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PYTHON NOTES
Python Introduction
What is Python?
Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van
Rossum, and released in 1991.

It is used for:

 web development (server-side),

 software development,
 mathematics,
 system scripting.

What can Python do?

 Python can be used on a server to create web applications.
 Python can be used alongside software to create workflows.
 Python can connect to database systems. It can also read and modify
files.
 Python can be used to handle big data and perform complex
mathematics.
 Python can be used for rapid prototyping, or for production-ready
software development.

Why Python?
 Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi,
etc).
 Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
 Python has syntax that allows developers to write programs with fewer
lines than some other programming languages.
 Python runs on an interpreter system, meaning that code can be
executed as soon as it is written. This means that prototyping can be very
quick.
 Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-oriented way or a
functional way.

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Good to know
 The most recent major version of Python is Python 3, which we shall be
using in this tutorial. However, Python 2, although not being updated with
anything other than security updates, is still quite popular.
 In this tutorial Python will be written in a text editor. It is possible to write
Python in an Integrated Development Environment, such as Thonny,
Pycharm, Netbeans or Eclipse which are particularly useful when
managing larger collections of Python files.

Python Syntax compared to other programming languages

 Python was designed for readability, and has some similarities to the
English language with influence from mathematics.
 Python uses new lines to complete a command, as opposed to other
programming languages which often use semicolons or parentheses.
 Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope; such as
the scope of loops, functions and classes. Other programming languages
often use curly-brackets for this purpose.

Example
print("Hello, World!")

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Python Syntax
Execute Python Syntax
As we learned in the previous page, Python syntax can be executed by writing
directly in the Command Line:

>>> print("Hello, World!")

Hello, World!

Or by creating a python file on the server, using the .py file extension, and
running it in the Command Line:

C:\Users\Your Name>python myfile.py

Python Indentation
Indentation refers to the spaces at the beginning of a code line.

Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for readability

only, the indentation in Python is very important.

Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.

Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

Python will give you an error if you skip the indentation:

Example
Syntax Error:

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

The number of spaces is up to you as a programmer, the most common use is

four, but it has to be at least one.

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Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

You have to use the same number of spaces in the same block of code,
otherwise Python will give you an error:

Example
Syntax Error:

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
print("Five is greater than two!")

Python Comments
Comments can be used to explain Python code.

Comments can be used to make the code more readable.

Comments can be used to prevent execution when testing code.

Creating a Comment
Comments starts with a #, and Python will ignore them:

Example
#This is a comment
print("Hello, World!")

Comments can be placed at the end of a line, and Python will ignore the rest of
the line:

Example
print("Hello, World!") #This is a comment

A comment does not have to be text that explains the code, it can also be used
to prevent Python from executing code:

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Example
#print("Hello, World!")
print("Cheers, Mate!")

Multi Line Comments

Python does not really have a syntax for multi line comments.

To add a multiline comment you could insert a # for each line:

Example
#This is a comment
#written in
#more than just one line
print("Hello, World!")

Or, not quite as intended, you can use a multiline string.

Since Python will ignore string literals that are not assigned to a variable, you
can add a multiline string (triple quotes) in your code, and place your comment
inside it:

Example
"""
This is a comment
written in
more than just one line
"""
print("Hello, World!")

As long as the string is not assigned to a variable, Python will read the code, but
then ignore it, and you have made a multiline comment.

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Python Variables
Variables are containers for storing data values.

Creating Variables
Python has no command for declaring a variable.

A variable is created the moment you first assign a value to it.

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)

Variables do not need to be declared with any particular type, and can even
change type after they have been set.

Example
x = 4 # x is of type int
x = "Sally" # x is now of type str
print(x)

Casting
If you want to specify the data type of a variable, this can be done with casting.

Example
x = str(3) # x will be '3'
y = int(3) # y will be 3
z = float(3) # z will be 3.3

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Get the Type

You can get the data type of a variable with the type() function.

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(type(x))
print(type(y))

Single or Double Quotes?

String variables can be declared either by using single or double quotes:

Example
x = "John"
# is the same as
x = 'John'

Case-Sensitive
Variable names are case-sensitive.

Example
This will create two variables:

a = 4
A = "Sally"
#A will not overwrite a

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Python - Variable Names

A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name
(age, carname, total_volume). Rules for Python variables:

 A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character

 A variable name cannot start with a number
 A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and
underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _ )
 Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different
variables)

Example
Legal variable names:

myvar = "John"
my_var = "John"
_my_var = "John"
myVar = "John"
MYVAR = "John"
myvar2 = "John"
Example
Illegal variable names:

2myvar = "John"
my-var = "John"
my var = "John"
Remember that variable names are case-sensitive

Multi Words Variable Names

Variable names with more than one word can be difficult to read.

There are several techniques you can use to make them more readable:

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Camel Case
Each word, except the first, starts with a capital letter:

myVariableName = "John"

Pascal Case
Each word starts with a capital letter:

MyVariableName = "John"

Snake Case
Each word is separated by an underscore character:

my_variable_name = "John"

Python Variables - Assign Multiple Values

Many Values to Multiple Variables
Python allows you to assign values to multiple variables in one line:

Example
x, y, z = "Orange", "Banana", "Cherry"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Note: Make sure the number of variables matches the number of values, or
else you will get an error.

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One Value to Multiple Variables

And you can assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:

Example
x = y = z = "Orange"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)

Unpack a Collection
If you have a collection of values in a list, tuple etc. Python allows you to
extract the values into variables. This is called unpacking.

Example
Unpack a list:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

x, y, z = fruits
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)

Python - Output Variables

Output Variables
The Python print() function is often used to output variables.

Example
x = "Python is awesome"
print(x)

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In the print() function, you output multiple variables, separated by a comma:

Example
x = "Python"
y = "is"
z = "awesome"
print(x, y, z)

You can also use the + operator to output multiple variables:

Example
x = "Python "
y = "is "
z = "awesome"
print(x + y + z)

Notice the space character after "Python " and "is ", without them the result
would be "Pythonisawesome".

For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:

Example
x = 5
y = 10
print(x + y)

In the print() function, when you try to combine a string and a number with
the + operator, Python will give you an error:

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x + y)

The best way to output multiple variables in the print() function is to separate
them with commas, which even support different data types:

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x, y)

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Python - Global Variables

Global Variables
Variables that are created outside of a function (as in all of the examples above)
are known as global variables.

Global variables can be used by everyone, both inside of functions and outside.

Example
Create a variable outside of a function, and use it inside the function

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()

If you create a variable with the same name inside a function, this variable will
be local, and can only be used inside the function. The global variable with the
same name will remain as it was, global and with the original value.

Example
Create a variable inside a function, with the same name as the global variable

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
x = "fantastic"
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)

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The global Keyword

Normally, when you create a variable inside a function, that variable is local,
and can only be used inside that function.

To create a global variable inside a function, you can use the global keyword.

Example
If you use the global keyword, the variable belongs to the global scope:

def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)

Also, use the global keyword if you want to change a global variable inside a
function.

Example
To change the value of a global variable inside a function, refer to the variable
by using the global keyword:

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)

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Python Data Types

Built-in Data Types
In programming, data type is an important concept.

Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do different
things.

Python has the following data types built-in by default, in these categories:

Text Type: str

Numeric Types: int, float, complex

Sequence Types: list, tuple, range

Mapping Type: dict

Set Types: set, frozenset

Boolean Type: bool

Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview

None Type: NoneType

Getting the Data Type

You can get the data type of any object by using the type() function:

Example
Print the data type of the variable x:

x = 5
print(type(x))

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Setting the Data Type

In Python, the data type is set when you assign a value to a variable:

Example Data Type

x = "Hello World" str

x = 20 int

x = 20.5 float

x = 1j complex

x = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"] list

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry") tuple

x = range(6) range

x = {"name" : "John", "age" : 36} dict

x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"} set

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x = frozenset({"apple", "banana", "cherry"}) frozenset

x = True bool

x = b"Hello" bytes

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview

x = None NoneType

Setting the Specific Data Type

If you want to specify the data type, you can use the following constructor
functions:

Example Data Type

x = str("Hello World") str

x = int(20) int

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x = float(20.5) float

x = complex(1j) complex

x = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) list

x = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) tuple

x = range(6) range

x = dict(name="John", age=36) dict

x = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) set

x = frozenset(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) frozenset

x = bool(5) bool

x = bytes(5) bytes

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview

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Python Numbers
There are three numeric types in Python:

 int
 float
 complex

Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:

Example
x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type() function:

Example
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Int
Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of
unlimited length.

Example
Integers:

x = 1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

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Float
Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing
one or more decimals.

Example
Floats:

x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Float can also be scientific numbers with an "e" to indicate the power of 10.

Example
Floats:

x = 35e3
y = 12E4
z = -87.7e100

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Complex
Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:

Example
Complex:

x = 3+5j
y = 5j
z = -5j

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
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Type Conversion
You can convert from one type to another with the int(), float(),
and complex() methods:

Example
Convert from one type to another:

x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

#convert from int to float:

a = float(x)

#convert from float to int:

b = int(y)

#convert from int to complex:

c = complex(x)

print(a)
print(b)
print(c)

print(type(a))
print(type(b))
print(type(c))
Note: You cannot convert complex numbers into another number type.

Random Number
Python does not have a random() function to make a random number, but
Python has a built-in module called random that can be used to make random
numbers:

Example
Import the random module, and display a random number between 1 and 9:

import random
print(random.randrange(1, 10))

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Python Casting
Specify a Variable Type
There may be times when you want to specify a type on to a variable. This can
be done with casting. Python is an object-orientated language, and as such it
uses classes to define data types, including its primitive types.

Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:

 int() - constructs an integer number from an integer literal, a float literal

(by removing all decimals), or a string literal (providing the string
represents a whole number)
 float() - constructs a float number from an integer literal, a float literal
or a string literal (providing the string represents a float or an integer)
 str() - constructs a string from a wide variety of data types, including
strings, integer literals and float literals

Example
Integers:

x = int(1) # x will be 1
y = int(2.8) # y will be 2
z = int("3") # z will be 3

Example
Floats:

x = float(1) # x will be 1.0

y = float(2.8) # y will be 2.8
z = float("3") # z will be 3.0
w = float("4.2") # w will be 4.2

Example
Strings:

x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'

y = str(2) # y will be '2'
z = str(3.0) # z will be '3.0'

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Python Strings
Strings
Strings in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or double
quotation marks.

'hello' is the same as "hello".

You can display a string literal with the print() function:

Example
print("Hello")
print('Hello')

Assign String to a Variable

Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by an
equal sign and the string:

Example
a = "Hello"
print(a)

Multiline Strings
You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:

Example
You can use three double quotes:

a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)

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Or three single quotes:

Example
a = '''Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.'''
print(a)
Note: in the result, the line breaks are inserted at the same position as in the
code.

Strings are Arrays

Like many other popular programming languages, strings in Python are arrays
of bytes representing unicode characters.

However, Python does not have a character data type, a single character is
simply a string with a length of 1.

Square brackets can be used to access elements of the string.

Example
Get the character at position 1 (remember that the first character has the
position 0):

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a[1])

Looping Through a String

Since strings are arrays, we can loop through the characters in a string, with
a for loop.

Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)

Learn more about For Loops in our Python For Loops chapter.

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String Length
To get the length of a string, use the len() function.

Example
The len() function returns the length of a string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(len(a))

Check String
To check if a certain phrase or character is present in a string, we can use the
keyword in.

Example
Check if "free" is present in the following text:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("free" in txt)

Use it in an if statement:

Example
Print only if "free" is present:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

if "free" in txt:
print("Yes, 'free' is present.")

Check if NOT
To check if a certain phrase or character is NOT present in a string, we can use
the keyword not in.

Example
Check if "expensive" is NOT present in the following text:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("expensive" not in txt)
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Use it in an if statement:

Example
print only if "expensive" is NOT present:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

if "expensive" not in txt:
print("No, 'expensive' is NOT present.")

2.Python - Slicing Strings

Slicing
You can return a range of characters by using the slice syntax.

Specify the start index and the end index, separated by a colon, to return a part
of the string.

Example
Get the characters from position 2 to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:5])
Note: The first character has index 0.

Slice From the Start

By leaving out the start index, the range will start at the first character:

Example
Get the characters from the start to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[:5])

Slice To the End

By leaving out the end index, the range will go to the end:

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Example
Get the characters from position 2, and all the way to the end:

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:])

Negative Indexing
Use negative indexes to start the slice from the end of the string:
Example
Get the characters:

From: "o" in "World!" (position -5)

To, but not included: "d" in "World!" (position -2):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[-5:-2])

3.Python - Modify Strings

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.

Upper Case
Example
The upper() method returns the string in upper case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.upper())

Lower Case
Example
The lower() method returns the string in lower case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.lower())
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Remove Whitespace
Whitespace is the space before and/or after the actual text, and very often you
want to remove this space.

Example
The strip() method removes any whitespace from the beginning or the end:

a = " Hello, World! "

print(a.strip()) # returns "Hello, World!"

Replace String
Example
The replace() method replaces a string with another string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.replace("H", "J"))

Split String
The split() method returns a list where the text between the specified separator
becomes the list items.

Example
The split() method splits the string into substrings if it finds instances of the
separator:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.split(",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']

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4.Python - String Concatenation

String Concatenation
To concatenate, or combine, two strings you can use the + operator.

Example
Merge variable a with variable b into variable c:

a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c = a + b
print(c)
Example
To add a space between them, add a " ":

a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c = a + " " + b
print(c)

5.Python - Format - Strings

As we learned in the Python Variables chapter, we cannot combine strings and
numbers like this:

Example
age = 36
txt = "My name is John, I am " + age
print(txt)

But we can combine strings and numbers by using the format() method!

The format() method takes the passed arguments, formats them, and places
them in the string where the placeholders {} are:

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Example
Use the format() method to insert numbers into strings:

age = 36
txt = "My name is John, and I am {}"
print(txt.format(age))

The format() method takes unlimited number of arguments, and are placed into
the respective placeholders:

Example
quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49.95
myorder = "I want {} pieces of item {} for {} dollars."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))

You can use index numbers {0} to be sure the arguments are placed in the
correct placeholders:

Example
quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49.95
myorder = "I want to pay {2} dollars for {0} pieces of item {1}."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price)

6.Python - Escape Character

To insert characters that are illegal in a string, use an escape character.

An escape character is a backslash \ followed by the character you want to

insert.

An example of an illegal character is a double quote inside a string that is

surrounded by double quotes:

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Example
You will get an error if you use double quotes inside a string that is surrounded
by double quotes:

txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north."

To fix this problem, use the escape character \":

Example
The escape character allows you to use double quotes when you normally would
not be allowed:

txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north."

Escape Characters
Other escape characters used in Python:

Code Result Try it

\' Single Quote

\\ Backslash

\n New Line

\r Carriage Return

\t Tab

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\b Backspace

\f Form Feed

\ooo Octal value

\xhh Hex value

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Python Booleans
Booleans represent one of two values: True or False.

Boolean Values
In programming you often need to know if an expression is True or False.

You can evaluate any expression in Python, and get one of two
answers, True or False.

When you compare two values, the expression is evaluated and Python returns
the Boolean answer:

Example
print(10 > 9)
print(10 == 9)
print(10 < 9)

When you run a condition in an if statement, Python returns True or False:

Example
Print a message based on whether the condition is True or False:

a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Evaluate Values and Variables

The bool() function allows you to evaluate any value, and give
you True or False in return,

Example
Evaluate a string and a number:

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print(bool("Hello"))
print(bool(15))

Example
Evaluate two variables:

x = "Hello"
y = 15

print(bool(x))
print(bool(y))

Most Values are True

Almost any value is evaluated to True if it has some sort of content.

Any string is True, except empty strings.

Any number is True, except 0.

Any list, tuple, set, and dictionary are True, except empty ones.

Example
The following will return True:

bool("abc")
bool(123)
bool(["apple", "cherry", "banana"])

Some Values are False

In fact, there are not many values that evaluate to False, except empty values,
such as (), [], {}, "", the number 0, and the value None. And of course the
value False evaluates to False.

Example
The following will return False:

bool(False)
bool(None)
bool(0)
bool("")
bool(())

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bool([])
bool({})

One more value, or object in this case, evaluates to False, and that is if you
have an object that is made from a class with a __len__ function that
returns 0 or False:

Example
class myclass():
def __len__(self):
return 0
myobj = myclass()
print(bool(myobj))

Functions can Return a Boolean

You can create functions that returns a Boolean Value:

Example
Print the answer of a function:

def myFunction() :
return True
print(myFunction())

You can execute code based on the Boolean answer of a function:

Example
Print "YES!" if the function returns True, otherwise print "NO!":

def myFunction() :
return True

if myFunction():
print("YES!")
else:
print("NO!")

Python also has many built-in functions that return a boolean value, like
the isinstance() function, which can be used to determine if an object is of a
certain data type:
Example
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Check if an object is an integer or not:
x = 200
print(isinstance(x, int))

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Python Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.

In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:

Example
print(10 + 5)

Python divides the operators in the following groups:

1) Arithmetic operators
2) Assignment operators
3) Comparison operators
4) Logical operators
5) Identity operators
6) Membership operators
7) Bitwise operators

1.Python Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common
mathematical operations:

Operator Name Example

+ Addition x+y

- Subtraction x-y

* Multiplication x*y

/ Division x/y

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% Modulus x%y

** Exponentiation x ** y

// Floor division x // y

2.Python Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables:

Operator Example Same As

= x=5 x=5

+= x += 3 x=x+3

-= x -= 3 x=x-3

*= x *= 3 x=x*3

/= x /= 3 x=x/3

%= x %= 3 x=x%3

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//= x //= 3 x = x // 3

**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3

&= x &= 3 x=x&3

|= x |= 3 x=x|3

^= x ^= 3 x=x^3

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

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3.Python Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values:

Operator Name Example

== Equal x == y

!= Not equal x != y

> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y

>= Greater than or equal to x >= y

<= Less than or equal to x <= y

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4.Python Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:

Operator Description Example

and Returns True if both statements are x < 5 and x < 10

true

or Returns True if one of the statements x < 5 or x < 4

is true

not Reverse the result, returns False if not(x < 5 and x < 10)
the result is true

5.Python Identity Operators

Identity operators are used to compare the objects, not if they are equal, but if
they are actually the same object, with the same memory location:

Operator Description Example

is Returns True if both variables are the x is y

same object

is not Returns True if both variables are not the x is not y

same object

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6.Python Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in an object:

Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence with the specified x in y

value is present in the object

not in Returns True if a sequence with the specified x not in y

value is not present in the object

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7.Python Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators are used to compare (binary) numbers:

Operator Name Description

& AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are 1

| OR Sets each bit to 1 if one of two bits is 1

^ XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of two bits is 1

~ NOT Inverts all the bits

<< Zero fill left Shift left by pushing zeros in from the right and let the
shift leftmost bits fall off

>> Signed right Shift right by pushing copies of the leftmost bit in from
shift the left, and let the rightmost bits fall off

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List
Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data,
the other 3 are Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

Lists are created using square brackets:

Example
Create a List:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

1.List Items
List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.

List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has
index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined
order, and that order will not change.

If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the
list.

Changeable
The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in
a list after it has been created.

Allow Duplicates
Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:
Example
Lists allow duplicate values:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]
print(thislist)
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List Length
To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:

Example
Print the number of items in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(len(thislist))

List Items - Data Types

List items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int and boolean data types:

list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
list3 = [True, False, False]

A list can contain different data types:

Example
A list with strings, integers and boolean values:

list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]

type()
From Python's perspective, lists are defined as objects with the data type 'list':

<class 'list'>
Example
What is the data type of a list?

mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(type(mylist))

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The list() Constructor

It is also possible to use the list() constructor when creating a new list.

Example
Using the list() constructor to make a List:

thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-

brackets
print(thislist)

2.Access Items
List items are indexed and you can access them by referring to the index
number:

Example
Print the second item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[1])

Note: The first item has index 0.

Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end

-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.

Example
Print the last item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[-1])

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Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to
end the range.

When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the specified
items.

Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:5])

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not
included)

By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:

Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT including,
"kiwi":

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[:4])

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:

Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" to the end:

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:])

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Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the list:

Example
This example returns the items from "orange" (-4) to, but NOT including
"mango" (-1):

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[-4:-1])

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "apple" is present in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")

3. Change Item Value

To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:

Example
Change the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)

Change a Range of Item Values

To change the value of items within a specific range, define a list with the new
values, and refer to the range of index numbers where you want to insert the
new values:
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Example
Change the values "banana" and "cherry" with the values "blackcurrant" and
"watermelon":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]

thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)

If you insert more items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where
you specified, and the remaining items will move accordingly:

Example
Change the second value by replacing it with two new values:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1:2] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)

Note: The length of the list will change when the number of items inserted does
not match the number of items replaced.

If you insert less items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where
you specified, and the remaining items will move accordingly:

Example
Change the second and third value by replacing it with one value:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1:3] = ["watermelon"]
print(thislist)

Insert Items
To insert a new list item, without replacing any of the existing values, we can
use the insert() method.

The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:

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Example
Insert "watermelon" as the third item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.insert(2, "watermelon")
print(thislist)

4.Python - Add List Items

Append Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:

Example
Using the append() method to append an item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)

Insert Items
To insert a list item at a specified index, use the insert() method.

The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:

Example
Insert an item as the second position:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.insert(1, "orange")
print(thislist)

Note: As a result of the examples above, the lists will now contain 4 items

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Extend List
To append elements from another list to the current list, use
the extend() method.

Example
Add the elements of tropical to thislist:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
thislist.extend(tropical)
print(thislist)

The elements will be added to the end of the list

Add Any Iterable

The extend() method does not have to append lists, you can add any iterable
object (tuples, sets, dictionaries etc.).

Example
Add elements of a tuple to a list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thistuple = ("kiwi", "orange")
thislist.extend(thistuple)
print(thislist)

5.Python - Remove List Items

The remove() method removes the specified item.

Example
Remove "banana":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)

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Remove Specified Index

The pop() method removes the specified index.

Example
Remove the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.pop(1)
print(thislist)

If you do not specify the index, the pop() method removes the last item.

Example
Remove the last item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.pop()
print(thislist)

The del keyword can also delete the list completely.

Example
Delete the entire list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist

Clear the List

The clear() method empties the list.

The list still remains, but it has no content.

Example
Clear the list content:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.clear()
print(thislist)
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6.Python - Loop Lists

Loop Through a List
You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:

Example
Print all items in the list, one by one:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in thislist:
print(x)

Learn more about for loops in our Python For Loops Chapter.

Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the list items by referring to their index number.

Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.

Example
Print all items by referring to their index number:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for i in range(len(thislist)):
print(thislist[i])

The iterable created in the example above is [0, 1, 2].

Using a While Loop

You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.

Use the len() function to determine the length of the list, then start at 0 and
loop your way through the list items by referring to their indexes.

Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.

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Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

i = 0
while i < len(thislist):
print(thislist[i])
i = i + 1

Looping Using List Comprehension

List Comprehension offers the shortest syntax for looping through lists:

Example
A short hand for loop that will print all items in a list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[print(x) for x in thislist]

7.Python - Sort Lists

Sort List Alphanumerically
List objects have a sort() method that will sort the list alphanumerically,
ascending, by default:

Example
Sort the list alphabetically:

thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

Example
Sort the list numerically:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
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Sort Descending
To sort descending, use the keyword argument reverse = True:

Example
Sort the list descending:

thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)

Example
Sort the list descending:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)

Customize Sort Function

You can also customize your own function by using the keyword argument key
= function.

The function will return a number that will be used to sort the list (the lowest
number first):

Example
Sort the list based on how close the number is to 50:

def myfunc(n):
return abs(n - 50)

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(key = myfunc)
print(thislist)

Case Insensitive Sort

By default the sort() method is case sensitive, resulting in all capital letters
being sorted before lower case letters:
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Example
Case sensitive sorting can give an unexpected result:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

Luckily we can use built-in functions as key functions when sorting a list.

So if you want a case-insensitive sort function, use str.lower as a key function:

Example
Perform a case-insensitive sort of the list:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.sort(key = str.lower)
print(thislist)

Reverse Order
What if you want to reverse the order of a list, regardless of the alphabet?

The reverse() method reverses the current sorting order of the elements.

Example
Reverse the order of the list items:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.reverse()
print(thislist)

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8.Python - Copy Lists

You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will only be
a reference to list1, and changes made in list1 will automatically also be made
in list2.

There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in List
method copy().

Example
Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = thislist.copy()
print(mylist)

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().

Example
Make a copy of a list with the list() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)

9.Python - Join Lists

There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.

One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.

Example
Join two list:

list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]list3 = list1 + list2
print(list3)

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Another way to join two lists is by appending all the items from list2 into list1,
one by one:

Example
Append list2 into list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

for x in list2:
list1.append(x)

print(list1)

Or you can use the extend() method, which purpose is to add elements from
one list to another list:

Example
Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list1.extend(list2)
print(list1)

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Python Tuples
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

1.Tuple
Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Tuple is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data,
the other 3 are List, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable.

Tuples are written with round brackets.

Example
Create a Tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple)

Tuple Items
Tuple items are ordered, unchangeable, and allow duplicate values.

Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has
index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that tuples are ordered, it means that the items have a defined
order, and that order will not change.

Unchangeable
Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change, add or remove items
after the tuple has been created.

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Allow Duplicates
Since tuples are indexed, they can have items with the same value:

Example
Tuples allow duplicate values:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry")

print(thistuple)

Tuple Length
To determine how many items a tuple has, use the len() function:

Example
Print the number of items in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(len(thistuple))

Create Tuple With One Item

To create a tuple with only one item, you have to add a comma after the item,
otherwise Python will not recognize it as a tuple.

Example
One item tuple, remember the comma:

thistuple = ("apple",)
print(type(thistuple))

#NOT a tuple
thistuple = ("apple")
print(type(thistuple))

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Tuple Items - Data Types

Tuple items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int and boolean data types:

tuple1 = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

tuple2 = (1, 5, 7, 9, 3)
tuple3 = (True, False, False)

A tuple can contain different data types:

Example
A tuple with strings, integers and boolean values:

tuple1 = ("abc", 34, True, 40, "male")

type()
From Python's perspective, tuples are defined as objects with the data type
'tuple':

<class 'tuple'>

Example
What is the data type of a tuple?

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(type(mytuple))

The tuple() Constructor

It is also possible to use the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.

Example
Using the tuple() method to make a tuple:thistuple =
tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thistuple)
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2.Python - Access Tuple Items

You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square
brackets:

Example
Print the second item in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[1])

Note: The first item has index 0.

Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end.

-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.

Example
Print the last item of the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[-1])

Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to
end the range.

When specifying a range, the return value will be a new tuple with the specified
items.

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Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[2:5])

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not
included).

Remember that the first item has index 0.

By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:

Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT included, "kiwi":

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[:4])

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:

Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" and to the end:

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[2:])

Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the
tuple:

Example
This example returns the items from index -4 (included) to index -1 (excluded)

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[-4:-1])
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Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")

3.Python - Update Tuples

Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that you cannot change, add, or remove
items once the tuple is created.

But there are some workarounds.

Change Tuple Values

Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values. Tuples
are unchangeable, or immutable as it also is called.

But there is a workaround. You can convert the tuple into a list, change the list,
and convert the list back into a tuple.

Example
Convert the tuple into a list to be able to change it:

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(x)
y[1] = "kiwi"
x = tuple(y)

print(x)

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Add Items
Since tuples are immutable, they do not have a build-in append() method, but
there are other ways to add items to a tuple.

1. Convert into a list: Just like the workaround for changing a tuple, you can
convert it into a list, add your item(s), and convert it back into a tuple.

Example
Convert the tuple into a list, add "orange", and convert it back into a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(thistuple)
y.append("orange")
thistuple = tuple(y)

2. Add tuple to a tuple. You are allowed to add tuples to tuples, so if you want
to add one item, (or many), create a new tuple with the item(s), and add it to
the existing tuple:

Example
Create a new tuple with the value "orange", and add that tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = ("orange",)
thistuple += y

print(thistuple)

Note: When creating a tuple with only one item, remember to include a comma
after the item, otherwise it will not be identified as a tuple.

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Remove Items
Note: You cannot remove items in a tuple.

Tuples are unchangeable, so you cannot remove items from it, but you can
use the same workaround as we used for changing and adding tuple items:

Example
Convert the tuple into a list, remove "apple", and convert it back into a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(thistuple)
y.remove("apple")
thistuple = tuple(y)

Or you can delete the tuple completely:

Example
The del keyword can delete the tuple completely:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

del thistuple
print(thistuple) #this will raise an error because the tuple no longer
exists

4.Python - Unpack Tuples

When we create a tuple, we normally assign values to it. This is called "packing"
a tuple:

Example
Packing a tuple:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

But, in Python, we are also allowed to extract the values back into variables.
This is called "unpacking":

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Example
Unpacking a tuple:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

(green, yellow, red) = fruits

print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)

Note: The number of variables must match the number of values in the tuple, if
not, you must use an asterisk to collect the remaining values as a list.

Using Asterisk*
If the number of variables is less than the number of values, you can add
an * to the variable name and the values will be assigned to the variable as a
list:

Example
Assign the rest of the values as a list called "red":

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "strawberry", "raspberry")

(green, yellow, *red) = fruits
print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)

If the asterisk is added to another variable name than the last, Python will
assign values to the variable until the number of values left matches the
number of variables left.

Example
Add a list of values the "tropic" variable:

fruits = ("apple", "mango", "papaya", "pineapple", "cherry")

(green, *tropic, red) = fruits
print(green)
print(tropic)
print(red)

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5.Python - Loop Tuples

You can loop through the tuple items by using a for loop.

Example
Iterate through the items and print the values:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for x in thistuple:
print(x)

Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the tuple items by referring to their index number.

Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.

Example
Print all items by referring to their index number:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for i in range(len(thistuple)):
print(thistuple[i])

Using a While Loop

You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.

Use the len() function to determine the length of the tuple, then start at 0 and
loop your way through the tuple items by refering to their indexes.

Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.

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Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

i = 0
while i < len(thistuple):
print(thistuple[i])
i = i + 1

6.Python - Join Tuples

To join two or more tuples you can use the + operator:

Example
Join two tuples:

tuple1 = ("a", "b" , "c")

tuple2 = (1, 2, 3)

tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2

print(tuple3)

Multiply Tuples
If you want to multiply the content of a tuple a given number of times, you can
use the * operator:

Example
Multiply the fruits tuple by 2:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

mytuple = fruits * 2

print(mytuple)

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Python Sets
myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

1.Set
Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Set is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data,
the other 3 are List, Tuple, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

A set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed.

* Note: Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove items and add new
items.

Sets are written with curly brackets.

Example
Create a Set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(thisset)

Note: Sets are unordered, so you cannot be sure in which order the items will
appear.

Set Items
Set items are unordered, unchangeable, and do not allow duplicate values.

Unordered
Unordered means that the items in a set do not have a defined order.

Set items can appear in a different order every time you use them, and cannot
be referred to by index or key.

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Unchangeable
Set items are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change the items after
the set has been created.

Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can remove items
and add new items.

Duplicates Not Allowed

Sets cannot have two items with the same value.

Example
Duplicate values will be ignored:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple"}

print(thisset)

Get the Length of a Set

To determine how many items a set has, use the len() function.

Example
Get the number of items in a set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(len(thisset))

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Set Items - Data Types

Set items can be of any data type:Example

String, int and boolean data types:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {1, 5, 7, 9, 3}
set3 = {True, False, False}

A set can contain different data types:

Example
A set with strings, integers and boolean values:

set1 = {"abc", 34, True, 40, "male"}

type()
From Python's perspective, sets are defined as objects with the data type 'set':

<class 'set'>

Example
What is the data type of a set?

myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(type(myset))

The set() Constructor

It is also possible to use the set() constructor to make a set.

Example
Using the set() constructor to make a set:

thisset = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-

brackets
print(thisset)

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2.Python - Access Set Items

You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index or a key.

But you can loop through the set items using a for loop, or ask if a specified
value is present in a set, by using the in keyword.

Example
Loop through the set, and print the values:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)

Example
Check if "banana" is present in the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print("banana" in thisset)

Change Items
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.

3.Python - Add Set Items

Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.

To add one item to a set use the add() method.

Example
Add an item to a set, using the add() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.add("orange")
print(thisset)

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Add Sets
To add items from another set into the current set, use the update() method.

Example
Add elements from tropical into thisset:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

tropical = {"pineapple", "mango", "papaya"}

thisset.update(tropical)

print(thisset)

Add Any Iterable

The object in the update() method does not have to be a set, it can be any
iterable object (tuples, lists, dictionaries etc.).

Example
Add elements of a list to at set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

mylist = ["kiwi", "orange"]

thisset.update(mylist)

print(thisset)

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4.Python - Remove Set Items

To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.

Example
Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.remove("banana")
print(thisset)

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.

Example
Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.discard("banana")
print(thisset)

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.

You can also use the pop() method to remove an item, but this method will
remove the last item. Remember that sets are unordered, so you will not know
what item that gets removed.

The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.

Example
Remove the last item by using the pop() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

x = thisset.pop()
print(x)
print(thisset)

Note: Sets are unordered, so when using the pop() method, you do not know
which item that gets removed.

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Example
The clear() method empties the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.clear()

print(thisset)

Example
The del keyword will delete the set completely:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

del thisset

print(thisset)

5.Python - Loop Sets

You can loop through the set items by using a for loop:

Example
Loop through the set, and print the values:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)

6.Python - Join Sets

Join Two Sets
There are several ways to join two or more sets in Python.

You can use the union() method that returns a new set containing all items
from both sets, or the update() method that inserts all the items from one set
into another:

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Example
The union() method returns a new set with all items from both sets:

set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set3 = set1.union(set2)
print(set3)

Example
The update() method inserts the items in set2 into set1:

set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set1.update(set2)
print(set1)

Note: Both union() and update() will exclude any duplicate items.

Keep ONLY the Duplicates

The intersection_update() method will keep only the items that are present in
both sets.

Example
Keep the items that exist in both set x, and set y:

x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}
x.intersection_update(y)
print(x)

The intersection() method will return a new set, that only contains the items
that are present in both sets.

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Example
Return a set that contains the items that exist in both set x, and set y:
x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}
z = x.intersection(y)
print(z)

Keep All, But NOT the Duplicates

The symmetric_difference_update() method will keep only the elements that
are NOT present in both sets.

Example
Keep the items that are not present in both sets:

x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

x.symmetric_difference_update(y)

print(x)

The symmetric_difference() method will return a new set, that contains only
the elements that are NOT present in both sets.

Example
Return a set that contains all items from both sets, except items that are
present in both:

x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

z = x.symmetric_difference(y)

print(z)

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Python Dictionaries
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

Dictionary
Dictionaries are used to store data values in key:value pairs.

A dictionary is a collection which is ordered*, changeable and do not allow

duplicates.

As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.

Dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and have keys and values:

Example
Create and print a dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)

Dictionary Items
Dictionary items are ordered, changeable, and does not allow duplicates.

Dictionary items are presented in key:value pairs, and can be referred to by

using the key name.

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Example
Print the "brand" value of the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict["brand"])

Ordered or Unordered?
As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.

When we say that dictionaries are ordered, it means that the items have a
defined order, and that order will not change.

Unordered means that the items does not have a defined order, you cannot
refer to an item by using an index.

Changeable
Dictionaries are changeable, meaning that we can change, add or remove items
after the dictionary has been created.

Duplicates Not Allowed

Dictionaries cannot have two items with the same key:

Example
Duplicate values will overwrite existing values:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964,
"year": 2020
}
print(thisdict)
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Dictionary Length
To determine how many items a dictionary has, use the len() function:

Example
Print the number of items in the dictionary:

print(len(thisdict))

Dictionary Items - Data Types

The values in dictionary items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int, boolean, and list data types:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"electric": False,
"year": 1964,
"colors": ["red", "white", "blue"]
}

type()
From Python's perspective, dictionaries are defined as objects with the data
type 'dict':

<class 'dict'>

Example
Print the data type of a dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(type(thisdict))

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2.Python - Access Dictionary Items

Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside
square brackets:

Example
Get the value of the "model" key:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = thisdict["model"]

There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:

Example
Get the value of the "model" key:

x = thisdict.get("model")

Get Keys
The keys() method will return a list of all the keys in the dictionary.

Example
Get a list of the keys:

x = thisdict.keys()

The list of the keys is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes done
to the dictionary will be reflected in the keys list.

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Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the keys list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.keys()
print(x) #before the change
car["color"] = "white"
print(x) #after the change

Get Values
The values() method will return a list of all the values in the dictionary.

Example
Get a list of the values:

x = thisdict.values()

The list of the values is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes
done to the dictionary will be reflected in the values list.

Example
Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.values()
print(x) #before the change
car["year"] = 2020
print(x) #after the change

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Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.values()
print(x) #before the change
car["color"] = "red"
print(x) #after the change

Get Items
The items() method will return each item in a dictionary, as tuples in a list.

Example
Get a list of the key:value pairs

x = thisdict.items()

The returned list is a view of the items of the dictionary, meaning that any
changes done to the dictionary will be reflected in the items list.

Example
Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.items()
print(x) #before the change
car["year"] = 2020
print(x) #after the change

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Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.items()

print(x) #before the change

car["color"] = "red"

print(x) #after the change

Check if Key Exists

To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary")

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3.Python - Change Dictionary Items

1.Change Values
You can change the value of a specific item by referring to its key name:

Example
Change the "year" to 2018:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["year"] = 2018

Update Dictionary
The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from the given
argument.

The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value pairs.

Example
Update the "year" of the car by using the update() method:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"year": 2020})

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4.Python - Add Dictionary Items

Adding Items
Adding an item to the dictionary is done by using a new index key and assigning
a value to it:

Example
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["color"] = "red"
print(thisdict)

Update Dictionary
The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from a given
argument. If the item does not exist, the item will be added.

The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value pairs.

Example
Add a color item to the dictionary by using the update() method:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"color": "red"})

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4.Python - Remove Dictionary Items

Removing Items
There are several methods to remove items from a dictionary:

Example
The pop() method removes the item with the specified key name:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.pop("model")
print(thisdict)

Example
The popitem() method removes the last inserted item (in versions before 3.7, a
random item is removed instead):

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.popitem()
print(thisdict)

Example
The del keyword removes the item with the specified key name:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict["model"]
print(thisdict)

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Example
The del keyword can also delete the dictionary completely:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict
print(thisdict) #this will cause an error because "thisdict" no longer
exists.

Example
The clear() method empties the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.clear()
print(thisdict)

5.Python - Loop Dictionaries

Loop Through a Dictionary
You can loop through a dictionary by using a for loop.

When looping through a dictionary, the return value are the keys of the
dictionary, but there are methods to return the values as well.

Example
Print all key names in the dictionary, one by one:

for x in thisdict:
print(x)

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Example
Print all values in the dictionary, one by one:

for x in thisdict:
print(thisdict[x])

Example
You can also use the values() method to return values of a dictionary:

for x in thisdict.values():
print(x)

Example
You can use the keys() method to return the keys of a dictionary:

for x in thisdict.keys():
print(x)

Example
Loop through both keys and values, by using the items() method:

for x, y in thisdict.items():
print(x, y)

6.Python - Nested Dictionaries

Nested Dictionaries
A dictionary can contain dictionaries, this is called nested dictionaries.

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Example
Create a dictionary that contain three dictionaries:

myfamily = {
"child1" : {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
},
"child2" : {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
},
"child3" : {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}
}

Or, if you want to add three dictionaries into a new dictionary:

Example
Create three dictionaries, then create one dictionary that will contain the other
three dictionaries:

child1 = {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
}
child2 = {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
}
child3 = {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}

myfamily = {
"child1" : child1,
"child2" : child2,
"child3" : child3
}

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6.Python - Copy Dictionaries

You cannot copy a dictionary simply by typing dict2 = dict1,
because: dict2 will only be a reference to dict1, and changes made
in dict1 will automatically also be made in dict2.

There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in Dictionary
method copy().

Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the copy() method:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = thisdict.copy()
print(mydict)

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in function dict().

Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the dict() function:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = dict(thisdict)
print(mydict)

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Python If ... Else

Python Conditions and If statements
Python supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

 Equals: a == b
 Not Equals: a != b
 Less than: a < b
 Less than or equal to: a <= b
 Greater than: a > b
 Greater than or equal to: a >= b

These conditions can be used in several ways, most commonly in "if

statements" and loops.

An "if statement" is written by using the if keyword.

Example
If statement:

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")

In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as part of the if
statement to test whether b is greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we know
that 200 is greater than 33, and so we print to screen that "b is greater than a".

Indentation
Python relies on indentation (whitespace at the beginning of a line) to define
scope in the code. Other programming languages often use curly-brackets for
this purpose.

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Example
If statement, without indentation (will raise an error):

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a") # you will get an error

Elif
The elif keyword is pythons way of saying "if the previous conditions were not
true, then try this condition".

Example
a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")

In this example a is equal to b, so the first condition is not true, but

the elif condition is true, so we print to screen that "a and b are equal".

Else
The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding
conditions.

Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
else:
print("a is greater than b")

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In this example a is greater than b, so the first condition is not true, also
the elif condition is not true, so we go to the else condition and print to
screen that "a is greater than b".

You can also have an else without the elif:

Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Short Hand If
If you have only one statement to execute, you can put it on the same line as
the if statement.

Example
One line if statement:

if a > b: print("a is greater than b")

Short Hand If ... Else

If you have only one statement to execute, one for if, and one for else, you can
put it all on the same line:

Example
One line if else statement:

a = 2
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("B")

This technique is known as Ternary Operators, or Conditional Expressions.

You can also have multiple else statements on the same line:

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Example
One line if else statement, with 3 conditions:

a = 330
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("=") if a == b else print("B")

And
The and keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional
statements:

Example
Test if a is greater than b, AND if c is greater than a:

a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b and c > a:
print("Both conditions are True")

Or
The or keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional
statements:

Example
Test if a is greater than b, OR if a is greater than c:

a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b or a > c:
print("At least one of the conditions is True")

Nested If
You can have if statements inside if statements, this is
called nested if statements.
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Example
x = 41

if x > 10:
print("Above ten,")
if x > 20:
print("and also above 20!")
else:
print("but not above 20.")

The pass Statement

if statements cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have
an if statement with no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an
error.

Example
a = 33
b = 200

if b > a:
pass

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Python While Loops

Python Loops
Python has two primitive loop commands:

 while loops
 for loops

The while Loop

With the while loop we can execute a set of statements as long as a condition is
true.

Example
Print i as long as i is less than 6:
i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1

Note: remember to increment i, or else the loop will continue forever.

The while loop requires relevant variables to be ready, in this example we need
to define an indexing variable, i, which we set to 1.

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop even if the while condition is
true:
Example
Exit the loop when i is 3:
i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
if i == 3:
break
i += 1

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The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration, and continue
with the next:

Example
Continue to the next iteration if i is 3:

i = 0
while i < 6:
i += 1
if i == 3:
continue
print(i)

The else Statement

With the else statement we can run a block of code once when the condition no
longer is true:

Example
Print a message once the condition is false:

i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1
else:
print("i is no longer less than 6")

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Python For Loops

A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a tuple, a
dictionary, a set, or a string).

This is less like the for keyword in other programming languages, and works
more like an iterator method as found in other object-orientated programming
languages.

With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item in a
list, tuple, set etc.

Example
Print each fruit in a fruit list:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)

The for loop does not require an indexing variable to set beforehand.

Looping Through a String

Even strings are iterable objects, they contain a sequence of characters:

Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has looped through all
the items:

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Example
Exit the loop when x is "banana":

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)
if x == "banana":
break

Example
Exit the loop when x is "banana", but this time the break comes before the
print:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
break
print(x)

The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration of the loop, and
continue with the next:

Example
Do not print banana:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
continue
print(x)

The range() Function

To loop through a set of code a specified number of times, we can use
the range() function,

The range() function returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 by

default, and increments by 1 (by default), and ends at a specified number.

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Example
Using the range() function:

for x in range(6):
print(x)

Note that range(6) is not the values of 0 to 6, but the values 0 to 5.

The range() function defaults to 0 as a starting value, however it is possible to

specify the starting value by adding a parameter: range(2, 6), which means
values from 2 to 6 (but not including 6):

Example
Using the start parameter:

for x in range(2, 6):

print(x)

The range() function defaults to increment the sequence by 1, however it is

possible to specify the increment value by adding a third parameter: range(2,
30, 3):

Example
Increment the sequence with 3 (default is 1):

for x in range(2, 30, 3):

print(x)

Else in For Loop

The else keyword in a for loop specifies a block of code to be executed when the
loop is finished:

Example
Print all numbers from 0 to 5, and print a message when the loop has ended:

for x in range(6):
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")

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Note: The else block will NOT be executed if the loop is stopped by
a break statement.

Example
Break the loop when x is 3, and see what happens with the else block:

for x in range(6):
if x == 3: break
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")

Nested Loops
A nested loop is a loop inside a loop.

The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer loop":

Example
Print each adjective for every fruit:

adj = ["red", "big", "tasty"]

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in adj:
for y in fruits:
print(x, y)

The pass Statement

for loops cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a for loop with no
content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.

Example
for x in [0, 1, 2]:
pass

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Python Functions
A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.

A function can return data as a result.

Creating a Function
In Python a function is defined using the def keyword:

Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

Calling a Function
To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis:

Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

my_function()

Arguments
Information can be passed into functions as arguments.

Arguments are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You
can add as many arguments as you want, just separate them with a comma.

The following example has a function with one argument (fname). When the
function is called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the function
to print the full name:

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Example
def my_function(fname):
print(fname + " Refsnes")

my_function("Emil")
my_function("Tobias")
my_function("Linus")

Arguments are often shortened to args in Python documentations.

Parameters or Arguments?
The terms parameter and argument can be used for the same thing:
information that are passed into a function.

From a function's perspective:

A parameter is the variable listed inside the parentheses in the function

definition.

An argument is the value that is sent to the function when it is called.

Number of Arguments
By default, a function must be called with the correct number of arguments.
Meaning that if your function expects 2 arguments, you have to call the function
with 2 arguments, not more, and not less.

Example
This function expects 2 arguments, and gets 2 arguments:

def my_function(fname, lname):

print(fname + " " + lname)

my_function("Emil", "Refsnes")

If you try to call the function with 1 or 3 arguments, you will get an error:

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Example
This function expects 2 arguments, but gets only 1:

def my_function(fname, lname):

print(fname + " " + lname)

my_function("Emil")

Arbitrary Arguments, *args

If you do not know how many arguments that will be passed into your function,
add a * before the parameter name in the function definition.

This way the function will receive a tuple of arguments, and can access the
items accordingly:

Example
If the number of arguments is unknown, add a * before the parameter name:

def my_function(*kids):
print("The youngest child is " + kids[2])

my_function("Emil", "Tobias", "Linus")

Arbitrary Arguments are often shortened to *args in Python documentations.

Keyword Arguments
You can also send arguments with the key = value syntax.

This way the order of the arguments does not matter.

Example
def my_function(child3, child2, child1):
print("The youngest child is " + child3)
my_function(child1 = "Emil", child2 = "Tobias", child3 = "Linus")

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The phrase Keyword Arguments are often shortened to kwargs in Python
documentations.

Arbitrary Keyword Arguments, **kwargs

If you do not know how many keyword arguments that will be passed into your
function, add two asterisk: ** before the parameter name in the function
definition.

This way the function will receive a dictionary of arguments, and can access the
items accordingly:

Example
If the number of keyword arguments is unknown, add a double ** before the
parameter name:

def my_function(**kid):
print("His last name is " + kid["lname"])

my_function(fname = "Tobias", lname = "Refsnes")

Arbitrary Kword Arguments are often shortened to **kwargs in Python

documentations.

Default Parameter Value

The following example shows how to use a default parameter value.

If we call the function without argument, it uses the default value:

Example
def my_function(country = "Norway"):
print("I am from " + country)

my_function("Sweden")
my_function("India")
my_function()
my_function("Brazil")

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Passing a List as an Argument

You can send any data types of argument to a function (string, number, list,
dictionary etc.), and it will be treated as the same data type inside the function.

E.g. if you send a List as an argument, it will still be a List when it reaches the
function:

Example
def my_function(food):
for x in food:
print(x)

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

my_function(fruits)

Return Values
To let a function return a value, use the return statement:

Example
def my_function(x):
return 5 * x

print(my_function(3))
print(my_function(5))
print(my_function(9))

The pass Statement

function definitions cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have
a function definition with no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting
an error.

Example
def myfunction():
pass

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Recursion
Python also accepts function recursion, which means a defined function can call
itself.

Recursion is a common mathematical and programming concept. It means that

a function calls itself. This has the benefit of meaning that you can loop through
data to reach a result.

The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to
slip into writing a function which never terminates, or one that uses excess
amounts of memory or processor power. However, when written correctly
recursion can be a very efficient and mathematically-elegant approach to
programming.

In this example, tri_recursion() is a function that we have defined to call

itself ("recurse"). We use the k variable as the data, which decrements (-1)
every time we recurse. The recursion ends when the condition is not greater
than 0 (i.e. when it is 0).

To a new developer it can take some time to work out how exactly this works,
best way to find out is by testing and modifying it.

Example
Recursion Example

def tri_recursion(k):
if(k > 0):
result = k + tri_recursion(k - 1)
print(result)
else:
result = 0
return result

print("\n\nRecursion Example Results")

tri_recursion(6)

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Python Arrays
Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be
used instead.

Arrays
Note: This page shows you how to use LISTS as ARRAYS, however, to work
with arrays in Python you will have to import a library, like the NumPy library.

Arrays are used to store multiple values in one single variable:

Example
Create an array containing car names:

cars = ["Ford", "Volvo", "BMW"]

What is an Array?
An array is a special variable, which can hold more than one value at a time.

If you have a list of items (a list of car names, for example), storing the cars in
single variables could look like this:

car1 = "Ford"
car2 = "Volvo"
car3 = "BMW"

However, what if you want to loop through the cars and find a specific one? And
what if you had not 3 cars, but 300?

The solution is an array!

An array can hold many values under a single name, and you can access the
values by referring to an index number.

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Access the Elements of an Array

You refer to an array element by referring to the index number.

Example
Get the value of the first array item:

x = cars[0]

Example
Modify the value of the first array item:

cars[0] = "Toyota"

The Length of an Array

Use the len() method to return the length of an array (the number of elements
in an array).

Example
Return the number of elements in the cars array:

x = len(cars)

Note: The length of an array is always one more than the highest array index.

Looping Array Elements

You can use the for in loop to loop through all the elements of an array.

Example
Print each item in the cars array:

for x in cars:
print(x)

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Adding Array Elements

You can use the append() method to add an element to an array.

Example
Add one more element to the cars array:

cars.append("Honda")

Removing Array Elements

You can use the pop() method to remove an element from the array.

Example
Delete the second element of the cars array:

cars.pop(1)

You can also use the remove() method to remove an element from the array.

Example
Delete the element that has the value "Volvo":

cars.remove("Volvo")

Note: The list's remove() method only removes the first occurrence of the
specified value.

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Array Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists/arrays.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list

index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the first item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

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sort() Sorts the list

Python Classes and Objects

Python is an object oriented programming language.

Almost everything in Python is an object, with its properties and methods.

A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.

Create a Class
To create a class, use the keyword class:

Example
Create a class named MyClass, with a property named x:

class MyClass:
x = 5

Create Object
Now we can use the class named MyClass to create objects:

Example
Create an object named p1, and print the value of x:

p1 = MyClass()
print(p1.x)

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