European Road Safety Observatory

Road Safety Thematic Report - Motorcycles

This document is part of a series of 20 thematic reports on road safety. The purpose is to give
road safety practitioners an overview of the most important research questions and results on
the topic in question. The level of detail is intermediate, with more detailed papers or reports
suggested for further reading. Each report has a 1-page summary.
The topic “Motorcycles” is also addressed in the “Facts and Figures - Motorcyclists and moped
riders”, presenting more detailed and up-to-date European data in addition to this qualitative
analysis.

Contract This document has been prepared in the framework of the EC Service Contract
MOVE/C2/SER/2019-100/SI2.822066 with Vias institute (BE) and SWOV Institute
for Road Safety Research (NL).
Version Version 1.1, January 2023
Author Freya Slootmans (Vias institute)
Internal review Saskia de Craen (SWOV)
External review Aki Lumiaho (VTT)
Editor Annelies Schoeters (Vias institute)
Referencing Reproduction of this document is allowed with due acknowledgement. Please
refer to the document as follows:
European Commission (2023) Road Safety Thematic Report – Motorcycles. Euro-
pean Road Safety Observatory. Brussels, European Commission, Directorate
General for Transport.

Disclaimer
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure that the material presented in this document is rel-
evant, accurate and up-to-date, the (sub)contractors cannot accept any liability for any error or
omission, or reliance on part or all of the content in another context.
Any information and views set out in this document are those of the author(s) and do not neces-
sarily reflect the official opinion of the European Commission. The Commission does not guaran-
tee the accuracy of the data included in this study. Neither the Commission nor any person act-
ing on the Commission’s behalf may be held responsible for the use that may be made of the in-
formation contained herein.
Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

Contents
Summary ________________________________________________________________ 2
Motorcyclists in road traffic _________________________________________________________ 2
Countermeasures___________________________________________________________________ 2

1 Highlights ____________________________________________________________ 3
2 What is the problem? ______________________________________________ 3
2.1 What are motorcycles? _________________________________________________________ 3
2.2 How do motorcycle riders participate in traffic? ________________________________ 4

3 Motorcycles and road safety ______________________________________ 6

3.1 Crash risk or relative risk _______________________________________________________ 6
3.2 General trend in the number of fatalities _______________________________________ 6
3.3 Crash characteristics ___________________________________________________________ 7
3.4 Causation factors _______________________________________________________________ 9
3.4.1 Factors related to road users ____________________________________________9
3.4.2 Factors related to the vehicle ____________________________________________9
3.4.3 Factors related to the road environment _______________________________ 10

4 Countermeasures _________________________________________________ 11
4.1 Safer road users ______________________________________________________________ 11
4.1.1 Licensing and training _________________________________________________ 11
4.1.2 Promotional campaigns ________________________________________________ 11
4.1.3 Helmets and protective clothing _______________________________________ 11
4.2 Safer vehicles _________________________________________________________________ 12
4.2.1 Conspicuousness of motorcyclists _____________________________________ 12
4.2.2 Advanced Rider Assist Systems ________________________________________ 12
4.2.3 Safer roads ____________________________________________________________ 13

5 Further reading ____________________________________________________ 13

6 References __________________________________________________________ 14

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Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

Summary
Motorcyclists in road traffic
Motorcycles play an important role in traffic in European countries. They are an econom-
ical and attractive means of transport which can offer a special sense of pleasure. A mo-
torcycle is defined as “two- or three-wheeled vehicles with or without a sidecar”. There
were an estimated 25 million motorcycles in the EU in 2018. The enormous vulnerability
of motorcyclists in traffic is the downside of this flexible, nimble and "light" way of getting
around.
More than 3500 motorcyclists were killed on European roads in 2019, representing 16%
of all road fatalities. The number of motorcycle fatalities has decreased by 16% in the last
decade. It is difficult to determine crash risk, because exposure data is often not easily
available. However, evidence shows that motorcyclists are about 9 to 30 times more likely
to be killed in traffic compared to a car driver. There is a pronounced seasonal variation
for motorcyclists, showing a low proportion of fatalities during the winter months and a
high proportion during the summer months.
Several factors play a role in motorcycle crashes. Motorcyclists are often overlooked in
traffic. Some design elements (such as tyres, brakes, frame, suspension) are relevant for
the safety of motorcyclists. Road environment shortcomings (such as poor road surfaces,
loose material, poor road alignment, obstacles, limited line of sight, etc) have a significant
influence on the risk of crashes involving motorcycles. The young age of the motorcyclist
and a lack of rider training and experience also play a role in motorcycle crashes.

Countermeasures
• Safety features - also known as Advanced Rider Assist Systems (ARAS) - such as
Electronic Stability Control, Forward Collision Warning - could help reduce motor-
cycle crashes and fatalities. ABS became mandatory on motorcycles in the EU in
2013. However, more research is needed to establish the costs and which safety
systems can be realistically transferred to motorcycles
• The conspicuousness of motorcycles can be improved by the use of add-on (op-
tional, extra) driving lights, Daytime Running Lights (DRLs) and/or reflectors, re-
flective colours and/or colours which contrast with the environment.
• Roads should be forgiving, and attention given to roadside safety design and road
surface markings to limit the severity of trauma for motorcyclists. Specifically,
crash barriers should be improved so as not to be dangerous for motorcyclists.
• Implementation of separate motorcycle lanes.
• Pre-licence training of motorcyclists should aim at teaching the necessary
knowledge and skills, but also the mental attitude to ride defensively and be aware
of risk exposure. Pre-licence training of car drivers to detect, notice and identify
motorcycles in traffic.
• Topics for promotional campaigns are: wearing helmets, use of protective cloth-
ing, risky behaviour, paying attention to the presence of motorcycles.

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 Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

1 Highlights
• Motorcycles play an important role in traffic in EU countries. They can be distin-
guished from other means of transport by their diversity: their dimension, motor-
isation, riding position, the environment in which they are ridden, the riders’ mo-
tivation and their specific movement in traffic
• The fleet of motorcycles in Europe was estimated at 25 million in 2018. Data show
the number has increased significantly over the last two decades.
• More than 3500 motorcyclists were killed on European roads in 2019, representing
16% of all road fatalities. The number of motorcycle fatalities has decreased by
16% in the last decade.
• Motorcyclists are about 9 to 30 times more likely to be killed in traffic compared
to a car driver.
• Motorcyclists are often overlooked in traffic due to their comparative small size
and the fact that they can overtake in situations where cars cannot.

2 What is the problem?

2.1 What are motorcycles?
Motorcycles play an important role in traffic in European countries. With two wheels in
line, slim bodywork, and a favourable power-to-weight ratio, a motorcycle is an econom-
ical and attractive means of transport which can offer a special sense of pleasure. Motor-
cycles can be used for the transport of goods and people, as is the case in low and middle
income countries, or as a transport means suitable for traffic congestion (Slootmans et
al., 2017; Yannis et al., 2022). Motorcycles distinguish themselves from other means of
transport by their diversity: their dimension, motorisation, riding position, the environ-
ment in which they are ridden (urban, outings, adventure, off-road, …), the riders’ moti-
vation (commuting, leisure, thrill-seeking, …) and their specific movement in traffic (use
of lanes, lane filtering, position in curves, …) (Delhaye & Vandael Schreurs, 2022).
Furthermore, motorcycles vary dramatically in design, with respect to size, weight and
performance capacity. Riders can select a certain type of motorcycle based on their riding
practices. Examples of types of motorcycles are: standard motorcycles, dual purpose mo-
torcycles (i.e., adventure), touring motorcycles, cruisers, choppers, sport, sport touring,
supersport, off-road motorcycle, all-terrain motorcycle, and so on (Teoh & Campbell,
2010). The best-selling motorcycle type (over 125cc engine) in Europe has for several
years been the adventure motorcycle.
The enormous vulnerability of motorcyclists in traffic is the downside of this flexible and
"light" way of getting around. Motorcycle riders are still relatively unprotected, even when
they wear personal protective equipment such as helmets, protective suits, boots and
gloves. Motorcycles have only two wheels, which makes them a self-balancing vehicle. At
the same time, a motorcycle moves as fast as a car (Slootmans et al., 2017).

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 Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

Motorcycles are defined as “two-wheel or three-wheel vehicles with or without a sidecar”

in the Driving Licence Directive 2006/126/EC (European Union, 2006). Motor tricycles
(a.k.a. trikes), which are vehicles with three symmetrically arranged wheels, are also in-
cluded in the category of motorcycles. Three sub-categories of motorcycle driving licences
can be distinguished:
Table 1. Motorcycle categories according to the Driving Licence Directive 2006/126/EC

Licence Motorcycle restrictions Early access (A1@16) Late access (A1@18)

Engine capacity: max 125 cc
A1 Motor capacity: max 11 kW 16 18
Specific capacity: max 0.1 kW/kg
Motor capacity: max 35 kW
A2 Unthrottled capacity: max 70 kW 18 20
Specific capacity: max 0.2 kW/kg
Progressive access: 20 Progressive access: 22
A No restrictions
Direct access: 24 Direct access: 24
Source: European Union, 2006

The Driving Licence Directive requires licences to be incremental: to move from an A1 or

A2 license to the next, one needs at least 2 years of experience in the lower category.
Direct access to an A licence is possible, but the age limit is put at 24 years. Member States
are free to set the starting age (for an A1 licence) at 16, 17 or 18, with corresponding
consequences for the entry age for the next category.
There are also detailed requirements relating to the theory test, the special manoeuvres
test and the on-road test. Implementation varies from country to country. For some coun-
tries, progression from A1 to A2 or A2 to A is possible with the completion of a training
module, while for some countries’ progression requires a practical test, and some coun-
tries require both.

2.2 How do motorcycle riders participate in traffic?

The fleet of motorcycles in Europe is estimated at 25 million in 2018. According to the
European Association of Motorcycle Manufacturers (ACEM), the markets for motorcycles
in Italy, France, Germany, Spain and UK account for about 80% of new motorcycle regis-
trations in the EU/UK block.
Overall, the number of powered two-wheelers (PTWs) per 1,000 inhabitants increased
from 39.3 in 1994 to 67.8 in 2019. PTWs are most common in southern European coun-
tries (Vanpée et al., 2022).

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Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

Figure 1. PTW fleet and PTW per 1,000 inhabitants in selected European countries, 1994-2019

Source: Dorocki & Wantuch-Matla, 2021

There is relatively little data on motorcycle mileage. However, the number of passenger
kms for powered-two-wheelers is estimated at s 144 billion kms in 2019 (European Union,
2021). Furthermore, according to the E-Survey of Road Users’ Attitudes (ESRA) survey, on
average 2.4% of EU respondents ride a motorcycle 1 to 3 days a week. The proportion of
respondents who ride a motorcycle regularly is highest in Spain and Italy and lowest in
the Czech Republic and Finland. This proportion is below the EU average for France and
similar to the EU average for Germany, even though the motorcycle markets in these
countries are among the biggest in Europe (Yannis et al., 2022).
Figure 2. Percentage of respondents claiming to ride a motorcycle 1 to 3 days a week
5,3%

6,0%
4,7%

5,0%

4,0%
2,7%

3,0%
1,1%

2,0%
0,9%

1,0%

0,0%
EU24
Austria
Italy

Denmark

Finland
Hungary

France

Ireland
Spain

Greece

Netherlands
Germany

Poland
Bulgaria

Luxembourg

Slovenia

Belgium

Czech Republic
Sweden

Portugal

Source: Yannis et al., 2022

The Riderscan project showed that almost half of all respondents claim to use a PTW
primarily for leisure. One third of the respondents use their PTW mainly for commuting,

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 Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

while almost two out of 10 respondents use their vehicle for long distance travelling (Del-
haye & Marot, 2016).

3 Motorcycles and road safety

3.1 Crash risk or relative risk
Exposure data is needed in order to determine risks. The number of kilometres travelled
by motorcycles gives a good proxy of their exposure to risk. Other indicators to measure
exposure, such as the number of motorcycles in circulation or total travel time, are not
collected on a regular basis. It is therefore difficult to determine crash risk (OECD/ITF,
2015).
Evidence has shown that motorcycle riders experience a greater risk of being severely
injured compared to other road users, while at the same time they do not pose much risk
for other road users. The OECD estimates that motorcyclists are about 9 to 30 times more
likely to be killed in traffic compared to a car driver (OECD/ITF, 2015). Motorcyclists have
a higher risk of crashes resulting in serious injury or death compared to other road users
(Möller et al., 2020). However, motorcycles prior to and after 2015 are significantly differ-
ent from a safety point of view, e.g., ABS became mandatory on motorcycles in the EU in
20131. An update of the crash risk for motorcycles would therefore be appropriate.

3.2 General trend in the number of fatalities

The proportion of motorcycle fatalities within the total number of road fatalities in the EU
in 2019 was 16%. Although the number of motorcycle fatalities decreased by 14% be-
tween 2010 and 2019, the total number of all road fatalities decreased even more (-23%).
As a result, the relative proportion of motorcycle fatalities within the total number of fa-
talities has slightly increased (European Commission, 2021). The relatively small decrease
in motorcycle fatalities contrasts with the -45% decrease for moped fatalities. Possible
explanations are the decrease in the number of registered mopeds while the number of
registered motorcycles has increased, but also the fact that mopeds are very popular in
cities (in contrast to motorcycles which are used in more rural areas). The difference in
speed could also be part of the explanation.
The EU Member States with the highest number of motorcycle fatalities are (highest to
lowest numbers) Italy, France, Germany, Spain, and Poland. This is not surprising, since
four of these countries also have the largest motorcycle markets (European Commission,
2021).

1
Regulation (EU) No 168/2013 made it mandatory for all motorcycles in the L3e-A1 subcategory to be fitted with an ad-
vanced braking system consisting of either an ABS or a combined braking system (CBS) or both at the discretion of the
manufacturer.

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Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

Figure 3. Annual number of motorcycle fatalities, and their share in the total number of fatalities in the
EU27 (2010-2019)

4500 20%

16%
18%

15%

15%

15%

15%
4000

14%
14%

14%

14%

14%
3500 16%
Number of fatalities

14%
3000

Share (%)
12%
2500
10% Motorcycle fatalities
2000
8% Share of total fatalities
1500
6%
1000 4%
3500
4173

4243

3760

3554

3606

3316

3490

3526

3578
500 2%
0 0%
2014
2010

2011

2012

2013

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019
Source: European Commission (2021)

The mortality rate and proportion of fatalities (within the total number of fatalities) for
motorcycle riders is highest in the south of the EU. The popularity of these transport
modes in these countries needs to be taken into account when interpreting these figures
(European Commission,2021).

3.3 Crash characteristics

The proportion of male fatalities for motorcycle riders is high: 95% (compared to 77% of
male fatalities overall). There are few differences between Member States (European
Commission, 2021).
The Figure below provides a more detailed picture of the distribution of motorcyclist fa-
talities by age. A peak is reached for people in their twenties. After that, the number of
fatalities decreases, but in a gradual way. The distribution of fatalities among motorcycle
riders is very different from the distribution among pedestrians and cyclists (European
Commission, 2021).
Figure 4. Distribution of fatalities over 5-year age categories, by transport mode, in the EU27 (2010-2019)

25%
Distribution of fatalities over age

20%

Car occupant
categories

15%
Moped

10% Motorcycle
Cyclist
5% Pedestrian

0%
50-54
00-04
05-09
10-14
15-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49

55-59
60-64
65-69
70-74
75-79
80-84
85-89
90+

Source: European Commission (2021)

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Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

Motorcycle fatalities are proportionately higher during day-time at the weekend, com-
pared to all fatalities. This difference can probably be explained by differences in utilisa-
tion of modes of transport (European Commission, 2021). Furthermore, car drivers have
difficulty detecting and identifying motorcyclists at night, but also in the daytime (Abdul
Khalid et al., 2021a).
Figure 5. Distribution of fatalities among motorcycle riders ad all fatalities, according to period of the week
in the EU27 (2019)

Working week - daytime Working week - night-time Weekend - daytime Weekend - night-time

All fatalities 56% 9% 23% 11%

Motorcycle fatalities 51% 6% 35% 8%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
% fatalities

Source: European Commission (2021)

Furthermore, there is a pronounced seasonal variation for motorcyclists, showing a low

proportion of fatalities during the winter months (November to March) and a high pro-
portion from June to September. In each of these last four months there are nearly 6
times more motorcycle fatalities than in January. This difference may naturally reflect the
fact that during the winter months there are far fewer motorcyclists in traffic than in the
summer (holiday) months (European Commission, 2021).
Almost three out of 10 crashes involving a motorcycle are single vehicle crashes, meaning
that only the motorcycle is involved. In 7 out 10 crashes, another road user is involved.
Figure 6. Distribution of single vehicle crashes and multiple vehicle crashes for motorcyclists in the EU27
(2011-2020)

Single vehicle crashes Multiple vehicle crashes

100%

80%
72%
76%
76%
76%

76%
76%

77%
77%
77%
78%

60%

40%

20%
28%
24%
24%
24%

24%
24%

23%
23%
23%
22%

0%
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Source: CARE

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Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

3.4 Causation factors

3.4.1 Factors related to road users

Collisions between motorcyclists and passenger cars usually happen because the motor-
cyclist has been overlooked. The important issue, therefore, as far as the other road user
is concerned, is that of perception (ACEM, 2009; SWOV, 2017). The approaching speed
and distance of the motorcyclist are also often underestimated (ACEM, 2009, Huertas-
Leyva et al., 2021). Because motorcyclists can overtake in situations where cars cannot,
other road users may not look for them in places where they do not look for cars (Euro-
pean Commission, 2018; IRAP, 2022a). Being less conspicuous, motorcycles themselves
also contribute to being overlooked (Huertas-Leyva et al., 2021). Some motorcyclists’ own
low expectation of problems can lead to speeding and risk-taking which can play a role in
crashes. In the MAIDS study, speed was identified as a causal factor in 21% of cases
(ACEM, 2009).
Young age in motorcyclists and lack of rider training and experience also play a role in
motorcycle crashes (Möller et al. 2020). Young males especially have a strong propensity
for risky behaviour, which increases the risk of crashes (Vlahogianni, Yannis & Golias,
2012). There are different types of experience: years of riding, familiarity with a specific
motorcycle or with specific conditions. Every type of experience will impact the crash rate
to some extent (European Commission, 2018). Sexton et al. (2004) surveyed more than
11,000 (British) motorcyclists, and concluded that both age and experience play a signifi-
cant role. For example, the crash risk of a 17-year-old novice is 40% higher than that of
26-year-old novice and 60% higher than that of 40-year-old novice.

3.4.2 Factors related to the vehicle

Some design elements, such as frame, suspension, wheels, brakes, and tyres, are relevant
for motorcycle safety (European Commission, 2018). Certain manoeuvres carry a higher
risk for motorcycle riders than car drivers. For example: riding a motorcycle involves body
movement and counter steering and is therefore less stable, meaning riders are more
likely to lose control of their vehicle while cornering (IRAP, 2022a).
Braking is difficult for several reasons. Because a motorcycle has only two wheels in line,
it is easy to lose friction between tyres and road surface, resulting in a fall, most often
while braking in a curve. If the front wheel locks during braking, the stabilizing effect of
the spinning wheel disappears and the motorcyclist can fall or start skidding (European
Commission, 2018; SWOV, 2017). The Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) on motorcycles –
which prevents the wheels locking while braking hard - has been an improvement for
motorcycle safety, reducing the number of motorcycle crashes by 34% to 43% and con-
sequently the number of motorcycle rider fatalities and injuries. (SWOV, 2017).
Other factors that can contribute to a loss of control are: wet or oily roads, loose material
on the ground, and sudden avoidance manoeuvres (European Commission, 2018).
The relationship between type of motorcycle, engine size, and behaviour of the motorcy-
cle rider is less clear. However, studies suggest that riders of the "sporty" motorcycle type

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Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

have a significantly increased risk of serious crashes and, in particular, fatal crashes
(ACEM, 2009; Martensen & Roynard, 2013, Dubois et al., 2020).
A higher crash rate for heavy or powerful motorcycles does not necessarily mean that
they are more difficult to control or are less safe vehicles. It is possible that they are used
by riders with a different style of riding. Therefore, it is possibly not the character of the
motorcycle but the character, experience and motivation of the rider which determines
the safety of the motorcycle (European Commission, 2018).
The effect of alcohol on car drivers is well known: drink-driving increases the likelihood
of engaging in risk-taking behaviour, which leads to a higher crash risk for the alcohol-
impaired driver. However, research on the impact of alcohol on motorcyclists is lacking.
The few studies that have been conducted show that increased blood alcohol levels lead
to increased driving errors, especially “running off the road”, significant changes in vehicle
controlling skills, lengthening of brake reaction time, and an increase in the standard de-
viation from lateral position (Vu et al., 2020).

3.4.3 Factors related to the road environment

Road environment affects motorcyclists because riders can fall or slip, and often the road
environment is ‘unforgiving’, leading to serious or even fatal injuries. Infrastructure also
influences human behavior: it helps riders control their vehicle, prevents loss of control,
and influences interaction with other road users. The following shortcomings in the road
environment have a significant influence on the risk of crashes involving PTWs (Delhaye
& Marot, 2016; IRAP, 2022a):
• Road surface defects, such as unevenness and potholes
• Water, oil or moisture on the road
• Poor road alignment
• Presence of obstacles, roadside hazards and safety barriers
• Interaction with larger vehicles
• Excessive or thick (high) lane markings, use of raised pavement markers, in gen-
eral all road markings or bituminous road surface fixes with insufficient skid re-
sistance.

Obstacles (such as poles, walls, trees, …) can add to the severity of a crash. The severity
of a crash might have been lower if the obstacles had not been there or if they had been
shielded (Delhaye & Marot, 2016).
The most contentious area of debate are crash barriers (IRAP, 2022a). They are typically
not tested for their impact on motorcyclists (IRAP, 2022a) and are designed to prevent
cars from colliding with obstacles behind the rail, but they do not take into account colli-
sions with motorcycles. A motorcyclist colliding with an unprotected crash barrier can
cause severe injuries (SWOV, 2017; European Commission, 2018).

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 Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

4 Countermeasures
4.1 Safer road users

4.1.1 Licensing and training

Pre-licence training should aim at teaching the necessary knowledge and skills, but also
the mental attitude to ride defensively and be aware of risk exposure. Training in ABS
operation and knowledge of ABS are also important. New simulation techniques offer
new opportunities for training programs for motorcyclists (Delhaye & Marot, 2016). Be-
cause the effects and efficiency of pre-license training have not yet been ascertained, any
new programmes in this area should be evaluated.
In the European Initial Rider Training Project, a 3-part curriculum was compiled in collab-
oration with the European motorcycle associations. The theoretical module should cover
traffic rules and road signs, the mechanical and dynamic aspects of a motorcycle, the
perception of dangerous situations, wearing protective clothing, social responsibility (e.g.
avoiding noise pollution), and the role of alcohol, drugs, and fatigue. The necessity of a
defensive driving style, in which the rider also anticipates possible errors of other road
users, is also important. The second module is dedicated to motorcycle control, in which
the students have to familiarise themselves with the machine, try out first movements,
shifting, braking and changing direction, practice manoeuvres at low speed, and also
practise manoeuvres in certain emergency situations. The third module is about partici-
pating in traffic, in which proper positioning, correct distance and appropriate speed in
various situations are practised: turns, intersections, overtaking, motorways. Here also
the emphasis should be placed on anticipation (European Union, 2011).
Attention should also be paid to training car drivers during their driving licence training
to detect, notice and identify approaching motorcycles when crossing a road (Slootmans
et al., 2017).

4.1.2 Promotional campaigns

There is a link between the type of motorcycle and the motive of the rider, the experience
they seek and their concept of riding. Persuasive communication, tailored to the require-
ments of the average ride of a motorcycle type, could be provided when buying a motor-
cycle so as to encourage safe riding behaviour (Delhaye & Marot, 2016).

4.1.3 Helmets and protective clothing

Protective clothing protects the rider against abrasion and reduces the risk of burns from
contact with hot metal. It even reduces the severity of fractures and the risk of infection
from road dirt in the case of open wounds (IRAP, 2022b). In low and middle income coun-
tries, the proportion of motorcyclists wearing protective clothing is low because of high
cost and perceptions about discomfort (in a local, warm, climate).
In these countries, it is best to focus on helmet-wearing rates, legislating for compulsory
helmet-wearing (including enforcement) for all riders and to promote improvements in

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Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

the quality of helmets. In countries with high helmet-wearing rates, it is better to invest
in public education campaigns about protective motorcycle clothing. In these campaigns,
the protective value of such clothing should be highlighted, and good quality clothing
should be clearly described (IRAP, 2022b).

4.2 Safer vehicles

4.2.1 Conspicuousness of motorcyclists

An important reason for motorcyclists’ poor perceptibility is the comparatively small size
of their motorbikes. Moreover, some drivers who only see the headlight of the motorcycle
do not see that they are dealing with a motorcyclist and underestimate the time remain-
ing to perform a manoeuver (Slootmans at al., 2017). Reflectors, bright clothing, and hel-
mets are used by motorcyclists in an attempt to make them more conspicuous (Gershon
& Shinar, 2013). Some other solutions can help increase the visibility of motorcyclists:
• front lighting that emphasizes the contours of the motorcycle (for example, addi-
tional lights at the ends of the handlebars, or an illuminated fork) (Slootmans at
al., 2017).
• an Alternating Blinking Light System that is placed at the top of the helmet, which
blinks in an alternating manner. This creates an illusion of movement (Gershon &
Shinar, 2013).
• Daytime Running Lights (DRL) have been studied many times, and are found to
effectively contribute to better motorcycle visibility and detection. However, this
effect is hampered when other vehicles also adopt DRL. One solution is to change
the DRL colour for motorcycles, so they can be recognized more easily (Adbul Kha-
lid, 2021a).
• several front light configurations and their effect on conspicuousness have also
been studied. Motorcycles with a T-shaped light configuration are more quickly
identified in traffic (Rößger et al., 2012).
Research suggests that that motorcyclists using alternative light systems were more
rapidly recognized as such, but that this effect disappears over time (Rößger et al., 2012;
Gershon & Shinar, 2013).

4.2.2 Advanced Rider Assist Systems

Tests have shown that the Advanced Cruise Control systems of cars are not able to detect
motorcycles correctly. Enhancements in the safety characteristics and functional capabil-
ities of modern cars’ ADAS systems could help better identify motorcycles in traffic
(Westerband, 2018). The new EU General Safety Regulation 2019/2144 which has intro-
duced as of July 2022 state-of-the-art safety technologies as standard vehicle equipment
should help improve the safety of vulnerable road users including moped riders. For ex-
ample:
o Advanced emergency braking systems capable of detecting motor vehicles and
vulnerable road users in front of them
o Enlarged head-impact protection zones capable of mitigating injuries in collisions
with vulnerable road users.

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 Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

o Cars and vans must be constructed in such a way that will help to reduce blind
spots in front of and to the side of the driver.
Compared to passenger cars, the introduction of safety features for motorcycles is lag-
ging behind. Some motorcycle Advanced Rider Assist Systems (ARAS) could help reduce
motorcycle crashes and fatalities, such as Electronic Stability Control, Forward Collision
Warning, Lane Departure Warning, etc. (Abdul Khalid, 2021b; IRAP, 2022c). Currently,
some ARAS systems are already in use or under development (such as Adaptive Cruise
Control), but more research is needed to establish the approximate costs and which
safety systems can be realistically transferred to motorcycles.

4.2.3 Safer roads

Motorcycles are an important mode of transport, and their requirements should be re-
flected in road design (IRAP, 2022a). Improving the road environment for motorcyclists
requires a better understanding of motorcycling riding activity and the actual needs and
constraints of motorcyclist riders (Delhaye & Marot, 2016).
Roads should be forgiving: errors are inevitable in the road transport system and should
be ameliorated by better design. In the first place, road design should allow adequate
room for rectification of any errors (IRAP, 2022d).
Roadside safety design can limit the severity of trauma for motorcyclists by providing
clear zones of soft ground surface and by removing, relocating or modifying roadside
hazards. Parapets of appropriate design, height and layout are needed for bridges and
along other drops (IRAP, 2022d). Crash barriers should also be improved: secondary rails
(such as BikeGuard, BASYC or Moto Tub systems) which protect riders from posts and
present a continuous surface should be implemented (IRAP, 2022d).
A more far-reaching solution would be the implementation of separate motorcycle lanes.
These can be inclusive – located outside of the main carriageway for each direction of
traffic flow – or exclusive – requiring a carriageway completely separate from the one
used by other vehicles. These separate motorcycle lanes could reduce vehicle to motor-
cycle crashes by limiting the interaction with heavier vehicles and can improve traffic flow
(IRAP, 2022e). However, they would have little effect on single vehicle accidents at inter-
sections. Further research is needed to determine their effect on the crash risk of motor-
cyclists.

5 Further reading
OECD/ITF (2015). Improving safety for motorcycle, scooter and moped riders. OECD
Publishing, Paris.
Yannis, G., Laiou, A., Nikolaou, D., Usami, D.S., Sgarra, V., Azarko, A. (2022) Moped driv-
ers and motorcyclists. ESRA2 Thematic report Nr. 12 (updated version). ESRA pro-
ject (E-Survey of Road users’ Attitudes). Athens, Greece: NTUA
ACEM (2009). MAIDS In-Depth investigation of accidents involving powered two wheelers.
Final report 2.1. September 2004.

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 Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

6 References
Abdul Khalid, M.S.; Khamis, N.K.; Abu Mansor, A.M. & Hamzah, A. (2021a). Motorcycle
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Abdul Khalid, M.S.; Zulkipli, Z.H.; Solah, M.S.; Hamzah, A.; Ariffin, A.H.; Amir, A.S.; Mohd
Jawi, Z.; Ahmad, Y.; Abu Kassim, K.A. & Khamis, N.K. (2021b). A Review of Motorcycle
Safety Technologies from the Motorcycle and Passenger Car Perspectives. Journal
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ACEM (2009). MAIDS In-Depth investigation of accidents involving powered two wheelers.
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Collins, M.; Mulvihill, C. ; & Symmons, M. 2012. Differences in riding skill and road craft
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Delhaye A. & Vandael Schreurs K. (2022). Overzicht van het G2W-gebruik in België – Pro-
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Delhaye, A. & Marot, L. (2016). Riderscan. European Scanning Tour for Motorcycle Safety.
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Dorocki, S. & Wantuch-Matla, D. (2021). Power Two-Wheelers as an Element of Sustaina-

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Dubois, S.; Antoniazzi, D. ; Klein, R. & Bédard, M. (2020). Age and engine displacement are
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European Union (2011). European Initial Rider Training Programme. Retrieved from
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Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

Gershon, P. & Shinar, D. (2013). Increasing motorcycles attention and search conspicuity
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Road Safety Thematic Report Motorcycles

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