 2700
Avio Zefiro 23 solid fuel 2006 Vega stage 2 12.52 354.7 287.5 2819
Avio Zefiro 9A solid fuel 2008 Vega stage 3 12.20 345.4 295.2 2895
RD-843 liquid fuel Vega upper stage 11.41 323.2 315.5 3094

Kouznetsov NK-33 liquid fuel 1970s N-1F, Soyuz-2-1v stage 1 10.9 308 331[12] 3250

NPO Energomash RD- Zenit-2M, -3SL, -3SLB, -3F

liquid fuel 10.7 303 337 3300
171M stage 1
LE-7A liquid fuel H-IIA, H-IIB stage 1 8.22 233 438 4300
Ariane 2, 3, 4, 5 ECA upper
Snecma HM-7B cryogenic 8.097 229.4 444.6 4360
stage
LE-5B-2 cryogenic H-IIA, H-IIB upper stage 8.05 228 447 4380
Aerojet Rocketdyne RS-
cryogenic 1981 Space Shuttle, SLS stage 1 7.95 225 453[13] 4440
25
Aerojet Rocketdyne RL- Delta III, Delta IV, SLS upper
cryogenic 7.734 219.1 465.5 4565
10B-2 stage
NERVA NRX A6 nuclear 1967 869
 Jet engines with Reheat, static, sea level

First
TSFC SI EEV
Model Type Application
run lb/lbf·h g/kN·s (s) (m/s)

Turbo-Union RB.199 turbofan Tornado 2.5[14] 70.8 1440 14120

GE F101-GE-102 turbofan 1970s B-1B 2.46 70 1460 14400

Tumansky R-25-300 turbojet MIG-21bis 2.206[14] 62.5 1632 16000

GE J85-GE-21 turbojet F-5E/F 2.13[14] 60.3 1690 16570

GE F110-GE-132 turbofan F-16E/F 2.09[14] 59.2 1722 16890

Honeywell/ITEC
turbofan F-CK-1 2.06[14] 58.4 1748 17140
F125

Snecma M53-P2 turbofan Mirage 2000C/D/N 2.05[14] 58.1 1756 17220

Snecma Atar 09C turbojet Mirage III 2.03[14] 57.5 1770 17400

Snecma Atar 09K-50 turbojet Mirage IV, 50, F1 1.991[14] 56.4 1808 17730

F-4E/EJ/F/G, RF-
GE J79-GE-15 turbojet 1.965 55.7 1832 17970
4E

Saturn AL-31F turbofan Su-27/P/K 1.96[15] 55.5 1837 18010

GE F110-GE-129 turbofan F-16C/D, F-15EX 1.9[14] 53.8 1895 18580

Soloviev D-30F6 turbofan MiG-31, S-37/Su-47 1.863[14] 52.8 1932 18950

Lyulka AL-21F-3 turbojet Su-17, Su-22 1.86[14] 52.7 1935 18980

Klimov RD-33 turbofan 1974 MiG-29 1.85 52.4 1946 19080

Saturn AL-41F-1S turbofan Su-35S/T-10BM 1.819 51.5 1979 19410

Volvo RM12 turbofan 1978 Gripen A/B/C/D 1.78[14] 50.4 2022 19830

GE F404-GE-402 turbofan F/A-18C/D 1.74[14] 49 2070 20300

Kuznetsov NK-32 turbofan 1980 Tu-144LL, Tu-160 1.7 48 2100 21000

Snecma M88-2 turbofan 1989 Rafale 1.663 47.11 2165 21230

1.66– 47– 2080– 20400–

Eurojet EJ200 turbofan 1991 Eurofighter
1.73 49[16] 2170 21300
 Dry jet engines, static, sea level

First
TSFC SI
EEV
Model Type Application
run lb/lbf·h g/kN·s (s) (m/s)

GE J85-GE-21 turbojet F-5E/F 1.24[14] 35.1 2900 28500

Snecma Atar
turbojet Mirage III 1.01[14] 28.6 3560 35000
09C
Snecma Atar
turbojet Mirage IV, 50, F1 0.981[14] 27.8 3670 36000
09K-50
Snecma Atar
turbojet Super Étendard 0.971[14] 27.5 3710 36400
08K-50
Tumansky R-25-
turbojet MIG-21bis 0.961[14] 27.2 3750 36700
300
Lyulka AL-21F-3 turbojet Su-17, Su-22 0.86 24.4 4190 41100
GE J79-GE-15 turbojet F-4E/EJ/F/G, RF-4E 0.85 24.1 4240 41500

Snecma M53-P2 turbofan Mirage 2000C/D/N 0.85[14] 24.1 4240 41500

Volvo RM12 turbofan 1978 Gripen A/B/C/D 0.824[14] 23.3 4370 42800

RR Turbomeca
turbofan 1999 Jaguar retrofit 0.81 23 4400 44000
Adour
Honeywell/ITEC
turbofan 1979 L-159, X-45 0.81[14] 22.9 4440 43600
F124
Honeywell/ITEC
turbofan F-CK-1 0.8[14] 22.7 4500 44100
F125
PW J52-P-408 turbojet A-4M/N, TA-4KU, EA-6B 0.79 22.4 4560 44700
Saturn AL-41F-
turbofan Su-35S/T-10BM 0.79 22.4 4560 44700
1S
Snecma M88-2 turbofan 1989 Rafale 0.782 22.14 4600 45100
Klimov RD-33 turbofan 1974 MiG-29 0.77 21.8 4680 45800
RR Pegasus 11-
turbofan AV-8B+ 0.76 21.5 4740 46500
61
21– 4400– 44000–
Eurojet EJ200 turbofan 1991 Eurofighter 0.74–0.81
23[16] 4900 48000

GE F414-GE-
turbofan 1993 F/A-18E/F 0.724[17] 20.5 4970 48800
400
Kuznetsov NK- 4900– 48000–
turbofan 1980 Tu-144LL, Tu-160 0.72-0.73 20–21
32 5000 49000

Soloviev D-30F6 turbofan MiG-31, S-37/Su-47 0.716[14] 20.3 5030 49300

Snecma Larzac turbofan 1972 Alpha Jet 0.716 20.3 5030 49300
IHI F3 turbofan 1981 Kawasaki T-4 0.7 19.8 5140 50400
0.666- 18.9– 4620– 45300–
Saturn AL-31F turbofan Su-27 /P/K
0.78[15][17] 22.1 5410 53000

RR Spey
turbofan AMX 0.66[14] 18.7 5450 53500
RB.168
GE F110-GE-
turbofan F-16C/D, F-15 0.64[17] 18 5600 55000
129
GE F110-GE-
turbofan F-16E/F 0.64[17] 18 5600 55000
132
Turbo-Union turbofan Tornado ECR 0.637[14] 18.0 5650 55400
RB.199
PW F119-PW-
turbofan 1992 F-22 0.61[17] 17.3 5900 57900
100
Turbo-Union
turbofan Tornado 0.598[14] 16.9 6020 59000
RB.199
GE F101-GE-
turbofan 1970s B-1B 0.562 15.9 6410 62800
102

PW TF33-P-3 turbofan B-52H, NB-52H 0.52[14] 14.7 6920 67900

RR AE 3007H turbofan RQ-4, MQ-4C 0.39[14] 11.0 9200 91000

GE F118-GE-
turbofan 1980s B-2 0.375[14] 10.6 9600 94000
100
GE F118-GE-
turbofan 1980s U-2S 0.375[14] 10.6 9600 94000
101

CFM CF6-50C2 turbofan A300, DC-10-30 0.371[14] 10.5 9700 95000

GE TF34-GE-
turbofan A-10 0.37[14] 10.5 9700 95000
100
CFM CFM56-
turbofan C-135, RC-135 0.36[18] 10 10000 98000
2B1
Progress D-18T turbofan 1980 An-124, An-225 0.345 9.8 10400 102000
PW F117-PW-
turbofan C-17 0.34[19] 9.6 10600 104000
100

PW PW2040 turbofan Boeing 757 0.33[19] 9.3 10900 107000

CFM CFM56-
turbofan 737 Classic 0.33 9.3 11000 110000
3C1
744, 767, MD-11, 8.7– 10500– 103000–
GE CF6-80C2 turbofan 0.307-0.344
A300/310, C-5M 9.7 11700 115000

EA GP7270 turbofan A380-861 0.299[17] 8.5 12000 118000

GE GE90-85B turbofan 777-200/200ER/300 0.298[17] 8.44 12080 118500

GE GE90-94B turbofan 777-200/200ER/300 0.2974[17] 8.42 12100 118700

RR Trent 970-84 turbofan 2003 A380-841 0.295[17] 8.36 12200 119700

GE GEnx-1B70 turbofan 787-8 0.2845[17] 8.06 12650 124100

RR Trent 1000C turbofan 2006 787-9 0.273[17] 7.7 13200 129000

 jet engines, cruise

First TSFC SI EEV

Model Type Application
run lb/lbf·h g/kN·s (s) (m/s)

Ramjet Mach 1 4.5 130 800 7800

SR-71 at Mach 3.2
J-58 turbojet 1958 1.9[14] 53.8 1895 18580
(Reheat)
RR/Snecma
turbojet 1966 Concorde at Mach 2 1.195[20] 33.8 3010 29500
Olympus

PW JT8D-9 turbofan 737 Original 0.8[21] 22.7 4500 44100

Honeywell
GTF BAe 146 0.72[19] 20.4 5000 49000
ALF502R-5
Soloviev D-30KP-2 turbofan Il-76, Il-78 0.715 20.3 5030 49400
Soloviev D-30KU-
turbofan Tu-154M 0.705 20.0 5110 50100
154
RR Tay RB.183 turbofan 1984 Fokker 70, Fokker 100 0.69 19.5 5220 51200
GE CF34-3 turbofan 1982 Challenger, CRJ100/200 0.69 19.5 5220 51200
GE CF34-8E turbofan E170/175 0.68 19.3 5290 51900
Honeywell TFE731-
GTF Falcon 900 0.679[22] 19.2 5300 52000
60

CFM CFM56-2C1 turbofan DC-8 Super 70 0.671[19] 19.0 5370 52600

5300– 52000–
GE CF34-8C turbofan CRJ700/900/1000 0.67-0.68 19
5400 53000
CFM CFM56-3C1 turbofan 737 Classic 0.667 18.9 5400 52900

CFM CFM56-2A2 turbofan 1974 E-3, E-6 0.66[18] 18.7 5450 53500

RR BR725 turbofan 2008 G650/ER 0.657 18.6 5480 53700

CFM CFM56-2B1 turbofan C-135, RC-135 0.65[18] 18.4 5540 54300

GE CF34-10A turbofan ARJ21 0.65 18.4 5540 54300

CFE CFE738-1-1B turbofan 1990 Falcon 2000 0.645[19] 18.3 5580 54700

G. V/G550, Global
RR BR710 turbofan 1995 0.64 18 5600 55000
Express
GE CF34-10E turbofan E190/195 0.64 18 5600 55000
A300B2/B4/C4/F4, DC-
CFM CF6-50C2 turbofan 0.63[19] 17.8 5710 56000
10-30
PowerJet SaM146 turbofan Superjet LR 0.629 17.8 5720 56100

CFM CFM56-7B24 turbofan 737 NG 0.627[19] 17.8 5740 56300

RR BR715 turbofan 1997 717 0.62 17.6 5810 56900

GE CF6-80C2-B1F turbofan 747-400 0.605[20] 17.1 5950 58400

CFM CFM56-5A1 turbofan A320 0.596 16.9 6040 59200

Aviadvigatel PS-
turbofan Il-96-400 0.595 16.9 6050 59300
90A1

PW PW2040 turbofan 757-200 0.582[19] 16.5 6190 60700

PW PW4098 turbofan 777-300 0.581[19] 16.5 6200 60800

GE CF6-80C2-B2 turbofan 767 16.3 6250 61300

 0.576[19]

IAE V2525-D5 turbofan MD-90 0.574[23] 16.3 6270 61500

IAE V2533-A5 turbofan A321-231 0.574[23] 16.3 6270 61500

RR Trent 700 turbofan 1992 A330 0.562 15.9 6410 62800

RR Trent 800 turbofan 1993 777-200/200ER/300 0.560 15.9 6430 63000
Progress D-18T turbofan 1980 An-124, An-225 0.546 15.5 6590 64700
CFM CFM56-5B4 turbofan A320-214 0.545 15.4 6610 64800
CFM CFM56-5C2 turbofan A340-211 0.545 15.4 6610 64800
RR Trent 500 turbofan 1999 A340-500/600 0.542 15.4 6640 65100
6400– 63000–
CFM LEAP-1B turbofan 2014 737 MAX 0.53-0.56 15–16
6800 67000
Aviadvigatel PD-14 turbofan 2014 MC-21-310 0.526 14.9 6840 67100
RR Trent 900 turbofan 2003 A380 0.522 14.8 6900 67600

GE GE90-85B turbofan 777-200/200ER 0.52[19][24] 14.7 6920 67900

GE GEnx-1B76 turbofan 2006 787-10 0.512[21] 14.5 7030 69000

PW PW1400G GTF MC-21 0.51[25] 14 7100 69000

CFM LEAP-1C turbofan 2013 C919 0.51 14 7100 69000

CFM LEAP-1A turbofan 2013 A320neo family 0.51[25] 14 7100 69000

RR Trent 7000 turbofan 2015 A330neo 0.506 14.3 7110 69800

RR Trent 1000 turbofan 2006 787 0.506 14.3 7110 69800
RR Trent XWB-97 turbofan 2014 A350-1000 0.478 13.5 7530 73900

PW 1127G GTF 2012 A320neo 0.463[21] 13.1 7780 76300

Specific impulse of various propulsion technologies

Effective exhaust Specific Exhaust specific
Engine
velocity (m/s) impulse (s) energy (MJ/kg)
Turbofan jet engine
29,000 3,000 Approx. 0.05
(actual V is ~300 m/s)
Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster 2,500 250 3
Liquid oxygen-liquid hydrogen 4,400 450 9.7

NSTAR[26] electrostatic xenon ion thruster 20,000-30,000 1,950-3,100

VASIMR predictions[27][28][29] 30,000–120,000 3,000–12,000 1,400

DS4G electrostatic ion thruster[30] 210,000 21,400 22,500

Ideal photonic rocket[a] 299,792,458 30,570,000 89,875,517,874

An example of a specific impulse measured in time is 453 seconds, which is equivalent to an effective exhaust
velocity of 4.440 km/s (14,570 ft/s), for the RS-25 engines when operating in a vacuum.[31] An air-breathing
jet engine typically has a much larger specific impulse than a rocket; for example a turbofan jet engine may
have a specific impulse of 6,000 seconds or more at sea level whereas a rocket would be between 200 and
400 seconds.[32]
An air-breathing engine is thus much more propellant efficient than a rocket engine, because the air serves as
reaction mass and oxidizer for combustion which does not have to be carried as propellant, and the actual
exhaust speed is much lower, so the kinetic energy the exhaust carries away is lower and thus the jet engine
uses far less energy to generate thrust.[33] While the actual exhaust velocity is lower for air-breathing engines,
the effective exhaust velocity is very high for jet engines. This is because the effective exhaust velocity
calculation assumes that the carried propellant is providing all the reaction mass and all the thrust. Hence
effective exhaust velocity is not physically meaningful for air-breathing engines; nevertheless, it is useful for
comparison with other types of engines.[34]

The highest specific impulse for a chemical propellant ever test-fired in a rocket engine was 542 seconds
(5.32 km/s) with a tripropellant of lithium, fluorine, and hydrogen. However, this combination is impractical.
Lithium and fluorine are both extremely corrosive, lithium ignites on contact with air, fluorine ignites on
contact with most fuels, and hydrogen, while not hypergolic, is an explosive hazard. Fluorine and the
hydrogen fluoride (HF) in the exhaust are very toxic, which damages the environment, makes work around the
launch pad difficult, and makes getting a launch license that much more difficult. The rocket exhaust is also
ionized, which would interfere with radio communication with the rocket.[35][36][37]

Nuclear thermal rocket engines differ from conventional rocket engines in that energy is supplied to the
propellants by an external nuclear heat source instead of the heat of combustion.[38] The nuclear rocket
typically operates by passing liquid hydrogen gas through an operating nuclear reactor. Testing in the 1960s
yielded specific impulses of about 850 seconds (8,340 m/s), about twice that of the Space Shuttle engines.[39]

A variety of other rocket propulsion methods, such as ion thrusters, give much higher specific impulse but with
much lower thrust; for example the Hall effect thruster on the SMART-1 satellite has a specific impulse of
1,640  s (16.1  km/s) but a maximum thrust of only 68  mN (0.015  lbf).[40] The variable specific impulse
magnetoplasma rocket (VASIMR) engine currently in development will theoretically yield 20 to 300  km/s
(66,000 to 984,000 ft/s), and a maximum thrust of 5.7 N (1.3 lbf).[41]

See also
Jet engine
Impulse
Tsiolkovsky rocket equation
System-specific impulse
Specific energy
Standard gravity
Thrust specific fuel consumption—fuel consumption per unit thrust
Specific thrust—thrust per unit of air for a duct engine
Heating value
Energy density
Delta-v (physics)
Rocket propellant
Liquid rocket propellants

Notes

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 a. A hypothetical device doing perfect conversion of mass to photons emitted perfectly aligned so
as to be antiparallel to the desired thrust vector. This represents the theoretical upper limit for
propulsion relying strictly on onboard fuel and the rocket principle.

External links
RPA - Design Tool for Liquid Rocket Engine Analysis (http://software.lpre.de/)
List of Specific Impulses of various rocket fuels (http://www.braeunig.us/space/propel.htm)

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