CHAPTER – I

RISE OF FEMINISM

The genesis-history of feminism will briefly and concisely deal with its movements and their
impacts on the secular and religious world. It will give a brief idea of the ideologies behind their
interpretation as they re-interpret especially the Scripture, with the expectation of achieving
liberation from inequality. It will also deal with the historical background, its terms, and
movements, and some approaches they adopted in order to fight for equality based especially on
the Scripture.

History of Feminism

The word Feminism was used by early Utopian socialist, Charles Fourier, in the early 19th
century originally, from the French word féminisme and was first used by Herbetin Auclert, a
French campaigner in 1882, for women's political rights. [1] The history of feminism is a
composition of the narrations of any movements and ideologies to achieve equal rights for
women whether or not they were applying the term to themselves or limiting the term in their
movements. The goals and intentions may differ from one feminist movement to another, but
their common goals are the same. This section will mainly deal with the history of Feminism
related to patriarchy, enlightenment and modern feminism.

Patriarchy

Human civilization is the outcome of both man and woman for themselves as they have their
rights and needs, but human history did not tell us about their equivalent existence. Instead,
human history told us that women were deprived of male dominion. On the other hand, women's
positions do not hold the same current position as compared to men at all times in history.
Liberalism in the 19th century is the outcome of the enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries
in Europe. The fast growth of belief in human rationality placed the platform for women to
finally fight for their rights in society, which subsequently was the birth of feminism. Women
were conscious of their rights, and some rose their voices against women's oppression and
gender inequality. Therefore, patriarchy could most probably be the root cause of gender bias.

Patriarch, "the rule of the father," is one of the most crucial points the feminist deals with. It
comes from the Greek (patriarkhes), a compound of "Patrilineage, descent" (i.e. from "pater –
father") and "arkho – I rule." Historically, it was "used to describe the autocratic rule by the male
head of a family…while this contemporarily is understood to be a system in which economic,
political, and ideological power is secured in the hands of some men."[2] Sylvia Walby defines it
as "a system of interrelated social structures which allow men to exploit women."[3] And
according to Aristotle, women were inferior to men morally, intellectually, and physically.
Therefore, women were to serve by living naturally and virtuously under male dominion as
men's property. [4] Here, although many theorists of the 16th and 17th centuries agreed with the
view of Aristotle [regarding the place of women], not even one of them tried to verify political
obligation grounded on the patriarchal family until sometime after 1680. Sir Robert Filmer
(closely associated with a patriarchal political theory) defended that the king's right is divinely
transmitted from Adam, the very first mankind, in his unpublished finished work entitled
Patriarcha [before 1653] according to Judeo-Christian tradition. [5]

Modern Feminism

Modern feminist history can be sectioned into three waves: first-wave feminism (19th -early 20th
century), mainly deals with women's right to vote; second-wave feminism begins in the early
1960s and mainly deals with the ideas and actions associated with women's liberation –legal and
social rights for women; and third-wave feminism mainly deals with reactions to the previous
failure movements in achieving their goals.

First-wave Feminism

The first-wave feminism affected the entire world. This movement fought for legal issues,
primarily to achieve women's suffrage. The Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed in
Britain for women's right to vote over the age of 30 who owned a house and finally extended to
those over the age of 21 in 1928. It also passed in the United States in 1919 and in New Zealand
in 1893 and "Universal suffrage was finally granted in 1936."[6] Some first-wave prominent
leaders like Elizabeth Candy Stanton, Lucy Stone, Lucretia Mott, and Susan B. Anthony were
strongly influenced by the Quakers' thought that pushed them and campaigned for the abolition
of slavery before that of national women suffrage.

Second-wave Feminism

The second-wave feminism (the 1960s – 1980s) mainly focused on social political and cultural
inequalities to liberate from them. "One of the most urgent concerns of second-wave feminism
has been a woman's rights over her own body."[7] Betty Friedan, in her book, The Feminism
Mystiique (1963), criticized the idea that women could find fulfilment only through childbearing
and homemaking and this is noted as the rising of the Second-wave feminism. Radical feminism
broke out in the United States with the idea to oppose gender-role and women's oppression to
overthrow the patriarchy. During this period, a slightly different popular movement, black
feminism or black womanist's movement, emerged in the 1970s striving against suppression
from sexism, racism, and class oppression from white women for they hold a completely lower
distinct position in the power structure to the white women.

Third-wave Feminism

The third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s till this present time as a response to the
previous waves' movements' failure in achieving their goals and freshly focus on the nullification
of gender-role stereotypes and amplifying women's movements to bring women's equality to all
classes, races, and cultures. The third-wave feminism differs from second-wave feminism due to
three tactical approaches that responded to the theoretical problems in the second wave in the
1980s as follows:

First, in response to the collapse of the category of "women," the third wave foregrounds
personal narratives that illustrate an intersectional and multi-perspectival version of feminism.
Second, as a consequence of the rise of postmodernism, third-wavers embrace multivocality over
synthesis and action over theoretical justification. Finally, in response to the divisiveness of the
sex wars, third-wave feminism emphasizes an inclusive and nonjudgmental approach that refuses
to police the boundaries of feminist politics. In other words, third-wave feminism rejects grand
narratives for feminism that operates as the hermeneutics of critique within a wide array of
discursive locations and replaces attempts at unity with a dynamic and welcoming politics of
coalition. [8]

Feminist Ideologies

The history of feminism simply narrates the ideologies and movements of women to achieve
gender equality. Feminism is comprised of political, social and cultural women's movements to
fight and defend for equality of women's rights and to bring the sexist operation to an end and
achieve gender equality. It does not mean the feminineness of gender or "the masculinization of
women, but rather their dignification and emancipation."[9] It is neither rejection of men nor
women's power replacing men's power. It is mostly associated with various issues like
individual, political, social, and economic freedom or independence to reproduce or abort a
child, divorce, attain equal pay, education and put all domestic violence, stereotypes, racism, and
sexism away. [10]

Feminist theorists have written extensively about patriarchy as a primary cause of women's
oppression. Shulamith Firestone, a radical-libertarian feminist, states that patriarchy results from
biological gender inequalities which were functioning as a system to oppress women. According
to a prominent feminist historian, Gerda Lerner, man is the master of the sexual-reproductive
functions of women which is the primary cause and result of patriarchy. [11] On the other hand,
feminism is the highest women's rights advocate; it propels the move toward gender hierarchy
dismissal to abolish the deep rift between the two genders. [12]

Feminism includes some groups but would like to categorize them broadly into secular and
religious feminism. Some reasons, thoughts, and ideologies behind the feminist movement
according to Rosemary Putnam Tong are:

"Feminist thought is kaleidoscopic; the reader's preliminary impression may be one of chaos and
confusion, of dissension and disagreement, of fragmentation and splintering. But a closer
inspection will always reveal new visions, new structures, and new relationships for personal and
political life, all of which will be different tomorrow than today. What I most treasure about
feminist thought, then, is that although it has a beginning, it has no end; and because it has no
predetermined end, feminist thought permits each woman to think her thoughts. Not the truth but
the truths will set women free."[13]

Feminism interprets all things [especially patriarchy] from a woman's perspective. For this
reason, the feminist theory longs to understand gender dissimilarities which focus on gender
politics, power relations, and sexuality: discrimination, stereotyping, oppression, etc. Some
prominent feminists hold that patriarchy is the root cause of harm as it evokes male dominance
over women within socio-eco-political systems. But the remedy for the male dominance system
is by exposing and critically analyzing the manifestations of patriarchy. [14] Therefore, many
feminist scholars and activists plan for the deconstruction of the patriarchal system by
repositioning or changing the culture.
The three main kinds of feminist discourses according to Judith Lorber's typology are: gender
reform feminism – which emphasizes developing the idea of individual rights as it is rooted in
the liberal political philosophy; gender resistant feminism – which emphasizes specific
behaviours and group dynamics; and gender revolution feminisms – it seeks to deconstruct the
concept and analyzing the cultural reproduction of inequalities. [15] Over the years, several
subtypes of feminist ideology have developed. Some are as follows:

Mainstream Feminism

Mainstream Feminism is rooted in first-wave feminism which identifies feminist ideologies and
movements focusing on rights by political and legal reformation. It is also referred back to as
white feminism or bourgeois feminism by Angela Davis, but its fight was not associated mainly
with racism and classism action.

Black Feminism

Black Feminism fights against sexism, racism and class oppression not only from the male
dominion system but even within white women themselves. The feminists ignores racism while
striving to overcome sexism and class oppression which affects a large number of people,
especially black women which led to the coining of The National Black Feminist Organization
(NBFO) in 1973 by Florynce Kennedy, Margaret Sloan, and Doris Wright. [16] One of the black
feminist theories, Walker's Womanism, emerged next to the feminist movements mainly led by a
white woman, Alice Walker, who pointed out the different experiences of oppression of the
black women from the white women. Angela Davis articulates an argument focused on the
convergence of race, gender, and class in her book, Women, Race, and Class (1981). [17]

Liberal Feminism

Liberal Feminism asserts two gender equality by focusing on women's ability in society to depict
and maintains their gender equality. Their ideologies lie behind issues like reproductive and
abortion rights, sexual harassment, voting, education, "equal pay for equal work," and bringing
to light the frequency of sexual and domestic violence against women. [18]

Individual Feminism

Individual feminism aims to eliminate privileges like class and gender to ensure individuals
attain equal rights by changing the legal system. Therefore, they encourage women to take full
responsibility for their own lives and against any government in case they interfere with the
choices that adults make with their bodies, contending that such interference creates a coercive
hierarchy. [19]

Radical Feminism

Radical feminism considers that an existing male-based dominance is used as the defining
feature of women's oppression that brought gender inequality and quelling the women which
could be reformed in any significant way unless completely uprooting and completely rebooting
[or reconstructing] the existing society is done to achieve their goals. [20]
Separatist Feminism

Separatist Feminism believes in gender disparities and therefore, cannot expect that men can
make positive contributions to the feminist movement. According to Marilyn Frye, separatist
feminism is the "separation of various sorts or modes from men and from institutions,
relationships, roles and activities that are male-defined, male-dominated, and operating for the
benefit of males and the maintenance of male privilege—this separation being initiated or
maintained, at will, by women."[21]

Socialist Feminism

Socialist Feminism views gender inequality in the workplace and the domestic sphere makes
women inferior to men. Therefore, the patriarchal system exploits and devalues women by
confining them into a specific sphere like childcare, prostitution, midwives and so on.

Marxist Feminism

Marxist Feminism believes that class oppression is the determining factor of gender inequalities.
Therefore, Marx believed and said that gender oppression would still be remaining until class
oppression is overcome. On the other hand, class oppression is the key to sustaining or removing
gender oppression in any society.

Theology Feminism

Feminist theology reconsiders all aspects of their religions (like scriptures, practices, traditions,
and theologies), from feminist perspectives and aims not only to include feminist ideas in a
constructed theology but also to transform "the theological concepts, methods, language and
imagery into a more holistic theology as a means and an expression of the liberation
struggle"[22] to include women among the clergy and religious authorities by studying images of
women in the religion's sacred texts.

Christian Feminism

Christian feminism intends to bring a clear realization of Christianity by interpreting the

Scripture with gender equality. It is because they agree and promote the historical negligence of
equality that God does not determine gender biologically. The standpoint of Christian feminism
mainly draws from the historic-based texts and teachings of other Christians and of other
religions because they understood that the contribution and acknowledgement of the value of
women bring a good understanding of Christianity.

Jewish Feminism

Jewish feminism is a movement intended to improve all aspects of women within Judaism even
up to experiencing leadership in their religious activities and promoting feminist languages in
general (prayer book and service). It is due to the Jewish women's exemption from all-man
prayer groups, being relieved from positive time-bound mitzvot (620 commands comprise 613
commandments in Torah and 7 rabbinic commandments), and they were neither able to witness
nor initiate divorce in the court of the Jewish religion.

Islamic Feminism

Islamic feminism aims for full gender equality in the private and public spheres. Therefore,
"Islamic feminism [and some educated Muslim women] advocates women's rights, gender
equality, and social justice grounded in an Islamic framework."[23] Islamic feminism is
anchored to the Quran [as its central text], but interprets the religious texts from a feminist
perspective to articulate women's role in society.

Feminist Hermeneutics
Feminist hermeneutics is the interpretation or explanation of anything from a feminist
perspective to achieve women's equality. The existence of the feminist movement (i.e. feminism)
is due to the recognition or interpretation of the great inequities faced by women within and
outside the church. Feminism fights for the alteration of personal relationships and beyond, to
maintain the flourishment of all people. But they were conscious in their biblical interpretation
that the Bible was written by men, for men, about men and their interests. Due to such
consciousness, the feminists were filled with a set of questions such as: where were the women
and what were their experiences? How will they receive what was being said about them? How
will they know about their historic work records? Therefore, they are holding a women-
experiences perspective and the inequities that bring women down by critically analyzing the
social, cultural and historical structure in the foreground of their biblical interpretation.

Feminist hermeneutics argued against the patriarchal interpretations of the Bible based on the
views of how the Bible is applied in Israel's culture of that time and our contemporary culture.
The feminist biblical exegesis of the Bible produces the egalitarian reading that man and woman
have equal importance, but different roles. Also, they reclaim the Bible by reinterpreting and
reminding of the women's positive passages to the readers that "not only to deconstruct but also
to reclaim and reconstruct biblical history as women's history, in which women were central and
active agents in creating religious heritage."[24]

Feminist Biblical Hermeneutics

The word hermeneutics simply deals with the principles of exegesis or is simply explanatory.
Therefore, "The feminist biblical hermeneutics is an attempt to read the Bible from women's
perspective"[25] or "it is the process of developing a critical and constructive reading of
Scripture that advocates women as full members of the Christian church."[26] Hence, the
interpretation of the Bible in women centeredness is to achieve women's liberation and equality
by discovering and uncovering the presence and absence of women throughout the history of the
Christian church. On the other hand, it is "the feminist theologians who developed some new
ways of reading the history of the church and all theological texts from the perspective of
women."[27]
The commonly-accepted patriarchal interpretation of the Scripture highly provoked the thoughts
of various women in the 19th century. Sarah Grimké was one of those who voiced scepticism of
the male ability to interpret passages related to women without gender bias. Therefore, she
suggested alternative hermeneutical-translation of women-related passages to be viewed as not a
universal command. [28]Elizabeth Cady Stanton published The Woman's Bible by using
Grimke's criticism of biblical sources which proposed a feminist reading of the OT and NT. The
feminist theory elaborated this tendency, which stigmatized the patriarchal Judeo-Christian
tradition. [29] Feminist biblical hermeneutics can be classified into liberal and evangelical
biblical hermeneutics.

Liberal Feminist Hermeneutics

Liberal feminists accepted the Bible as authoritative in a limited way. They kept the authority of
the Bible subordinated to the interpreter due to the assertion that some particular passages'
authorship is questionable to them as they do not fully accept the Scripture as authoritative. This
makes the Bible twistable like a plastic text into any direction according to the interpreter's
wishes. [30] The liberal feminist theology has a goal of achieving liberation from lovelessness
and patriarchal bias of the society rather than saving souls from hell. They strongly based their
theology on women's experience as a starting point for theology by following the historical-
critical method to determine which Scripture texts are acceptable and which are not. [31]

Some liberal feminists stand against any theology that does not promote women's needs and
feelings. Therefore, they aimed to rework some biblical material that does not promote women
(or is hostile to women) to bring out liberating themes for abused women. [32]

Evangelical Feminist Hermeneutics

Unlike liberal feminism, evangelical feminism accepted the Bible fully as authoritative, inerrant,
and verbally inspired. Therefore, they defended the authority, clarity and inspiration of the
Scripture. Moreover, they accepted the principle that Scripture must be allowed to interpret
Scripture even though some evangelical feminists disagree with the traditional interpretation of
particular passages where men's and women's relationships are mentioned. Evangelical feminists
advocate reader-sensitive hermeneutics as a realistic way of reading the Bible. Therefore, some
evangelical feminists seek to clarify some particular vague passages regarding the role of women
by seeking to reconstruct the historical context of the Bible passage. Evangelical feminists also
can be further classified into two main leading groups such as egalitarian and complementation.
Both believe the Bible is God's Word but differ in their interpretation of some passages. [33]

Egalitarianism

The egalitarians believe that there is no distinction in status, roles or functions between men and
women as they understand that the Bible teaches us about fundamental manhood and
womanhood equality. Therefore, mainly based on Galatians 3:28, they view that any human,
male or female, can serve God through any function with their giftedness in the church by
holding any offices. It is because they viewed that "women are fully equal with men in creation
and redemption as well as in function in the family and the community… therefore have the
privilege of the same range of service and leadership"[34] that is, the hierarchical gender roles
which are formed after the fall is fully restored in Christ as His redemptive work eliminates
gender-distinct roles in the church [and family]. Thus, egalitarianism allows women to take up a
greater variety of roles, such as members of the clergy or family structures. Therefore, their view
became a movement to safeguard women's rights and some women serve God as pastors, elders,
deacons, etc.

Complementarianism

Complementarians are those who hold a theological view that men and women in the church
complement one another with their giftedness and calling they received for they hold that women
are fully equal to men in status before God though they have different roles and responsibilities
in marriage life and religious headship. [35] They based their theological view on what Paul said
in 1 Timothy 2 and 1 Corinthians 14 in that they do not agree that women should hold offices
like an elder, pastor, etc. but could complement her husband like Eve complemented Adam
perfectly in the ways God intended. It is because they strongly hold the essentialist view of
gender roles that is, that the distinct gender roles of mankind are the original design of God since
creation (i.e. even before the fall and have an all-time application). Therefore, females are
disallowed from being members of the clergy and heads of the family.

Feminist Biblical Hermeneutical Approaches

The feminists regard the Bible as one of the most crucial tools for their struggle to achieve
liberation in all aspects of their life, especially from within a religious circle. Therefore, they
brought at least five new hermeneutical approaches in seeking new directions to achieve their
goals.

The Rejectionist Approach

Liberal feminists like Carol P. Christ, the foremother of the Goddess movement led the Goddess
Pilgrimage to Crete, and Mary Daly, an American radical lesbian feminist philosopher, academic
and theologian, reject the authority of the Bible as they see the Bible as oppressive to women
because, according to them, the Bible is not related to women's experience and is hopelessly
patriarchal. Thus, they view the entire Judeo-Christian tradition as completely male-oriented,
corrupted, sinful, and need to be rejected. [36]

The Loyalist Approach

Egalitarians like Elaine Storkey, Virginia Ramey Mollenkott, Mary Evans, and Katherine Clark
propagate with an exegetical approach with the idea of mutual respect that is gender equality
because they accept the Bible as God's Word, authoritative and cannot by nature be oppressive to
women for its oppressiveness lies with the interpretive tradition, not with the text. 42 Therefore,
their approach to the Bible is exegetical.

The Sublimations Approach

The Sublimations Approach is theological, searching for the glorification of the eternal feminine
in the Biblical and extra-biblical symbolism and imagery, looking for a canon beyond the canon.
[37] Some feminists like Rosemary Radford Reuther and Chung Hyun Kyung hold this
liberationist hermeneutical approach with a non-dualistic approach. Some eco-feminists were
wishing to affirm not only women but also nature. [38]

The Revisionist Approach

The Revisionist Approach is historical; therefore, they do not reject the canon, but as they see the
Bible as patriarchal, they try to separate the content of the Scripture from that of the patriarchal
either by recovery or reconstruction. Prominent feminists' like Phyllis Trible hold a recovery
approach while Elizabeth Schussler Fiorenza holds a reconstruction approach. They were
looking at extra-canonical sources to reconstruct the history to help us understand what the
message of Jesus Christ was all about. [39]

The Liberationist Approach

The Liberationists see the primal message of the Bible as a liberation message. Therefore,
feminists like Elsa Tamez and Letty M. Russell read and interpret the Bible from the perspective
of liberation or the perspective of the subaltern. [40] The liberationists view that "whatever
diminishes or denies the full humanity of women must be presumed not to reflect the
divine….and what does promote the full humanity of women is of the Holy."[41]

Chapter Summary
Human civilization is achieved with the involvement of men and women, but history has told us
there is no equivalent existence, but the depravity of women by male dominion. As time passed
on, women were conscious of their rights and fought for equality (feminism) by uprooting
patriarchy, [the main factor of gender bias]. They began the fight individually or in groups in
some local areas time immemorial, but mainly from the enlightenment period to deconstruct the
patriarchal system by repositioning or changing the culture and labelling themselves with
different names. [or naming themselves with different labels]. They fight for various kinds of
goals intending to achieve women's equality rights in general; some goals are achieved while
other goals are continuing to be pursued until this day.

In their movement, their ideologies are mainly based on experiences to bring the sexist operation
to an end. Feminism is the highest women's rights advocate (i.e. any person who fights for
women's equality rights) to fight for their goal. They were fighting not only in the secular world
and also within Christian circles and affecting Christian theology in some aspects with their
methods of biblical interpretation. Because few feminists accept the Bible as authoritative, their
interpretations are based on their ideologies that allow any possible ways to achieve gender
equality within the church and society.
[1] Philip Kennedy, A Modern Introduction to Theology: New Questions for Old Beliefs
(London: I. B. Tauris, 2006), 201.

[2] George Ritzer and J. Michael Ryan, The Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology (Malden, Mass:
Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), 441–442.

[3] April A Gordon, Transforming Capitalism and Patriarchy: Gender and Development in
Africa (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1996), 18.

[4] Harold D Fishbein, Peer Prejudice and Discrimination: The Origins of Prejudice (Mahwah,
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Association, 2002), 27.

[5] Jonathan Dewald, ed., Europe 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World (New
York: Thomson Gale, 2004), 63-66.

[6] Margaret Walters, Feminism: A Very Short Introduction, Reprint edition. (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2006), 120.

[7] Walters, Feminism, 110.

[8] Allyson Julé and Bettina Tate Pedersen, Facing Challenges: Feminism in Christian Higher
Education and Other Places (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Press, 2015), 24.

[9] Oliver Janz, ed., Gender History in a Transnational Perspective: Networks, Biographies,
Gender Orders (New York: Berghahn Books, 2014), 54.

[10] Janet Price and Margrit Shildrick, eds., Feminist Theory and the Body: A Reader
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999).

[11] Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy (New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1995), 8–11.

[12] Osborne, Feminism: Pocket Essential Ideas, 12.

[13] Rosemarie Tong, Feminist Thought: A Comprehensive Introduction, Reprint. (London:

Routledge, 1997), 238.

[14] R. J. Barry Jones, Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy., vol. 3 (New
York: Routledge, 2001), 1197–1198.
[15] Judith Lorber, The Variety of Feminisms and Their Contributions to Gender Equality
(Oldenburg: Bibliotheks-und informationssystem der Universität Oldenburg, 1997), 8–37.

[16]Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics
of Empowerment (New York; London: Routledge, 2000), 152–175.

[17] Steve Garner, Racisms: An Introduction (Los Angeles: Sage, 2010), 39.

[18] Bell Hooks, Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center (Boston: South End Press, 1984), 6–
8.

[19] Wendy McElroy, ed., Liberty for Women: Freedom and Feminism in the Twenty-First
Century (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2002).

[20] Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975, American

culture 3 (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1989), 416.

[21] Diana Tietjens Meyers, Feminist Social Thought: A Reader (New York: Routledge, 1997),
406–414.

[22] Natalie K. Watson, Feminist Theology: Guides to Theology (Grand Rapids, Mich.:
Eerdmans, 2003),3.

[23] Suheir Abu Oksa Daoud, Palestinian Women and Politics in Israel (Gainesville, Fla.:
Florida University Press, 2009), 104. Also see the research paper (PhD) of Mohammad Iqbal,
Islamic Feminism Versus Western Feminism: Clash of Religion and Culture, pg. 4. Maulana
Azad National Urdu University Hyderabad.

[24] Annette Bourland Huizenga, 1-2 Timothy, Titus (Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press,
2016), xxxi.

[25] Christina Manohar, Feminist Critique and Reconstruction (Delhi: ISPCK, 2005), 44.

[26] Watson, Feminist Theology: Guides to Theology, 5.

[27] Watson, Feminist Theology: Guides to Theology, 2.

[28] Pamela R Durso, The Power of Woman: The Life and Writings of Sarah Moore Grimke
(Macon: Mercer University Press, 2003), 130–138.

[29] Ginette Castro and Elizabeth Loverde-Bagwell, American Feminism: A Contemporary

History (New York; London: New York University Press, 1990), 31.

[30]Thomas J Fricke, "What Is the Feminist Hermeneutic? An Analysis of Feminist

Interpretation of the Bible" (Presentation presented at the Mankato Pastoral Conference at

Trinity Lutheran Church, Belle Plaine, Minnesota, October 1, 1991), 1–5.

[31] Fricke, "What Is the Feminist Hermeneutic? An Analysis of Feminist Interpretation of

the Bible," 1.

[32] Ibid., 3.

[33] Fricke, "What Is the Feminist Hermeneutic? An Analysis of Feminist Interpretation of

the Bible," 5–9.

[34] Paul P. Enns, The Moody Handbook of Theology(Chicago: Moody Press, 1989), 46.

[35] Enns, The Moody Handbook of Theology, 46.

[36] Manohar, Feminist Critique and Reconstruction, 35. 42 Carolyn Osiek, "The Feminist and
the Bible: Hermeneutical Alternatives," HTS:

teologiese studies = theological studies53.4 (1997): 961–962.

[37] Carolyn Osiek, "The Feminist and the Bible: Hermeneutical Alternatives," HTS:

teologiese studies = theological studies 53.4 (1997): 964.

[38] Manohar, Feminist Critique and Reconstruction, 35.

[39] Manohar, Feminist Critique and Reconstruction, 35.

[40] Manohar, Feminist Critique and Reconstruction, 36.

[41] Carolyn Osiek, "The Feminist and the Bible: Hermeneutical Alternatives," HTS:

teologiese studies = theological studies 53.4 (2000), 966.