Advanced Power Conversion & Control 2016-2017 Advanced Power Conversion & Control 2016-2017

Introduction
Advanced Power Conversion
and Control • A rectifier converts an alternating current (AC) input
power to a direct current (DC) output power.

AC-DC CONVERTERS (1)

• AC to DC converters without control are designed using

diodes and are known as diode rectifiers.
• AC to DC controlled rectifiers are designed using
thyristors.

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Contents Introduction
• Introduction • Rectifier circuits may be classified into one of the two
• Uncontrolled diode-based rectifiers categories:
 Half-wave rectification
• Controlled Thyristor-based rectifiers
The simplest type of rectifier is the half-wave rectifier.
• Applications
It allows half of an AC waveform to pass to the load
• Multipulse diodes rectifiers and blocks the other half cycle .

As a result, nearly half of the applied power is wasted

in the half wave rectifier.

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Introduction Introduction
• Full-wave rectifier • Rectifiers are required to supply ripple-free DC voltage or DC
The full-wave rectifier is equivalent to two half-wave current to the load.
rectifiers. • However, the rectified output DC current contains
The first half-wave branch will allow current to flow harmonics.
during the positive half cycle of the AC current and the
• Fourier series expansion can be used to analyse harmonic
second half-wave branch will allows current to flow
contents of the output current waveform.
during the negative half cycle of the AC current.
• The input current is of the form:

𝑖 = 𝐼 sin(𝑛𝜃 + 𝜙 )
, ,⋯

As a result, the DC output of the full wave rectifier is

double of that of a half-wave rectifier.

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Introduction Introduction

 The period of a full-wave  The output current is of the form:

rectified voltage is half that of
a half-wave rectified voltage. 𝑖 =𝐼 + 𝐼 sin(𝑛𝜃 + 𝜑 )
 The output frequency of a full- , ,⋯
wave rectifier is twice that of a
half-wave rectifier.
𝐼 = Average DC value of the current.
𝐼 = Amplitude of the 𝑛𝑡ℎ harmonic.
𝜑 = Phase angle of the 𝑛𝑡ℎ harmonic with respect to
 Ripple voltages for half- source voltage.
wave and full-wave
rectified voltages with the
same filter capacitor and  The output voltage of a rectifier circuit also has 2
load and same sinusoidal components: a DC component ( 𝑉 ) and an AC
input voltage.
component (𝑉 ).

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Introduction Introduction
• Performance parameters of rectifiers By substituting 𝑉 into the 𝑅𝐹, we can express the ripple
 The average value of output (load) voltage 𝑽𝒅𝒄 factor as:

 The average value of output (load) current 𝑰𝒅𝒄  Vdc2

2
Vac
2
Vrms V 
RF     rms   1  FF 2  1
 The output DC power 𝑷𝒅𝒄 = 𝑽𝒅𝒄 𝑰𝒅𝒄 Vdc Vdc  Vdc 
 The rms value of output voltage 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔
 The transformer utilization factor is defined as
 The rms value of output current 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔
Pdc
TUF 
 The output AC power 𝑷𝒂𝒄 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 Vs I s
Pdc
 The efficiency or rectification ratio of a rectifier η  Where 𝑉 and 𝐼 are the rms voltage and rms current of
Pac the transformer secondary respectively. A high value of
TUF is desired in order to use a low rating transformer.

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Introduction Introduction
 The effective or rms value of the AC component of the  The displacement factor (𝐷𝐹) or Displacement Power
output voltage: Factor (𝐷𝑃𝐹) is defined as:
Vac  V 2
rms V2
dc DF  cos 
 The form factor which is a measure of the smoothness of
 = displacement angle (angle between fundamental
the output voltage waveform. As FF decreases and
components of input current and voltage).
approaches 1, the waveform improves towards a pure DC.  The harmonic factor (HF) also known as total
Vrms harmonic distortion (THD) is a measure of the
FF  distortion of a waveform. The harmonic factor of the
Vdc
input current is given as:
 The ripple factor which is a measure of the ripple content
i.e. the deviation of the waveform from a pure DC. 2
I s2  I s21 I 
Vac HF    s   1
RF  I s21  I s1 
Vdc
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Introduction Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier

 The input power factor (𝑃𝐹) • Half wave rectifier with resistive load
For a pure sinusoidal input current and voltage, the 𝑃𝐹 is  The simplest rectifier circuit is the half-wave (HW)
defined as: rectifier with resistive load. The HW rectifier has a
real power P V I cos φ single diode.
PF   R  s s  cos φ
apparent power Prms Vs I s
 The source voltage is:
For a rectifier circuit, the 𝑃𝐹 is given by:
vs θ   Vmsin θ 
real power V I cosφ1
PF   s1 s1
apparent power Vrms I rms
and is typically the secondary of a supply transformer.
Where 𝑉 and 𝐼 are the fundamental components of 𝑉
and 𝐼 respectively.  When 𝒗𝒔 is positive, the diode is forward-biased and
the source voltage is applied to the load.

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Introduction Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier

 The crest factor is the ratio of the peak input current to
• When 𝒗𝒔 is negative the diode is reverse-biased and
its rms value and is given as:
therefore no current flows to the load and the load voltage
I s ( peak ) is zero.
CF 
I rms

 An ideal rectifier should have:

 = 100%
𝑉 =0
Current waveforms for two
𝑅𝐹 = 0 different loads, one sinusoidal
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = 1 (blue) and one non-sinusoidal
(red). Both have an rms current
𝐻𝐹 = 𝑇𝐻𝐷 = 0 of 5A, but the crest factor is
𝑃𝐹 = 𝐷𝐹 = 1 quite different.

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Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier

• The load voltage and current are: • Example: For the half-wave rectifier circuit below the source
Vm sin(θ ) 0  θ  π vs  0 is a sinusoid of 120 V rms at a frequency of 60 Hz. The load
vL θ    resistor is 5 Ω. Determine:
0 π  θ  2π vs  0 a) The average load current.
Vm b) The average power absorbed by the load.
 sin(θ ) 0  θ  π vs  0 
iL θ    R c) The power factor of the circuit.
 0 π  θ  2 π vs  0
• The average DC output voltage produced by the HW
rectifier is given by:
 
1 V V
2 0
Vdc  Vm sin(θ )dθ   m cos(θ )  m  0.318Vm
2 0 

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Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier

• The DC component of the current for the resistive load is: a) The average load current
V V V0 Vm 2 (120)
I 0  dc  m I0     10.8 A
R R R R 5
• The average power absorbed by the load resistor is: b) The average power absorbed by the load.
2
V Vm 2 (120)
P  RI rms
2
 rms Vrms    84.9 V
R 2 2

1 Vm 2
Vrms 84.9 2
 V sin   d ( ) 
2
Vrms  P  RI rms
2
   1440 W
2
m
0
2 R 4

Vrms Vm Vrms Vm 84.9

I rms   I rms     17 A
R 2R R 2R 5
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Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier

c) The power factor a) The efficiency ()

P P 1440 Pdc
PF = = = = 0.707 η
S Vs, rms I s, rms (120)(17) Pac
The average output voltage is:
1 T 1 T /2
Vdc 
T 
0
v0 (t )dt 
T 
0
Vmsin(t )dt

Vm   T  
 cos  -1
T   2  
Since  = 2𝑓 and 𝑇 = 1/𝑓
Vm
Vdc   0.318Vm
π
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Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier

• Example: For the half-wave rectifier: and
Vdc V
I dc   0.318 m
R R
The rms values of the voltage and current:

1 T 2 1 T/2

T 0 
Determine: Vrms  v (t )dt 
2
Vm sin 2 (ωt )dt
a) The efficiency () T 0

b) The form factor (FF)  0.5Vm

c) The ripple factor (RF)
d) The transformer utilisation factor (TUF) and
e) The crest factor (CF) Vrms V
f) The power factor (PF) I rms   0.5 m
R R
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Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier

The efficiency can now be evaluated The transformer secondary current is equal to the load
current:
P V I Vm
  dc  dc dc I s  0. 5
Pac Vrms I rms R
The transformer power is:
0.318Vm  0.318 Vm  Vs I s  0.707  0.5
Vm2
R  0.318
2
    40.5% R
 Vm  0.52 Finally, 0.318Vm  0.318 Vm 
0.5Vm  0.5  TUF 
Pdc Vdc I dc
   R
 R Vm2
Low efficiency Vs I s Vs I s
0.707  0.5
R
TUF is low which shows that in HW rectifier
 0.286 circuits, the transformer is not fully utilised. If
the transformer rating is 1 kVA, then the HW
rectifier can deliver 1000x0.287 = 287 W

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Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier

b) The form factor (FF) e) The crest factor (CF)

Vrms 0 .5 Vm Vm
FF    1.57 or 157% I s ( peak )  I s  0.5
Vdc 0.318 R R
I s( peak )
V R
c) The ripple factor (RF) CF   m 2
Is 0.5Vm R
f) The power factor (PF)
RF  FF 2  1  1.57 2  1  1.21 or 121%
high ripple factor 0.5Vm  0.5 Vm 
d) The transformer utilisation factor (TUF) Vs I s 
R 0.52
PF   
The transformer secondary voltage rms is: Vrms I rms Vm2 0.707  0.5
0.707  0.5
Vm R
Vs   0.707 Vm  0.707 (lagging)
2
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Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier

• Half wave rectifier with R-L load • R-L load with freewheeling diode (FWD)
Applying KVL gives:  The circuit includes another diode marked Dm. This
diL diode is called free-wheeling diode.
RiL  L  Vmsin ωt 
dt R, L

Dividing by 𝑳 and substituting 𝝎𝒕 = 𝜽

diL R V
 iL  m sin θ   The free-wheeling diode
dθ ωL ωL
prevents the voltage across
Define: the load from reversing during
ωL diL iL Vm the negative half-cycle of the The negative part of
q    sin θ  supply voltage. the voltage is removed
R dθ q qR

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Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier Single Phase Half-Wave Rectifier

• The solution of this 1st order ODE 𝑫 forward-biased: 𝐿 fully energised.

iL θ  
Vm
R

cos  sin   e  q  sin θ    0  θ   

iL θ   0
Dm
    θ  2
R,L
  tan q 1 vL
iL
𝑫 reverse-biased: Energy stored in 𝐿 is dissipated through 𝐷𝑚.

Due to the inductive load, the vD

conduction period of the diode
will extend beyond  until the Dm
current becomes zero.
R,L

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Single Phase Full-Wave Rectifier Single Phase Full-Wave Rectifier

• There are 2 types of single-phase full-wave (FW) rectifiers:  Each diode and half transformer act as HW rectifier.
FW with centre-tapped transformer and bridge rectifier.  The output of the two HW rectifiers are combined to
• FW rectifier with centre-tapped transformer produce a FW rectification in the load.
 A transformer is used, whose secondary winding is split  Therefore, the average DC voltage across the load 𝑹 is the
into 2 halves with a common centre tapped connection sum of the two voltages (i.e. double of that of the HW).
(C).

1 2Vm
Vdc 
 V
0
m sin(θ )dθ 

 0.636 Vm

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Single Phase Full-Wave Rectifier Single Phase Full-Wave Rectifier

 When point 𝑨 of the transformer is positive with respect

to point 𝑩, diode 𝑫𝟏 conducts.

 When point 𝑩 of the transformer is positive (during the

negative half-cycle) with respect to point 𝑨, diode 𝑫𝟐
conducts.

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Single Phase Full-Wave Rectifier Single Phase Full-Wave Rectifier

• Bridge rectifier
 Uses 4 diodes arranged in “series pairs”.
 Does not require tapped-transformer (therefore
reducing size and cost).

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Single Phase Full-Wave Rectifier Single Phase Full-Wave Rectifier

 On the positive half-cycle • The average DC voltage across the load 𝑹 is:
of the transformer supply 1

2V
voltage, D1 and D2 conduct Vdc   Vmsin(θ )dθ  m  0.636Vm
in series supplying this  0

voltage to the load (while • The average value of the load current is:
D3 and D4 are reverse-
biased). Vdc V
I dc   0.636 m
R R
 On the negative half-cycle
of the transformer supply
voltage, D3 and D4 conduct
while D1 and D2 are
reverse-biased.

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Three Phase Diode Rectifiers Three Phase Diode Rectifiers: Star Rectifier

• Single-phase diode rectifiers are suitable for low power

applications up to 15 kW.
• For medium and high-power electronics applications, the
three-phase, six pulse rectifiers are employed.
• There are 2 types of 3-phase diode rectifiers that convert 3-
phase AC supply into a DC voltage:
 Star rectifiers
 Bridge rectifiers

Voltage waveforms of the 3 phases and the load

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Three Phase Diode Rectifiers: Star Rectifier Three Phase Diode Rectifiers: Star Rectifier
• Basic 3-Phase Star Rectifier • The conduction angle of each diode is 2/3 (1200) ( for
 A basic 3-phase star rectifier can be considered as 3 single-phase rectifiers).
single-phase HW rectifiers combined together. • Taking phase R as an example, diode D conducts from /6 to
5/6.
 The average DC output voltage is:
5 / 6
3 3 3
Vdc 
2 
V
/6
m sin(θ )dθ 
 2
Vm  0.827 Vm

 The rms value of the output voltage is:

 The diode in a given phase conducts during the period
5 / 6
when the line-to-neutral voltage on that phase is higher 3
 V sin(θ ) dθ  0.84Vm
2
than that of the other 2 phases for 1/3 of the cycle of VL 
2
m
the input voltage.  /6

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Three Phase Diode Rectifiers: Star Rectifier Three Phase Bridge Rectifiers

• Note • Diodes 2,4 and 6 have common anode connections, the

 The DC currents in the secondary windings of the diode connected to the most negative phase voltage
transformer may cause the transformer core saturation. would conduct.
 Additionally, the primary windings currents do not sum
to zero due to star-connection.
 To avoid transformer core saturation in the 3-phase star
rectifier, a special arrangement is used in the secondary
windings. The modified circuit is called zig-zag or
interstar rectifier.

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Three Phase Bridge Rectifiers Three Phase Bridge Rectifiers

• The 3-phase bridge rectifier includes 6 diodes with a

conduction angle of 2/3 each.

• Each 3-phase line connects between a pair of diodes.

• Diodes 1,3 and 5 have common cathode connections, the
diode connected to the highest positive phase voltage
would conduct.
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Three Phase Bridge Rectifiers Filtering in Rectifier Circuits

• The average DC output voltage is: 1

Rload  C 
6
2 / 3
3 3 f
Vdc 
2 
 /3
3Vm sin(θ )dθ 

Vm  1.654 Vm
Where:
𝑅 = overall resistance of the load for the supply.
• The rms of the output voltage is: 𝐶 = value of the capacitor.
2 / 3
9 𝑓 = the ripple frequency – this will be twice the line
 V sin(θ ) dθ  1.655Vm
2
VL  frequency if a full wave rectifier is used.

m
 /3

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Filtering in Rectifier Circuits

• Filters are used in rectifier circuits for smoothing the output

DC voltage of the load.
• They are classified as:
 Inductor-input DC filters (high power applications)
 Capacitor-input DC filters (low power applications)

• The choice of the capacitor value needs to fulfill a number

of requirements. The value must be chosen so that its time
constant is very much longer than the time interval between
the successive peaks of the rectified waveform:
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