Soldering Manual

SOLDERING MANUAL
Second Edition, Revised

Prepared by
AWS Committee on Brazing and Soldering

Under the Direction of

AWS Technical Activities Committee

Approved by
AWS Board of Directors, April 1, 1977

AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, INC.

2501 N.W. 7th Street, Miami, Florida 33125
Library of Congress Number: 77-90783
International Standard Book Number: 978-0-87171-151-9

American Welding Society, 2501 N.W. 7th Street, Miami, FL 33125

ISBN 978-1-349-04858-8 ISBN 978-1-349-04856-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-04856-4
© 1978 by American Welding Society.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 1978 978-0-333-27145-2
All rights reserved.

Note: By publication of this manual, the American Welding Society does

not insure anyone utilizing the manual against liability arising from the
use of such manual. A publication of a manual by the American Welding
Society does not carry with it any right to make, use, or sell any patented
items. Each prospective user should make an independent investigation.
CONTENTS

Personnel vii
Introduction ix

1. Principles of Soldering 1
2. Solders 3
3. Fluxes 13
4. Joint Design 21
5. Precleaning and Surface Preparation 35
6. Equipment, Processes, and Procedures 41
7. Flux Removal 49
8. Inspection and Testing 51
9. Copper and Copper Alloys 63
10. Steel 69
11. Coated Steels 71
12. Stainless Steels 75
13. Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys 79
14. Lead and Lead Alloys 83
15. Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys 91
16. Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys 97
17. Tin and Tin Alloys 101
18. Cast Irons 105
19. Precious Metal Coatings and Films 107
20. Printed Circuits 109
21. Safety and Health Protection 113
22. The Soldering of Pipe and Tube 117
23. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Solder Joints 125

Index 145
PERSONNEL
R.L. Peaslee, Chairman Wall Colmonoy Corp.
*G.M. Slaughter, Chairman Oak Ridge National Lab.
M.M. Schwartz, Vice Chairman Rohr Corporation
*D.J. Spillane, lst Vice Chairman General Electric Co.
*R.E. Ballentine, 2nd Vice Chairman Westinghouse Electric Corp.
T.J. Olivera, Secretary American Welding Society
W.G. Bader Bell Telephone Laboratories
R.E. Beal liT Research Institute
C.R. Behringer Western Gold & Platinum Co.
J.R. Bonnar Handy and Harman
J.P. Broderick Eutectic and Castolin Institute
G.D. Cremer International Harvester Co.
A.S. Cross, Jr. Engelhard Minerals & Chemicals
D.C. Dilley Consultant
F.C. Disque Alpha Metals Incorporated
R.M. Evans Battelle Memorial Institute
E. B. Gempler United Aircraft Products
R.G. Gilliland Pelton Steel
K. Gustafson Westinghouse-Hanford
A.N. Kugler Consultant
A.H. Lentz Reynolds Metals Co.
J.B. Long Tin Research Institute
R.O. Mcintosh National Electronics
J.A. Mehaffey Stanley Flagg and Co.
M.T. Merlo Chemetron Corporation
E.J. Minarcik NL Industries
W.J. Reichenecker Westinghouse Electric Corp.
M.N. Ruoff General Electric Co.
J.F. Smith Lead Industries Association
G.K. Sosnin The P.I.P.E. Company
H.A. Sosnin Consultant
H. W. Spaletta Aerojet Nuclear Co.
J.R. Terrill Aluminum Company of America
D. Wireman Aerobraze Corporation
*Commencing June, 1974

vii
viii/Personnel
Advisory Members
N.C. Cole Combustion Engineering
G.S. Gschwind United Aircraft of Canada, Ltd.
T. Hikido Pyromet Industries
W.S. Lyman Copper Development Association
M. Prager Consultant
H.S. Sayre U.S. Naval Ship Engineering Center

Subcommittee on Soldering
W.O. Bader, Chairman Bell Telephone Laboratories
T.J. Olivera, Secretary American Welding Society
R.E. Beal liT Research Institute
P.J. Bud Electrovert Incorporated
C. DiMartini American Smelting & Refining Company
F.C. Disque Alpha Metals Incorporated
K. Lazar Refinery for Electronics
J.B. Long Tin Research Institute
M.T. Merlo Chemetton Corporation
E.J. Minarcik NL Industries
M. Prager Consultant
W.J. Reichenecker Westinghouse Electric Corp.
J.F. Smith Lead Industries Association
W.R. Studnick Western Electric
J. J. Stokes Aluminum Company of America
H.A. Sosnin Consultant
J. Sylvester Hexacon Electric Co.

Past Subcommittee members who assisted in the

preparation of this Manual
T. Agne Lead Industries Association
R.M. Healy Kester Solder
J.A. Kenn'ldy Hexacon Electric
J.F. Lockwood Dow Chemical
INTRODUCTION

Soldering is one of the oldest and most widely who are familiar with the fundamentals of solder-
practiced methods of joining metals. The art and ing may proceed directly to chapters on specific
science of soldering have continuously advanced metals or applications to obtain information for
since the Soldering Manual was first published in which they have an immediate need.
1959. Considerable impetus was provided by the While every attempt has been made to provide
revolutionary changes in the electronics industry the most recent and reliable information on sol-
where solders were req11ired to join hundreds of dering, the Committee realizes that all the needs
components on printed circuits. At the present of the specialist will not be filled. However, it is
time, soldering is utilized on microcircuits to pro- hoped that the manual will provide the necessary
vide joints as small as I 50 microns. Joint reliabil- information to direct his efforts towards a more
ity is required for applications ranging from au- complete solution of his problems.
tomotive radiators to the most sophisticated Since the trend in American industry is to
computers in environments that range from convert to the use of metric units, all U.S. cus-
households to outerspace. As a result of these tomary measurements were converted to metric.
diverse applications, much new technical infor- The metric units used are those of the Systeme
mation has been generated on solders, their in- Internationale d'Unites (SI), which is the interna-
teraction with base metals, and the properties of tionally accepted metric system. Where toler-
soldered joints. This second edition of the Solder- ances are not essential, metric measurements
ing Manual incorporates these many advances were rounded off to the nearest 0 or 5; for exam-
and new data along with the fundamentals of the ple, 150" C ("'"300" F)-note that the symbol
soldering process. """" is used to indicate approximation. Where
The American Welding Society defines solder- commercial products (which are still available
ing as "a group of welding processes which pro- mostly in U.S. customary units) are described,
duces coalescence of materials by heating them the metric unit is rounded off to the nearest 0 or 5,
to a suitable temperature and by using a filler and the word nominal precedes it. For example, a
metal having a liquidus not exceeding 450" C nominall.S kg (3 lb) solder bar. Throughout the
(840" F) and below the solidus of the base mate- text, U.S. customary units are included paren-
rials. The filler metal is distributed between the thetically.
closely fitted surfaces by capillary attraction." Comments, inquiries, and suggestions for fu-
The liquidus temperature of 450" C differentiates ture revisions of this manual are welcome. Ad-
solders from brazing filler metals. dress them to Secretary, AWS Committee on
The data in this manual have been arranged in Brazing and Soldering, American Welding Soci-
what the Committee believes to be the proper ety, 2501 N.W. 7th Street, Miami, Florida
order for the reader who wishes to study ~ch 33125.
aspect of the soldering process. However, those
ix
CHAPTER 1

PRINCIPLES OF
SOLDERING

GENERAL PROCEDURES Wetting is often associated with the ease of

intermetallic compound formation. Although
Soldering is a group of welding processes which heat is applied to facilitate wetting, prolonged
produces coalescence of materials by heating
heating must be avoided when some solders are
them to a suitable temperature and by using a
applied to certain metals. Excessive intermetallic
filler metal having a liquidus not exceeding 450°
reactions, due to prolonged heating, may cause
C (840° F) and below the solidus of the base
brittleness or a reduction in joint strength.
materials. The filler metal is distributed between
The fluidity of molten solder is an important
the closely fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary
property which influences the spreading of the
attraction.
solder over the metal surfaces. The flowability, or
spread, of a solder may be determined by a var-
WETTING, ALLOYING, iety of methods. The simplest method is to melt a
AND CAPILLARITY given volume of solder by uniform heating on a
standard metal plate with a specific flux. The area
When a molten solder leaves a continuous, per- covered by the solder is a measure of the solder's
manent film on the base metal surface, it is said to flow properties on that metal.
wet that surface. Wetting is frequently incorrectly The flow of solder into narrow spaces by capil-
referred to as tinning, which actually means pre- lary attraction is important, and a number of tests
coating the base metal with solder, whether or not for determining this property have been devised,
the solder contains tin. Without wetting there can for example, measuring the rise of molten solder
be no soldering action. In order for wetting to between standard twisted wires or between plates
occur, there must be a stronger attraction between with a small, measured gap. Such tests are useful
certain atoms of the solder and the base metal for qualification work.
than among the atoms of the solder itself. Inter- The introduction of automated, high rate sol-
metallic reactions usually take place at the inter- dering operations has added a new dimension to
face between the base metal and the solder. This solder testing. In addition to wetting, flow, and
wetting action is partly chemical in nature. capillary, it has become necessary to measure
Wetting is greatly facilitated by the ability of a the rate at which wetting occurs. Several fully
solder to alloy with the base metal. For example, automated instruments, "Solderability Testers;'
pure lead does not readily wet (or adhere to) have been developed to provide these data. The
either copper or steel, whereas a tin-lead solder instruments quantitatively record the reaction
readily wets both. Lead does not alloy with cop- force between the base metal specimen and the
per or iron but tin does. Some other metals, such molten solder, as a function of time. The recorded
as zinc, increase the wetting properties of lead. data provide a quantitative evaluation of a solder
2/SOLDERING MANUAL
system. showing both static and dynamic charac- Applying the Solder
teristics. The instruments are used in soldering Soldering takes place in two steps: wetting the
product and process development and for quality metal surfaces and then filling the gap between
control functions. them with solder. The two steps can be carried out
separately or together, depending upon the condi-
BASIC STEPS tions dictated by the application. In general, each
IN SOLDERING step is better done separately because the condi-
tions can be more easily controlled. It is fre-
Joint Fit-Up quently desirable to precoat the base metal, espe-
Clearances between the parts being joined should cially if it is difficult to solder, with solder or
be such that the solder can be drawn into the solderable metals.
space between them by capillarity, but not so
Cooling the Joint
large that the solder cannot fill the gap. A clear-
ance of0.15 mm ( =0.005 in.) is suitable for most After the surfaces of the joint have been wetted
work except when precoated metals are used, in and the space between them filled with solder, the
which case a clearance of0.025 mm ( =0.001 in.) next step is to cool the joint to room temperature.
or less is advisable (see Chapter 4 for further Proper jigging, assembly, or controlled cooling
details). may be employed to prevent excessiye deforma-
tion of the joint or failure of the joint during
Precleaning solidification of the solder. The solder should be
A clean, oxide-free surface is imperative to en- cooled and solidified as rapidly as possible,
sure uniform quality and a sound soldered joint. commensurate with the requirements of the as-
If all grease, oil, dirt, imd oxides have been care- sembly and the solder used, as slow cooling may
fully removed from the base metal before solder- cause excessive alloying resulting in embrittle-
ing, there is a much better chance of obtaining a men!. Fast cooling from too high a temperature
sound joint because only then can uniform capil- may cause warpage and may also cause small
lary attraction be obtained. Chapter 5 contains a fractures in the solder.
detailed discussion of cleaning methods. Cooling may normally be achieved either by
conducting the heat away to the main mass of the
Application of Flux assembly or by accelerating it with a water spray
The flux that is applied to the surfaces to be or air blast. The cooling method should be varied
soldered should have the following characteris- to suit each individual job.
tics:
Flux Residue Treatment
1. It should be fluid and effective in removing
oxides and other nonmetallic materials that might After the soldered joint is completed, there is a
be present at soldering temperatures. flux residue which may or may not be removed,
2. It should be a barrier to reoxidation of the depending upon its degree of corrosiveness.
metal surface that has been previously cleaned. Noncorrosive fluxes, which generally have a
3. It should permit di~placement by the solder. rosin base, do not require removal of the residue
4. It should promote wetting of the surface by unless appearance is a prime factor or the joint
the solder. area is to be painted or otherwise coated. On the
The various types of soldering fluxes used are other hand, corrosive fluxes, such as those having
discussed in Chapter 3. a zinc chloride or other corrosive base, leave a
fused residue which, if not removed, would most
Application of Heat likely cause corrosion. The self-neutralizing
After the flux is applied, the next step in a solder- fluxes vary from slightly to highly corrosive and
ing operation generally is the application of heat. should be treated accordingly as to the removal of
A number of different heating methods are used; the residue (for more detailed information referto
they are described in detail in Chapter 6. Chapter?).
CHAPTER2

SOLDERS

GENERAL not over a range. In this respect eutectic solders

behave like pure metals. In any binary system
A better understanding of the nature of solders, having a eutectic, the eutectic is that composition
and how to select one for a specific application, where two descending liquidus curves meet.
can be obtained by examining the melting charac- Thus the eutectic composition (point E in Fig.
teristics of metals and alloys. Pure metals trans- 2. I) has a lower liquidus temperature than its
form from the solid to liquid state at one tempera- neighboring compositions.
ture. The melting of alloys is more complicated As shown in Fig. 2.1, I 00% lead has a melting
because they may melt over a temperature range. point of 327° C (621° F) (point A), whereas
Any alloy system can best be studied by examin- I00% tin has a melting point of 232° C (450° F)
ing the phase diagram which shows the melting (point 8}.
characteristics in relation to chemical composi- It will be observed that the tin-lead solders
tion. containing from 19.5% tin (point C) to 97.5% tin
(point D) have the same solidus temperature-
The Tin-Lead Diagram 1830 C (361° F). Figure 2.1 shows that the eutec-
The tin-lead phase diagram is shown in Fig. 2.1. tic composition is approximately 63% tin and
The terms used are defined as follows: 37% lead (point E). When this composition
The solidus temperature is the highest temper- melts, it becomes completely liquid at 183° C
ature at which a metal or solder is completely (361° F). Any composition other than the eutec-
solid (curve ACEDB of Fig. 2.1). tic composition will not become completely
The liquidus temperature is the lowest temper- liquid until a higher temperature is reached. For
ature at which a metal or solder is completely example: 50% tin-50% lead solder has a solidus
liquid (AEB of Fig. 2.1). temperature of 183° C (361° F) and liquidus
Melting point and flow point are terms which temperature of 216° C (421° F). This combina-
have been in common use, but they have not tion of tin and lead will begin to melt at 183° C
always been applied with the same meaning. For (361° F) and will become completely liquid at
this reason the terms solidus temperature and 216° C (421° F).
liquidus temperature, which can be more clearly At temperatures between the solidus and
defined, will be used. liquidus lines, the solder is partially melted. The
Eutectic compositions are those specific solder region between the solidus (ACEDB) and
compositions that melt at one temperature and liquidus (AEB) lines is called the melting range.

3
4/SOLDERING MANUAL
TYPES OF SOLDERS The 25A and 30A solders have lower liquidus
temperatures than all previously mentioned al-
Tin-Lead Solders loys but have the same solidus temperature as the
20B solder. Therefore, the melting range is nar-
The tin-lead alloys are the most widely used
rower. All standard cleaning, fluxing, and solder-
solders and are used for joining most metals.
ing techniques can be used with these solders.
Joint clearances of 0.1 to 0.15 mm (0.003 to
Machine and torch soldering are widely used.
0.005 in.) are optimum, but variations are allow-
Many automobile radiators and cans are made
able in specific instances. Capillary attraction, as
with solders of this type.
a force to fill gaps with solder, does not function
The 35A, 40A, 45A, and 50A solders have
with clearances greater than 0.25 mm (0.010 in.).
liquidus temperatures low enough to be easily
All cleaning and soldering processes may be used
worked. The solidus temperature is the same as
with the tin-lead solders. Fluxes of all types are
that for 20B to 30A solders. The melting ranges,
used with these solders. The selection is depen-
therefore, are relatively narrow. Solders of this
dent on the type of metals to be joined. The
group have the best combination of wetting prop-
treatment of the flux residues is dictated by the
erties, strength, and economy and, as such, are
flux used. These solders have good corrosion
widely used. These tin-lead solders are the gen-
resistance to most of the common media. Some
eral purpose solders and are used for wiping and
characteristics of the tin-lead solders are shown
sweating solders. Soldering automobile radiator
in Table 2. l.
The 2A and 5A solders have relatively high cores, electrical connections, roofing seams, and
h~ating units are but a few of the typical applica-
solidus temperatures with a short melting range.*
tiOns for these solders. The 40% tin-60% lead
The wetting and flow characteristics are poorer
solder has become a very popular general pur-
than those of the higher tin content solders, which
pose solder and is used extensively in sheet metal
necessitates extra care in surface preparation. The
work. It is used as a rosin cored wire for radio and
high lead-containing solders, used for some auto-
motive radiators, have better strength properties at television applications.
150° <- (=300° F) than tin-lead solders contain- The 60A and 63A solders are generally re-
ing more tin. The high soldering temperature ferred to as fine solders and are used wherever
temperature requirements are critical. These sol-
limits the use of organic base fluxes such as rosin
ders are most commonly used for wave and dip
or those of the intermediate type (see Chapter 3).
soldering of electronic assemblies. All methods
The 5A solder is particularly adaptable to torch,
of cleaning, fluxing, and heating may be used
dip, induction, or oven soldering. The low tin sol-
with these solders.
ders are used for sealing precoated containers,
The 70A solder is a special purpose solder used
coating and joining metals, and for moderately
where high tin content is necessary. All soldering
elevated temperature uses.
techniques are applicable.
The lOB, 15B, and 20B solders have lower
liquidus and solidus temperatures but wider melt-
ing ranges than the 5A solder. The wetting and Effects of Impurities on
flow characteristics are also better. Joint clear- the Performance of Tin-Lead Solders
ances are the same as already described. Extreme
care must be taken to avoid movement of the
solder joint during solidification to prevent hot Impurities in tin-lead solders can res\,llt not only
tearing. Fluxes of all types and all heating from carelessness in the refining and alloying
methods are applicable. These solders are used ope~tions but can also be added inadvertently
for fabricating automobile radiators and coating dunng normal usage. Impurity pickup, however,
and joining of metals where service temperatures can readily occur during many soldering opera-
are low enough to permit their use. tions. Because refining of metals requires
specialized equipment and close metallurgical
*The solder classification system used in this document control, purification of solders by the user is not
conforms to that given in ASTM B32. generally recommended.
 Solders/5

700

A
600

500

400 200
~ ~
300 150

200 100

50
100
0
Lead 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Tin
Tin percent
Fig. 2.1 - Phase diagram for the tin-lead alloy system

Zinc and Aluminum. The soldering proper- which the solder is to be used, it can be consid-
ties of tin-lead solders are acutely affected by ered as either an impurity or as a substitute for
small traces of aluminum or zinc. More than some of the tin in the solder. Federal Specifica-
0.005% of either metal may cause lack of adhe- tion QQ-S-571 requires antimony content of 0.2
sion, grittiness, or susceptibility to failure during to 0.5% maximum for compositions Sn 70, Sn
solidification. Both ASTM and federal specifica- 63, Sn 62, Sn 60, Sn 50, Sn 40, Sn 30, and Sn 20.
tions limit the maximum amount of either of these However, grades Sn 35, Sn 30, and Sn 20 require
metals to 0.005%. antimony contents up to approximately 6% of the
Iron. The presence of iron-tin compounds tin content. ASTM B32, Class A, specifies a
makes tin-lead solders hard and gritty, although maximum of 0.12% antimony for solders con-
harmful effects are not ordinarily detectable taining more than 35% tin, and Class B requires
below 0.1 %. ASTM and federal specifications 0.2 to 0.50% antimony content. Class C covers
limit iron content to 0.02%. solders containing 20 to 40% tin and specifies
Copper. There is considerable discrepancy be- that the antimony content is not to exceed 6% of
tween British and American standards on copper the tin content.
limits in tin-lead solders. The British Standard Arsenic. Contamina~ion well in excess (2 to 4
Specification has a value of 0.5% maximum times) of the specified 0.02-0.03% arsenic may
compared to a limit of0.08% for both ASTM and cause dewetting on brass or copper. Spots may
federal specifications. Copper amounts above occur on bar solder, but soldered joints will not be
0.3% may adversely affect the appearance of sol- frosty.
dered joints. Excessive Contamination in Dip Soldering.
Antimony. Antimony can play a dual role in Excessive contamination in dip soldering is usu-
tin-lead solders. Depending on the purpose for ally indicated when, after operating for some
 0\
Table 2.1- Tin lead solders (;)
0
r
0
tTl
ASTM Fed. Melting Range c:z
Alloy Spec. Tin% Lead% Antimony% Silver% Solidus Liquidus C)
Grade QQ-S-571 Desired Nominal Minimum Desired Maximum Desired oc OF oc OF 3:::
70A 70 30 - 0.12 - 183 361 192 378
z>
c:
70B Sn 70 70 30 0.20 - 0.50 -
r>
63A 63 37 - - 0.12 - 183 361 183 361
63B Sn 63 63 37 0.20 - 0.50
Sn 62 62 36 0.20 - 0.50 2
60A 60 40 - - 0.12 - 183 361 190 374
60B Sn60 60 40 0.20 - 0.50
50A 50 50 - 0.12 - 183 361 216 421
50B Sn 50 50 50 0.20 - 0.50
45A 45 55 - - 0.12 - 183 361 227 441
45B 45 55 0.20 - 0.50
40A 40 60 - - 0.12 - 183 361 238 460
40B Sn40 40 60 0.20 0.50
40C 40 58 1.8 2.0 2.4 - 185 365 231 448
35A 35 65 - - 0.25 - 183 361 247 477
35B Pb35 35 65 0.20 - 0.50
35C Sn 35 35 63.2 1.6 1.8 2.0 185 365 243 470
30A 30 70 - 0.25 - 183 361 255 491
30B Pb 30 30 70 0.20 - 0.50
30C Sn 30 30 68.4 1.4 1.6 1.8 185 364 250 482
25A 25 75 - 0.25 - 183 361 266 511
25B 25 75 0.20 - 0.50
25C 25 73.7 1.1 1.3 1.5 - 184 364 263 504
20B Pb20 20 80 0.20 - 0.50 183 361 277 531
20C Sn 20 20 79 0.80 1.0 1.20 - 184 363 270 517
 Table 2.1-Tin lead solders continued

Melting Range
ASTM Fed.
Alloy Spec. Tin% Lead% Antimony% Silver% Solidus Liquidus
Grade QQ-S-571 · Desired Nominal Minimum Desired Maximum Desired oc OF oc OF
15B 15 85 0.20 0.50 - 227 440 288 550
JOB Sn 10 10 90 0.20 0.50 - 268 514 299 570
SA 5 95 - 0.12 - 270 518 312 594
5B Sn 5 5 95 0.20 0.50
2A 2 98 - - 0.12

NOTE: Bismuth content allowed for all the above alloys is 0.25% maximum. The allowable copper content is 0.08% maximum, the iron content is 0.02% maximum, the
aluminum content is 0.005% maximum, and the zinc content is 0.005%. The arsenic content of solders containing 60 to 70% tin is 0.03%, for 45 to 50% tin the arsenic
allowed is 0.025%, and for all solders from 20 to 40% tin the arsenic limit is 0.02%. Analyses shall be made regularly for the elements described in Table 2.1 and this note.

Table 2.2- Tin-antimony solder

ASTM Fed. Composition (weight c;,) Temperature

Alloy Spec. Solidus Liquidus
Grade QQ-S-571 Tin Antimony oc OF oc OF
95TA Sb5 95 5 233 452 240 464

Table 2.3- Tin-silver solder

ASTM Fed. Composition (weight '7c 1 Temperature

Vl
Alloy Spec. Solidus Liquidus <:>
oc OF oc OF E;:
Grade QQ-S-571 Tin Silver ~
~
....._
-.I
96.5TS Sn 96 96.5 3.5 221 430 221 430
8/SOLDERING MANUAL
time at a reasonable solder pot temperature, it Joint clearances for the tin-antimony-lead sol-
becomes necessary to increase the pot tempera- ders should be from 0.1 to 0.15 mm ( =0.003 to
ture substantially to overcome what appears to be 0.005in.), whereas0.25 mm(0.010in.) is a practi-
sluggishness in the solder. Excessive contamina- cal maximum to obtain capillary flow. All stand-
tion is also characterized by a rough and gritty ard methods of cleaning, fluxing, and heating
solder bond. The increase of the pot temperature may be used with these solders. Their use is not
to overcome sluggishness is only a temporary recommended on aluminum, zinc, or zinc coated
expedient since the increased temperature will metals, such as galvanized iron. Solders contain-
further accelerate contamination. ing antimony, when used on zinc or zinc alloys,
ASTM and federal solder specifications which form an intermetallic compound of zinc and an-
specify maximum allowable concentrations of timony which causes the solder joint to become
impurities for different grades of solders are in- brittle.
tended only as a basis for purchasing solder. The 20C to 40C solders have melting proper-
Their use as a guide for determining when solder ties closely approximating those of equivalent A
is contaminated could result in discarding solder solders containing 5% more tin (see Table 2.1).
that is still very satisfactory for the purpose in- The tensile strength, creep strength, and hardness
tended. Thus, although the federal specifications ofthesolderedjointsarehigherthanthoseobtained
require that the iron content be less than 0.02%, with nonantimonial solders, but solder flow and
bad effects, such as grittiness, are usually not capillarity are somewhat lower. The use of these
detectable below 0. I%. solders is limited to soldering non-zinc-
Some iron and copper can be removed from the containing metals or coatings.
contaminated solder by taking advantage of the
Tin-Antimony Solder
lower solubility of copper-tin and iron-tin com-
pounds at the liquidus temperatures. For best The tin-antimony solder shown in Table 2.2 has
results the temperature of the solder should be excellent soldering and strength characteristics.
lowered to just above the liquidus temperature of It is useful for application where moderately ele-
the uncontaminated solder, at which point the vated temperature is a factor. It has a higher
copper-tin and iron-tin compounds will crystal- electrical conductivity than the tin-lead solders
lize. These crystals (dross) can be removed with a and is also recommended in applications such as
perforated ladle. in food handling vessels where lead contamina-
tion must be avoided. This solder may be easily
Tin-Antimony-Lead Solders
applied with rosin fluxes.
Antimony may be present as an impurity in sol-
der, or deliberately added. The solders for which Tin-Silver Solders
0.2 to 0.5% antimony is the specified range are The characteristic of the tin-silver solder, listed
generally classed as B solders, i.e., 20B, 30B, in Table 2.3, is similar to those of the tin-anti-
40B, etc. Federal Specification QQ-S-571 re- mony solder. The tin-silver solders are usu-
quires the presence of antimony to prevent the ally used for fine instrument work and some
possible phase change from beta tin to alpha tin specialty tube joining because the cost is pro-
(called the tin pest), with the accompanying hibitive for general purpose soldering. They
change in volume and drastic loss of solder are easy to apply with rosin flux.
strength. These solders may normally be used,
Tin-Zinc Solders
except in very special cases, for the same applica-
tions as the A solders. Antimony may be added to A large number of tin-zinc solders, some of
a tin-lead solder as a substitute for some of the tin. which are listed in Table 2.4, have come into use
The addition of antimony up to 6% of the tin for the joining of aluminum. Galvanic corrosion
content increases the mechanical properties of of soldered joints in aluminum is minimized if the
the solder with but slight impairment of the sol- metals in the joint are close to each other in the
dering characteristics. electrochemical series. Thus, alloys containing
 Solders/9
70 to 80% tin, balance zinc, have been highly The addition of tin to a lead-silver solder contain-
recommended. These alloys have liquidus tem- ing more than 1.75% silver causes the segregation
peratures between 260" and 310° C (500° and of tin-silver intermetallic crystals. Therefore,
590° F). In recent years the tendency has been to silver content is generally limited to 1.5% when
add 1 to 2% aluminum or to raise the zinc content tin is to be added.
to as high as 40%. These solders are more corro- The tensile, creep, and shear strengths of these
sion resistant but they have higher liquidus temp- solders at temperatures up to 175° C (""'350° F)
eratures and are therefore a little more difficult to are good. Their fatigue properties are considera-
apply (see Chapter 15 on aluminum). bly better than those of the solders that do not con-
tain silver. The lead-silver solders require higher
Lead-Silver Solders soldering temperatures and special fluxing
Lead-silver solders listed in Table 2.5 have sol- techniques. The use of a zinc chloride base flux to
idus temperatures high enough to make them produce a good joint on uncoated metals is rec-
useful where strength at moderately elevated ommended. Rosin fluxes are readily decomposed
temperatures is required. Although pure lead at the higher soldering temperatures and can be
melts at 327° C (621° F), a comparatively high used only when the soldering time is relatively
temperature for solder, it is not used because lead short (see Chapter 3).
normally does not wet steel, cast iron, or copper
and its alloys. The addition of silver to lead re- Cadmium-Silver Solder
sults in alloys which will more readily wet steel
and copper. Flow characteristics, however, are The 95% cadmium-5% silver solder has melting
very poor. The lead-silver solders are susceptible characteristics shown in Table 2. 6. The primary
to humid atmospheric corrosion in storage and use of this solder is in applications where service
may become unusable as solders. The addition of temperatures will be higher than permissible with
1% tin to a lead-silver solder increases its wetting lower melting solders. At room temperature butt
and flow characteristics and, in addition, reduces joints in copper can be made to produce tensile
its susceptibility to humid atmospheric corrosion. strengths of 170 MPa (25 000 psi). At 220° C
( ""'425° F) a tensile strength of 18 MPa (2600 psi)
Table 2.4- Tin-zinc solders can be obtained.
Joining of aluminum to itself or dissimilar
Composition Teml'erature metals is possible with cadmium-silver solder.
(weight%} Solidus Liquidus However, as is generally true in joining
Sn Zn oc oF oc oF aluminum with dissimilar metals, electrolytic
corrosion must be considered. Improper use of
91 9 199 390 199 390 this solder may lead to health hazards (see Chap-
80 20 199 390 270 518 ter 21 for safety precautions).
70 30 199 390 311 592
60 40 199 390 341 645
30 70 199 390 376 708

Table 2.5- Lead-silver solders

ASTM Fed. ComQosition {weight%} TemQerature

Alloy Spec. Solidus Liquidus
Grade QQ-S-571 Pb Ag Sn oc oF oc oF

2.5 s Ag2.5 97.5 2.5 304 579 304 579

5.5 s Ag5.5 94.5 5.5 304 579 365 689
1.5 s Ag 1.5 97.5 1.5 1.0 309 588 309 588
10/SOLDERING MANUAL

Cadmium-Zinc Solders 3. Step soldering operations where a low sol-

dering temperature is necessary in order to avoid
The cadmium-zinc solders, listed in Table 2.7, are
destroying a nearby joint that has been made with
useful for soldering aluminum. These solders de-
a higher melting temperature solder.
velop joints with intermediate strength and corro-
4. On temperature sensing devices where the
sion resistance when used with the proper flux.
failure of a soldered joint is required at a rela-
The40% cadmium-60% zinc solder has found con-
tively low temperature, which is known as the
siderable use in the spot soldering of aluminum
yield temperature.
lamp bases. Improper use of these solders may
lead to health hazards (see Chapter 21 for safety
precautions).
Table 2.6-Cadmium-silver solder
Zinc-Aluminum Solder
Composition Temperature
The zinc base solder, shown in Table 2.8, is
(weight%) Solidus Liquidus
specifically for use on aluminum and develops Cd Ag oC oF oC oF
joints with high strength and good corrosion re-
sistance. The solidus temperature of the solder is 95 5 338 640 393 740
high, which limits its use to applications where
soldering temperatures in excess of 370° C
( =700° F) can be tolerated. This solder is exten-
sively used in ultrasonic soldering of aluminum Table 2.7- Cadmium-zinc solders
heat exchanger return bends.
Composition Temperature
Fusible Alloys (weight%) Solidus Liquidus
Bismuth-containing solders, the so-called fusible Cd Zn oC oF oC oF
alloys, are useful for soldering operations where
a soldering temperature below 183° C (361 o F) 82.5 17.5 265 509 265 509
(lower than that available with the tin-lead sol- 40 60 265 509 335 635
ders) is required. The melting characteristics and 10 90 265 509 399 750
compositions of a representative group of fusible
alloys are shown in Table 2.9.
Fusible alloys have applications in cases such Table 2.8- Zinc-aluminum solder
as the following:
1. Soldering heat treated surfaces where higher Composition Temperature
soldering temperatures would result in a soften- (weight%) Solidus Liquidus
ing of the part. Zn AI oC oF oc oF
2. Soldering joints where adjacent material is
very temperature sensitive and would deteriorate 95 5 382 720 382 720
if a higher soldering temperature were necessary.

Table 2.9- Typical fusible alloys

Yield
Composition {weight%} Solidus Liquidus temperature
Sn Bi Pb Cd Others oc oF oc oF oc oF

13.3 50.5 26.7 10 70 158 70 158 70 158

15.5 52.5 32.0 90 203 90 203 90 203
14.5 48.0 28.5 antimony 9.0 103 217 227 440 116 241
55.5 44.5 124 255 124 255 124 255
43 57.0 138 281 138 281 138 281
 Solders Ill
Many of these solders, particularly those con- Solders containing tin, lead, and indium hav-
taining a high percentage of bismuth, are very ing more than 25% indium also show very good
difficult to use successfully in high speed solder- resistance to corrosion by alkaline solutions.
ing operations. Particular attention must be paid However, they start melting at a much lower
to clean metal surfaces and the use of strong temperature and have a wider pasty range than
fluxes to obtain satisfactory joints on uncoated the lead-silver-indium solder. A 50% indium-50%
metal surfaces such as copper or steel. On un- tin solder adheres to glass readily and may be used
coated surfaces it is very unlikely that satisfac- for glass-to-metal and glass-to-glass soldenng.
tory soldering can be obtained with a noncorro- The low vapor pressure of this alloy makes it
sive type flux. If a plated surface, such as tin, useful for seals in vacuum systems.
silver, or cadmium, can be provided for soldering, Indium solders generally do not require special
then there is the possibility of using a noncorro- techniques during use. The low melting indium
sive flux. Joints produced with these solders solders containing bismuth do require the use of
exhibit very low creep strengths, particularly acid fluxes or precoating. All of the heating
above room temperature (see Chapter 4 for rec- methods, fluxes and techniques which are used
ommended joint designs). with the common tin-lead solders are applicable
with indium solders.
Indium Solders
Indium solders possess certain properties which COMMERCIAL FORMS OF SOLDERS
make them valuable for some special applica-
tions. Their usefulness for any particular applica- Typical commercial forms of solder are given in
tion should be checked with the supplier. The Table 2.11.
melting characteristics and compositions of a The tables in this chapter pertaining to solder
representative group of indium solders are shown specification are excerpts. Copies of the latest
in Table 2.10. complete specification should be secured from
The standard 97.5% lead-2.5% silver solder the following organizations:
does not wet most metals well. Adding I to 2% ASTM American Society for Testing and
indium to this solder improves its wetting proper- Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadel-
ties. Thus, a higher melting solder can be used phia, Pa. 19103
without precoating the parts to be soldered. The QQ Federal Specifications, Naval Publica-
lead-silver-indium solders are especially applic- tion and Forms Center, 5801 Tabor
able where alkaline corrosion is a problem. Avenue, Philadelphia, Pa. 19120

Table 2.10-lndium solders

Composition (weight 'ii) Temperature

Solidus Liquidus
Tin Indium Bismuth Lead Cadmium oc oF oc OF

8.3 19.1 44.7 22.6 5.3 47 117 47 117

12 21 49 18 58 136 58 136
12.8 4.0 48.0 25.6 9.6 61 142 65 149
50 50 117 243 127 260
48 52 117 243 117 243
12/SOLDERING MANUAL

Table 2.11-Commercial forms of solders

Solders are commercially available in various sizes and shapes which can be grouped into about a
dozen classifications. These major groups are listed below. This listing is by no means complete,
inasmuch as any desired size, weight, or shape is available on special order.

Pig Available in nominal 22.5 and 45 Segment Triangular bar or wire cut into any
kg (50 and 100 lb.) pigs. or drop desired number of pieces or
Cakes or Rectangular or circular in shape, lengths.
ingots weighing nominal 1. 5, 2. 5, and 4. 5 Wire, Solid Diameters of nominal 0.25 to 6.5
kg (3, 5 and 10 lb.). mm (0.010 to 0.250 in.) on spools.
Bars Available in numerous cross sec- Wire, Solder cored with rosin, organic,
tions, weights and lengths. Flux Cored or inorganic fluxes. Diameters of
Paste Available as a mixture of pow- nominal 0.25 to 6.5 mm (0.010 to
dered solder and suitable flux in 0.250 in.).
paste. Preforms Unlimited range of sizes and
Foil, Sheet Available in various thicknesses shapes to meet special require-
ur Ribbon and widths. ments.
CHAPTERS

FLUXES

DEFINITION moval with a flux varies with each base metal.

Aluminum, magnesium, stainless and high alloy
A soldering flux is a liquid, solid, or gaseous steels, aluminum and silicon bronzes, when ex-
material which, when heated, is capable of pro- posed to air, form hard adherent oxide films.
moting or accelerating the wetting of metals by Highly active and corrosive fluxes must be used
solder. The purpose of a soldering flux is to to remove and prevent the reformation of the
remove and exclude oxides and other impurities tenacious films during soldering. Copper and
from the joint being soldered. Anything that in- silver, on the other hand, when exposed to air,
terferes with the attainment of uniform contact form less tenacious films, and at a slower rate, so
between the surface of the base metal and the that mild fluxes remove them easily and prevent
molten solder will prevent the formation of a them from reforming.
sound joint. An efficient flux removes films and
oxides from the metal and solder and prevents
reoxidation of the surfaces when heated. It is THEORIES OF FLUX ACTION
designed to lower the surface tension of the mol-
ten solder so that the solder will flow readily and Many theories have been proposed to explain
adhere to the metal. The flux should be readily flux action, and some of these theories have been
displaced from the metal by the molten solder. useful in the development of new fluxes. The
most widely held view is that the flux removes
THE NATURE OF the oxide film from the base metal and solder by
SURFACE CONTAMINANTS reacting with and loosening the film and floating
it off into the main body of the flux. Because of
Surfaces to be soldered are often covered with the refractory nature of many oxide films, it has
films of oil, grease, paint, heavy oxides or atmos- been suggested that the flux wets, coagulates, and
pheric grime which must be removed. Cleaning suspends the oxide which has been loosened by a
methods are outlined in Chapter 5. penetrating and reducing action. The molten flux
Chemical reactions occur on clean metal sur- then forms a protective blanket over the bare
faces at room temperature and deposit fresh sur- metal, which prevents the film from reforming.
face films. Although nitrides, sulfides, and car- Molten solder displaces the flux and reacts with
bides are formed in some instances, the prevalent the base metal to form an intermolecular bond.
reaction is oxidation. The rate of oxide forma- The solder layer builds up in thickness and when
tion, its structure, tenacity and resistance to re- the heat is removed, it solidifies (see Fig. 3.1).

13
14/SOLDERING MANUAL

tions, as pastes, or as fillers for acid core solder

wire.
The corrosive fluxes have one distinct disad·
vantage: The residue remains chemically active
after soldering. The residue, if not removed, may
cause severe corrosion at the joint. Adjoining
areas may also be attacked by residues from the
spray or flux vapors. For this reason corrosive
fluxes are not used to solder closed containers
such as thermostats or bellows nor to solder as-
sembled electrical equipment. Removal of flux
residues is covered in Chapter 7.
---- Direction of movement of
soldering iron The inorganic salts and acids listed in Table 3.1
all have a fluxing action on metals when heated.
A. Flux over oxidized metal
B. Boiling flux removes oxide If a water solution is used, the water rapidly
C. Base metal in contact with molten flux evaporates on heating, and the molten salt reacts
D. Molten solder displaces molten flux with the base metal to produce a protective envi-
E. Solder alloys with base metal ronment which insulates the metal from contact
F. Solder solidifies with the air.

Fig. 3.1 - Mechanism of flux action Corrosive Flux Ingredients

Zinc Chloride. The main ingredient in most cor-
rosive fluxes is zinc chloride. It can be prepared
TYPES OF FLUX by adding an excess of zinc to concentrated hy-
drochloric acid or can be purchased as fused zinc
Fluxes are frequently classified on the basis of chloride, which is more convenient to use. Zinc
their residues. They are divided into three main chloride has a melting temperature well above the
groups: corrosive, intermediate, and noncorrosive solidus temperature of most commercial tin-lead
fluxes. The mildest flux that will perform satis- solders, which means that if it is used alone,
factorily in a specific application should always unmelted salt particles may be entrapped in the
be selected. joint. These inclusions will corrode and weaken
the joint. It is good practice, therefore, to mix
other inorganic chlorides with zinc chloride to
Corrosive Fluxes
lower the melting temperature of the flux.
The corrosive fluxes, consisting of inorganic Ammonium Chloride. A water solution of
acids and salts, are used to best advantage where ammonium chloride may be used as a flux. When
conditions require rapid and highly activated the water evaporates, the ammonium chloride
fluxing. They can be applied as solutions, pastes, sublimes as a white fume. It is less effective than
or as dry salts and function equally well with all zinc chloride because the protective action of a
heating methods, since they do not char or burn. molten salt is not present and the base metal may
Corrosive fluxes can be formulated to be stable reoxidize before it reaches soldering tempera-
over various temperature ranges. They are more ture. A combination of one part ammonium
versatile in this respect than the less corrosive chloride to three parts zinc chloride forms a
fluxes. Corrosive fluxes are almost always re- eutectic flux mixture which melts at 175° C
quired when the higher melting temperature sol- ( =350° F). This mixture takes advantage of the
ders are used. excellent oxide reducing properties of the am-
Corrosive fluxes can be formulated to pene- monium chloride and the excellent protective ac-
trate the most tenacious ofthe oxide films. Com- tion of the zinc chloride to form a flux which is
mercial fluxes are available for specific applica- considerably more effective than either con-
tions in the form of dilute and concentrated solu- stituent when used alone. A one to nine ratio of
 Fluxes/15
Table 3.1-lnorganic salts and acids

(a) Zinc chloride (g) Sodium or potassium fluoride

(b) Ammonium chloride (h) Boron trifluoride
(c) Stannous chloride (i) Hydrochloric acid
(d) Sodium or potassium chloride U) Hydrofluoric acid
(e) Lithium chloride (k) Orthophosphoric acid
(f) Aluminum chloride (I) Fluoboric acid

the salts (1 part ammonium chloride to 9 parts cially effective on high tensile manganese
zinc chloride) is commonly used without fear of bronze.
flux inclusions in the soldered joint.
Intermediate Fluxes
Stannous Chloride. Stannous chloride is
formed by dissolving metallic tin in hydrochloric The intermediate fluxes, as a class, are weaker
acid. It is commercially available in the anhy- fluxes than the inorganic salt types. They consist
drous and hydrated forms. Stannous chloride is a mainly of mild organic acids and bases and cer-
highly effective flux when used alone in powder, tain of their derivatives such as the hydrohalides
paste or molten form. It is also effective when (see Table 3.2). These fluxes are active at solder-
mixed with zinc. and ammonium chlorides. ing temperatures, buttheperiod of activity is short
Sodium or Potassium Chloride. Sodium because of their susceptibility to thermal decom-
chloride is not effective as a flux when used position. Their tendency to volatilize, char, or
alone, but is effective in diluting zinc chloride burn when heated limits their use with torch or
and lowers its melting point. A low melting flux flame heating. They are useful, however, in quick
can be obtained by mixing nine parts of zinc spot soldering operations and, when properly
chloride with two parts of sodium chloride. A used, their residue is relatively inert and easily
ternary eutectic mixture, melting at 203° C (397° removed with water.
F) is obtained by mixing 75 parts zinc chloride, 11
Table 3.2-Typical intermediate
parts sodium chloride, and 14 parts potassium
flux constituents
chloride.
Other Chlorides and Fluorides. Lithium and
Organic acids
aluminum chlorides and fluorides are seldom (a) Lactic acid
used alone, but they are used effectively as fluxes (b) Citric acid
when mixed with other compounds. (c) Oleic acid
Hydrochloric Acid. Hydrochloric acid has (d) Stearic acid
limited use when used alone as a flux. When (e) Glutamic acid
hydrochloric acid is applied to galvanized iron, (t) Benzoic acid
the zinc coating is dissolved to form zinc chloride, (g) Oxalic acid
which acts as the flux. Hydrochloric acid is used (h) Phthalic acid
to activate the zinc chloride type fluxes. Mixtures (i) Abietic acid
of inorganic salts and hydrochloric acid are the Organic hydrohalides
basis of stainless steel fluxes. (a) Glutamic acid hydrochloride
Hydrofluoric Acid: Hydrofluoric acid is ex- (b) Aniline hydrochloride or phosphate
tremely corrosive. It is added to zinc chloride (c) Hydrazine hydrobromide or hydrochloride
(d) Cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide
base fluxes for the purpose of dissolving silicon
(e) Ethyl dimethyl cetyl ammonium bromide
inclusions on the surface of cast iron (see Chapter (t) Cetylpyridinium bromide
21 for safety in handling).
Orthophosphoric Acid. Orthophosphoric Amines and others
(a) Urea
acid is an effective flux for steel, copper, and
(b) Diethylene di- or triamine
brass. It leaves a glassy residue which serves as a (c) Glycerol
protective coating. A diluted solution is espe-
16/SOLDERING MANUAL
Intermediate fluxes are particularly useful in addition of small amounts of complex organic
applications where small quantities of flux can be compounds for their increased activity. Hydro-
applied and where sufficient heat can be applied halides of amines such as hydrazine hydrohalide,
to fully decompose or volatilize the corrosive glutamic acid hydrochloride, cetyl pyridinium
constituents. Caution is necessary where unde- bromide, aniline hydrochloride and organic acids
composed flux may spread to insulating sleeving such as benzoic and succinic ha·ve been disclosed
or in soldering closed systems where corrosive in patent literature as additives for activated rosin
fumes may be deposited on critical parts of the fluxes to be used in liquid form or as a core
assembly. When stranded wire is soldered, material. Additive amounts varying from 0.2 to
caution is necessary to avoid entrapment of the 5% have been suggested. Fluxes of this type are
corrosive constituents. designated RA.
The use of activated rosin as a noncorrosive
Noncorrosive Fluxes
flux is based on the theory that the activator is
Noncorrosive fluxes all have rosin as a common decomposed by heat and that the residue is not
ingredient. Rosin has unique physical and chemi- electrically conductive or corrosive. High
cal properties which make it ideal as a flux. It production-line speeds have demanded more
melts at 127° C (260° F) and remains active in the highly active fluxes, but the question of harmful
molten state up to 315° C ( =600° F). The active flux residues is still a matter of debate in critical
constituent of rosin (abietic acid) is inert in the applications where corrosion resistance is the
solid state, active when molten; and returns to an foremost consideration.
inactive state when cooled. Thus it is widely used Paste Fluxes
in the electrical and electronics industries be-
cause the flux residue is noncorrosive and non- It is sometimes convenient to have the flux in
conductive. paste form. Paste fluxes can be more easily
Three types of rosin fluxes are in common use localized at the joint and have the advantage of
-nonactivated, mildly activated, and activated not draining off the surface or spreading to other
rosin. parts of the work where the flux would be harm-
Nonactivated Rosin. Nonactivated rosin con- ful. The paste-forming ingredients may be water,
sists of rosin plasticized with an inert plasticizer petroleum jelly, tallow, or lanolin, with glycerine
for core solder or dissolved in an inert solvent as a or other moisture-retaining substances. If the
liquid flux. No additives for the purpose of in- pastes contain inorganic salts, such as zinc or
creasing flux activity are used. This is the mildest ammonium chloride, they are classed as corro-
of the rosin fluxes, and only extremely clean and sive fluxes.
solderable metals can be soldered reliably with
Solder and Flux Pastes
nonactivated rosin. Federal Specifications
MIL-F-14256 and QQ-S-571 designate this type A true paste solder is a stable blend of finely
as R. divided metallic solder with inorganic or organic
Mildly Activated Rosin. Because of the slow chemicals acting as the flux in a neutral vehicle
fluxing action of nonactivated rosin, mildly acti- or carrier. These paste solders are not merely
vated rosin is also used. It contains additives mechanical mixtures of flux and metal. The
which improve the fluxing action of the rosin but blending agents prevent a drying action and set-
leave residues which are noncorrosive and non- tling of heavy metallic particles. The size and
conducting. Mildly activated rosin is used in high shape of the particle of the metal ingredient have
reliability electronic assemblies, and removal of a definite bearing on the stability of the pastes.
the flux residue is optional. Mildly activated Paste solders are well suited for preplacement
rosin can be plasticized for core solder or dis- in oven, radiant heat, resistance and induction
solved in an organic solvent to provide a liquid heating applications. Automatic preplacement
flux. Federal Specifications MIL-F-14256 and methods have been developed for the paste sol-
QQ-S-571 designate this type as RMA. ders and include dipping, brushing or rolling,
Activated Rosin. The activated rosin fluxes point feeding, and line feeding. Corrosive and
are the most active of all and depend on the noncorrosive paste solders are available com-
 Fluxes/17

mercially. The solder composition may vary from fluxes, however, are sensitive to the heating
25% to 60% tin, balance lead. method. Since they are of essentially organic
origin, they will decompose and become ineffec-
Reaction Fluxes
tive when overheated. Torch or flame heating
Reaction fluxes are a special group of corrosive methods, unless carefully controlled, are not
fluxes developed for soldering aluminum. Their generally recommended for intermediate and
action depends on the decomposition of the flux rosin base fluxes.
to form a metallic film on the aluminum (see
Chapter 15).
TYPICAL FLUX COMPOSITIONS

SELECTING THE FLUX Proprietary flux formulations are available from

solder and flux manufacturers for every soldering
The following factors influence the choice of application. The following flux compositions
flux: will show some of the formulations which are
I. The assembly being soldered used. More detailed information is available from
2. Accessibility of the part for cleaning after most manufacturers.
soldering Corrosive General Purpose Fluxes
3. Solderability of the base metals
These fluxes are effective on low-carbon steel,
4. Rate of soldering required
copper, brass, and bronze. Applications are in the
5. Heating method.
production of auto radiators, air conditioning imd
It is good practice to use the mildest flux that
refrigerating equipment, body soldering, and
will do the job. (see Table 3. 3). The soldering of
sheet metal assembly.
complicated electrical equipment requires the
choice of a noncorrosive flux, since corrosive 1. Zinc chloride ll30g 40oz.
residues cannot be tolerated and postcleaning is Ammonium chloride llOg 4oz.
virtually impossible. Corrosive fluxes can be Water to make 4L lgal
used when the parts can be thoroughly washed
2. Zinc chloride 1020g 36oz.
after soldering as, for example, in the assembly of
radiators. Sodium chloride 280g 10oz.
Ammonium chloride 15g 1/2 oz.
Where a small degree of corrosion can be tol-
Hydrochloric acid 30g I oz.
erated and removal of the flux residue is imprac-
Water to make 4L I gal
tical, the intermediate fluxes, properly used, are
sufficiently active and fast for soldering the more 3. Zinc chloride 600g 21 oz.
difficult-to-solder metals. The more corrosive Sodium chloride 170g .6oz.
fluxes are often demanded, however, because of (Dry flux for molten solder cover
increased speed in soldering. in dip soldering)
Although the base metal is a big factor in flux
4. Zinc chloride 710 g 25oz.
selection, the converse is also sometimes the
case. Thus, in the electrical industry, difficult-to- Ammonium chloride 100 g 3-1/2 oz.
solder metals are precoated with metals such as Petroleum jelly 1840 g 65 oz.
Water 180g 6-I/2oz.
silver, tin, cadmium and copper to permit the use
of rosin fluxes.
Methods of heating may govern the choice of
Corrosive Special Purpose Fluxes
flux and, conversely, the flux may determine the
choice of heating method. The inorganic salt type These fluxes can be used for soldering stainless
fluxes can be effectively used with any heating steel, alloy steel, nickel alloys, silicon and
method, since they do not char or decompose aluminum bronzes, zinc coated sheet, cast iron
readily. The intermediate fluxes and rosin base and aluminum.
 Table 3.3- Flux selection

Ability to 00
Vl
--
Temperature remove Recommended cleaning 0
Type Composition Carrier Uses stability tarnish Corrosiveness after soldering r
0
tTl
Inorganic ~
Acids Hydrochloric Water, petro- Structural Good Very Good High Hot water rinse and z
Q
hydrofluoric Iatum paste, neutralize; organic solvents 3::
orthophosphoric >
Salts Zinc chloride, Water, petro- Structural Excellent
zc:
Very Good High Hot water rinse and
ammonium chloride, Iatum paste, neutralize; 2% HCI solution; r>
tin chloride polyethylene hot water rinse and
glycol neutralize; organic solvents
Organic
Acids Lactic, oleic, Water, organic Structural, Fairly Good Fairly Good Moderate Hot water rinse
stearic glutamic, solvents, petro- Electrical and neutralize;
phthalic Iatum paste, organic solvents
polyethylene glycol
Halogens Aniline hydrochloride, Same as Structural, Fairly Good Fairly Good Moderate Same as
glutamic hydrochloride, organic acids Electrical organic acids
bromide derivatives of
palmitic acid, hydrazine
hydrochloride (or hydrobromide)
Aminesand Urea, Water, organic Structural, Fair Fair Noncorrosive Hot water rinse
ami des ethylenediamine solvents, petro- Electrical normally and neutralize;
tatum paste, organic solvents
polyethylene
glycol
Activated Water white rosin Isopropyl alcohol, Electrical Poor Fair Noncorrosive Water base detergents;
rosin organic solvents, normally isopropyl alcohol;
polyethylene organic solvents
glycol
Water white Rosin only Same as Electrical Poor Poor None Same as activated
rosin activated water white rosin
but does not normally
require post cleaning
 Fluxes/19

1. Zinc chloride 2410 g 85 oz. Diethanol diamine 110 g 4oz.

Ammonium Chloride 180 g 6-1/2 oz. Diethanol triamine 285 g 10oz.
Stannous Chloride 260 g 9 oz. (For soldering aluminum)
Hydrochloric acid 60 g 2 oz.
Water to make 4L 1 gal 9. Potassium chloride 1280g 45oz.
Wetting agent (optional)- 0. 1% by weight Sodium chloride 850g 30"oz.
Lithium chloride 425g 15 oz.
(For stainless steel and galvanized iron)
Potassium fluoride 200g 7 oz.
2. Zinc chloride 1360 g 48oz. Sodium
Ammonium chloride 140 g 5oz. pyrophosphate 85g 3 OZ.
Hydrochloric acid 85 g 3 oz. (For soldering aluminum)
Water to make 4L 1 gal
Wetting agent (optional)- 0.1% by weight 10. Triethanolamine 710 g 25 oz.
(For stainless steel) Fluoboric acid 85 g 3 oz.
Cadmium fluoborate 55 g 2 oz.
3. Zinc chloride 455g 16oz. (Chloride-free organic flux for soldering
Ammonium chloride 455g 16oz. aluminium. Fluxing range 175° to 275° C [ =350°
Glycerin 455g 16oz. to 525° F). The viscous liquid can be dissolved
Water 0.5L 1 pint with water or alcohol to any desired concentra-
(For Monel) tion.)
4. Orthophosphoric II. Stannous chloride 1250 g 44 oz.
acid (85%) 960g 34oz. Ammonium chloride 140 g 5 oz.
Water 455g 16oz. Sodium fluoride 30 g 1 oz.
(Forhigh tensile manganese, bronze, (Reaction type flux for soldering aluminum.
copper, brass) Fluxing range 280° to 380° C [ =540° to 720° F)
910g 32oz. or higher. It may be used as a dry powder mixture
5. Zinc chloride
llOg 4oz. or it may be suspended in alcohol.)
Ammonium chloride
Sodium chloride 225g 8oz. 12. Zinc chloride 1250g 44oz.
Hydrochloric acid 225g 8oz. Ammonium chloride 140g 5oz.
Water to make 4L 1 gal Sodium fluoride 30g 1 oz.
(For cast iron) (Reaction flux for soldering aluminum. It may be
1130g 40 oz. used as a dry powder or mixed with water or
6. Zinc chloride
!lOg 4oz. alcohol.)
Ammonium chloride
Hydrofluoric acid 35 g 1-1/4 oz. Intermediate Fluxes
Water to make 4L I gal
These fluxes contain organic compounds which
(For cast iron) decompose at soldering temperatures. When
7. Stannous chloride 2350g 83 oz. properly used, the mildly corrosive elements in
Zinc dihydrazinium the flux volatilize, leaving a residue relatively
chloride* 200g 7 oz. inert and easily removed with water. They are
Hydrazine effective on all materials which are solderable
hydrobromide* 285g 10 oz. with mild fluxes. Typical compositions are as
Water 285g 10oz. follows:
(Paste flux for soldering aluminum)
1. Glutamic acid
8. Cadmium fluoboride 140g 5 oz. hydrochloride 540 g 19 oz.
Zinc fluoboride 140 g 5oz. Urea 310 g 11 oz.
Fluoboric acid 170g 6oz. Water 41 1 gal
Diethanol amine 570g 20 oz. Wetting agent- 0.2% by weight
20/SOLDERING MANUAL
2. Hydrazine TESTING OF FLUXES
monohydrobromide* 280 g 10 oz.
Water 2550 g 90 oz. Laboratory tests on fluxes are of questionable
Nonionic wetting value as a final indication of the effectiveness of
agent 1.5 g 1/20 oz.
the flux. However, the following tests are used to
3. Lactic acid (85%) 260 g 9oz. classify fluxes according to their efficiency and
Water 1190 g 42 oz. corrosivity.
Wetting agent 3 g 1/10 oz. Flux Efficiency
(For beryllium copper)
The test varies from one laboratory to another, but
Noncorrosive Fluxes the details may be generalized. A circular strand
The rosin base fluxes- nonactivated, mildly ac- of solder of known weight is placed in the center
tivated and activated -belong in this class. For all of a one-inch square piece of clean copper sheet
electronic and critical soldering applications, and a few drops of the flux applied. The copper
water white rosin dissolved in an organic solvent sheet is placed on a thermostatically controlled
(item 1 below) is the safest known flux. Ac- hot plate at 260° C (500° F) for 60 seconds and
tivators added to the rosin increase the activity, then carefully removed. The spread of the solder
but the flux residue from these fluxes should pass is measured with a planimeter. The apparatus can
tests for noncorrosivity and nonconductance be improved by eliminating air currents which
when used on electronic applications. These may affect the spread or by raising or lowering
fluxes are effective on clean copper, brass, the sheet onto the hot plate mechanically to avoid
bronze, tinplate, terneplate, electrodeposited tin disturbing the solder. A control test with a stand-
and in alloy coatings, cadmium, nickel, and ard flux is made along with each test as a com-
silver. parison of flux efficiency. Although this test pro-
cedure is fairly standard, it must be appropriately
1. Water white rosin: 10-25% by weight modified for use with base metals other than
Alcohol, turpentine or petroleum: balance copper.

2. Water white rosin: 40% by weight Flux Corrosivity

Glutamic acid hydrochloride: 2% by weight
One method for measuring potential corrosiv-
Alcohol: balance
ity of the flux is the measurement of the resistiv-
3. Water white rosin: 40% by weight ity of a water extract. The water extract test is a
Cetyl pyridinium bromide: 4% by weight means by which the chemical character of flux
Alcohol: balance residues is determined. As the test is outlined in
the Federal Specification QQ-S-571, much care is
4. Water white rosin: 40% by weight
required to obtain correct and reproducible re-
Stearine: 4% by weight sults. The specification requires that the specific
Alcohol: balance
resistivity of a water extract of the flux be at least
5. Water white rosin: 40% by weight 100 000 !km for R and RMA and 45 000 !km
Hydrazine hydrobromide 2% by weight for RA types. Details of the test procedure appear
Alcohol: balance in Federal Specification QQ-S-571. Other corro-
sion tests for rosin base fluxes are given in
MIL-F-14256, QQ-S-571, and ASTM B284.

*Stock solution to be used in concentration of 2-15% in

alcohol. Hydrazine salts and compounds are highly
toxic, and fluxes containing these should be used with
caution.
 CHAPTER4

JOINT DESIGN

INTRODUCTION many materials and solders from consideration.

However, it is very likely that several solder-base
In general, solders have lower strength properties metal combinations will remain after the en-
than the materials to which they are joined. Struc- gineering assessments. The next most important
turally loaded joints must therefore be carefully criterion to consider is cost effectiveness, includ-
evaluated so that they will be capable of sustain- ing relative processing and material costs.
ing the applied stresses for an adequate lifetime. Physical and mechanical properties of the sol-
Long-term joint properties are more important dered joint are discussed in Chapter 23. As al-
than short-time tensile or shear tests in the deter- ready explained, however, the range of pos-
mination of an appropriate joint cross-sectional sibilities in configuration variations is such that
area once the design has been selected. Bulk some test work is mandatory on a proposed joint
solder alloy properties must not be utilized in design and soldering procedure if a specific per-
design, since they are not reflected in actual joint formance requirement is to be met. When joint
strengths. designs are compared, the soldering operations
Electrical conductivity of soldered connec- must be performed under carefully controlled and
tions is also an important factor. Solder resistivity similar conditions so that the joint itself is under
values vary widely and must be considered in test and not the method of joining.
selecting a suitable joint design or connection. Relative thermal expansion of the solder and
The soldered joint should relate to the maximum the base metal are important in processing as well
expected capacity of the electrical circuit and be as in service. In processing, joint overstressing
designed to prevent localized heating or resis- can lead to solder joint fracture on solidification.
tance changes that would influence overall circuit In service, differential thermal expansion or re-
performance. sidual stresses from processing can accelerate
joint failure by creep or corrosion mechanisms.
As service stresses increase, attention should be
BASE METAL given to the joint by (I) placing the joint in a
relatively low stress area, (2) supporting the joint
The base metal's properties will have a strong mechanically, say, by a lock-seam, and (3) re-
influence on joint selection. The designer must sorting to a higher strength solder with suitable
have a thorough knowledge of the part or assem- strength or creep resistance.
bly and its intended functions in order to arrive at Lap joints are the most widely used and are
the best joint design, material, and solder for the usually preferable. Butt joints can be made but
job. The initial design criteria will eliminate have limited value. Many variations in joint de-

21
22/SOLDERING MANUAL

sign are feasible, a good number of which are values as an initial guide to solder and base metal
presented in Figs. 4.1 and 4.2. Dimensions of the selection. Joint design with a simple lap joint is
lap joint may be varied so that the joint can more complex than relating a unit cross-section
adequately sustain service loading or produce stress or shear value to a developed configura-
failure in the base metal to which it is attached. tion. Rarely can a solder joint be designed to take
Most reported test data on joint strengths are not a pure shear load. The length and quality of the
useful to the designer, since in solder joints the exposed joint edge is just as important as joint
ability to withstand load to failure in a short-time area in strength determination under shear load.
room-temperature test generally does not bear Perhaps the most definite work on shear loading
much relationship to what that joint can sustain of soldered joints was performed by Maupin and
in service. Often the data are meaningless for Swanger, who fully characterized the load-
the designer because sufficient details of the ac- carrying capabilities of copper tube with sleeve-
tual test performed are lacking. The shear strength type joints or fittings. Their results can be effec-
of a solder joint can apparently be doubled or tively interpreted, since overall dimensions are
halved depending on the speed of test in tension. known in addition to the loads applied. Typical
Therefore, engineering design must proceed copper tube and fitting sizes are found in Chap-
on the basis of test comparisons, using book ter 22.

rf1
~
T Lap Corner Single strap butt

Double lap Corner Flanged butt

Angle T

M Flanged T Flush lap Flanged corner Line contact

~ Flanged bottom
Flanged edge Flat lock seam Flanged bottom

Fig. 4.la - Joint designs frequently used in soldering. Solder joints terminology has not
been standardized
 Joint Design/23
Joint clearance in a lap joint is critical for
Solder is placed optimum performance. Too small clearances fre-
here before heating quently lead to flux entrapment, inadequate sol-
der flow, and numerous voids in the joint. Con-
versely, if joint clearances are too large, capillary
flow of the solder filler metal is impaired; or if the
joint is heated too vigorously, the solder runs out
or leaves only a bridge at the edge or opening.
Correct joint clearance in lap joints is approxi-
mately 0.10-0. 15 mm (0.004-0.006 in.), which
achieves a balance between competing processes
of flux and solder flow, capillary action, and
solder retention. A good design criterion for lap-
ped solder joints is to consider 70% filled joint to
be adequate provided the voids are small and
discretely dispersed. A practical range for copper
tube joint filling is 70-90%; this can readily be
checked in most situations by X-ray techniques
(see Fig. 4 . 3).

Single line of
contact

Fig. 4.lb- Typical socket joint design. Note Vent Flattened side
flange which holds solder preform and the
single line of contact between inner member
and inner wall. The molten solder flows easily Fig. 4.lc - Venting of closed-end joints can
beneath the contact line to form a fillet on the be done by drilling a hole, as at left , or by
other (lower) side crimping or flattening one member, as at right

Fig. 4.ld- Several lock seam designs used in soldering sheet. Sequence of formation is shown by the
sketches
24/SOLDERING MANUAL

Fig. 4.le- Joint showing (left) solder preplacement before soldering and (right) after soldering

Radiators and heat exchangers are among the require close fit-up, but it uses large quantities of
commonest applications of soldering. Tubes are solder. Quantity production of small parts or
joined by a lock seam and then joined to tank small joints can best be handled with wire or strip
headers by a lap joint; the remaining joint be- preforms. Joints are designed for solder reten-
tween the header plate and tank is a trough joint, tion, for example, widening a gap or indenting a
shown in Fig. 4.4. These joints are required to be part for precise joint configuration. Parts are
structurally capable of operating at elevated made for automatic sorting and placement.
temperature and pressure under cyclic condi- Capillary action of liquid solder is necessary
tions. Test work has demonstrated that lap joint for good joint formation in lapped or locked
strength data are not applicable to the trough seams in tube sleeves and in some wire type
system, but a peel test provides a quantitative connections. The maximum capillary rise
measure of the comparative merits of solder achievable is directly related to joint gap (see Fig.
fillers for header tank use. Joint design in the 4. 5) and is given by the equation
radiator is controlled by the need for rapid as-
sembly, and solder selection is necessarily pro- 2 a-cos e
h
gressive because the joints have to be made in d Pg
sequence. Success depends on the total concept where h = capillary height,
in which joint design has an important place but a- = surface tension, dynes
.cannot be separately considered. e = contact angle,
Process selection, details of which can be d = capillary gap,
found in Chapter 6, can dictate the appropriate p = solder density,
joint design or, conversely, a particular joint de- g =gravity.
sign may be limited to a particular process or
heating method. For example, in sheet metal Joint tolerances are critical to proper capillary
work the lock seam has the obvious advantage of action and to the displacement of flux from the
being self-jigging, and parts can be roughly han- joint by the molten solder. These two require-
dled and still be joined satisfactorily. The ideal ments are conflicting and result in the known
use of the lap joint is in tubing where a sleeve fit is optimum lap joint gap ofO.l to 0.15 mm ( =0.003
easy to assemble for subsequent joining. Both to 0.005 in.). A smaller gap may produce flux
can be hand-soldered or automatically handled inclusions; a larger gap reduces capillary flow
with liquid solder or solid wire feed material and may also produce voids.
application. The trough system is particularly Joint design must be adequate for liquid solder
useful for rapid automatic production; it does not flow. Several factors affect joint design and must
 Joint Design/25

Spot welded
~Ltf~LiFS
Mechanically
expanded
Hydraulically
expanded Pressed Staked Crimped
I

Lock seamed
~ Clipped Screwed or riveted

~atDAI Bi
~a
~I
m
A B
Countersunk and spun Swaged

A Formed B Pressed C Peened Slitting and earing

Pin flange
to tube

Gravity Staked Pinned

? .. ~ u
Expanded
Spun or
swaged
Knurled and
pressed fit Crimped
Solder

Fig. 4.2 - Twenty-one methods that can be used to make solder joints self-jigging
26/SOLDERING MANUAL

200
c"'
:§. 150
0 100
c:i
z 50

25 50 75 100
% Solder fill in joints

Fig. 4.3 - Histogram of joint areas filled with

soft solder. From collection of 812 fitting
joints considered to have been giving satisfac-
tory service prior to their removal from ser-
vice due to building demolition

Fig. 4.4 - Section of tank-to-tube plate joint

300

250

200
E
E
150

100

50

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

d mm

Fig. 4.5 - Maximum head height versus capillary gap dimension between
parallel plates for 50% tin-50% lead solder with flux present
 Joint Design/27
be considered if a sound joint is to be produced: through-hole with solder fill will provide a larger
I. A reservoir of molten solder crack propagation path as demonstrated in Fig.
2. A feed path to the capillary 4.7. Component placement is instrumental in re-
3. A suitable capillary entrance and exit straining movement. Some electrical designs
4. Controlled gap to provide capillary driving allow a strain-relieved lead but, conversely, an
force offset component can lead to mechanical or
5. A balanced mass for even heating and con- thermal fatigue of the joint if not carefully de-
trolled liquid solder flow signed as in Fig. 4.8. See Fig. 4.9 for some
6. A joint suitable for the proposed method of helpful tips on component mountings. Swaged
heating terminals should not be soldered to both sides of
7. Enough joint freedom to prevent flux en- the joint. A lead wire should be used if a second
trapment. joint is necessary.
A conscious effort is necessary in joint detail- Wire-to-hole ratio and land spacing are two
ing to provide highly reliable optimum joints. other important factors. Again, selection of both
A widely used practical joint is the interlock or is bound to lead to compromise. A satisfactory
locked seam. From a joint design and ease-of- minimum radial clearance in a hole for a wire is
soldering standpoint, the joint is also one of the 0.1 mm ( =0.003 in.). Adequate soldering in the
most difficult. Usually the heating system has at hole is more important in the plated through-hole
least three thicknesses to penetrate, and the inner where this area is probably included in the elec-
part of the joint may not be hot enough to provide trical design. Component densities tend to in-
the free solder flow. Sometimes interlocked joints crease, reducing space between conductors and
are provided with perforations to assist in observ- allowing less room for adequate land spacing.
ing solder flow. Land shape should be related to the conductor
Soldered joints are widely used in the elec- shape and size to allow the best fillet formation at
tronics industry (see Tables 4.1 and 4.2). Joint the joint area. Some configurations are presented
design for electrical applications has the dual in Table 4.4. Safety factors in joint design are
function of providing satisfactory electrical con- subjective; there are no clear rules because of the
tinuity in addition to permanently affixing com- numerous variables and compromises that have
ponents and leads for reliable service. Electrical been made during the designing process. The
joints for wires and more recently joints in tlie final test must be a verification trial for manufac-
printed circuit and integrated circuit industries turing and a test and inspection program for ser-
have increasingly been required to be capable of vice. Review and modification of new designs
withstanding a variety of service conditions. must be included in the cost and time accounting
The three basic types of joint for the wire-to- and should not necessarily be regarded as a' 'mis-
tab connection are shown in Fig. 4.6. The lap take." Much remains to be learned, and many
joint is useful for many electrical applications. pitfalls can be avoided by proper attention.
The through-lead with or without plated High density electronic packaging requires
through-holes is widely used but generally not close attention to joint design to suit the process.
suitable for vibrating or high acceleration service Lead bend angle has profound effects on reported
because of soldered joint creep problems. A mechanical strengths. Lead mass can affect op-
wrapped or clinched joint is preferable. Several timum time-temperature profiles in joint produc-
variations are possible here from the wire-to-wire tion. A flat length or lead pad of 1.5 mm ( =0.050
wrap joint to a clinched wire onto a printed circuit in.) is needed for conductor attachment, and path
board (see Table 4.3). Some advantages can be widths should preferably be 0.15 mm (=0.005
gained by the use of larger pad areas and longer in.) minimum each side of the lead. Overlapping
leads to increase solder mass. Thinner boards help the conductor produces lower quality joints. Two
in reducing thermal expansion, and a thick plated joints are illustrated in Fig. 4.10.
28/SOLDERING MANUAL

Table 4.1- Linear thermal expansions of metals and alloys

Temperature Coefficient of expansion

(in./ino/° F x 10- 6 )

ALUMINUM ALLOYS
1100 0 00000000 00000000 00000000000 Oto 100 32 to 212 2306 1301
3003 00000000000 00000000 000000000 0 to 100 32 to 212 2302 1209
3004 000 0000000000000000000000000 Oto 100 32 to 212 2309 1303
5052 0000000 00 000000 000000000000 0 0 to 100 32 to 212 2308 1302
6062 000000000 0000000000000000000 Oto 100 32 to 212 2202 12.4

COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS

Electrolytic (ETP)
Deoxidized (DLP) 0 to 100 32to212 1706 908
Oxygen-free (OF)
Commercial bronze, 90 Cu-10 Zn 0 0000 0 to 100 32 to 212 18.4 1002
Red brass, 85 Cu-15 Zn 0000000000 000 Oto 100 32 to 212 1807 10.4
Low brass, 80 Cu-20 Zn 000 00000000 0 0 to 100 32 to 212 1901 1006
Cartridge brass, 70 Cu-30 Zn 000000000 0 to 100 32to212 2000 11.1
Muntz metal, 60 Cu-40 Zn 0000000 0000 0 to 100 32 to 212 2009 11.6
Leaded brass; low, medium and high 000 Oto 100 32 to 212 2003 11.3
Naval brass 0000000000000 0000 00000 0 to 100 32 to 212 21.2 1108
Phosphor bronze,o8 (Grade C) 00000000 Oto 100 32to212 1802 1001
Cupro-nickel, 70 Cu-30 Ni 000000 0000 Oto 100 32 to 212 1602 900
Cupro-nickel, 90 Cu-10 Ni o000000oo0 Oto 100 32 to 212 1607 9o3
Nickel silver, 65 Cu-15 Ni 000 00000000 0 to 100 32to212 1602 900
Aluminum bronze, 92 Cu-8 AI 0000 000 Oto 100 32 to 212 1602 900

IRONS AND STEELS

Ingot iron 0000000000000000000 00000 0 to 100 32 to 212 11.7 605
Wrought iron 00 000000000000 0000000 Oto 100 32 to 212 1201 607
Gray cast iron 0000 00000000000 00000 Oto 100 32 to 212 1008 600
"Ni-Hard," low-or high-carbon 0000000 Oto 100 32 to 212 806 408
Carbon steel, SAE 1020 0000000000000 Oto 100 32to212 11.7 605
Cast alloy steel 00000 00000000 0000000 Oto 100 32to212 1201 607
Iron-silicon alloy 000000000 000000000 Oto 100 32 to 212 605 306
"Durichlor" 000 0000000000000000000 Oto 100 32 to 212 605 306

STAINLESS STEELS
301,302,304,309,310 00000000 00000 20 to 100 68 to 212 14.4 800
321,347 00 0000000000000000 0000 000 20to 100 68 to 212 1409 803
316,317 00 00
00 00 00
00 00 00 0
00 00 00 00 20 to 100 68 to 212 1508 808
410,430 000000 0000 000000000000 000 20to 100 68 to 212 902 501
414,420 00000000000000000000 00000 20 to 100 68 to 212 909 505
431 00 00000000 0000000000000000000 20 to 100 68 to 212 11.7 605
446 0000 0000000000000000 000000000 20 to 100 68 to 212 1003 507
 Joint Design/29

Table 4.1 -Linear thermal expansions of metals and alloys continued

Temperature Coefffcient of expansion

(in./in./° F X 10- 6 )
oc op

NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS

Nickel (pure) 000000000000000000000 0 to 100 32 to 212 13.3 7.4
Nickel (wrought or cast) 0 ••••••••••• 0 to 100 32 to 212 13.0 702
Low-carbon nickel 0000. 000000000000 Oto 100 32 to 212 13.0 702
Monel (wrought) 00000000000000 0000 0 to 100 32 to 212 1400 708
Monel (cast) 0000000000000000000000 Oto 100 32to212 1202 608
Inconel (wrought or cast) 000000000000 0 to 100 32 to 212 11.5 6.4
"Hastelloy" Alloy A 000000000000000 Oto 100 32 to 212 11.0 601
"Hastelloy" Alloy B 00000000 0000000 0 to 100 32 to 212 1000 506
"Hastelloy" Alloy C 00 0000000000000 0 to 100 32 to 212 11.3 603
"Hastelloy" Alloy D 000000000000000 Oto 100 32 to 212 11.0 601

TIN, LEAD. AND LEAD ALLOYS

Corroding lead 00000000000000000000 17 to 100 63 to 212 2903 1603
Hard lead (4 Sb) 000000000000 0000000 20to 100 68 to 212 2406 15.4
8% antimonial lead (8 Sb) 00000000000 20 to 100 68to212 2606 1408
20-80 Solder (20 Sn) •••• 0 ••••• 0 15 to llO 59 to 230 2605 1407
Lead base babbitt (80 Pb,15 Sb,5 Sn)o 00 20 to 100 68 to 212 2309 1303
Lead base babbitt (75 Pb, 15 Sb, 10 Sn)o 0 20 to 100 68 to 212 1906 1009
Pure tin ••••••••• 0 •••••• 0 •••••• 0 0 0 to 100 32to212 2300 1208

MISCELLANEOUS PURE METALS

Tungsten ••••••••••••••••••••• near 20 near 68 0 •• 403 2.4
Molybdenum 00ooo00o0oo000oo000oo 25 to 100 77 to 212 409 207
Silver 000000000000000000 000000000 0 to 100 32 to 212 1906 1009
Gold 0000000000000000000000000000 20 68 1402 7o9
Platinum 0 0 ••••• 0 •••• 0 20••••••••••• 68 808 409
Palladium 0 0o000000000o o0000000000 20 68 11.9 606
Tantalum ••••••••••••••••••• near 20 near 68
0 0 ••• 605 306
Zinc 000000000 0000000000000000 000 20 to 250 68 to 482 2908 2201
Titanium •••• 0 •••• 0 20
••••• 0 68
•••••••• 805 407
Magnesium 000 0000 0000000 00000000 20 to 100 68 to 212 2509 14.4
Chromium 0000000000 0000000000000 20 68 601 3.4
Cadmium 0 0000 0000 000000000000 000 Room Temperature 2909 1606
 3D/SOLDERING MANUAL
Table 4.2-Data for electrical-connections design 1
Group 1-No mechanical security prior to solden ng
Butt
t·onnect ions
No. Type Diagram Controll ing Conditions Fi xtures Current
formula

I
Round
to
round
i
't ~ !j Ds = ,18Dc,
Pc , ;;. Pc,

De , :;;; De,
Yes Small

De, De,

Square ....L...;('~·~ .l P,;;. Pc,

2 to I!HJslm Ds = , .i...oTc, Yes Small
sq uare J ~·· mw Tc,
Tc,
J 7T Tc,:;;; Tc,

~~~·fc.
Rectangle Pc, ;;. P ,
3 to T5 = 8Tc, W,= W 2 =Ws Yes Small
rectangle ::J Tc, :;;; Tc, i= Ts
Tc, .
Lap
c nnections
Pc,;;. Pc,

~
Round*
De,:;;; De,
I to L; =~ 8Dc, w ;;. De, Yes Large

A
eJ#;
round
Ws : . 2

Round Pc,;;. Pc,

2 to .-i De, L1 -- 4.SDc,
7T
Optional Large
flat ' ' Ac, :;;; A c,
Ac,

3
Fat
to
flat ~
l: 'J~
Tc,
L1 = .STc,
Pc.;;. Pc,
W, = W2 = Ws Optional
Tc, :;;; Tc,
Large

/D e,
·Wire Pc . ;;. Pc,
4 to
post
L,";=~ - I
L; -ToDc,
Solder fi llet
;;. De,
0 Medium

2
De,

~~JI
Wire
5 to L1 =~o
4 - I)DCo Pc, ;;. Pc, No Large
cup
De, 1----L; -J

:~·
Wire
6 to L; = -±-ave, Pc. ;;. Pc, Optional Medium
hole
LJ
'H. H. Manko, How to Design the Soldered Electrical Connection, Prod. Eng., June 12, 1961 , p. 57.
 Joint Design/31
Table 4.3-Data for electrical-connections design
Group 11-Partial mechanical security prior to soldering
Hook
connections
No Type Diagram Controlling Fixtures Current
form11Ja Conditions

~
Round Pe, ;;, Pe,
I to
2
De, =r;De, De,,:; De, No Large
round Hook ;;. 180°

~1.
Round Pe, ;;, Pe,
I
2 to De,= ;;a(8L;+4Te) Ae,,:; Ae, No Medium
De, Hook ;;. 180°
flat
.....
Group III-Full mechanical security prior to soldering**
Wrap
connections
Nc Type Diagram Controlling
formula Conditions Fixtures Current
De,

~
Round Pe, ;;, Pe,
I to L; = 7!._8D
2 e, De,,:; De, No Large
round N> I
De,

~~
Round Pc, ;;, Pc,
2 to 8
De, =-;;-gL;+ Te) Ae,,:; Ae, No Medium
flat N= I

"' De,

~
Round Pe, ;;, Pe,
3 to 4N Large
De, =r;De, De,< De, No
post N;;. I

De, - Diameter of smaller conductor T - Thickness

Ae, - Area of smaller conductor N - Number of Turns
S -Solder 8 - Resistivity Ratio J!.§_
W -Width Pe,
L; - Length of joint p - Resistivity (Microhm- em)

*Use only when large conductor diameter is 3 to 4 times larger than small diameter; otherwise use round-to-
flat lap-joint formula.
**In cases where loosening or breaking of the joint would result in a hazardous condition, mechanical security
should be specified.
 32/SOLDERING MANUAL
Table 4.4 - Configurations of printed- circuit lands
Preferred
direction for Solder fillet Remarks
Type
component lead contour will be

Tear- Good design.

@ drop
Toward
long end
Even, and
almost round
Enlarged
contact area
Even The
@ Round Any and
round
universal
pattern

Gi "D" Toward tip Uneven Not

widely used

Toward a
[QJ Rect. corner or Uneven
Not
widely used
long end

eo---.
.-·
Delta
Toward base Uneven
Used if
space very
limited
Epoxy fiberg lass
A

A
I
Larger pad / \
Stronger
Lead joint Longer
Lead
B Plated hole
r-

B ~ ~

Thin board ~
,.....
-
Thick board

C Fig. 4.7- How to improve joint strength. For

single-sided boards, A, larger pads and longer
leads increase solder mass; a thinner double-
Fig. 4.6 - Methods of making wire-to-tag sided board, B , is better because it provides a
joints longer path for crack propagation
 Joint Design/33

~ A B

---Thin
Organic protective coating
avoids
coating (ycapsulan:dhesive or bridging

t hard spacer

Fig. 4.9-For small parts (resistors and diodes)

Bridg ing
on uncoated boards, use single-sided boards, A;
on coated boards, use· plated through-holes, B.
Cracked joint For moderate-size parts (T0-5 cans) on uncoated
boards, provide clearance, C ; when coated, D,
Fig. 4.8 - Restraint of the expanding lead by use a very thin coating to avoid bridging. For
protective-coating bridging, mechanical fas- heavy, side-mounted parts with moderate size
tening, adhesive bonding, or a hard spacer will leads, E, use plated through-holes; with heavy
all reduce the thermal fatigue life leads, F, weld, braze, or solder on a flexible lead

30°
-t w·
t A = 1. 5 mm (0.05 in.)
Fillet Expected
A = 1.5 mm (0.05 in.)
Fillet Expected
A length strength, N A
length strength, N
B ='h A 22.2-28.9 B ='h A 17.8-24.5

+
15.5-22.2 B = 'A A 11.1- 17.8
8.9- 15.5 4.5- 11.1

1
B = '!..A

1t
B

Fig. 4.10 - 60• and so• preformed leads

34/SOLDERING MANUAL
REFERENCES rated circuit flatpacks. Welding journal, 52, 1:
23-30.
l. Alcoa, 1972, Soldering Alcoa aluminum. 5. Manko, H.H. 1964. Solders and soldering
Pittsburgh. New York: McGraw-Hill.
2. Coombs, C.F., Jr. 1961. Printed circuits 6. Mohler, J.B. 1971. Solder joints vs. time and
handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill. temperature. Machine design, April 15.
3. Jayne, T.D. and Martin, L. 1970. Improving 7. Rubin, W., and Allen, B.M. 1965. Soldering
control of soft soldering in copper piping in the electronic industry. British welding
joints. In ASME Paper 70-PVP-21. journal, 12, 12.
4. Lampe, B.T. 1973. Reflow soldering ofinteg- 8. TRI Publication 369, 1965.
CHAPTERS

PRECLEANING AND
SURFACE PREPARATION

Proper surface preparation is essential to success- surface. Any cleaner remaining after cleaning
ful soldering. The more frequent precleaning will evaporate from the surface cleaned. Being
methods are degreasing, acid cleaning, mechani- nonvolatile, the soil that was in solution will re-
cal abrasion, and etching. main on the object cleaned. To prevent this condi-
tion and obtain a higher level of cleanliness,
vapor degreasing is used. The parts to be cleaned
DEGREASING are suspended in vapors of a boiling cleaning
solvent. Because the parts are colder than the
Organic films such as oils and greases are fre- vapors, the vapors condense to a liquid, dissolve
the soil, and drip off the parts. When the parts
quently encountered on the surface of metals to
be soldered. Such oils and greases must be re- have reached vapor temperature, condensation
moved because they prevent wetting action by ceases and dry parts may be removed from the
the flux and solder. Degreasing may be ac- vapor degreaser. If a large enough quantity of
complished by immersion of the parts in a liquid cleaner of sufficient solvency strength condenses
or suspension of the parts in vapors of a suitable on the parts, the result is clean, dry parts.
solvent. The effectiveness of the degreasing can be
The halogenated hydrocarbons are the most easily determined by dipping the part in a liquid;
widely used solvents because of their range of if the liquid uniformly adheres to the surface, the
solvency power and lack of flash point. Constant part is clean.
boiling (azeotropic) blends of several solvents
are sometimes employed to remove both non-
ionic and ionic soils. ACID CLEANING
Impingement of the solvent upon the surface
significantly improves the efficiency of the clean- The purpose of pickling or acid cleaning is to
ing process. Considerable mechanical removal of remove rust, scale, and oxides or sulfides from
the soil can be obtained by agitation, ultrasonics, the metal to provide a chemically clean surface
brushing, or in any manner impinging the solvent for soldering. The inorganic acids-
upon the surface to be cleaned. hydrochloric, sulfuric, orthphosphoric, nitric,
With liquid cleaning, there is always some soil and hydrofluoric-singly and mixed, all fulfill
in solution in the cleaning solvent. It is impracti- this function, although hydrochloric and sulfuric
cal to remove all the liquid cleaner from the acid are the most widely used.

35
36/SOLDERING MANUAL
Hydrochloric Acid tent rises to 8%, the pickling solution should
The commercial form of hydrochloric acid has be discarded.
a specific gravity of 1.14 and contains approxi- Sulfuric acid is a suitable medium for pickling
mately 25% by weight hydrogen chloride. For steel and copper alloys. For the latter, it is cus-
pickling iron and steel in cold solutions, the tomary to add either I% by weight of sodium
commercial acid is diluted in the range of 1 part dichromate or 2% by volume of nitric acid.
commercial acid to 2 parts water ( 10% HCI), to 3 Orthophosphoric Acid
parts of acid to 1 part water (21% HCI).
A dilute solution of orthophosphoric acid
Hydrochloric acid is an effective pickling solu-
(specific gravity 1.87 for 100% acid) is used
tion at ordinary shop temperatures, and in most
occasionally for pickling such metals as stainless
cases no provision is made for heating it. The
steel and manganese bronze. Solutions of 10% to
acid increases its temperature due to the heat of
40% by volume are used.
reaction or by introducing heated work. The rec-
ommended acid temperature, however, is be- Hydrofluoric Acid
tween 30° and 38° C ( =85° and 100° F) but never Hydrofluoric acid is extremely corrosive, and
over 50° C (=120° F). Scale-free, bright, an- contact with the skin should be carefully avoided.
nealed stock can be pickled in three minutes at A mixture of 5% hydrofluoric acid and 5% sul-
30° C ( =85° F) or in ten minutes at 18° C
furic acid by volume is sometimes used on cast
(65° F). Lightly scaled work may require 15 to 30
iron, high silicon alloys, and aluminum (see
minutes, whereas heavily scaled work may re- Chapter 21 for safety in handling).
quire 45 minutes or more. During use, the acid
content will fall and the solution, if not re- Nitric Acid
plenished with fresh acid, will become less effec- Concentrated nitric acid (70% HNOa) is sel-
tive. When the iron content reaches 12%, the dom used without dilution or mixing with other
pickling solution should be replaced. An in- acids. A simple and effective pickling solution
hibitor is sometimes added to prevent pitting of for copper contains 15% to 20% by volume of
the metal after the scale is removed. A solution of commercial concentrated nitric acid in water. The
10% HC I is used in some instances to prepare solution is used cold, and the time required is
aluminum surfaces for soldering. normally from 2 to 5 minutes.
Mixture of Acids
Sulfuric Acid Some mixtures of acids give a bright, etched
Sulfuric acid is commercially available in var- finish on metals that do not respond to single
ious concentrations. The 96-98% acid has a acids. Some typical acid mixtures are listed
specific gravity of 1.84, whereasthe77% acid has a here:*
specific gravity of 1. 70. Sulfuric acid pickling
Copper Alloys
solutions vary from 5 to 10% by volume of the
commercial acid (77%) added to the water. Sul- Brass
furic acid does not work efficiently unless it is Sulfuric Acid 8L** 2gal.
heated to temperatures above 700 C ( = 160° F). Nitric Acid 4L I gal.
and best results are obtained at 82° C (180° F). Water IL I qt.
Bright, annealed or relatively clean work nor- Hydrochloric acid 0.015 L 1/2 fl oz.
mally requires only 30 seconds to 2 minutes im- Nickel-Silver
mersion, whereas heavily scaled work normally re- Sulfuric acid 8L 2gal.
quires no longer than 15 minutes. A black smut Sodium dichromate 0.25 kg 1/2lb
which forms may be rinsed off with water. In- Water 20L 5 gal.
hibitors, added to sulfuric acid, will help prevent
pitting. The acidity of the solution is maintained *See Chapter 21 for safe handling of these materials.
with periodic additions of fresh acid. When the **Metric conversions are approximate for easy mea-
free acid content falls below I% or the iron con- surement.
 Precleaning and Surface Preparation /37
Nickel Alloys As mentioned above, a repair of an abraded
surface to remove embedded particles may be
lnconel
necessary. A surface may appear clean and in-
Nitric acid 4L I gal.
deed be platable (will accept electrodeposited
Hydroflouric acid 0.5 L I pt.
metals) , yet not be solderable. Copper surfaces
Water 8L 2gal.
that are solder plated, such as printed circuit
Stainless Steel boards, sometimes exhibit this defect. Repair of
I. Sulfuric acid 4L I gal. the surface after plating is difficult and costly.
Hydrochloric acid 4L I gal. The plating must be stripped and the surface
32 L 8gal. etched.
Water
2Nitric acid 4L I gal.
Hydrofluoric acid 6L 1-1/2 gal.
Water IOL 2-1/2 gal. PRECOATING
After pickling, if droplets of water show on the
The coating of the base metal surfaces with a
metal surfaces, there may still be traces of grease
more solderable metal or alloy prior to the solder-
or other contaminants on the surface which
ing operation is sometimes desirable. Coatings of
should be removed before proceeding. The arti-
tin, copper, silver, cadmium, iron, nickel, and
cles should be thoroughly washed in hot water
alloys of tin-lead, tin-zinc, and tin-copper are
after pickling and dried as quickly as possible.
used for this purpose. The advantages of precoat-
ing are twofold: Soldering is more rapid and uni-
form, and strong acidic fluxes are avoided at the
MECHANICAL PREPARATION assembly. The precoating of metals which have
tenacious oxide films, such as aluminum,
Various abrasive techniques are frequently aluminum bronzes, highly alloyed steels, and cast
employed to clean metallic surfaces before sol- iron, is almost mandatory. Precoating of steel,
dering. They are effective and economical brass, and copper, although not absolutely essen-
methods but have one definite limitation: parti- tial, is of great value in some applications.
cles of the abrasive may become embedded in the
surface being cleaned (see Fig. 5.1). These abra-
sive materials- sand, grit, ceramic, steel wool,
etc. -are generally not solderable. Although the
surface may appear to be clean, if Sllfficient abra-
sive particles to significantly reduce the anchor-
age area have been embedded in the surface, the
result is reduced solderability (see Fig. 5.2). A
simple solderability test should be performed fol-
lowing abrasive cleaning. An etch treatment fol-
lowing abrasive cleaning may be required tore-
move sufficient surface material to eliminate the
embedded abrasive.

ETCHING

The removal of a small amount of material from

the surface to be soldered is a common cleaning
and repair technique. A nonplated copper sur- Fig. 5.1 - lntermetallic compound crystals
face particularly lends itself to this technique. with inclusions at surface which have formed
Copper etchants such as ferric chloride, copper during soldering of copper cleaned with fine
chloride, and ammonium persulfate are used. abrasive
38/SOLDERlNG MANUAL
Metal surfaces may be precoated by a number steel, alloy steel, cast iron, copper and certain
of different methods. Solder or tin may be applied copper alloys and, to a lesser extent, brass and
with a soldering iron, an abrasive wheel, by an aluminum.
ultrasonic soldering iron, immersion in molten Precoating by electrodeposition may be done
metal, electrodeposition, or by chemical dis- in stationary tanks, conveyorized plating units, or
placement. in barrels. This method is applicable to all steels,
Hot dipping may be accomplished by dipping copper alloys, nickel alloys, zinc base die cast-
the parts, one at a time, in molten tin or solder of ings, and aluminum. The coating metals are not
any composition. Small parts are placed in a wire limited to tin and solder; in addition, copper,
basket, cleaned, dipped in the molten metal, and cadmium, silver, precious metals, nickel, iron,
rotated in a centrifuge to remove excess metal. and alloy platings such as tin-copper, tin-zinc,
Hot dipped coatings can be applied to carbon tin-cadmium, and tin-nickel are commonly used.

Fig. 5.2-Effect of conditions of pumice cleaning solderability. Left-hand pair- with water lubrica-
tion; right-hand pair-dry abrading; top row- light pressure; bottom row-heavy pressure. Speci-
mens immersed in 60% tin-40% lead solder at 250° C for 5 seconds with activated rosin flux
 Precleaning and Surface Preparation/39
Methods for the electroplating of these metals The shelf life of a precoating is defined as the
or alloys are given in the Metal Finishing length of time the coating can withstand storage
Guidebook (Ref. 1). conditions without impairment of solderability.
Certain combinations of electrodeposited met- Hot tinned and flow-brightened electrotin coat-
als, where one metal is plated over another, are ings have excellent shelf life; electrotinned
becoming more popular as an aid to soldering. A coatings of inadequate thickness have lim-
coating of 0.005 mm (0.0002 in.) of copper plus ited shelf life. Coating thicknesses of 0.005mm
0.01 mm (0.0004 in.) of tin is particularly useful (0.0002 in.) to 0.015 mm ( =0.0005 in.) of tin are
for brass. The solderability of aluminum is as- generally recommended to assure maximum sol-
sisted by a coating of0.0015 mm (=0.00005 in.) derability after prolonged storage.
of nickel, followed by 0.01 mm ( =0.0003 in.)
of tin or by a combmation of zincate (zinc),
copper, and tin. An iron plating followed by tin
plating is extremely useful over a cast iron sur- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
face.
Bader & Baker (Ref. 2) have shown that a Figures 5.1 and 5. 2 are courtesy of Tin Research
solder coating is preferable to a tin coating to Institute, Inc.
preserve solderability under adverse storage con-
ditions for extended periods of time. A minimum
of 1.5~-tm (=50 ~-tin.) of solder is required. Such
a coating is effective in preserving solderability REFERENCES
under severe industrial exposure for one year.
Immersion coatings or chemical displacement 1. Metal finishing guidebook directory. West-
coatings of tin, silver, and nickel may be applied wood N.J.: Finishing Publications.
to most of the common base metals. These coat- 2. Bader, W.G. and Baker, R.G. 1973. Solder-
ings are usually very thin and generally have poor ability of electrodeposited solder and tin coat-
shelf life. ings after extended storage. Plating, March.
CHAPTERS

EQUIPMENT,
PROCESSES, AND
PROCEDURES

EQUIPMENT Soldering irons can be broadly divided into six

groups:
Soldering Irons I. Instrument irons
The soldering iron (see Fig. 6.1) should pro- 2. Medium duty industrial irons
vide constant heat to parts being soldered, ensur- 3. Heavy duty industrial irons
ing that the parts are joined using minimal contact 4. Temperature controlled irons
time, thereby safeguarding that components in 5. Transformer type pencil irons
close proximity and areas adjacent to the solder- 6. Soldering guns
ing connection are not adversely affected by heat I. Instrument irons are designed for intermit-
absorption. tent and continuous light soldering tasks or elec-
Flame Heated Irons. Flame heated soldering trical repair work. They are available in a wide
irons are chosen where electric power is not read- selection in both copper and iron plated tips to
ily available (sheet metal work, for example). allow for matching the tip to any soldering opera-
Electrically Heated Irons. Electrically tion.
heated irons are more convenient than gas heated 2. Medium duty industrial irons are designed
irons for use in manual, high speed, repetitive for continuous production operations and are
operations where weight and ease of manipula- built to withstand use in high-speed production
tion are of primary importance. The wide assort- situations. These irons are also available with a
ment of electric soldering irons available and the wide tip selection and various handle and case
lack of definitive performance specifications sizes and configurations.
make it necessary to exercise care in selection. 3. Heavy duty industrial irons are designed for
Available diagnostic equipment will provide tip continuous use on fast production soldering op-
temperature measurements under dynamic condi- erations. These irons are available in a number of
tions while the soldering is taking place. Such sizes and wattages to insure· good heat stability
measurements will insure that the soldering iron under heavy soldering loads.
chosen will perform within the required thermal 4. Temperature controlled irons are now avail-
working zone. able with sensors in the tip which react to small
Industrial soldering irons are available with tip temperature changes, actuating solid state cir-
both plug and screw tips. cuitry controlling the power to the element.

41
42/SOLDERING MANUAL

Fig. 6.1-Traditional soldering iron

Therefore, the iron will be adjusted automatically 1. Copper Tips. Copper has high thermal con-
to match the heat sinking requirements of the ductivity and excellent tinning properties. How-
work being soldered. These irons provide very ever, copper tips have the disadvantage of high
tight temperature control for any soldering task. oxidation and rapid tip erosion . The tip erosion is
5. Transformer type pencil irons are intended caused by the dissolution of copper in tin at
for light soldering repair work and production soldering temperatures and removal of tip mate-
operations. The pencil iron is available with a rial. This creates the need for frequent tip shaping
number of different tip sizes. These irons are and oxidation removal to maintain original tip
designed for low voltage (less than 12 volts AC), shape and retain the proper heat transfer from the
with a rheostat, or voltage taps, or both, on the heating element to the working surface of the tip.
transformer to regulate heat output. The fast oxidation rate of copper also causes the
6 . Soldering guns are used for light, intermit- tip to freeze in the soldering iron core, making it
tent soldering of electrical connections and are difficult to remove the tip without damaging the
not intended for continuous operation. The heating element.
operator does not have control of the heat output 2. Iron Plated Tip with Coated Shank. This tip
of a soldering gun, which could result in over- is made of copper with iron electrodeposited uni-
heating connections, components, and adjacent formly over the entire tip. Iron is used because it
areas if the gun is not used carefully. dissolves in tin very slowly, thereby ensuring
extended tip life- in most cases 20 to 50 times
that of copper. The front of the tip is selectively
SOLDERING IRON TIPS tinned, and the shank is protected from oxidizing
by platings of nickel and chromium. The thick-
Materials ness of the iron plating can be between 0.2 mm
( 0.008 in.)and 0.6 mm (0.022 in.). The greater
The properties required for soldering iron tips
thickness extends the life of the tip but will re-
are:
duce heat conductivity.
1. High thermal conductivity to insure that 3. Iron Plated Tip with Stainless Steel Shank.
heat transfer is rapid and efficient. Like the iron plated tips described above, this
2. Ease of tinning to insure a liquid metallic
design resists corrosion and offers all the benefits
path through which the heat of the tip surface may
of long tip life. Additionally, it does not allow the
be readily transmitted to the work.
shank to freeze in the iron.
3. Low oxidation to insure good heat transfer
4 . Calorized Tip. A calorized coating is
from tip to work and to prevent the tip from
created by diffusing aluminum into a copper tip
freezing in the soldering iron. to prevent oxidation at high temperatures and
4. Resistance to corrosion from soldering
prevent soldering iron shanks from freezing.
fluxes if acid core, acid paste, and water soluble Calorizing is used primarily on screw tips in irons
fluxes are used. with internal cartridge type elements. Because
5. Resistance to erosion by the molten solder.
calorized coatings resist wetting, the working
Four basic types of tips can be used:
area of the tip is iron plated and factory tinned.
I. Copper
2. Iron plated with coated shank Design. Although great emphasis has always
3. Iron plated with stainless steel shank been placed on the selection of the proper solder-
4. Calorized ing iron, one must also recognize the importance
 Equipment, Process, and Procedures/43
of using a tip that is designed properly. The governed by the size, mass, and configuration of
following factors influence good tip design: the assembly to be soldered.
1. Length. Length should always be minimal. The flame from a torch will heat large masses
This positions the contact area as close to the of material rapidly but is likely to cause burning
heating element as possible, insuring good temp- or carbonization of the flux. This is less likely to
erature stability. occur when flux core solders with chloride fluxes
2. Tip Size. Selection of the largest tip size will are used. One way to prevent carbonization or
ensure the greatest thermal reserve. decomposition is to preheat the assembly (with-
3. Contact Area. The contact area should out causing excessive oxidation) before applying
match the soldering connection to insure the the solder and flux.
greatest possible heat transfer rate. The elevated temperature of the flame from a
4. Shape. The shape of the tip is chosen to torch can cause damage to heat sensitive compo-
provide the greatest contact area. nents or to areas adjacent to the soldered connec-
tion.
General Guide to Iron and Tip Sizes
Dip Soldering
Table 6. I is a general guide for the selection of
soldering irons and tips. The performance of elec- Dip soldering is useful and cost-effective be-
trically heated industrial irons cannot be mea- cause an entire unit, comprising any number of
sured solely by the power rating. The materials joints, can be soldered merely by dipping the
used and the design of the iron will affect the heat prefluxed part in a bath of molten solder. It is
reserve and temperature recovery of the tip. necessary to use jigs or fixtures to contain the unit
and keep the proper clearance at the joint until the
Use of Soldering Irons solder solidifies.
The correct angle to apply the soldering iron A preliminary treatment of the unit such as
tip to the work is of importance in delivering the degreasing, cleaning, and fluxing is also required
maximum heat. The flat side of the tip should be before dip soldering. Care should be taken when
applied to ensure the maximum contact area with immersing the parts in the pot (see Chapter 21 for
the soldering connection. Flux cored solder safety precautions). The molten bath of solder
should not be melted on the soldering iron and supplies both the heat and solder necessary to
carried to the connection because that destroys complete the joint. The solder pot should be large
the effectiveness of the flux and results in defec- enough so that at a given rate of production the
tive connections. The cored solder should be units being dipped will not appreciably lower the
touched to the soldering tip to initiate good heat temperature of the solder bath. Pots of adequate
transfer, and the solder should be melted on the size allow the use of lower operating tempera-
work parts to complete the solder joint. The tip tures while still supplying sufficient heat for sol-
can be wiped clean on a wet sponge. The working dering.
surface should be kept tinned. Soldering iron
holders must be selected carefully. Poorly de- Spray Gun Soldering
signed holders may heat sink an iron, causing.
Two types of guns are used to spray solder. The
temperature losses of up to 110° C (200° F.).
first uses propane with oxygen or natural gas with
air to heat and spray a continuously fed solid
solder wire of approximately 3 mm(l/8 in.)
PROCESSES diameter. With ordinary procedures about 90%
of the solder wire is melted by the flame of the
Torch Soldering
gun, and contact with the work piece is made by
Torch soldering is commonly used for automo- the solder in a semiliquid form. The workpiece
tive body work, plumbing and structural joints, then supplies the balance of the heat required to
and in locations where electricity is not readily melt and flow the solder. The solder is then wiped
available. Torch selection and gas mixture are automatically or by hand. Adjustments can be
44/SOLDERING MANUAL
made within the spray gun to deposit completely Induction Heating
liquified solder or a series of fine drops.
The second type of spray gun has a small, Induction heating generally is applicable for
electrically heated cone into which solid solder soldering operations having the following re-
wire approximately 6 mm (1/4 in.) in diameter is quirements:
fed. Through an orifice in the small end of the 1. Large-scale production
cone, the molten solder is directed into a com- 2. Localized application of heat
pressed air stream which transmits the solder a 3. Minimum oxidation of surface adjacent to
distance of from 25 to 75 mm (=I to 3 in.). the joint

Table 6.1-General guide for iron and tip size

Electrically-heated
Soldering irons
Type of
Choice of Power
rating iron
tip diam.
group 3
shank 1 (watts)

Critical soldering: flexible circuits, heat sensitive mm in.

components, and low temperature solders up to 6.4 1/4 Temper- 4
ature
Printed wiring boards 0.5 mm (0.020 in.) thick, controJ2
thin films, wires 30 gage or smaller, lugs 3.2-4.8 1/8-3/16 10-20 I
designed for this size wire
5
Printed wiring boards, 0. 8mm (0.030 in.) wire 24
gage, miniature turrets and relay hooks, small 3.2-4.8 l/8-3/I6 20-30 I
chassis and printed wiring board cup type 5
connectors
Printed wiring boards 1.5 mm (0.060 in.) wires 4.8-6.4 3/16-1/4 40-50 I
20 gage, medium turrets, tube sockets, bifurcated 5
terminals, medium chassis connectors
Production work on medium turrets, tube 6.4-7.9 l/4-5/I6 50-70 2
sockets, terminal strips, wires 16-18 5
gage, limited ground or buss wire work
High speed production work or radio or TV 6.4-9.5 1/4-3/8 80-175 3
assembly where twenty or more connections
are made in a minute or less
High speed production work or radio or TV 9.5-15.9 3/8-5/8 150-200 3
assembly where extra heavy lugs or several
wires on same lug or several ground
connections are soldered
Hermetic sealing of relay, transformer, 15.9-22.2 5/8-7/8 200-300 3
or condensor cans, light gage sheet metal
Heavy sheet metal or large transformer cans 25.4-44.5 1-I-3/4 300-800 3
Intermittent soldering, repair shop, hobby 4.8-6.4 3/I6-l/4 30-50 I
kit, home use wire tip 100-325 6
1 The tip diameters vary with the manufacturer of electrically-heated irons and sizes used depend upon the working

space available. Metric conversions are exact because these products are available only in U.S. customary units.
2 Soldering iron selected must be self-regulating to maintain proper temperature and avoid heat damage to

components.
3 Refer to selection of soldering irons, page 41.
 Equipment, Processes, and Procedures/45
4. Good appearance and consistently high Solid state converters have output power rat-
joint quality ings in the range of 100 kW to 300 kW at frequen-
5. Simple joint design which lends itself to cies of l kHz to 3 kHz. These units convert three
mechanization. phase line frequency to single phase high fre-
If induction heating is to be used, the following quency.
facts must be considered: To achieve maximum heating efficiency, the
I. Components must have consistently clean work coil should be kept close to the part. Both
surfaces. corrosive and noncorrosive fluxes can be used in
2. Clearances on parts must be maintained ac- the induction soldering operations. In either case
curately. solvent should be used sparingly to reduce the
3. Solders having rapid spreading and good amount of volatile material being driven off dur-
capillary flow properties are generally required. ing the heating cycle, as incomplete evolution of
4. Preplaced solder often affords the best gases sometimes results in porosity in the joint.
means of supplying the correct amount of solder When induction soldering dissimilar metals,
and flux to the joint. particularly joints composed of both magnetic
5. Induction heating equipment represents a and nonmagnetic components, attention must be
large capital investment. given to the design of the heating coil in order to
6. Design of the induction coil is critical for bring both parts to approximately the same tem-
efficient heating and operation of the equipment. perature. Fixtures to be used in the vicinity of the
The only requirement for a material to be in- induction coil are generally made of nonconduct-
duction heated is that it be an electrical conduc- ing materials in order to prevent them from being
tor. The rate of heating of the material is depen- heated by the magnetic field.
dent upon the induced current flow; distribution
of heat obtained with induction heating is a func- Resistance Heating
tion of the induced current frequency. The higher In resistance heating, the work to be soldered
frequencies concentrate the heat at the surface. is connected either between a ground and a mov-
There are available today four main types of able electrode or between two movable elec-
equipment which are used for induction heating: trodes to complete an electrical circuit. The heat
the vacuum tube oscillator, the resonant spark is applied to the joint both by the electrical resis-
gap, the motor generator unit, and the solid state tance of the metal being soldered and by conduc-
converter. tance from the electrode, which is usually car-
The vacuum tube oscillator is available in fre- bon.
quencies from 200kHz to more than 8 MHz. The Resistance soldering equ,ipment consists of a
most popular units for general use have a fre- heavy-duty variable transformer which converts
quency of approximately 500 kHz. These units the normal line voltage to a lower voltage with
are available with power outputs from l to more correspondingly increased amperage. A wide
than 100 kW, but the units most often used for variety of accessories can be attached to the trans-
soldering are below 25 kW. The availability of former.
low power units has made the vacuum tube oscil- In one method of resistance soldering, the
lator the most suitable for soldering operations. work is attached to a ground lead by either an
The resonant spark gap unit produces fre- alligator clip or C-clamp. The single movable
quencies from 100 kHz to 300 kHz with power electrode used in conjunction with the ground
output up to 20 kW. The variations in output may attachment is carbon mounted in a nonconduct-
create problems in maintaining the spark gap. ing handle. A variation may be achieved by fix-
Motor- generator equipment is capable of pro- ing the electrode in position and bringing the
ducing frequencies up to 15 kHz. The power grounded work to be soldered into contact with
available from this type of unit is very substan- the electrode while simultaneously applying the
tial, often more than 1000 kW. solder.
46/SOLDERING MANUAL
Another method uses a two-circuit soldering cream, or something similar must be put in place
tool consisting of two carbon electrodes mounted before the assembly is placed in the furnace.
in a nonconductive handle, eliminating the 4. The heating rate is critical. An excessively
necessity of a ground lead. fast heating rate can cause distortion and also
The electrodes may be held with pliers so that hinder the proper cleaning action of the flux. Too
pressure and heat are applied simultaneously. slow a rate would defeat the purpose of this
Production assemblies can be made with mul- process- high production.
tiple electrodes, rolling electrodes, or special 5. Good controls are needed on the heat source
electrodes depending on which are most suitable to maintain the proper temperature inside the
for the job at hand. furnace and guarantee solder connections of con-
Resistance soldering electrode tips generally sistent high quality.
cannot be tinned, and the solder must .be fed 6. The parts must be at soldering temperatures
directly into the joint. The flux and solder must for a period of time long enough to allow the
therefore be in the proper position. Electrodes solder to form a good joint.
and holders are usually light in weight and are 7. The use of an inert atmosphere inside the
shaped to do a particular job. oven does not eliminate the need for a flux but
A resistance element bridging the electrodes of will prevent further oxidation of the parts.
a parallel gap welding head provides a method of Ultrasonic Soldering
pulsing the element, which serves as the solder-
ing tip, to soldering temperatures and back to This soldering method has limited use but vi-
ambient in 4-6 seconds. The process offers excel- brating units are available for dip soldering pots.
lent control over soldering time, temperature, and A transducer produces high frequency vibrations
pressure, depending upon ~he sophistication of which break up tenacious oxide films on base
the control equipment, and is well suited for metals such as aluminum, thereby exposing the
automating reflow soldering applications. The base metal to the wetting action of the liquid
resistance element, usually made of a high nickel solder. Ultrasonic units are useful in soldering the
alloy, can be designed to make several solder return bends to the sockets of aluminum air con-
connections simultaneously. ditioner coils. Ultrasonic soldering is also used to
apply solderable coatings on difficult-to-solder
Oven Soldering metals.
Ovens have long been used successfully for Focused Infrared Soldering
high production soldering. Although con-
veyorized setups normally result in higher pro- Optical soldering systems are available which
ductivity than batch type operations, both are are based on focusing infrared light (radiant
commonly used; in either case large production energy) on the joint by means of a lens. Lamps
runs are needed to justify the cost of the furnaces ranging from 45 to 1500 watts can be used for
and required tooling. different application requirements. The devices
Several factors to be evaluated when consider- can be programmed through a silicon-controlled
ing this process are power supply with an internal timer.
I. The entire assembly must be designed to Hot Gas Soldering
withstand the temperatures required for solder-
The principle is to use a fine jet of inert gas,
ing.
heated to above the liquidus of the solder. The gas
2. Fixtures are required to hold the parts of the
acts as a heat transfer medium and as a blanket to
assembly together while heating and cooling. reduce access of air around the joint.
The parts being soldered must not be able to
move relative to one another- especially during
WAVE SOLDERING
the cool down cycle - or fractured, weak joints
could result. A liquid wave is generated by circulating molten
3. The areas of the assembly to be soldered solder by a pump in an appropriately designed
must be prefluxed, and preforms of solder, solder soldering machine. The prime functions of the
 Equipment, Processes, and Procedures/41
wave are to serve as a heat source and heat trans- fluxes, a preheat temperature somewhere above
fer medium and to supply solder to the joint area. the boiling point of water may be necessary.
A properly functioning solder wave, as a con- Fluxes with other solvents may require extended
sequence of its geometry, thermodynamics, and preheat times. Printed wiring boards, when heav-
fluid mechanic characteristics, will contribute to ily loaded with connector parts, may require
the wetting of the metal surfaces, promote higher preheat temperatures.
through-hole penetration, and ensure formation Drying and preheating of printed circuit as-
of reliable solder joints and fillets. semblies to required temperatures must be per-
A wave soldering production line includes formed rapidly in view of the short time the
fluxing, preheating, and soldering stations and a assembly spends in the preheating zone. The
means of conveyance of the assembly. In-line dwell time of a moving printed circuit assembly
cleaning and drying can also be included in the over a 0. 5 m (=2ft) preheating zone is 2 minutes
operation. at a speed of0.3 m/min. (l ft/min.) and only 7.5 s
at 5 m/rnin. ( = 16ft/min.).
Methods of Flux Application
Radiant heating has proven to be the most
The method used for wave fluxing is the ap- efficient method for preheating printed circuit
plication of flux using the liquid wave principle to assemblies at practical conveyor speeds. Heat is
form a wave of flux which touches the work- commonly provided by a radiation panel (hot
piece while the assembly passes through it. By plate) or sheathed (rod, flat) type heater element.
this method the flux coats the areas to be. sol- Other sources include tubular quartz lamps, fused
dered. quartz heaters, infrared lamps and panel heaters.
Foam Fluxing. The flux foam is generated A combination preheating process is some-
from liquid flux by means of a porous medium times employed. The first stage is low intensity
immersed in the flux. Low pressure air is forced radiant heat in combination with warm forced air
through the pores of the diffuser and generates flow. The latter serves as a supplementary heat
fine bubbles of foam. These are guided to the transfer medium and as a ventilation means, con-
surface by a nozzle to form a foam head or wave tinuously eliminating the solvent vapors. :rhe
through which the assembly is passed. second stage consists of a high intensity panel
Brush Fluxing. A rotating brush partly im- preheater to elevate the printed circuit board to
mersed in flux is used as a means to transfer flux the appropriate temperature. The heat output of
to the workpiece. both stages can be adjusted for different conveyor
Spray Fluxing. Flux is applied to the work- speeds. The total output of these combination
piece by means of jets or spray nozzles. One preheaters varies from 7 to 14 kilowatts.
method of spray fluxing employs a drum with
fine stainless screen partially immersed in flux Soldering Station
and rotated in it. The flux wets the screen, and air The essential feature of the soldering machine
jets inside the drum blow off the flux as minute is the generation of a wave of molten solder.
droplets in the direction of the assembly. The Modern systems are capable of pumping wave
amount of flux transferred in unit time is con- widths (or lengths) from 50 to 600 mm (2 to 24
trolled by the rotational speed of the drum and the in.), and wave heights to 20 mm (3/4 in.). They
air pressure. have relatively large solder capacities to maintain
soldering temperature and provide satisfactory
Preheating flow patterns. An automatic solder feed
The essential function of preheating is ·the mechanism is used on high production units to
evaporation of the flux solvent. Proper preheat maintain a constant solder level without affecting
will also promote wetting and reduce thermal the thermal balance of the pot.
shock. Some machines utilize an oil intermix feature
A preheat temperature of 75° to 80° C ( =170° to reduce the incidence of solder bridges and
to 180° F) is usually employed for evaporation of icicles in printed circuit assemblies. A layer of oil
48/SOLDERING MANUAL
to the input end of the solder pump. The ratio of Conveyance
oil to solder is controllable. The oil is sucked in Conveyors move parts through the soldering
by the pump, intermixed with the solder, and the station and are frequently designed to be inte-
mixture then driven to the wave surface. There is, grated with component assembly, fluxing, and
however, the possibility of oil inclusions and preheating and cleaning operations to form one
entrapments in the solder joints. Recirculation of continuous production line. Conveyors are de-
the oil results in its degradation, requiring signed to provide a smooth, vibration-free
changes to maintain the basic properties for movement of the printed circuit assembly at fixed
which it was introduced and to limit sludge and or adjustable slopes ranging from horizontal to 8
carbon deposits around the pump. The oil must degrees and speeds to 6 m/min (20ft/min).
be replaced approximately every 4 to 8 hours There are basically two types of conveyor. One
of operation. is a chain conveyor which requires the use of
board holding carriers to secure the workpiece or
Wave Shapes pallets. The other is an adjustable width finger
type conveyance for use when a large variety of
A solder wave is characterized by its width, a different size printed wiring boards are to be
dimension perpendicular to the direction of travel wavesoldered. The fingers are usually made of
(also called length); height from nozzle edge to titanium to resist flux, high temperatures, and
apex or top; geometrical contact length between prevent solder adherence. Multitrack systems are
workpiece and wave, referred to also as the width a variation of the finger type, which permit sol-
of the contact band or the width of the area of dering printed circuit assemblies of two different
contact. The contact length and speed of travel sizes simultaneously.
will determine the dwell time: the time during
Flux Removal
which a printed circuit board or other workpiece
is in contact with the solder. Width and size of the Adequate cleaning is particularly important in
wave are limited by the capacity of the pump and printed circuit applications. The techniques for
usually do not offer a contact length greater than flux removal can be divided into two basic
75 mm ( =3 in.). approaches: batch type cleaning, in which the
Solder waves with a parabolic shape offer a operation is separated in time and space from
relatively narrow contact length between printed soldering, and in-line cleaning, where the clean-
circuit board and solder without excessive de- ing positions follow immediately after the solder-
pression of the workpiece in the wave, thereby ing position, forming one continuous system.
limiting conveyance speeds to 0.5 to I m/min Batch cleaning includes the use of dishwasher
( ""2 to 4 ft/min). type cleaners, ultrasonic dip tanks, and vapor
Wide waves offer a relatively flat, elongated degreasers. These methods are generally used for
contact area in the direction of travel, permitting small parts and low volume processing systems
conveyance speeds of 2 to 2.5 m/min ( =6 to 8 as part of a hybrid process. In-line cleaning,
ft/min) or higher. particularly where a production volume exists,
A recent development combines a controlled has become the generally accepted method.
wide wave with an inclined conveyor. With the Cleaning stations utilize liquid waves, immer-
use of supporting plates, an inclined planar wave sion tanks, forced sprays, rotating brushes, ul-
has been developed that can be controlled to trasonic tanks, vapor immersion, and combina-
generally parallel the angle of incline of the con- tions of the above with the appropriate solvent for
veyor. As a result, conveyor speeds up to 5.5 the flux to be removed. Drying stations following
m/min are possible. cleaning employ air knives, infrared, and air
Cascade soldering machines employ an in- blasts.
clined plane with ridges perpendicular to the di- fhe lastest development for high production
rection of solder flow. Solder flows down the cleaning is the use of biodegradable water deter-
incline and produces multiple small waves. This gent solutions in combination with multiple stage
system permits high conveyor speeos. in-line spray cleaning systems.
CHAPTER?

FLUX REMOVAL

After the joint is soldered, flux residues that are

liable to corrode the base metal or otherwise CORROSIVE FLUX RESIDUES
prove harmful to the effectiveness of the joint
must be removed or made noncorrosive. It is Where flux residue removal procedures are not
especially important to remove flux residues if practical and the nature of the soldered assembly
joints will be subjected to humid environments. is such that the flux corrosion would either inter-
Corrosive flux residues contain inorganic salts fere with its operation or substantially shorten its
and acids and should be removed completely. life, corrosive fluxes must not be used. Corrosive
Intermediate, or self-neutralizing, fluxes may be fluxes can be used in precoating operations where
composed of very mild organic acids such as flux residue removal can be accomplished before
stearic, oleic, and ordinary tallow; or of the cor- the parts are assembled.
rosive combinations of urea and various organic Zinc chloride fluxes leave a fused residue
hydrochlorides. Those composed of the mild or- which, if not removed, will absorb water from the
ganic acids can receive the same treatment the atmosphere to the extent that droplets of a highly
noncorrosive fluxes receive. On the other hand, if corrosive water-zinc chloride mixture will form
the composition includes some of the more active around the soldered joint. Removal is best ac-
acids, the flux residue should be removed com- complished by first thoroughly washing the part
pletely. Where no indication of the composition in hot water containing 2% concentrated hy-
of these intermediate or self-neutralizing fluxes is drochloric acid.
given, the safest procedure is to treat them as if This acidified water removes the white crust of
they are corrosive. zinc oxychloride (which is insoluble in ordinary
The noncorrosive flux residues, generally hav- water) but retards removal of the residue beneath.
ing a rosin base, need not be removed unless As a further precaution, the work should then
appearance is the prime factor or the joint area is be washed in hot water containing some crystals
to be painted or otherwise coated. of washing soda (sodium carbonate) followed by
The activated rosin fluxes have a rosin base a clear water rinse. Occasionally some mechanical
into which have been incorporated small amounts scrubbing may be required to further insure the
of complex, usually self-neutralizing, organic removal of all traces of flux residue.
compounds. These can generally be treated in the Acidified rinse water, if used on copper arti-
same manner as the noncorrosive fluxes. cles, such as a radiator core, may build up in

49
50/SOLDERING MANUAL
copper salt content and cause unsightly darken- NONCORROSIVE FLUX RESIDUES
ing of the soldered joints. When this occurs, the
acidified rinse may be regenerated with a small Nonactivated rosin residues are soluble in al-
amount of potassium ferrocyanide which precipi- cohols, petroleum sp1nts, turpentine,
tates the copper salts from solution. trichlorethylene, cyclohexanol, and most com-
The residues from reaction fluxes, which are mon organic solvents.
described in the chapter on aluminum (Chapter Mildly activated rosin and activated rosin
15), usually respond to a rinse in warm water. If residues require different treatment for the com-
difficulty is experienced, the joint on aluminum plete removal of the residues. The above-
may be scrubbed with a brush and then immersed mentioned solvents will remove the rosin but in
in 2% sulfuric acid followed by immersion in I%
most cases will leave behind the additives. The
nitric acid. A final warm water rinse removes all additives are generally polar in nature and cannot
acidic compounds. be entirely removed by nonpolar organic sol-
The residue from intermediate or self-
vents. For complete removal a second treatment
neutralizing organic fluxes is usually quite solu-
with water is necessary to remove the additives.
ble in hot water. Double rinsing in warm water is
Certain proprietary solvents which contain polar
always advisable.
and nonpolar solvents are available which will
give complete cleaning in one operation.
Rosin flux residues may be removed by
OILY OR GREASY mechanically scrubbing the assembly with the
FLUX PASTE RESIDUES appropriate cleaner or by complete immersion or
vapor degreasing, provided the assembly will not
Residues of oily or greasy flux pastes are gener- be damaged by these methods.
ally removed with an organic solvent. Soldering The extent of removal of ionic residues follow-
pastes are usually emulsions of petroleum jelly ing a cleaning procedure can be measured by
and a water solution of zinc-ammonium chloride. several means. Measurement of insulation resis-
Because of the corrosive nature of the acids con- tance of printed wiring assemblies is one method
tained in the flux, residues must be removed in use. Qualitative measurement of the presence
where good electrical properties are required and of halide ions using silver nitrate test solutions or
no corrosion can be tolerated. silver chromate test paper may also be used.
Other methods based on measuring the resistivity
or conductivity of reused water are in use. In-
struments developed for removing residue con-
taminants and measuring the amounts are availa-
ble. See Fig. 8.14 of Chapter 8 for example.
CHAPTERS

INSPECTION AND
TESTING

Requirements for inspection and testing of sol- sufficient to determine the adherence of the coat-
dered joints are entirely dependent upon the ap- ing since it is possible to plate over dirty or
plication. Soldering operations are so diverse that contaminated surfaces. Other ways to determine
many detailed test programs have been de- the adherence of coatings include heating the part
veloped. Numerous industrial and military stan- to a predetermined temperature and examining it
dards apply to electronic and electrical compo- for evidence of blisters. Another heat test uses an
nent and connection manufacture. Plumbing fit- adhesive tape.
tings are covered by careful dimensional control. Solderability is probably the most difficult
Inspection and testing for soldering com- factor to define. Perfect surface condition and
mences with analysis of materials, of geometric cleanliness are impractical, so soldering is al-
accuracy, of uniformity of fluxes, and assessment ways performed on an imperfect surface. Normal
of surface conditions. In-process monitoring of precautions in cleaning and preparation are es-
joining parameters is next for consistent quality sential, and yet the criteria of solderability re-
in any good inspection program. Finally, after the main somewhat subjective. A number of tests for
joint is soldered, a wide variety of test proce- solderability have been developed. Some of these
dures, including mechanical and environmental, tests ultimately rely on experienced visual
may be required for verification of joint perfor- examinations; more recent tests provide quantita-
mance. tive data.
Precoating of base metals is used extensively The earliest tests probably were the direct
for production of more solderable surfaces to spread tests and the capillary tests. In the spread
facilitate longer storage or increase subsequent test specially prepared solder samples are placed
environmental resistance. Required thicknesses on specific-sized specimens of the material to be
and types of coating used are covered in Chapter tested, and both are placed in an oven for a pre-
5. Inspection techniques depend upon the base scribed length of time at temperature. After re-
and coating materials. Thickness measurements moval, areas of spread for the standard amount of
are made by magnetic gages on ferrous base solder and final height of specimen plus solder
metals or by electrochemical test devices. Ad- are used to evaluate solderability on a compara-
herence of coatings may be determined by wrap- tive basis. Capillary tests have long been used to
ping the test specimen around a specific mandrel evaluate the flow characteristics of bulk solder.
diameter and examining it microscopically for Two general methods are used. One method
cracking and flaking of the plated or coated sur- utilizes a twisted wire, at one-inch pitch, which is
faces. Visual inspection, by itself, is not dipped into a liquid bath of solder for a prescribed

51
52/SOLDERING MANUAL
time, say 15 seconds. Results are measured by Larger surfaces, such as printed circuit boards,
examination of the height of rise achieved. A may be examined using three essentially very
second method is to use a specially drilled block similar tests wherein the material to be tested is
of metal with two or more hole diameters; again, lowered into a molten solder bath under con-
comparative heights of rise of molten solder are trolled conditions, removed, and then the speci-
measured after a prescribed exposure period. mens are examined for uniformity of the solder
A method specifically designed for component film achieved. These tests are the edge dip test,
leads and wires is the solder globule test, as the rotary dip test, and the meniscus test.
shown in Fig. 8. I (IEC Publication 68-2"Test T The edge dip test (ANSI-EIA RS 319, !PC 801)
Solderability"). The technique is to measure the is intended to provide a mutually agreeable qual-
wetting time of a wire immersed in a molten ity determination of the stock or surface coating
globule of solder. Volume of solder is dictated by to be soldered and to ensure that no in-process
wire diameter under test. The test is a good dis- procedure results in deterioration of the materials
criminator, as shown by Fig. 8.2, in determining to be joined. An Sn 60 or Sn 63 solder is desig-
solderability variations. nated, together with a specified flux type. Test
The solderability test standard (ANSI-EIA samples must be at least nominal 15 mm (1/2 in.)
RS-178) is widely used in U.S. industry and was wide. After fluxing, the sample is immersed in
adopted in MIL-STD-202 as Method 208. Pro- molten solder edgewise, with an insertion rate of
vided to test wire up to 1.2 mm (=0.045 in .) 25 mm/s ( 1 in. /s), a dwell time of 4 s, and then
diameter, the test uses the device shown in Fig. slow withdrawal. A uniformly adherent coating
8.3. Evaluation is made on the basis of the uni- is required to cover a minimum of 95% of the
formity of the resulting solder coating. specimen area.

A 8

Fig. 8.1-Globule solderability test for round component terminations. A, commencement of globule
solderability test for round component terminations. Timing is commenced when the wire bisects the
molten globule. 8, end of globule test showing solder completely encasing wire, when time is
stopped. The time in seconds to achieve this is an indication of solderability of the wire
 Inspection and Testing/53
50 Test temperature 235° C
Activated flux

40 As received

30

20
Aged

10

... -.. •; ..: ;:·..

0 2 3 40

Soldering time, seconds

Fig. 8.2-The effect of accelerated aging for 16 hours at 155° Con the distribution of soldering times
of a single batch of resistor terminations tested by the globule method. An activated rosin flux was
used in the tests. Note the significant proportion of wires having times above 3 seconds indicating a
probable serious loss of solderability under normal storage conditions

The rotary dip test is used in Europe. The specified. However, the edge-dip test can be
apparatus is shown in Fig. 8.4. The test technique made to perform similarly.
requires subjecting a number of specimens to

•
..
progressively longer times in contact with molten

~~-~-3
solder and, by visual examination, determining
the time for complete wetting to be attained.
Typical results are presented in Fig. 8.5. In addi-
tion, the test may be prolonged to induce dewet-
ting action. Although the test is qualitative4n '
relying on visual examination, it does produce
more information than the direct edge-dip test as

Solder Fig. 8.4-Rotary dip solderability test for

bath printed circuit specimens and tags , designated
the TRI-Moore test. A ptfe (Teflon-like plastic)
paddle immediately precedes the specimen to
clear the solder bath surface of oxide and flux
Fig. 8.3- Suggested dipping device for soldera- residues. Solderability of plated through-holes
bility test may also be determined
54/SOLDERING MANUAL

10

6 months
normal
storage 5

10

Ul
"0
21 days c:
long term 0
damp heat 5 &l
Ul

~
.,E
C)
c:

=
~
10

24 hours
steam
aging 5

2
Fresh

0.5

Method Roller Immersion Roller Electroplated

Fig. 8.5-Minimum wetting time as determined by rotary dip test of several coatings tested both fresh
and after different types of aging. Thickness: 5 ~m ( =0.0002 in.). Short black columns represent good
solderability, and shaded regions indicate very variable wetting time; points on top of columns indicate
no significant wetting after 10 s.
 Inspection and Testing /55

Spring arm

Fig. 8.6-A surface tension balance device, using solder bath which can be automatically raised and
lowered by the test mechanism. No mechanical coupling exists between specimen and measuring
system

A recently developed technique monitors the So far no single solderability test has proved
kinetics of wetting action by measuring surface capable of providing an overall assessment of this
tension forces between specimens and molten important factor. The number of tests developed
solder during the critical initial wetting stages. is partly attributable to the complexity of the
The apparatus used is shown in Fig. 8.6. The subject, to the considerable efforts made to un-
solder bath is moved upward towards the speci- derstand the wetting process, and to the need to
men carefully mounted above and connected to a describe certain specific actions by a viable test
sensitive transducer. As the molten bath covers procedure. Clearly, the user now has a better
the specimen, an upward thrust equivalent to.the choice of suitable tests for his particular pro-
displaced material is produced which lessens as duction situation, and the development engineer
wetting of the specimen commences, proceeding has a continuing challenge to produce more quan-
under good wetting conditions until a downward titative test criteria for solderability assessment.
force is produced by the 111eniscus acting on the
specimen. Illustrated in Fig. 8.7 are the three
possible conditions: good wetting, slow wetting, IN-PROCESS MONITORING
and no wetting. The test method can be applied to
a wide range of samples including printed circuit Descriptions of soldering requirements for vari-
laminates, component leads, and other solder sur- ous materials and products in other sections of
faces that may be suspended on the tension bal- this book illustrate the progression of soldering
ance. A timer allows selection of a specific dwell technology. Success in manufacture arises from
period, temperature is carefully controlled, and knowledgeable control. In manual operations,
the results are presented on an X- Y recorder. the necessary process control may be a simple
56/SOLDERING MANUAL

Risedueto
withdrawn meniscus
~

~--~----~==~~ t
Fluctuating force
l
:
due to dewetting 1

I
I
I
1 Wetting 1
~i~~ Wetting
1 - 1 time I
~...lt-m-m_e_r_s-io_n.______ B---------1~ I I
._Withdrawal--'
I I
I

Fig. 8.7-Typical recorder trace obtained from surface tension balance during a solderability test.
Curve A represents a material of high solderability, whereas 8 has a much slower rate of wetting. With
material C, the forces only just reach zero and wetting is never achieved. Note fluctuating withdrawal
force when dewetting occurs due to breakdown of the meniscus

check on the heating rate of solder torches and control. On-stream pH sensors now are avail-
the pH value of the flux. To ensure an adequate able to provide a constant check on fluxes, with
product in large quantity production, a complete immediate response if pH values fall outside a
process control system with digital and analog prescribed limit. Photocells can perform a num-
modules may be required using sensing from ber of information-gathering tasks which assist
thermocouples, tachometers, photocells, etc., in ensuring adequate process control. Monitor-
and converting the information to direct on-line ing the number of parts, the rate of travel, and
control of valves, actuators, power controls and the positioning of components on a line can
motors, etc. readily reduce possible defects and provide
The first steps in providing monitoring sys- direct evidence of process changes. The ease
tems should be seriously considered. Continuous with which a soldered joint is made should
temperature measurement of solder alloys for not reduce the effort needed to make consist-
critical operations really is essential for quality ently good soldered joints. Monitoring the
 Inspection and Testing/57
process can be simple or complex. The impor- both sides obviously is advantageous for the in-
tance of the exercise is to assign values to the spector to properly execute his task. Factors con-
critical factors controlling production. Cost- sidered in examination are geometry and general
effectiveness must be considered. However, design conformance, wetting, quality and quan-
when problems do occur, information monitoring tity of solder and, finally, cleanliness of the prod-
can be the tool to quickly return the quality to its uct foe its intended service.
original level. Coupled with other inspection and Table 8.1 and Fig. 8.8 summarize some poten-
testing techniques, the monitoring program is a tial soldering defects. Additionally, Fig. 8. 9
vital link between materials and the final product. shows an example of nonwetting and dewetting
on the same component. Bridging between com-
ponent terminations is illustrated in Fig. 8.10,
where leads were too close for the soldering con-
FINAL INSPECTION PROCEDURES
ditions. Finally, Fig. 8.11 shows an example of
vapor entrapment producing a large void in the
Nondestructive fillet.
Visual examination is probably the most Wetting defects arise from incomplete cover-
widely used method of nondestructive soldered age of a surface to be soldered. Nonwetting is
joint examination. Primarily the experienced in- identified by the original surface finish. The
spector will work from workmanship samples problem can arise from insufficient heating of the
and design drawings to facilitate overall judg- joint, poor fluxing activity, or contaminated sur-
ment of joint quality. Visibility of the joint from faces.

Table 8.1-Solder joint defects

Classification Appearance of joint

Bare-no solder Connection not soldered

Cold solder Sharp demarcation at solder interface with poor flow
(Fig. 8.8b) caused by lack of heating
Disturbed solder Connection displays a chalky or crystallized appearance caused by
(Fig. 8.8d) movement of the joint during solidification
Excess solder In general, the solder should be one-third the thickness of the wire
(Fig. 8.8e) attached to the terminal with the outline of the wire still visible. Joints
with solder exceeding this amount fall into this classification
Solder ground Connections grounded by solder drips or overhangs
Insufficient solder Insecure union of the wire to the terminal
(Fig. 8.8/)
Rosin joints A portion of the terminal and the wire are separated by a thin coat of
(Fig. 8.8c) rosin flux caused by insufficient heat or poor solderability
Solder short The solder forms an undesirable electrical path
Sharp point in high Solder points may cause potential arcing or corona effects
voltage circuit
Dewetted joint Large angle between solder and base metal. Globules or residue on
base metal
58/SOLDERING MANUAL

A 8 c

D E F

Fig. 8.8-Properly and improperly made soldered joints. A, properly made joint; B, cold solder; C,
rosin joint; D , disturbed joint; E, excess solder, F, insufficient solder

Dewetting and nonwetting look alike to the tube and p1pmg systems, radiators, cans, and
untrained eye. Dewetted parts are characterized other vessels fabricated by soldering. Service
by a residual solder colored film with discrete duty of the component dictates the type of pres-
globules or beads where the solder originally sure test applied. For example; in high-pressure
Howed, then retracted. Contaminated surfaces, water or sprinkler sys"tems, a static pressure test at
dissolved surface coatings, or overheating prior a load value that is a specific percentage in excess
to soldering can produce this defect. For repair of service duty loads is applicable. Automotive
purposes, recleaning of nonwetted or dewetted radiators are pressure tested in the same manner
surfaces is essential for good joint production. In and then, in addition, subjected to a dynamic
large area lap joints it is not unusual to have up to pressure cycling program that reflects their use in
a 20% void area usually comprising a collection service. Pressure tests on soldered joints are usu-
of small voids. ally by purchaser agreement because of the var-
Joints that have moved excessively during ied products subject to the test.
solidification have a frosty appearance . Dye penetrant and fluorescent dye examina-
Pressure testing of soldered joints is applied to tions are sometimes appropriate for the detection
 Inspection and Testing/59
of surface defects. Radiography is applicable to
uniform, relatively large area joints such as pipes
and tubes or lapped joints in sheet or plate. Views
through two walls are more difficult to assess
since, as previously stated, up to 20% void area is
considered to be good quality.
Electrical measurements are made on indi-
vidual joints but generally are more applicable to
the examination of systems. Usually soldered
joints are designed with up to 300% electrically
excess material, which is satisfactory provided
no joint cracks are present. Electrical systems
analysis is more definitive in locating the difficult
joint through simulated job performance on sol-
dered circuitry, for example. Here, repetitive
Fig. 8.9-Example of faulty joint showing
testing soon clarifies whether defects are arising
dewetting of solder on land and non wetting on
in specific design areas or are caused by a general
component termination
materials problem. For high volume production,
manual observation techniques cannot compete
with such sophisticated inspection systems.
Mechanical Testing
Mechanical tests serve two functions: first, to
evaluate alternative designs, soldering parame-
ters, and materials; and secondly, to verify the
quality of joints made in production. The three
main classifications- tension, shear, and peel-
are illustrated in Fig. 8.12. Most solder joint data
in the literature are obtained on lap-shear sam-
ples. Testing procedures should be in accordance
with ASTM Standards. In butt tensile joints the
diameter-to-width ratio of the soldered area di-
rectly influences the actual measured strength
Fig. 8.10--Bridge of solder between component values. Joint strength first increases and then
terminations due to incorrect spacing or incorrect decreases as diameter-to-width ratio is increased.
soldering conditions Lap-shear tests can give a wide range of apparent
strengths depending upon the width, depth, and
cross section of the specimen. Preferably, tests
should be performed on joints at least a nominal
15 mm ( 1/2 in.) wide with all dimensions clearly
stated. Peel tests are appli.cable in certain in-
stances; here results are quoted in terms of load
per linear inch of joint, and two values are
utilized - load to initiate fracture and load to
propagate the fracture. In all three cases it is
imperative, if data are to be meaningful , to state
Fig. 8.11- Cavity within solder fillet in joint the strain rate at which tests were made.
probably due to entrapment of flux vapors. This Mechanical testing of solder joints made with a
may not be considered as cause for rejection for formed flat-pack lead and the basis board depend
certain applications for strength on the fillet formed at the heel or
bend. Together with the pull angle, these are the
60/SOLDERING MANUAL

I
will be obtained in ostensibly the same joint.
Recognition of this fact is important to the suc-
cessful application of the soldered joint in ser-
Tension vice. Quoting an average joint strength will not

-:
suffice if 10% of the product is useless because
the natural spread in joint strength is wider than
the safety factor ascribed to an average value.
Frequency distributions of joint strength tend
Shear toward less deviation during long term stress-
rupture or creep strength determinations.
Engineering test data for soldered joints are
derived from creep, stress-rupture, and fatigue
tests. Creep tests are performed by stressing the
joint at a specific load to determine the rate of
Peel strain obtained. Stress-rupture tests are usually
performed under constant stress at the solder
Fig. 8.12-Main classifications of joint testing joint and record the time to joint failure at a given
of solders load. Fatigue tests may be required at high stress
with relatively low cycle failure or at low stresses
chief determining factors in a lead pull test (see under highly cyclic or vibrational conditions.
Fig. 8.13). Lead-tin solders are subject to a frequency de-
Results of solder joint mechanical tests should pendency on the number of cycles to failure;
be handled statistically. Reference should be therefore, testing rate must always be stated
made to ASTM Standards for appropriate when data are reported. Hardness tests are some-
methods. Inher~ntly, a range of strength values times used for quality control purposes .

7.0 45/30 I II
IJ)J~I I I
45/45

6.0

I 30/30
45/30

I
60/45 60/45

I
60/60

60/60
I
I ~60
I
60/90
90/90
± 1u I Mean I 60/90

Plating thickness = 1.08 mils Plating thickness = 1.66 mils

(Numbers indicate lead bend/pull test angle)
Fig. 8.13-Effects of lead bend angle and pull test angle on pull strength (test data were reported in
U.S. customary units)
 Inspection and Testing/61

lon exchange
column
Conductivity
cells

-Flow

Recorder

Conductivity
monitor

•• ••
Fig. 8.14- Setup for quantative measurement of ionic contaminants on printed wiring boards and
components

Contamination Checks
Environmental Tests The soldering operation almost always in-
A number of tests have been developed to volves the use of a fluxing material designed to
evaluate systems which include soldered joints. be aggressive to the surface material at least suf-
These include salt spray corrosion, temperature ficiently to allow the solders to flow freely at
cycling to induce stresses, humidity tests for res- temperature. These fluxes range from strong
idue corrosion, moisture resistance in circuit acid chlorides and fluorides to very weak organic
packages, life tests under simulated service con- acids and salts or completely acid radical-free
ditions, high impact shock resistance for rough materials such as rosins. Normally, soldering
handling, vibration effects on transportation fluxes are washed away from the surfaces adja-
equipment, and acceleration effects such as air- cent to the solder joint area. If not, these fluxes
craft operations. A comprehensive catalogue of can leave residues that become corrosive to the
test methods is compiled in MIL-STD-202 for solder and the connecting materials. Tests used
electronic and electrical parts, which in principle on electrical products for flux activity are the
can be readily applied to other areas of solder copper mirror test, which specifies that a flux
joint usage. The main objective is to provide in must not penetrate a mirrored copper coating 800
the laboratory a reasonable means of closely A thick on a surface after 24 hours at 50% relative
simulating actual service conditions existing in humidity; a chloride and bromide radical check; a
the field and, by so doing, provide a uniform pH test according to ASTM E70; and a solder
basis of acceptance of systems. Environmental spread test, which indirectly gives a measure of
testing of newly designed systems or for full corrosivity since better spread is generally ob-
assessment of new alloys is strongly recom- tained with the more corrosive fluxes. A setup for
mended. quantitative measurement of ionic contaminants
62/SOLDERING MANUAL

on printed circuit boards after soldering is shown ing become all the more important. In addition,
in Fig. 8.14. the inspection programs must be carefully
Automotive engineering limits the molded to accommodate new products and
chloride content in the rinse water after post- technology and be responsive to change.
cleaning or flushing radiators, since high-
temperature fluxes usually contain inorganic ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chlorides. Other industries rely on the natural Figures 8.1, 8.4, and 8. 8 are courtesy of Tin
flushing (in piping or plumbing systems, for Research Institute, Inc.
example) to clear from the joint area any residues
that may cause corrosion. REFERENCES
As soldering technology develops and joints Bud, P.J. 1973. Procedures for production line
are subjected to increased structural requirements solderability testing. Evaluation engineering,
or stringent corrosion codes, inspection and test- July/ August.
CHAPTER9

COPPER AND
COPPER ALLOYS

Copper and copper alloys are among the most considered include maximum allowable solder-
frequently soldered engineering materials. Sol- ing temperature, cost of the solder, joint strength,
dered copper is used in such diverse applications and other physical properties.
as plumbing, aerospace hardware, automotive The most widely used solders are alloys of tin
radiators, and printed circuits. Solders are usually and lead. Tin, the active component, readily
filler metals of tin alloyed with lead, antimony, or reacts with and diffuses into copper, and an in-
silver. The general families of wrought and cast termetallic phase Cu6 Sn5 is created during solder-
copper metals are described in Tables 9.1 and 9. 2 ing operations. This intermetallic is formed at the
with pertinent information on conductivity and interface while the solder is still liquid; however,
composition. aging of the soldered joint promotes the growth
The solderability of copper alloys, as de- of Cu6 Sn5 and formation of Cu3 Sn. Elevated
scribed in Table 9.3, ranges from excellent to temperature accelerates the aging. The effect of
poor. In order of their decreasing solderabilities, time and temperature on the intermetallic is dis-
copper alloys may be roughly classified as fol- cussed on p. 140.
lows: copper, copper-tin, copper-zinc, copper-
nickel, copper-chromium, copper-beryllium,
copper-silicon, and aluminum bronzes.
There are no serious problems in soldering FLUXES**
most of the copper base metals. However, those
alloys with beryllium, silicon, and aluminum re-
quire special fluxes. The noncorrosive fluxes are excellent for the
The high thermal conductivity of copper and coppers and may be used with some success on
some of its alloys requires that a high rate of heat copper alloys containing tin and zinc, depending
input be used if localized heating is necessary. on initial cleanliness. The flux should be applied
to clean surfaces and only enough should be used
to lightly coat the areas to be joined.
The intermediate fluxes are used on copper,
SOLDERS* copper-tin, copper-zinc, copper-beryllium, and
copper-chromium alloys. Some of the more ac-
Limitations on the use of any particular solder are tive fluxes may be adequate for the copper-
generally imposed by production methods and nickels and the silicon bronzes, but a generaliza-
final performance requirements. Factors to be tion in this respect could be misleading.

*See Chapter 2 **See Chapter 3

63
64/SOLDERING MANUAL

The corrosive fluxes can be used on all the Chromium-Copper and Copper-Nickel
copper base metals, but they are really needed Immerse in hot 5 volume percent sulfuric acid.
only on those that develop refractory oxides such
as the silicon and aluminum bronzes. The Copper-Silicon Alloys
aluminum bronzes are especially difficult to sol- Immerse in hot 5 volume percent sulfuric acid,
der and require special fluxes or copper plating. then in a mixture of cold 2 volume percent hy-
Chloride fluxes are useful for soldering the sili- drofluoric and 5 volume percent sulfuric acid.
con bronzes and copper-nickels.
Oxide films may reform quickly on copper and Brass and Nickel-Silver Alloys
copper alloys after they have been cleaned.
Immerse in cold 5 volume percent sulfuric
Therefore, the flux should be applied as soon as
acid.
possible after cleaning.
The fluxes best suited to the use of 50% tin- Copper
50% lead and 95% tin-5% antimony solders on
Immerse in cold 5 to 15 volume percent sul-
copper plumbing tube systems are mildly corro-
furic acid.
sive liquid or petrolatum pastes containing
Mechanical cleaning is used on the arsenical
chlorides of zinc and ammonium. Many liquid
and antimonial brasses rather than pickling to
fluxes for .plumbing applications are self-
avoid the development of surface contamination
cleaning, but• there is a risk of corrosion in their (slimes). These contaminants may interfere with
use. There. is no doubt that a strong corrosive flux
soldering and produce brittle joints. After heat
can remove some oxides and dirty films. How-
treatment, copper-beryllium exhibits an oxide
ever, when highly corrosive fluxes are used as an
coating which requires pickling in a one-to-one
alternative to proper cleaning, there is always an
aqueous solution of sulfuric acid at a temperature
uncertainty as to whether uniform cleaning has of 6SO to 75° C(=l50° to 170° F). The original
been achieved and whether corrosive action con- oxide is changed to a reddish oxide which may be
tinues after soldering. It is always best to use a removed in a solution of Sliter (=2 gal) sulfuric
clean surface and the minimum amount of least acid, 4liter (1 gal) nitric acid, !liter ( = 1 qt) of
active flux. water and 14 g (= 1/2 oz.) of hydrochloric acid.
Following this treatment, it is possible to solder
SURFACE PREPARATION the beryllium-copper with a plain or activated
rosin flux. Mechanical cleaning is also recom-
Solvent or alkaline degreasing procedures are mended as an alternative cleaning procedure for
suitable for cleaning copper base metals; beryllium-coppers.
mechanical methods, wire brushing, sanding,
etc. may be used to remove oxides. Chemical HEATING METHODS
removal of oxides requires proper choice of a
pickling solution followed by thorough rinsing. With few exceptions, rapid heating and cooling is
Typical procedures used for chemical cleaning desirable. The reasons for this are as follows:
are as follows*. 1. Flux tends to degrade when hot and could
Aluminum Bronzes lose its effectiveness before soldering is com-
pleted.
Successive immersions in two solutions is 2. The base metal surfaces may oxidize and
needed: become difficult to solder.
1. Cold 2% hydrofluoric and 3% sulfuric acid 3. Prolonged contact with molten solder could
mixture. cause unacceptable changes in the base metal
2. A solution of 5 volume percent sulfuric acid through intermetallic compound formation, ero-
at 25° to 50°C(=80° to 120°F). sion, and solution.
Repeat until clean. 4. Degradation of desirable characteristics.
(such as electrical properties of electronic de-
*See safety precautions in Chapters 5 and 21. vices) may occur.
 Copper and Copper A//oys/65

All the heating methods described in Chapter 6 COATED COPPER BASE ALLOYS
can be used on copper and copper alloys. The
types of soldering equipment most commonly The most commonly employed coatings are tin,
used are soldering iron, solder pots (including lead, tin-lead, nickel, chromium, and silver. The
baths, waves, jets, cascades), torch, oven, induc- soldering of copper base metals coated with any
tion, hot oil bath, electrical resistance, and elec- of these metals is done considering only the
tromagnetic radiation (infrared). An example of a characteristics of the coating, except that the
rapidly soldered component is the wave soldered thermal conductivity of the base metal will gov-
pin in a circuit board shown in Fig. 9. I. Process ern. Except for chromium plate, none of the coat-
parameters of approximately 270° C (=515° F) ings offers any serious problem. For chromium
wave temperature and about 1-1/4 seconds im- plated copper, the chromium should be removed
mersion time are typical. before soldering.
In the dip soldering of copper and brass, con-
tamination of the solder bath with copper and POST SOLDERING TREATMENT
zinc is always a problem, and the degree to which
this is controlled has a direct bearing upon the Whenever there is any possibility that flux resi-
quality of the joint being soldered. The lowest dues may adversely affect the service life or per-
bath temperature which will bring the parts to formance of the soldered joints, the appropriate
soldering temperature rapidly will minimize con- treatment described in Chapter 7 should be
tamination . The bath should have sufficient heat applied.
capacity to bring the parts to temperature rapidly, Manufacturers of soldering fluxes can provide
with the solder temperature no more than 65°C guidance as to the aggressiveness of their flux
(= 150° F) above its liquidus for printed circuit products and can usually provide appropriate
boards and as much as 175° C (=350° F) for heat chemicals for removal of flux residues.
exchangers such as automotive radiators. Solder
baths are commonly held to less than 0. 3 weight ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
percent copper for wave soldering of electronic
components. Figure 9.1 is courtesy of Tin Research Institute,
Inc.

Fig. 9.1- Wave-soldered printed circuit board

 66/SOLDERING MANUAL

Table 9.1-Wrought coppers and copper alloys

Representath
electrical
Number conductivitie
series Description Composition ranges %lACS
10 I to 107 Oxygen-free 99.95% Cu or better > 100
109 to 142 Tough-pitch and deoxidized Contain oxygen or deoxidizers 80 to 100
145 to 147 Free-machining Small additions of S, Te, etc. >90
!50 to 194 High copper alloys Neighborhood of I or 2% additions of Cd, 20 to 85
Be, Cr, Co, Fe, Ni, Zn, and/or Sn
205 to 240 Red brasses Upto20% Zn 35 to 60
250 to 298 Yellow brasses From 25 to 50% Zn 25 to 35
310 to 385 Leaded brasses From 10 to 45% Zn and up to 4.5% Pb 25 to 45
405 to 485 Tin brasses To 5.5% Sn, to 48% Zn 25 to 30
502 to 529 Copper-tin alloys From I to II% Sn 10-50
(phosphor bronzes)
532 to 546 Leaded phosphor bronzes I to 4% Pb, about 5% Sn, some with additions of Zn 10-20
606 to 642 Aluminum bronzes From 2.6 to 13% A I, to 5% Fe, some with additions of Si or Ni 10-20
647 to 661 Silicon bronzes From I to 3.5% Si, some with Mn, Si, or Sn 7-12
665 to 697 Alloy brasses Zinc-containing alloys with additions of Ni, Sn, Mn, AI, and Si 20-25
701 to 720 Copper nickels From 2 to 40% Ni, additions of Fe, Be, Mn, or Cr 4-10
732 to 798 Nickel silvers From about 43 to 73% Cu, from 7 to 23% Ni, 5-10
some with Pb or Mn, balance Zn
NOTE: For specific compositions and properties see Standards Handbook No. 2,
Copper Development Association, N.Y.
 Copper and Copper Alloys/67

Table 9.2 -Cast coppers and copper alloys

Representative
electrical
Number conductivities,
series Description Composition ranges %lACS
801 to811 Coppers Minimum of99.70% Cu and remainder Ag 92-100
813 to 828 High copper alloys Additions of up to about 2.5% Be, Co, Si, Ni, and/or Cr 20-80
833 to 838 Red brasses 83 to 93% Cu, to 12% Zn with lesser amounts of Sn, Pb 115-40
842 to 848 Semi-red brasses 76 to 80% Cu, 8 to 15% Zn with lesser amounts of Sn, Pb 15-20
852 to 858 Yellow brasses 57 to 72% Cu, balance primarily Zn, I to 2% Sn, Pb, Ni, or AI 18-28
861 to 868 High-strength 55 to 67% Cu, additions of Fe, Ni, Mn, AI, balance Zn 7-22
yellow brasses
872 to 879 Silicon brasses and silicon
bronzes 65 to 90% Cu, about 3 to 5% Si, some with large amounts of Zn 6-15
902 to945 Tin bronzes 3 to 19% Sn, some with large amounts of Pb, less Zn, Ni 7-15
947,948 Nickel-tin bronzes About 5% Sn and 5% Ni, to 2. 5% Zn, Alloy 948 has I% Pb 12
952 to 958 Aluminum bronzes 7 to 11% AI, at least 71% Cu, balance Ni, Fe, Mn, and/or Si 3-13
962 to 966 Copper nickels 10 to 31% Ni, about I% additions of Fe, Cb, Si, Mn and/or Si 4-11
973 to 978 Nickel silvers 55 to 65% Cu, Pb and.Sn additions, 12 to 25% Ni, balance Zn 4-5
NOTE: For specific compositions and properties see Standards Handbook No. 7,
Copper Development Association, N.Y.
68/SOLDERING MANUAL

Table 9.3-Solderability of copper and copper alloys

Type Solderability and remarks 1
Coppers Excellent. Rosin or other noncorrosive flux is used when
(Includes tough-pitch, oxygen-free, properly cleaned.
phosphorized, arsenical,
silver-bearing, leaded, tellurium,
and selenium copper.)
Copper-tin alloys Good. Easily soldered with activated rosin and
intermediate fluxes.
Copper-zinc alloys Good. Easily soldered with activated rosin and
intermediate flux.
Copper-nickel alloys Good. Easily soldered with intermediate and
corrosive fluxes.
Copper-chromium and Good. Require intermediate and corrosive fluxes
copper-beryllium and precleaning.
Copper-silicon alloys Fair. Silicon produces refractory oxides that require use of
corrosive fluxes. Should be properly cleaned.
Copper-aluminum alloys Difficult. High aluminum alloys are soldered with help of
very corrosive fluxes. Precoating may be necessary.
High-tensile manganese bronze Not recommended. Should be plated to ensure consistent
solderability.
1Definitions of descriptive terms for fluxes are given in Chapter 3.
CHAPTER 10

STEEL

INTRODUCTION SURFACE PREPARATION

Steel can readily be soldered if the proper proce- The precleaning a-nd surface preparation
dures and techniques are employed and if special techniques recommended in Chapter 5 should be
attention is given to surface preparation and the carefully followed. Owing to corrosion or oxida-
selection of fluxes. Precoating with more solder- tion, steel readily forms films and scales which
able metals is often required. must be completely removed before soldering.
Because of this strong tendency to corrode, sur-
face protection is required up to the time that the
SOLDERS solder flows over the surface. The protection may
be afforded by painting, hot-dip coating, or elec-
There are few limitations on the types of solders troplating.
that may be used on steel. Tin-lead solders con- Steel coated with other metals is generally
taining 20 to 50% tin are widely employed for used for applications involving soldering. A
joining steel, with the 40% tin-60% lead solder comparatively small amount of steel is soldered
predominating. without precoating. Terneplate, which is one of
The choice of a solder is governed somewhat the commercially coated sheet steels, has a film
by the intended end use of the assembly. The of a tin-lead alloy applied on its surface. Terne-
soldering process and speed of the operation also plate can readily be soldered with the mildest
affect the selection. For example, all other factors noncorrosive fluxes. Tinplate, or tin coated
being equal, it is often more economical to use a steel, has a film of pure tin applied on the surface
more expensive lower melting temperature sol- by hot-dip or electrolytic methods. Tinplate is
der, since the higher melting temperature low-tin also very easy to solder at high speeds with non-
solders require higher soldering temperature and corrosive fluxes. The coated steels are treated in
usually a longer processing time. more detail in Chapter 11.
A tin-lead solder's ability to wet steel increases
with tin content. For leak-proof joints, therefore,
it may be more advantageous to use a 40% tin- HEATING METHODS
60% lead solder than a 5% tin-95% lead composi-
tion. It may often be desirable to try various All soldering processes and techniques are used
solders until an optimum combination of proper- to solder steel. For small jobs soldering irons are
ties and soldering conditions is reached. usually adequate. Torches may be required, how-

69
70/SOLDERING MANUAL

ever, for the manual soldering of larger pieces JOINT TYPES

which dissipate heat more rapidly. Induction and
resistance soldering are particularly adaptable to The conventional types of joints covered in
steel, and oven soldering may be the most suit- Chapter 4 are all used for steel. The strongest
able for certain applications (for further details on joints are obtained when 0.10 to 0.15 mm (0.004
processes and procedures see Chapter 6). to 0.006 in.) clearances are used. Joints with
greater clearances are less dependable, while
joints with clearances of less than 0. 1 mm
FLUXES (=0.003 in.) may be weak due to poor joint
penetration and flux inclusions. Refer to Chap-
After preliminary cleaning, fluxing is necessary. ter 23 for mechanical properties of joints.
The stronger corrosive fluxes are necessary, since
the residual oxide of iron is not easily dissolved
by mild or noncorrosive fluxes. The zinc- POST SOLDERING TREATMENT
ammonium chloride liquid fluxes, either alone or
dispersed in petrolatum pastes, are suitable. For The corrosive nature of the flux residues requires
certain types of work, mixtures of powdered sol- a rigid cleaning schedule after soldering. Wash-
der and dry or paste flux may be found useful. ing with dilute hydrochloric acid ( 1% HCl), fol-
These mixtures are used to precoat dents and lowed by a clear water rinse, removes the zinc
irregularities in automobile bodies prior to filling oxychloride. After drying, the final assembly
them with solder. may be painted or electroplated.
 CHAPTER 11

COATED STEELS

Mill-finished low and medium carbon steels find ALUMINUM COATED STEEL
use in many manufactured products. Soldering is
a useful method for joining mill-finished low and Chemical or mechanical cleaning methods
medium carbon steels. Solderable metallic coat- should be used to remove or modify the oxide
ings on steel normally applied at the mills include film on aluminum coated steel before soldering.
tin (tinplate), tin-lead (terneplate), zinc (gal- A dip in 5% trisodium phosphate solution, fol-
vanized steel), and aluminum (aluminum coated lowed by water rinsing and drying, will assist in
steel). In addition, many fabricated steel parts are the preparation of the aluminum coating for sol-
coated with metals to improve solderability, or to dering.
protect the steel by providing sacrificial or anodic Heating of the aluminum coatings must be
coatings that corrode in preference to steel. rapid, and electric or ultrasonic soldering irons
Protective metal coatings used on steel and the with sufficient heating capacity to raise the work
method by which these coatings are applied are to soldering temperature should be used.
given in Table 11.1. In addition, this table lists Some aluminum coated steels may be soldered
some of the uses for the different coated steels. without fluxes by heating the metal surface suffi-
The surfaces of all coated steels must be clean ciently to melt a small amount of solder touched
and free of soils, dirt, passivation films, and rust to the hot surface to form a molten pool. The
before soldering. Specific cleaning schedules are aluminum under the solder pool is then abraded
required for each metal coating. Joint design rec- using the stick of solder, the tip of the soldering
ommendations for coated sheet steels should be iron, or by use of specially designed brushes
followed for maximum joint strengths. Joint which assist in displacing the oxide films.
clearances of 0.025 to 0.150 mm ( =0.001 to Specially formulated fluxes are commercially
0.005 in.) are usually satisfactory for coated available for soldering aluminum coated steel
steels. Lap joints or interlocking joints are used sheets. These fluxes should be applied sparingly
where practicable to provide optimum joint with a fine brush, and soldering should be per-
strength. Choice of solder composition largely formed quickly to avoid excessive oxidation of
depends on the coating or the intended applica- surfaces, oxidation of the soldered joint, and also
tion of the finished assembly. to prevent alloying of the aluminum coating with

71
72/SOLDERING MANUAL

the base steel to an undesirable extent. Suitable adequately cleaned. Often thickened or passi-
solders for making joints in aluminum coated vated nickel oxide films can be removed before
steel are listed in the chapter on aluminum. Usu- fluxing and soldering by a dip in a 10% solution
ally these solders are supplied in the form of of hydrochloric acid. Electroless nickel and
sticks, but flux cored aluminum solders and cobalt coatings on steel can be difficult to s.older
pastes are available. because a high percentage of phosphides is often
present in the coating. A maximum of 5 to 7%
CADMIUM COATED STEEL phosphorous in the electroless nickel coatings is
preferred for solderability. Corrosive fluxes are
required to solder these coatings.
Cadmium is most frequently plated on steel parts
that have been formed or machined prior to
plating operations. Electrodeposits are usually
0.0015 to 0.010 mm ( =0.00005 to 0.0003 in.) COPPER COATED STEEL
thick, and it is extremely important that the steel
base underlying the coating be clean before plat- Copper coated steel usually offers no soldering
ing to avoid the risk of wrinkling or blistering of difficulties if the surface is clean and free of
the coating when soldered joints are made. heavy oxide films. The type of flux used depends
Clean, fresh cadmium coatings offer good sol- on the condition of the coating and the applica-
derability with rosin base fluxes and tin-rich sol-
tion. A full range of tin-lead, antimony and
ders. However, solderability decreases rapidly silver-containing solders may be used. As in the
with time, and stronger fluxes may be required case of soldering pure copper and its alloys, the
to remove thickened or adherent films which
joints should be made quickly to avoid excessive
may interfere with the soldering process. Torch
buildup of intermetallic copper-tin compounds
soldering is not recommended for soldering
when tin base solders are used.
cadmium coatings because of the evolution of
volatile and toxic cadmium compounds during
heating. Soldering irons are used most effec- TERNEPLATE ('LEAD-TINCOATINGS)
tively in soldering cadmium coated steel. AND LEAD COATED STEEL

Terneplate is low carbon steel with an alloy coat-

CHROMIUM PLATED STEEL ing of 10 to 25% tin, balance lead. The lead-tin
coatings assist in the soldering of the steel. Terne
and lead coatings do not require further prepara-
Soldering is not recommended for joining
tion other than the removal of oil, grease or at-
chromium plated steel.
mospheric grime. Long term storage may cause
surface discoloration, and a light abrasion may
sometimes be necessary before soldering to in-
NICKEL AND COBALT PLATED sure the highest solderability possible.
STEEL Although gas heated soldering irons or heavy
duty electric heated irons are used to an advan-
tage in joining terneplate or lead coated steel, any
Nickel plated steel is produced by flashing the of the heating methods outlined in Chapter 6 can
steel with copper to a thickness of 0.0015 mm be used. The selection of the best method is based
( =0.00005 in.) or less and then plating nickel to a on the application and design of the product.
thickness of 0.0015 mm to 0.010 mm (0.00005 to Rosin fluxes are satisfactory in most instances for
0.0003 in. ).The higher tin solders (Sn 50, Sn 60, soldering terneplate or lead coated steel. Corro-
Sn 63) are generally used for making the joint, sive fluxes are used where joint design and as-
and activated rosin fluxes can be used success- sembly allow for removal of any residues remain-
fully if the surface of the plating has been ing on the joint surfaces.
 Coated Steel/73

TIN COATED STEEL special purpose cans use pure tin as well as sol-
ders containing small amounts of antimony or
silver.
Tin coatings, used in the manufacture of tinplate,
are commercially available in thicknesses of
0.0001 to approximately 0. 0025 mm (0. 000004 in.
to approximately 0.00009 in.). Over 80% of the TIN ALLOY COATINGS ON STEEL
material is used in the manufacture of food and
beverage containers. In addition, many steel parts Electrodeposited coatings of tin-cadmium, tin-
are coated with tin to improve solderability dur- copper, and tin-zinc on steel should have a thick-
ing assembly, or provide corrosion resistance to ness of 0.0065 mm ( =0.00025 in.) minimum to
the steel base. Tin thickness in these applications provide solderability and extended shelf life.
may be from 0.0025 to 0.025 mm (0.0001 to These alloy coatings are soldered. with activated
0.001 in.). rosin fluxes and tin-lead solders with tin contents
Except for the removal of the surface contam- of 40, 50, or 60%. Sometimes corrosive fluxes are
inants, such as forming oils or atmospheric used when speed of operation is required and flux
grime, the tinplate usually needs no special prep- residues can be removed from the assembly.
aration for soldering. Rosin base fluxes are satis- Tin-nickel coatings on steel usually have a thin
factory for soldering to tinplate and tin coated (0.0025 mm [0.0001 in.]) undercoat of copper.
steels. Tin-nickel coatings 0.01 mm (0.0003 in.) thick
Soldering irons, induction and dip soldering are usually soldered after fluxing with corrosive
units, as well as controlled torch soldering are fluxes.
used in joining tinplate and tin coated steel parts.
Tin-lead solders are used as filler metals with
solders containing 40, 50, and 60% tin, balance
lead, being most useful because of ease of appli-
cation, low melting temperatures, and excellent ZINC COATED STEEL
wetting and spreading properties.
In the manufacture of sanitary cans, tinplate is Zinc coated steel is available in a variety of coat-
cut into body blanks which are notched and ing specifications. Hot dipped sheet may be
formed into cylinders. After the bodies are made, temper rolled, wiped, oiled, chemically treated
the interlocking side seams are formed and (either for painting or corrosion resistance) or
fluxed. The can body then travels along a solder- heated to produce an alloy coating (galvannealed
ing horn over the top of a rotating roller which sheet). The sheet may be brightly spangled or
delivers solder from the melting pot to join and unspangled. Electrogalvanized sheet is also
seal the can side seams. commercially available. Galvanized sheets are
Some can side seams are soldered by passing sold on the basis of coating weights nominal 0.04
the bodies, which.have been notched and have to 0.08 kg/m 2 (1.25 to 2.75 oz/ft 2 ) and in steel
their interlocking seams already formed, through gages between 8 and 30.
a high frequency electromagnetic field to preheat It has been shown that electrogalvanized steel
the seam area to approximately 315° C ( =615° F) offers better solderability than hot dipped zinc
in about 0. 3 seconds. The hot seam is then sealed coatings. Minimally spangled hot dipped coat-
with a thread of molten solder which is injected ings interfere slightly with solder wetting, but are
under pressure through a fine orifice into the can solderable with acid or organic type fluxes. In
side seam. A post heating station, in line with the general, chromating treatments, used to prevent
soldering horn, has another high frequency heat- humid storage staining, interfere with solder
ing coil which maintains seam temperatures suf- flow. The effect of chromate treatments on sol-
ficiently to allow the molten solder to uniformly derability is complex. However, some of these
fill all voids. Normally, 2% tin-98% lead solders treatments may improve the soldering of heated
are used in making side seams in cans, but some surfaces or have negligible effects.
74/SOLDERING MANUAL
Table 11.1-Metal coatings on steel
Coating process

Metal or Applications of
alloy coating soldered assemblies

Aluminum X X X X Signs, automotive parts, storage bins

Cadmium X Radio TV chassis, electronic hardware
Chromium X Decorative parts, hardware
Cobalt X X Substitute coating for nickel
Copper X X X Housewares, conductors, electronic parts
Lead X X X Chemical apparatus, coffins
Nickel X X X X Appliances, electrical goods, hardware
Tin X X X X X Containers, electrical parts, food handling,
equipment
Tin-cadmium X X Electric parts, hardware
Tin-copper X X X Electronic parts
Tin-lead (teme) X X X X Gasoline tanks, caskets, flashing, gutters,
roofing
Tin-nickel X Electrical parts, power plugs, connectors,
hardware
Tin-zinc X X X X Electrical parts, chassis
Zinc X X X X Gutters, downspouts, furnace pipe,
ductwork, storage bins

Phosphated galvanized surfaces are difficult to prevent penetration of solder into narrow joint
solder. The phosphate films must be removed clearances. Aged galvanized sheet is soldered
prior to soldering unless strong mineral acid more easily than freshly produced sheet.
fluxes or corrosive acid fluxes containing sodium
bifluoride are used. Galvannealed surfaces are
extremely difficult to solder, but some success REFERENCES
can be achieved if fluxes similar to those used in
soldering stainless steel are used. However, vig- Helwig, L.E., and Carter, P.R. 63, 1969. Solder
orous gas evolution occurs when these fluxes are flow on galvanized surfaces. Metal finishing,
used, and this creates enough back pressure to February.
CHAPTER 12

STAINLESS STEELS

INTRODUCTION Since stainless steels are used in a wide variety

of applications and may be subjected to environ-
All stainless steel alloys contain chromium and ments of various degrees of corrosiveness, the
many contain nickel. Other elements, such as solder must be chosen for compatibility with both
manganese, molybdenum, columbium, titanium, the environment and the stainless steel. Tin and
aluminum, and copper, may also be present to high-tin alloys provide a good color match with
provide certain metallurgical characteristics. In stainless steel and do not darken as noticeably in
the standard grades, chromium ranges from service as do high lead content solders. Because
something in excess of 11% to values approach- of their relatively low melting point and rapid
ing 30%. Nickel content varies within the range loss of strength as temperatures increase, solders
of 0-22%. There are four basic types of stainless must be carefully selected and joints properly
steel: austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, and pre- designed to minimize mechanical loading of the
cipitation hardening. There are also free machin- solder if moderately elevated temperatures are
ing and stainless clad products. expected in service. Solders are quite weak at
The corrosion resistance of stainless steels is even moderately elevated temperatures and are
attributable to the formation of a thin, impervi- subject to creep if directly loaded.
ous, surface layer of chromic oxide which If articles of stainless steel are fabricated for
spontaneously forms on stainless steels in the food or beverage processing, solders containing
presence of oxygen. This surface layer also hin- cadmium or lead should not be used.
ders the wetting·and flow of solder on stainless
steel. Hence, the successful soldering of stainless
steel requires the use of a corrosive flux. SURFACE PREPARATION

SOLDERS Standard shop practices suffice for preparing

stainless steels. Appropriate procedures include
Commercially available solders can be used to vapor, solvent, or caustic degreasing; acid
join stainless steels. In general, the higher the tin pickling; grit or shot blasting; wire brushing or
content of the solder, the better the wetting and abrading with stainless steel wool or emery cloth.
flow on stainless steel. It is generally recom- The method chosen should be appropriate to the
mended that tin contents be at least 50% in order type of foreign material to be removed. Shot or
to provide good bond strength. wire brushes, if used, should be stainless steel to

75
76/SOLDERlNG MANUAL
avoid rust spots. If surfaces are highly polished, joint at intervals before soldering. If warpage
it is best to roughen them slightly before cleaning becomes a serious problem, it is often helpful to
and soldering by using an emery cloth, file, or complete a joint by soldering short lengths of the
other suitable means. seam at a time and alternating positions along the
Soldering should, if possible, be done im- joint so that the heat is spread more uniformly
mediately after cleaning. If soldering cannot be over the joint length.
done promptly, the parts should be precoated with
solder or tin immediately after cleaning. An acid
flux should be used, and the assembly should be FLUXES
thoroughly washed to remove flux residues.
Many joint designs have recessed and hidden Fluxes suitable for soldering stainless steel are
surfaces that makes post soldering cleaning to corrosive and care must be exercised in their use
remove flux residues difficult. Furthermore, to prevent damage to eyes, skin, and clothing.
these recessed or blind areas represent problems Orthophosphoric acid and hydrochloric acid
in soldering because it is not possible to visually fluxes are satisfactory as are aqueous solutions of
verify that solder has flowed into these areas to zinc chloride along with other compounds. If
complete the joint. Therefore, it is often desirable molybdenum, titanium, columbium, or
to precoat with solder or tin the specific areas aluminum are present, the flux should contain
involved in the joint before assembling the pieces some hydrofluoric acid. There are also commer-
for final soldering. Precoating is done by the use cial fluxes which do a satisfactory job. Rosin
of acid fluxes which can be more readily removed fluxes are not satisfactory for soldering stainless
before the individual pieces are assembled, or steel but can be used if the parts are first pre-
suitable electroplating coatings usually may be coated with solder using an acid flux. All residues
applied. Final soldering of the joint can then be of the acid flux should be removed by neutraliz-
accomplished with a rosin type flux, the residues ing and washing prior to final assembly with the
of which are innocuous and cause no serious rosin flux. Flux cored solders containing "acid"
corrosion problem even if not completely re- cores are also useful, but it may be necessary to
moved. supplement the flux core by the addition of extra
flux externally applied.
HEATING METHODS Residues of fluxes, except rosin, used on stain-
less steel are hygroscopic, and in the presence of
Stainless steel assemblies can be heated by all the moisture are corrosive to stainless steels. Simi-
techniques commonly used in production. Be- larly, fumes generated during soldering can con-
cause stainless steels have low thermal conduc- dense on colder parts of the assembly, leaving a
tivity, the rate of travel along the joint should be flux residue that is corrosive in the presence of
slow enough to permit all parts of the joint to moisture. Therefore, it is imperative that these
reach a temperature which will permit the solder residues be thoroughly removed after soldering,
to flow into all areas to be joined. Attempts to preferably immediately after.
increase the rate of travel by using higher temper- Stainless steels are passive under almost all
atures are not recommended inasmuch as there is conditions of service in which they are normally
danger of destroying the flux and generating ex- used; however, if passivity is destroyed locally
cessive oxidation of the solder and base metal. In and prevented from being restored, local corro-
general, soldering temperatures on the order of sion (pitting) may cause rapid penetration at the
approximately 30° to 85° C ( = 50° to 150° F) over point of initiation. This is because a local elec-
the melting point of the solder are desired. trolytic cell is formed between the large cathodic
Austenitic stainless steels have high coeffi- (passive) area and the small anodic (active) area.
cients of thermal expansion, which may cause Oxygen acts as a depolarizer and pitting occurs.
buckling and warpage. Jigs and fixtures may be Solutions containing chlorides are especially
required to obtain and maintain proper alignment troublesome in that they promote the formation
and fit-up. On long seams, it is helpful to tack the of such cells. Other halide salts and some sulfates
 Stainless Steels /77
may also be a source of attack. Cracks, crevice~, softer than the base metal to avoid scratching.
and gasketed areas are also troublesome in that Water spots or other minor surface discolorations
they may lead to stagnant conditions and can be removed by scrubbing with a powdered
localized attack. Elimination of stagnant pockets, cleanser or buffing with metal polish.
cracks, crevices, and thorough removal of acid
soldering flux residues will minimize pos-
sibilities for corrosion. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

Soldered stainless steel articles are found in a

POST SOLDERING TREATMENT wide variety of applications. These include roofs,
roof drains, flashing, gutters, ornamental trim,
The only post soldering treatment required is the and other architectural items. Seams in buckets,
removal of the flux residue if a corrosive flux has pails, and other types of containers are often
been used. Rosin flux residues are noncorrosive solder sealed. Since stainless steels are chosen for
and need not be removed except for appearance. corrosion resistance and heat resistance, it is im-
Detailed instructions for removing various flux perative that soldered joints be employed only in
residues are given in Chapter 7. If desired, excess those applications where the presence of a sol-
solder can be removed from the joint area with a dered joint would not detract from the service-
stainless steel scraping tool. The tool should be ability of the part.
CHAPTER 13

NICKEL AND
HIGH-NICKEL
ALLOYS

INTRODUCTION anickel, K Monel, and Inconel X which have

been fully age-hardened.
Solder can be employed to join nickel and high- The high-nickel alloys are subject to embrit-
nickel alloys either to themselves or to any other tlement at high temperatures when in the
solderable metal. Table 13. I gives the chemical presence of lead and many other low melting
composition and solderability of some high- metals. This embrittlement will not occur at
nickel alloys. In designing a solder joint in any normal soldering temperatures; however, over-
high-nickel alloy, however, it is advisable to take heating should be avoided. If welding, brazing,
into consideration some of the special charac- or other heating is to be done on an assembly, it is
teristics of the base metal. imperative that these operations be done before
Many times, the high- nickel alloys are used for soldering.
a given application because of their resistance to
corrosive attack. When corrosion is a factor, the
corrosion resistance of the solder must also be SOLDERS
considered. In some cases it is necessary to locate
the joint so that the solder will not be exposed to Any of the common types of solders may be used
the corrosive environment. The higher tin content to join the high-nickel alloys. It is usually desir-
solders, such as95% tin-5% antimony, may result able, however, to choose a relatively high tin
in a better color match if appearance is important. solder such as the 60% tin-40% lead or 50%
However, the solder may oxidize in a different tin-50% lead composition.
manner than the base metal and the joint may
become noticeable after exposure.
SURFACE PREPARATION

Nickel and nickel alloys heated in the presence of

PROBLEMS IN SOLDERING NICKEL sulfur become embrittled. These alloys should be
ALLOYS clean and free from sulfur bearing materials such
as grease, paint, crayon, and lubricants before
If soldering is to be done on any of the age- heating.Ifthe surfaces of the high-nickel alloys to
hardenable materials, the soldering should be be soldered are adequately precleaned as outlined
done after aging. The temperature involved in in Chapter 5, it will be possible to produce a
soldering will not soften such metals as Dur- sound joint.

79
SO/SOLDERING MANUAL

Table 13.1-Chemical composition and solderability of high-nickel alloys

Composition (%)
Alloy Solderability
Ni Cu Cr Fe Ti Al
Monel 67 30 Good
Nickel 99 Good
Permanickel 98 0.40 Good
Duranickel 94 0.50 4.5 Good
"K" Monel 66 29 2.75 Good
Inconel 77 15 7 Fair
Incoloy 34 21 45 Fair
Nimonic "75" 75 20 1.75 0.25 0.35 Fair
Inconel "X" 73 15 7 2.50 0.75 Fair
Ni-Span-C 42 5.25 49 2.00 0.50 Fair

Joints with long laps, and joints which will be cone! as well as other nickel base alloys (see
inaccessible for cleaning after soldering, should Chapter 3 for a more thorough discussion of
be precoated prior to assembly. Precoating is fluxes).
generally accomplished using the same alloy to
be employed for soldering. The parts may be
dipped in the molten solder or the surfaces may JOINT TYPES
be heated, fluxed, and the solder flowed on. Ex-
cess solder may be removed by wiping or brush- The low strength of soldered joints is apparent
ing the joint. High-nickel, alloys may also be when compared to base metals, such as the
precoated by tin plating or hot tin dipping. high-nickel alloys which have relatively high
strength. Therefore, the precautions outlined in
Chapter 4 concerning joint design are of the ut-
EQUIPMENT, PROCESSES, AND most importance when dealing with nickel base
PROCEDURES alloys. The strength of the joint should never
depend on the solder alone. Lock seaming, rivet-
The equipment, processes, and procedures listed ing, spot welding, bolting, or other means should
in Chapter 6 may be used for soldering nickel and be employed to carry the structural load, whereas
the high-nickel alloys. Some minor differences in the solder is employed only to seal the joint.
procedure may be required because of the lower
thermal conductivity of these alloys.
POST TREATMENT

Because corrosive fluxes are required for solder-

FLUXES
ing the high-nickel alloys, it is necessary to
thoroughly remove the residue after soldering.
Generally, rosin fluxes are not active enough to
This subject is dealt with in Chapter 7.
be used on the high-nickel alloys. A chloride flux
is desirable for soldering nickel or the nickel-
copper alloys, such as Monel. Fluxes containing TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
hydrochloric acid are required for the
chromium-containing alloys, such as Inconel. Illustrations of solder fabrications of nickel al-
Many of the proprietary fluxes used for solder- loys are the transistors shown in Figs. 13. 1 and
ing stainless steel are satisfactory for use on In- 13.2.
 Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys/81

Fig. 13.2-Several transistors soldered on

printed wiring board

Fig. 13.1-Transistor having nickel alloy leads

 CHAPTER14

LEAD AND LEAD

ALLOYS

INTRODUCTION SOLDERS

Lead and lead alloys are easily soldered when Wiping is a technique unique to lead soldering
proper care is taken not to melt the relatively low and requires special solders to yield a smooth,
melting temperature base metal. Lead pipe and gas tight joint (see Fig. 14.1). Wiping solder for
sheet are widely used in the pumbing, architec- lead contains between 30 and 40% tin, up to 2%
tural, and chemical construction fields. Power antimony, and the balance lead. These solders are
and telephone transmission lines use lead as a solid up to approximately 182° C (360" F) and
cable sheathing material. Soldered joints in lead, completely liquid at approximately 238° C
however, are generally confined to the plumbing (460" F) providing a pasty or working range of
field, some architectural uses, and joining lead approximately 56° C (I 00" F). Solder containing
sheathed cables. The use of soldered lead joints 34.5% tin, 1.25% antimony, 0.11% arsenic, bal-
in the chemical construction field, or where ance lead, is widely used in cable joining. A 50%
highly corrosive chemicals are confined or trans- tin-50% lead solder is widely used for joining
ported, is not generally recommended. Joints lead sheet.
should be welded for such applications.
SURFACE PREPARATION

PROBLEMS IN SOLDERING LEAD The areas that are to be joined should be

thoroughly cleaned by wire brushing or shaving.
Pure lead melts at 327" C (621° F) and certain of Tallow or stearic acid flux should then be applied
the antimonial-lead alloys start to melt at 232° C promptly to prevent reoxidation of the cleaned
(450° F). Solders for joining these metals should areas. A very thin flat film is advisable, so that it
be chosen so that they can be worked without will not spread out beyond the area of the joint
melting the base metal. Careful preparation of the upon application of heat.
areas to be soldered and close tolerances on the Excessive use of the cleaning tools should be
joints .will alleviate most of the problems con- avoided. Their overuse may cause fatigue fail-
nected with soldering lead. However, its rela- ures due to chatter and thinning of the lead near
tively low tensile strength (11 to 28 MPa), with the critical section of the joint. Gummed paper
elongations from 25 to 60o/o and Brinell hardness strips and plumber's soil are often useful to limit
of 4.5 to 10.0, should be carefully considered in the flow of solder beyond the area of the joint and
designing a joint in lead and lead alloys. to help form and build a bead at the joint.

83
84/SOLDERING MANUAL

Fig. 14.1a -Wiping solder is poured on the joint

 Lead and Lead Alloys/85

Fig. 14.1b -Wiping begins

86/ SOLDERING MANUAL

Fig. 14.1c -Wiping near completion

 Lead and Lead Alloys/87
HEATING METHODS the two lower surfaces in contact in the lock (see
Chapter 4 for illustrations of joints).
The low melting point of lead and its alloys limits Butt Joints
the choice of heating methods. Soldering irons
are usually used for soldering sheet lead joints. Butt joints are the least desirable type for join-
When joints are wiped, the heat for soldering is ing lead sheets. Their use should be confined to
supplied by the molten solder poured over the those situations where it is impractical to use
parts until the base metal is wetted, and the bulk other joint designs.
of the solder is in a pasty, workable condition. The abutting edges of the lead sheets are bev-
eled with a shave hook so that they make an angle
of 45 deg or more with the vertical. The edges to
FLUXES be joined are placed firmly together and tacked at
intervals of 100 to 150 mm ( =4 to 6 in.). Gum-
The soldering of lead and its alloys can be ac- med paper strips pasted parallel to the seam and 6
complished without the use of the corrosive to 10 mm ( 1/4 to 3/8 in.) away aid in building up
fluxes. Tallow and rosin fluxes are generally the solder and reflowing it in the finishing opera-
used. tion. Additional flux, as described in the lap joint
section, is advisable.
Solder is fed into the joint and melted by the
JOINT TYPES soldering iron as it is drawn along the seam.
Sufficient solder should be applied to build up a
slightly convex surface.
Lap Joints
Lap joints are more satisfactory than butt joints
Pipe Joints
and should be made with a minimum lap of 10
mm (3/8 in.) for sheet lead up to and including 3 Preparation of the joint is as important to suc-
mm ( 1/8 in.) thick (3.5 kg [8lb.]). The contacting cessful results as the actual soldering. The joint is
areas of the two sheets that form the lap should be made in a bell and spigot manner with the flared
cleaned and fluxed with tallow. The cleaned and end made in the pipe into which the water or
fluxed area of the bottom sheet should extend 3 liquid will flow. The inlet or spigot end is beveled
mm (l/8 in.) beyond the leading edge of the lap. to fit snugly into the flared end.
The edge and upper side of the top sheet, to a The area.encompassing the entire wiped joint
distance of approximately 10 mm (3/8 in.), is lightly shaved clean as is the contacting area
should also be cleaned and fluxed. The sheets are within the joint. A thin coat of tallow is then
then fitted together and dressed down with a applied. The area beyond the joint on both sides is
wooden or rubber mallet to fit snugly. They are then coated with plumber's soil or paper to pre-
then tacked at intervals with solder. vent the solder adhering at these points. The joint
The application of additional flux is often ad- is assembled, the flare end is dressed down
visable. Flux may be applied by using rosin cored tightly (swaged with a wooden tool), and the
or stearine cored wire solder. When bar solder is entire assembly is braced so that it will not move
used, stearine or powdered rosin may be applied during the subsequent soldering operation.
to the joint. In horizontal pipe, the joint is then wiped by
Soldering is usually done with an iron and 50'k slowly pouring solder at the proper temperature
tin-50% lead solder. (approximately 315° C [ =600° F)) on top of the
joint while the operator manually directs and
Lock Joints holds the solder. For this purpose he uses a
Lock joints provide considerably more tallow coated cloth and wipes or forms the joint
strength and are preferred whenever the joints are while the solder is in its pasty stage. When com-
to be in tension. They are made in much the same pleted, the joint should be chilled.
manner as lap joints, using locks of 15 mm ( = 1/2 In vertical pipe, joints are prepared and wiped
in.) or more. The solder should flow in between in much the same manner except that the solder is
88/SOLDERING MANUAL
applied around the pipe at the top of the joint and additional thin coating of flux is applied. Gum-
the cloth held directly under the ladle at the bot- med paper or plumber's soil is applied to prevent
tom of the joint. The ladling or splashing on of the adherence of solder at points beyond the joints.
solder is continued around the joint. The joints are then wiped in a manner similar to
Branch joints in lead pipe are made by cutting a that used for lead pipe.
small oval shaped hole in the main line and draw- As a precaution against porosity of wiped
ing up sufficient lead to form a collar or hub into joints .in cable sheathing, the use of a sealing
which the beveled branch line is fitted sungly. solder melting at approximately 95° C ( =200° F)
Preparation and wiping are essentially the same is recommended. The sealing solder, in the form
as previously described. of a thin stick, is applied .over the entire joint as
Cup joints are similar to bell and spigot joints soon as possible after the wiped solder has sol-
except that the flared end is not dressed down, idified. The residual heat melts the sealing solder
and a soldering iron is used rather than wiping. which is then smoothed out over the joint with the
These joints can only be made in the vertical wiping cloth. One sealing solder contains 52.5%
position although they can be used in any posi- bismuth, 32% lead, and 15.5% tin.
tion. Preparation of the joint includes beveling of
the inlet or spigot end, flaring the bell, cleaning
and fluxing with tallow only those areas that are
to become a part of the joint. Plumber's soil or SOLDERING OF LEAD ALLOYS
paper should be applied beyond these points. The
pipes are then fitted together and spot soldered.
With a sharp pointed iron, solder is then flowed The soldering of lead alloys, with the possible
around until the joint is filled about half way. The exception of two per cent or higher antimonial
rest of the cup is filled with solder using a blunted lead, can be performed in the same manner as
iron. described for lead itself. Ornamental castings of
two per cent or higher antimonial lead alloy are
Cable Joints also frequently soldered. These alloys have a
Joints in lead sheathed cable, because of the solidus temperature under 315° C ( =600° F) and,
increased bulk of the spliced conductors, are of as a result, the temperature factor is more critical.
greater diameter than the cable itself and require Therefore, in soldering, it is necessary to use
the use of a lead sleeve encompassing the joint extreme care to avoid melting the base metal.
area.
A lead sleeve of the proper diameter is first
selected to contain the spliced conductors and SOLDERING LEAD TO OTHER
have sufficient length to overhang the lead shea- METALS
thing several inches on both sides of the joint.
The inside of both ends of the sleeve are then
scraped clean back approximately 25 mm (1 in.) All metals that can be precoated can be joined to
and are immediately fluxed with tallow or stearic lead pipe or sheet by means of the wiping cloth,
acid. The outside of the s!eeving, back approxi- torch or soldering iron. The precoating should be
mately 50 to 75 mm ( =2 to 3 in.) depending on confined to those areas of the other metal that are
the diameter, is also scraped clean and fluxed and to become an integral part of the joint. The lead
the sleeve placed around either end of the cable. should be prepared just as described for joining
Sp !icing of the conductors is then completed. lead to lead.
The areas on the cable sheathing that are to
become part of each joint are scraped clean and
fluxed. The sleeve is then centrally located over POST SOLDERING TREATMENT
the joint and both ends are dressed or drawn down
with a wooden tool until they fit snugly against Ordinarily, no post soldering treatment is re-
the cleaned and fluxed areas of the sheathing. An quired.
 Lead and Lead Alloys/89
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS soldering iron, are also used to join lead pipe to
copper fittings for connecting the lead piping to
piping made from other metals. Lead sheathed
Soldered lead pipe is used to convey water un- cables for telephone, telegraph, and electrical
derground from the water main to the consumer's power transmission also use solder extensively.
property line and also serves a multitude of pur- Sheet lead for waterproofing, such as shower
poses in the plumbing, drainage, and venting sys- pans and safe pans, also utilize soldering for
tem. Joints, made either by wiping or with a making joints.
CHAPTER15

ALUMINUM AND
ALUMINUM ALLOYS

INTRODUCTION This in tum means that greater care must be taken

in heating, especially in heating complicated as-
The soldering of aluminum differs from the sol- semblies. Since the coefficient of linear thermal
dering of copper, brass, steel, and most other expansion is greater for aluminum than for most
common metals in several ways. Perhaps the other common materials, greater distortion can
most important difference is that aluminum be expected in aluminum assemblies than in
forms a more tenacious and refractory oxide, comparable assemblies of copper and steel. The
which in most cases necessitates the use of active coefficient of expansion of some aluminum al-
fluxes that are specifically designed for loys is found in Table 4.1
aluminum. Noncorrosive fluxes cannot be used. The oxide film that forms on aluminum and
A second difference is that special techniques are aluminum alloys is tenacious and chemically
required to produce flow into certain types of resistant; corrosive fluxes or special soldering
joints. A third important difference is that the techniques must be used to remove this oxide.
corrosion resistance of soldered aluminum joints Because most of the fluxes used on aluminum
is much more dependent upon the composition of contain fluoride, the usual precautions should be
the solder than it is for similar joints in copper, taken (see Chapter 21 for safety in handling). To
brass, or steel. minimize corrosion, scrupulous flux residue
Because of these differences, the soldering of removal is also mandatory for most applications.
aluminum is not as well understood, and it has not The use of solders containing a high
been as extensively used as soldering of other percentage of zinc is usually recommended. The
metals. tin-lead solders are not recommended because
the resulting joints have poor corrosion
resistance. Lead-bismuth solders provide greatly
improved corrosion resistance over the tin-lead
PROBLEMS IN SOLDERING
solders.
ALUMINUM The corrosion resistance of soldered aluminum
joints may depend upon the choice of ·solder,
The difference between the melting point of the degree of flux residue removal, and the environ-
aluminum alloys and the liquidus temperature of ment to which the joint is exposed. Soldered
some solders can be as low as approximately joints made with tin-lead or other tin-bearing,
260° C( 4 70° F). This is substantially less than the low melting temperature solders must be pro-
780° C (1400° F) differential for soldered copper. tected by a suitable protective coating in any but

91
92/SOLDERING MANUAL
dry indoor environment. Unprotected assemblies ally soldered using ultrasonic or mechanical ab-
joined with zinc base solders, on the other hand, rasion techniques for oxide removal.
exhibit long service life even in marine exposure. Aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys (6061-
In most cases corrosion is accelerated by the 6063 series) are less susceptible to intergranular
presence of electrolytes. It is important, there- penetration than the binary aluminum-
fore, that the residues of salt type fluxes be com- magnesium alloys and more solderable than the
pletely removed after soldering. binary aluminum-silicon alloys.
The aluminum alloys that have copper (2XXX
series) and zinc (7XXX series) as the major alloy-
SELECTION OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS ing elements are generally complex, high
strength, heat-treatable alloys containing
FOR SOLDERING
appreciable quantities of other elements. During
heat treatment films that hinder soldering form on
While aluminum and all the aluminum alloys can
these alloys, and chemical surface pretreatment
be soldered, alloying elements influence the sol-
is usually necessary to remove such films before
derability, as shown in Table 15.1. The commonly
soldering. Since most of these alloys are subject
soldered aluminum alloys are 1060, 1100, 1145,
to intergranular penetration by solder, they are
3003, 5005, 6061, 7072, and 8112.
not generally soldered.
Aluminum alloys containing 0.5% or more
Aluminum castings are generally alloys con-
magnesium suffer intergranular penetration by
taining substantial quantities of copper, silicon,
molten tin solders. Zinc will also penetrate the
magnesium, or zinc. As a group, they have poor
aluminum-magnesium alloys intergranularly, but
the extent of penetration is usually not significant solderability by virtue of their composition. In
addition, castings are likely to exhibit surface
until the magnesium content of the base metal
conditions that are detrimental to soldering.
exceeds 0.7%. The intergranular penetration by
molten solder ~f aluminum-magnesium alloys is
aggravated if the part is prestressed by cold work-
ing, but this can be signjficantly reduced if the SOLDERS
assembly is stress relieved by heating the part to
370° C (700° F) before soldering. If the solder Solders for aluminum can be grouped conven-
being used is 95% zinc-5% aluminum, which has iently into low temperature, intermediate tem-
a melting temperature of 382° C (720° F), the part perature,and high temperature solders. Low
will be stress relieved before the molten solder temperature solders for aluminum, which melt
will actually contact the surface of the aluminum. below approximately 260° C (500° F), are com-
Therefore, a stress relief treatment will not be posed primarily of low melting temperature met-
required in this case. The addition of 4% or more als such as tin, lead, cadmium; and bismuth.
aluminum to a solder also tends to reduce the They may also contain higher melting tempera-
extent of intergranular penetration or general dis- ture metals such as zinc, aluminum, copper,
solution of all aluminum alloys. nickel, and silver. Intermediate temperature sol-
The addition of up to 1% magnesium to ders, which melt between 260° C (500° F) and
aluminum does not significantly reduce the effec- 370° C ( "'=700° F), contain appreciable amounts
tiveness of the flux in preparing the surface of the of both lower melting and higher melting temper-
aluminum alloy for soldering. However, in gen- ature metals. High temperature solders, which
eral, the surface of alloys containing greater than melt between 380° C ("'=720° F) and 425° C
1% magnesium cannot be satisfactorily soldered ("'=800° F), have zinc as the major constituent,
using chemical fluxes, and alloys containing along with small amounts of high melting tem-
greater than 1.5% magnesium are difficult to perature metals, such as aluminum,copper, nick-
solder using reaction fluxes. el, and silver. The properties of a number of
The addition of silicon to aluminum (4XXX typical solders for aluminum are discussed in
series) also reduces the effectiveness of fluxes. Chapter 2.
Alloys containing 5% or more silicon are gener- *See Chapter 21 on Safety
 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys/93
Low temperature solders for aluminum are general, assemblies made with low temperature
generally tin-zinc alloys in which tin is present in solders have poorer corrosion resistance than as-
the larger amount. Lead-bismuth solders are also semblies made with high temperature solders and
used to solder aluminum at low temperatures. should not be used in corrosive environments
One low temperature solder is the tin-zinc eutec- unless some protective coating is applied to the
tic containing 91% tin and 9% zinc. Another solder joints.
solder contains 78.5% lead, 18.5% bismuth and Intermediate temperature solders are usually
3% silver. These alloys melt at about 205° C either tin-zinc or cadmium-zinc alloys containing
( =400° F), wet aluminum readily, flow easily, from 30 to 90% zinc. They may also contain other
and have high resistance to corrosion. Tin-lead metals, such as lead, bismuth, silver, nickel,
solders, in general, form a highly anodic interface copper, and aluminum. Among the more com-
between the aluminum and solder and have poor mon of these solders are the 70% tin-30% zinc,
corrosion resistance. Although the tin-lead sol- 70% zinc-30% tin, and 60% zinc-40% cadmium
ders are not recommended for aluminum, the solders. Because of their higher zinc content,
addition of even a few percent zinc or cadmium to these intermediate temperature solders generally
such solders improves both their soldering wet aluminum more readily, form larger fillets,
characteristics and their resistance to corrosion. and give stronger and more corrosion resistant
The lead-bismuth solders exhibit the best corro- joints than the low temperature solders.
sion resistance of the low temperature solders. In

Table 15.1-Solderability of aluminum alloys

Alloy Typical Recommended
group alloy Solderability flux

lXXX 1060 Good Chemical or reaction

(Commercial 1100 Good Chemical
purity or or reaction
higher)

2XXX 2014 Fair' Reaction

(Al-Cu)

3XXX 3003 Good Chemical

(Al-Mn) or reaction

4XXX 4043 Poor None

(Al-Si)
5XXX 3 5005 Good Chemical or reaction
(Al-Mg or 5050,5154 Fair' Reaction
Al-Mg-Mn) 5456,5083 Poor' Reaction

6XXX 6061 Good' Reaction

(Al-Mg-Si)

7XXX 3 7072 Good Reaction

(Al-Zn) 7075 Poor Reaction

8XXX 3 8112 Good Reaction

(Al-other)

1 Susceptible to intergranular penetration by solder.

2 Solderable only with abrasion or ultrasonic techniques.
3 Solderability greatly affected by composi.tion.
94/SOLDERING MANUAL
The high temperature solders contain 90 to that it is usually impractical to use this type of
100% zinc, along with small amounts of such flux. For this reason the chemical fluxes are gen-
metals as silver, aluminum, copper, and nickel. erally used with the low melting temperature
These additions are made to lower the soldering solders. For best results, the magnesium content
temperature, to obtain a wider melting range, and of the aluminum alloy being soldered should not
to improve wetting of the aluminum. The high exceed 1%, and the silicon content should not
temperature solders are the strongest solders for exceed 5%. In general, it is recommended that
aluminum. They also produce joints which have the flux residue be removed, especially if the
corrosion resistance properties markedly assembly is used in electrical equipment.
superior to those of low and intermediate temper- The reaction fluxes usually contain zinc
ature solders. To assure the best possible corro- chloride, tin chloride, or both, in combination
sion resistance, the high temperature solders with other halides. The metal halides are the
should be as free from lead, tin, cadmium, bis- primary fluxing agents. Other chemical com-
muth, and other low melting metals as is practic- pounds, such as ammonium chloride and metal
able. High purity zinc (99. 99% at least) should be fluorides, are added to improve fluidity, reduce
used in the preparation of these solders. the melting point, improve the wetting charac-
All solders for aluminum can be prepared in teristics, and provide a flux cover that prevents
either cast or wrought forms. The wrought forms reoxidation of the cleaned surface.
of low and intermediate temperature solders These fluxes penetrate the oxide film, allowing
should not contain aluminum because it embrit- the flux to contact the underlying aluminum. At
tles them and makes them difficult to extrude the reaction temperature of 315-382° C (600-720°
without cracking. F), the metal chloride is reduced by aluminum to
form the metal (tin or zinc) and gaseous
aluminum chloride. The rapid formation of
FLUXES aluminum chloride breaks up the oxide film, and
the freshly deposited film of zinc or tin facilitates
Fluxes for soldering aluminum may be divided wetting by the solder. No significant fluxing oc-
into two general classes: the chemical and the curs below the reaction temperature of the flux,
reaction fluxes. Both types are corrosive. and solder will not flow below this temperature
The chemical fluxes are composed of a boron even though it may be above its liquidus tempera-
trifluoride-organic addition compound such as ture. Fluxes containing tin chloride generally
boron trifluoride-monoethanolamine, a flux ve- react at approximately 315-340° C ( =600-640° F)
hicle such as methyl alcohol, a heavy metal and are used primarily with tin-zinc solders of
fluoborate such as cadmium fluoborate, and a similar melting characteristics. The zinc chloride
plasticizer such as stearic acid. They may or may base fluxes, which react at approximately 340-
not contain other modifiers such as zinc flouride, 3800 C ( =640-720° F), are used with pure zinc
zinc chloride, and ammonia compounds. The and other zinc base, high melting temperature
chemical flux compositions originally proposed solders. Fluxes containing tin chloride should not
did not contain chlorides, but some subsequent be used with the high melting temperature sol-
commercial formulations have incorporated ders, since the presence of tin in the soldered joint
metallic chlorides to act as accelerators. can seriously reduce i.ts corrosion resistance.
Chemical fluxes are most often used where the
soldering temperature (actual temperature meas-
ured at the joint) is less than 27 5° C ( = 525° F). JOINT DESIGN
However, in some applications the maximum
temperature can be raised successfully to 325° C The joint design used in a soldered assembly
(=620° F). At temperatures in excess of275°C determines to some extent the strength, corrosion
(=525° F), the chemical fluxes tend to decom- resistance, and ease of fabrication of the assem-
pose, and at temperatures in excess of 325° C bly. The designs used for soldered aluminum
( =620° F), the rate of decomposition is so rapid assemblies are basically similar to those used
 Aluminum and Aluminum Al/oys/95

with other metals. The most commonly used de- Some solders in rod form, called abrasion sol-
signs are lap, lock seam, and T type joints. Joint ders, have melting characteristics that enable
clearances will vary with the soldering method, them to perform as both the solder and the abra-
base metal composition, solder composition, sion tool. The aluminum surfaces are heated by a
joint design, and flux composition. However, as torch or other method until they will melt the
a guide, clearances of from 0.15 to 0.40 mm end of the solder stick. The stick breaks the oxide
(=0.005 to 0.015 in.) are maintained when a and allows the solder to flow beneath it and
chemical flux is used and from 0.05 to 0.25 mm loosen it. The oxide can then be brushed aside
(=0.002 to 0.010 in.) when a reaction flux is with the solder stick exposing the surface wet
used (for further information on joint design, see with solder. Additional solder may now be
Chapter 4). applied to surfaces wet in the manner described to
form a strong, stable joint. The process cannot be
applied to close-fitting joints where capillary
SURFACE PREPARATION flow is necessary. Ultrasonic soldering is another
method of obtaining a solder coated aluminum
surface.
A prerequisite for soldering aluminum is careful
surface preparation. Surface preparation treat-
ments designed to remove lubricant, dirt, and
oxide from the surface of aluminum prior to sol- FLUXLESS SOLDERING
dering are described in Chapter 5. The use of
strong caustic cleaners should be avoided be- There are a number of methods by which
cause they attack aluminum rapidly. aluminum can be fluxlessly soldered to itself, to
When fluxes formulated specifically for sol- copper, or to steel. These methods are primarily
dering aluminum are used, no further surface used on tubular components. The methods may
preparation is necessary. There are a number of be broken down into either coated or bare types.
surface preparation techniques, however, that are In the coated methods, the parts may be pre-
often used to facilitate soldering with ordinary pared by electroplating, abrasion, or in an ul-
fluxes. Other techniques make possible fluxless trasonic solder pot. The components are designed
soldering of aluminum. These surface prepara- to include an interference (0.25 to 0.65 mm
tion methods can be divided conveniently into [ =0.010 to 0.025 in.] on the diameter) prior to
three groups: electroplating, solder coating, and coating. After coating the parts are preheated to
cladding. solder melting temperature and pressed or
Electroplating aluminum with a metal, such as twisted slightly together. The joint may be either
copper or nickel, produces a surface that can be a straight or tapered design, but tapered is prefer-
soldered in the same manner as copper or nickel. red when only one component is coated.
The deposition of copper is generally preceded Ultrasonically coating the components is bet-
by a zincate or stannate treatment in which ter suited for production applications than is ab-
aluminum oxide is removed from the surface and rasion soldering with a solder stick. In this
zinc or tin is deposited by galvanic displacement. method the degreased parts are heated, crazing
Solder coatings can be applied to aluminum by the oxide and permitting the agitation of the sol-
mechanically abrading the surfaces in the pre- der pot to remove the oxide and deposit a coating
sence of molten solder. The solder wets and of solder on the metal surface. One or both com-
bonds with the aluminum as the oxide is re- ponents may be coated; however, if only one
moved. Among the best abrasion tools are fiber member is coated, then the greater interference
glass brushes, fine-strand stainless steel brushes, 0.65 mm ( =0.025 in.) is suggested.
and stainless steel wool. Ordinary carbon steel For multiple joints such as air conditioning
brushes should be avoided because strands that condenser or evaporator coils, two ultrasonic
are lost from the brush into the solder will accel- processes can be employed, one requiring pretin-
erate corrosion. nin!! of the return bends. the other not reauiring:
96/SCLDERING MANUAL
pretinning. In the first case, a tapered joint is HEATING METHODS
suggested to facilitate alignment and insertion of
the return bends. The return bends only are The heating methods described in Chapter 6 are
coated, inserted into the coil, heated, then pressed applicable to aluminum assemblies. At solder-
with a pressing platen into the joint at the proper ing temperature, aluminum is much closer to its
temperature. The units being free of any flux melting point than other commonly soldered
contaminant residuals are then ready for testing. metals. Greater care must be taken, therefore,
In the second case, the immersion approach, nib- to provide uniform, well controlled heating.
bed return bends are forced into the coil bells, the Long, unsupported spans should be avoided to
unit is preheated in the inverted position, and prevent excessive sag. In torch or iron soldering,
immersed in the ultrasonic solder pot. The return the heat source should be applied away from the
bends are nibbed to permit passage of heated air joint area to avoid overheating the flux. Because
out of the joint area so solder can fill the joint. aluminum is soluble in most solders, especially
The unit is then withdrawn and ready for testing. those that contain large quantities of zinc and
The bare fluxless soldering methods also tin, excessive alloying may occur unless heat-
utilize ultrasonic soldering equipment. In single- ing is discontinued as soon as the part has been
joint applications,the one member is belled with soldered.
approximately 1.5 mm ( =0.060 in.) diameter
clearance and a solder ring placed at the joint. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
The joint area is then heated to solder melting
temperature and subjected to ultrasonics via a Tube-fin construction, light bulb bases, and cel-
small hand gun. The bottom of the joint must be lular products are some of the assemblies that
relatively tight fitting lest the solder flow through have been soldered. In addition, motor and trans-
the joint and restrict the tube passageway. For former windings can be added to the list of appli-
dissimilar joints the steel or copper member cations. Heat exchanger coils for air conditioners
should be precoated as previously described represent a large application of the aluminum
under coated methods. soldering process. The soldering of copper tubing
The solder used for flux less soldering is gener- to aluminum ceiling panels is another large-scale
ally 95 zinc-5 aluminum. This solder has excel- application.
lent strength and corrosion resistance. Replenish- With improvements in the design and man-
ing the pot is frequently done with commercially ufacture of ultrasonic soldering pots, it is now
pure zinc since some aluminum will be dissolved possible to perform soldering operations with the
from the component parts during the coating or high temperature (95% zinc-5% aluminum) sol-
soldering operation. ders at 425°C (800° F). This method is particu-
larly applicable to the soldering of return bends to
heat exchanger coils.
CHAPTER 16

MAGNESIUM AND
MAGNESIUM
ALLOYS

INTRODUCTION ting characteristics toward magnesium is a

prime necessity. Precoating by the friction
Magnesium tends to form a highly refractory method is accomplished by rubbing the surface
oxide film when heated in air. This oxide film with the solder stick, soldering iron, or some
must be removed or disrupted to allow the solder other tool to abrade and break up the oxide film
to bond to the magnesium. Because no satisfac- under the molten solder. Pure tin and tin-zinc
tory flux has as yet been developed to remove this solders containing 70 to 90% tin possess the best
oxide film, bare magnesium surfaces are soldered wetting characteristics on magnesium. Once the
by the friction (mechanical abrasion) or ul- surface is precoated, any other solder composi-
trasonic methods (see Chapter 6 for a discussion tion can be used to complete the job.
of ultrasonic soldering). All magnesium alloys
can be soldered in this manner, but such soldering
is usually confined to the filling or repair of sur- SOLDER COMPOSITION
face imperfections in magnesium printing plates
and in noncritical areas of magnesium sheets and Solders based on tin, zinc, and cadmium,* as
castings. Soldering is not recommended if the listed in Table 16.1, are most generally used on
soldered area is required to withstand significant magnesium. Solders that contain lead, such as the
stress because the soldered joint is of low strength standard 50% tin-50% lead solder, can be used
and low ductility. but they cause severe galvanic attack in the pres-
The difficulties associated with soldering bare
ence of moisture. The tin-zinc solders generally
magnesium surfaces are overcome by application have lower melting points and better wetting
of a coating of an easily solderable metal such as characteristics than the tin-zinc-cadmium solders
copper, tin, zinc, or silver. but form less ductile joints. The high-cadmium
solders, especially the 60% cadmium-30%
zinc-10% tin solder, form the strongest and most
SOLDERING TECHNIQUES ductile joints.
The most widely used soldering practice for
Since only the friction or ultrasonic soldering bare magnesium consists of precoating the joint
methods can be used on bare magnesium, careful
precleaning of the surface, followed by precoat-
ing with a solder composition having good wet- • See Chapter 21 on Safety

97
98/SOLDERING MANUAL

Table 16.1-Solders for magnesium

Temperature
Composition (%) Solidus Liquidus Use
oc OF oc OF
60Cd-30Zn-10Sn 157 315 288 550 Low temperature-below 1SOO C
90Cd-10Zn 265 509 299 570 High temperature-above 1500 C
72Sn-28Cd 177 350 243 470 Low temperature-below 150° C
91Sn-9Zn 199 390 199 390 High temperature-above 150° C
60Sn-40Zn 199 390 341 645 High temperature-above 150° C
70Sn-30Zn 199 390 311 592 Precoating solder
50Sn-50Pb 183 361 211 421 Filler solder on precoated surface
80Sn-20Zn 199 390 270 518 Precoating solder
40Sn-33Cd-27Zn Filler solder

area with 70% tin-30% zinc solder and following the tip contacting the underside of the area to be
with the 60% cadmium-30% zinc-10% tin solder soldered. A gas flame or torch can also be used to
to maximize strength. In the repair of photoen- gently heat the surface from the top to bottom. An
graving plates, the standard 50% tin-50% lead electric hot plate used either with or without a
solder instead of the cadmium base solder is soldering iron is also a very effective heating
applied over the precoated surface even though method, and heat is more easily maintained.*
susceptibility to corrosion is greater. For this
application, however, the workability of the sol-
der outweighs this consideration, especially FLUXES
since the normal use and storage of engraved
plates is wnder low or c,ontrolled humidity condi- Flux is not used in soldering bare magnesium
tions not conducive to corrosion. surfaces because no suitable flux has as yet been
developed. None of the fluxes described in Chap-
ter 3 is applicable.
SURFACE PREPARATION

Surfaces to be soldered should be mechanically JOINT TYPES

cleaned to a bright metallic lustre immediately
before soldering. This may be accomplished by The joints used in the fluxless soldering of bare
mechanically abrading with a stiff wire brush, magnesium are limited to the fillet and defect
stainless steel wool, file, aluminum oxide abra- filling types due to the absence of capillary flow.
sive cloth, or with a routing tool. Lap joints are used only to a limited extent. Joints
on plated magnesium can be the same as nor-
mally used if the plated metal were the base
HEATING METHODS metal.

Conventional heating methods can be used satis- POST SOLDERING TREATMENT

factorily on magnesium. However, because of its
high heat conductivity, irons of adequate heat No special post soldering treatments are required
output - a 350 watt iron for thicknesses up to for magnesium. However, unprotected soldered
nominal 1.5 mm (0.064 in.) and a 550 watt iron joints should be avoided on bare magnesium be-
for heavier thicknesses -are required. The heat- cause the marked difference in solution potential
ing may be accomplished with the hot tip directly
in contact with the surface to be soldered or with *See Chapter 21 on Safety, Hazards from Fumes
 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys/99

between the magnesium and the solder can lead use on magnesium electronic parts because it
to severe galvanic attack in the presence of an provides excellent protective value and ease in
electrolyte. Therefore, it is common practice to soldering. Soldering of electroplated magnesium
apply a suitable protective coating to soldered is then carried out the same as if the entire part
magnesium assemblies to prolong their life and were made of the electroplated metal.
serviceability.

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
SOLDERING PLATED MAGNESIUM
Soldering is used primarily for the repair of
Electroplated coatings of copper, tin, or silver magnesium printing plates and for filling surface
applied to magnesium offer an excellent solder- defects in noncritical areas of wrought and cast
ing base. Fused tin coatings obtained by immers- magnesium products. Significant amounts of
ing thin tin electrodeposits (0.1-0. 15 mm magnesium are also electroplated with copper or
[ =0.003-0.005 in.]) in a hot oil bath also offer an tin for easier soldering and hermetically sealing
excellent solder base. This coating is in common electronic equipment cans and covers.
CHAPTER17

TIN AND TIN

ALLOYS

Tin is a metal with low strength properties and is 183°C (362° F) are also used as solders in joining
usually alloyed with other metals to provide tin and tin alloys, although other considerations
materials of adequate structural strength. may limit their use.
Wrought tin materials which are soldered include
sheet for lining tanks, foil, and pipe for convey-
ing pharmaceuticals, beer, and carbonated bever- SURFACE PREPARATION
ages. Tin alloys used in making modern pewter,
condensers, and some organ pipes are also sol- Tin and tin alloys seldom need any surface prep-
dered. aration other than degreasing treatments. How-
ever, light abrasion of the surfaces to be joined is
sometimes helpful in providing fresh surfaces for
PROBLEMS IN SOLDERING TIN soldering.

When tin or tin alloys are soldered, careful con-

trol of the heating method is necessary to avoid HEATING METHODS
melting areas which are not at the joint. Only
solders having a liquidus temperature below Since tin and tin alloys have a low melting point,
232°C (450"F), the melting point of tin, are rec- the heat source used during the joining process
ommended. should be well controlled. A torch with a small
pointed flame will provide a localized source of
heat which should be applied only a short time. In
SOLDERS adjusting gas heated torches, the tip and gas mix-
ture should be adjusted so that the flame does not
The 63% tin-37% lead eutectic solder or the 60% deposit unburned carbon (soot) on the surfaces to
tin-40% lead solder have been used satisfactorily be soldered, since this will prevent the flow of
on tin and pewter. These solders melt at about solder to the joint interface.
50" C (90" F) below the melting point of tin, and A mouth-held blowpipe is often helpful for
the color match with tin is good. Fusible alloys directing the gas flame to joint surfaces. Electric
(see Chapter 2) with liquidus temperatures below soldering irons are used as heat sources for sol-

101
 102/SOLDERING MANUAL

Fig. 17.1-Torch soldering pewter beer mug handle

dering tin, but care must be exercised to avoid fluxes may also be used. Usually no flux is re-
overheating or melting the metal adjacent to the quired when the 50o/c tin-50% indium fusible
joint surfaces. alloy is used on clean tin surfaces.

FLUXES JOINT TYPES

Tin and tin alloys have a thin natural oxide film The lap joint with a minimum lap of 10 mm
which may be removed with plain rosin or rosin (3/8 in.) is the preferred type of joint for solder-
base fluxes. Stearine or mildly activated rosin ing sheet tin with thicknesses up to and including
 Tin and Tin Alloys/ 103
3 mm (1/8 in.). An interlocking type of joint ders of the same composition as the pewterware
affords greater strength and is used in lighter gage being joined are used, but there is considerable
sheet. Butt joints are used to join abutting edges risk of melting the base metal if proper heating is
of beveled sheet or where there are broad surfaces not maintained . Often a dam of molding clay or
(i.e., attachment of precast handles, feet, hinges, solder resist is necessary to prevent the spread of
etc. on pewterwares). the solder to other parts of the assembly.
Tin pipes are joined using bell and spigot Organ pipes are made by soldering suitably
joints. Steel and brass pipes, lined with tin, are shaped pieces of cast tin alloy sheet (see Fig .
best joined using pipe fittings, which are soldered I 7. 2). The flat rectangular pieces are formed to a
with 50% tin-50% lead solder around the tubular shape on a wooden mandrel and a
periphery of their flanges to provide leak-tight V-shaped seam is made to form the joint inter-
joints. face. Solder is run continuously into the seam at a
uniform rate of about 25 mm/s (I in./s) . The heat
source, usually a soldering iroJl, should be
POST SOLDERING TREATMENTS just hot enough to melt the solder filler metal.
Solidification of the solder should occur within
Rosin base flux residues may be removed with approximately 6 mm ( 1/4 in.) from the soldering
suitable solvents. Additional details are found in iron tip. The joint usually requires two soldering
Chapter?. passes: The first pass places the solder and the
'second pass smooths and completes the seam.

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Figures 17.1 and 17.2 are courtesy of Tin Research
Sheet tin, when used to line portable or high Institute, Inc.
purity water storage tanks, is formed into inter-
locking joints or butt joints with beveled edges.
The joints are filled with pure tin, paying special
care to apply the heat source sparingly. A brush-
ing motion is often helpful in the distribution of
the heat when a gas fired torch is used.
In the manufacture of capacitors which have
frequencies over 2000 Hz, two strips of tin foil
are wound with a paper or mica dielectric en-
closed within the pack. The use of tin foil makes
possible the soldering of connections to terminals
and the soldering together of the foil packs. Tin
foil and noncorrosive rosin base fluxes are used
because the use of corrosive fluxes might cause
the impairment of the insulating properties of the
impregnated paper dielectric and because tin foil
can be easily soldered with the eutectic tin-lead
solder.
Attachments such as feet, hinges, or ornamen-
tals are joined to cast or spun pewterwares by use Fig. 17 .2-Soldering together a mitered joint in
of noncorrosive rosin base fluxes and 60% tin- an organ pipe made of specially shaped cast tin
40% lead solder (see Fig. 17. I). Sometimes sol- sheet
CHAPTER18

CAST IRONS

INTRODUCTION methods. One proprietary electrochemical sur-

face cleaning method produces a surface essen-
In general, cast irons are difficult to solder but tially free of carbon, silicon, sand, and oxides.
with proper surface treament gray, malleable, The process employs a catalyzed molten salt bath
and nodular cast iron may be soldered. White cast operating at 455° to 510° C ( =850° to 950° F).
iron is rarely soldered. Normal soldering temper- Direct current is passed through the bath using
atures do not cause any structural changes or the work as one electrode and the steel tank as the
transformations. other. The direction of current flow is occasion-
ally reversed to produce reducing, oxidizing, and
again, reducing conditions. A water rinse com-
PROBLEMS IN SOLDERING CAST pletes the surface preparation.
IRONS Other methods of cleaning include searing
with an oxidizing flame, grit blasting, and chem-
Graphitic carbon present in cast iron cannot be ical cleaning (see Chapter 5).
wetted by molten solder and may cause in- Small areas of cast iron may be coated with
adequate bonds. The problem is most pro- solder using steel wool dipped into a dry mixture
nounced with gray cast iron. of powdered solder and flux. Preheating the cast-
ing and rubbing with the solder-flux impregnated
steel wool usually is sufficient to clean the sur-
SURFACE PREPARATION face by abrasion and allow the solder to wet the
surface.
Surfaces to be soldered should be free of oil, dirt,
and other extraneous matter. The as-cast surface
is difficult to solder without proper preparation. It HEATING METHODS
is usually desirable to machine or file the surface
of a casting to secure proper fitting and remove Cast iron can be soldered by any of the standard
sand inclusions that interfere with wetting. techniques. Care should be exercised in heating
When the wetting of cast iron becomes a prob- so that localized overheating will not cause the
lem, it is necessary to resort to special cleaning casting to crack.

105
106/SOLDERING MANUAL
FLUXES TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

Corrosive fluxes similar to those used for solder- The majority of the soldering done on cast iron is
ing steel are used. in repairing of broken or worn castings. Surface
cracks and depressions caused by inclusions or
other metal-mold reactions can be filled with
POST SOLDERING TREATMENT solder if the defects are superficial and the appli-
cation is not critical.
Due to the poor heat conductivity of cast iron, it is
necessary to cool the soldered joint uniformly to
prevent tearing of the solder.
CHAPTER19

PRECIOUS METAL
COATINGS AND
FILMS

INTRODUCTION lead solders. Dissolution rates at various temper-

atures for some metals in 60% Sn-40% Pb are
Precious metals such as gold, silver, palladium, shown in Fig. 19. 1. Relatively thin coatings may
platinum,rhodium,and their alloys are frequently be dissolved by molten solder with subsequent
used as coatings on base metals, ceramics, and loss of attachment where the base material is not
glasses where soldered connections are required. wetted by solder. Special solders are employed to
These coatings are primarily employed in elec- overcome this problem. In the case of silver or
tronic applications that utilize semiconductor de- silver alloy coatings, the solder is alloyed with
vices, microcircuits, and miniature discrete sufficient silver to saturate the solder at the sol-
components. The precious metal coatings pro- dering temperature, thereby preventing the dis-
vide solderable surfaces for substrates and inter- solution or scavaging of the silver coating. Alloy-
mediate coatings that are initially difficult to sol- ing of tin-lead solders with gold is not possible
der or that cannot be readily cleaned prior to a without impairing the properties of the solder.
soldering operation. In some cases (thin film cir- Special low temperature solders containing in-
cuits), the precious metal coatings function as dium are used where solder joints to gold coat-
conductive circuit paths. ings are desired.
The thickness of the coating is dependent upon Another problem when soldering to precious
the method of application and the intended use. metal coatings is that brittle intermetallic com-
Typical coating thickness ranges are as follows: pounds may form and produce weak soldered
Evaporated or sputtered joints. These problems are overcome by limiting
films =300 Ato 15 000 A the coating-thickness or by removing the coating
Electrodeposited coatings 0.7 JLm to 7.5 JLm prior to the final soldering operation. Removal of
Fired metal-glass frit films 12 JLm to 50 JLm the coating is frequently accomplished with
molten solder.

PROBLEMS IN SOLDERING
PRECIOUS METALS SOLDERS

Two problems are encountered when solder;ng to Solders that are used for soldering to precious
precious metal coatings. The first is that some metal coatings with their applications are given in
precious metals dissolve rapidly in molten tin- Table 19.1.

107
lOS/SOLDERING MANUAL

?r-----------------------· Thble 19.1-Solders for precious metal coatings

Cu
X Nominal solder
6 COmQOSition {%}
Sn Pb Ag In Zn Bi Coatings used
5 Ag
62 36 2 Silver coatings
Au 53 29 17 0.5 Gold coatings
60 40 Platinum,
palladium,
rhodium
coatings only.
3 95 5 Gold coatings

heating after the application of the paste to a

surface. Normal cleanliness of the coating sur-
face should be maintained.

100 200
Temperature ac HEATING METHOD

Heat for soldering is obtained by all of the

Fig. 19.1-Dissolu~ion rates at various temper- methods of Chapter 6.
atures for a number of metals in 60%tin-40%
lead solder
POST SOLDERING TREATMENT

Removal of rosin flux residues is accomplished

by washing with solvents such as alcohol, chlori-
FLUXES nated hydrocarbons, etc.

Rosin type fluxes are used for these applications

where cleanliness and freedom from corrosive
and conductive residues is a necessity.

REFERENCES
JOINT TYPES
1. Bader, W.G. 1969. Dissolution of Au, Ag,
Pd, Pt, Cu and Ni in a molten tin-lead solder.
The joints used are usually simple lap and butt
Welding journal research supplement, De-
joints.
cember. pp. 551-s to 557-s.
2. Braun, J.D., trans. 1964. A.S.M. quarterly
57,568.
SURFACE PREPARATION 3. Thwaites, C. J. 1973. Some aspects of solder-
ing gold surfaces. Electroplating & metal
Precious metal coatings are applied by plating, finishing, Aug/Sept.
evaporation, or by the use of special pastes in 4. Tin Research Institute. Soft soldering gold
which the volatile binder may be removed by coated surfaces. Publication TRI-431.
CHAPTER20

PRINTED
CIRCUITS

INTRODUCTION electrical path is on one side and the components

are mounted on the other side. More complex
Printed circuitry is comprised of printed wiring circuits, such as computers, utilize double-sided
boards on which separately fabricated compo- circuit patterns. Additional plating or assembly
nents are attached. Component side and solder steps are required to allow the connection of the
side of three typical printed circuit assemblies are circuits through the insulating substrate. These
shown in Fig. 20.1. Printed wiring provides a steps may consist of plating the holes (plated
conductive pattern, usually of copper 0.036 mm through-holes), using eyelets, staking of pins, or
(0.0014 in.) or greater in thickness on one or inserting bus wire at the time the board is assem-
both sides of an insulating substrate. The conduc- bled with components. The extremely complex
tive pattern can be formed by chemical etching, circuits, such as those used for memory applica-
electroplating, or electroless deposition. tions, employ multiple layer boards. These
boards utilize the methods of circuit connection
as described above, but are manufactured with
TYPES OF PRINTED WIRING
both single- and double-sided boards laminated
There are two types of printed wiring boards: together into a single board. Assembling of the
rigid and flexible. Rigid boards are manufactured printed circuit follows a common procedure. The
from the following materials: components are mounted on one side and the
I. Paper impregnated with phenolic resin leads are passed through the insulating material
2. Paper impregnated with epoxy resin to the circuit pattern on the other side ofthe board
3. Fiber glass with epoxy resin where they are soldered by a hand-held soldering
4. Epoxy coated steel. iron or an automatic soldering machine.
Flexible boards are manufactured from the fol- Flexible circuits have their circuit patterns on
lowing materials: or imbedded in the film. The components are
I. Ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid carefully positioned so that flexibility is not af-
2. Polyimide. fected and the leads pass through the film where
The three forms of rigid boards are single side, they are soldered to the exposed areas, or pads, of
double side, and multilayer. Simple products the circuit patterns. Flexible circuits are designed
such as radios, switch controls, and power to meet special requirements such as trimline
supplies use a single-sided circuit pattern; the telephones and connector cables.

109
110/SOLDERING MANUAL

Component side Soldered side

Fig. 20.1-Three typical printed circuit assemblies

PROBLEMS IN SOLDERING bility, empty component holes, slow speed of the

PRINTED WIRING BOARDS conveyor, low solder temperature, and low sol-
dering.iron tip temperature.
The most common problems and their corres- 2. Webbing is solder that adheres to the insu-
ponding causes in soldering printed wiring lated surfaces between the metallic lands. Causes
boards are as follows: of webbing are noncompatible protective coat-
I. lcicling is an excessive amount of solder ing, poor curing of the laminate material, high
that forms a conical shape at freezing and ends in nonmetallics, and contaminants in the solder
a sharp point. Causes of icicling are poor soldera- bath.
 Printed Circuits I I I I
3. Pinholes and blowholes are holes in the pad tuners, and variable resistors; it permits soldering
or land solder formed from gases or oils entrap- when complete cleaning after soldering is not
ped as the solder freezes. Causes are organic practical and when long-life reliability is desired.
contamination, moisture, and plating residues. Organic fluxes are used when the printed circuit
4. Oil entrapment occurs when the soldering assembly is designed with sealed components
oil used in automatic soldering machines is and stand-offs and the total assembly can be
locked in the solder fillet as the solder freezes. thoroughly washed in water. Fluxes may be
Causes are slow conveyor speeds that extend applied by wave, spray, or foam. Refer to
soldering time and low solder temperature. Chapter 6.
5. Bridging is a short circuit which occurs
when two or more land or pad areas are connected
by excessive solder. Poor design, poor alignment JOINT DESIGN
of components, excessive dross, high nonmetal-
lies, and contaminants in the solder may cause Joint and circuit design are critical factors. Com-
bridging. ponent placement and hole size should be as close
in tolerance as mechanically and electrically pos-
SOLDERS sible. The pattern should be designed to run in the
same direction that it travels over the solder wave
machine. Refer to Chapter 4.
Solders used in printed circuit soldering are cho-
sen for their melting and wetting characteristics.
Due to the speed, intricacy of pattern design, and SURFACE PREPARATION
nature of the material used in printed circuits,
high tin solders are used. The eutectic 63% tin- Solderability is the most important factor to
37% lead or near eutectic 60% tin-40% lead sol- maintain in the assembly and soldering of printed
ders are most commonly used in military and circuitry. Items of importance are the land areas
industrial applications. Soldering iron soldering
and pads, the component leads, and the
requires a high-tin alloy of 50-63'7c tin with a
operators' tools, hands, and work habits. If a
medium diameter (I. 0-0.8 mm, 0.040-0.032 in.). solder resist is used, care must be taken to insure
The flux percentage is usually 2.5'/C-3.5% by its complete drying and setting.
weight. Careful attention to printed wiring boards and
component leads prior to and during assembly
will result in a higher percentage of acceptable
FLUXES soldered connections and a much lower rejection
rate. The circuit patterns should be chemically
The principal fluxes used in printed wiring boards cleaned. Mechanical and abrasive cleaners may
are rosin, activated rosin, and organic. Rosin leave unwanted foreign particles or residues
fluxes which consist of water white rosin and a which cannot be removed and will affect soldera-
solvent are extremely mild and are seldom used bility. It is imperative to maintain an oxide-free
in automatic soldering. Rosins modified with a surface by protecting the freshly cleaned copper.
chemical additive to make them mildly active or Rosin base organic coatings are used for short
fully active rosins are most often used in automa- periods of storage. To ensure the solderability for
tic and soldering iron soldering. Additional in- extended periods, hot solder coating or fused
formation on these fluxes may be found in Chap- electroplate provides the best surface. Due to the
ter 3. Activated rosin fluxes are most commonly properties of laminate materials, they must be
used and are considered the safest due to the kept dry. If the moisture is not removed from the
nature of rosin. This characteristic permits sol- laminate, gas evolution may occur, causing
dering of open components such as trimmers, blowholes and pinholes during soldering.
112/SOLDERING MANUAL

METHODS OF SOLDERING PRINTED POST SOLDER CLEANING

WIRING BOARDS
The degree of cleanliness required of a printed
Hand-held soldering irons and soldering wiring board must be determined by the end use
machines are both used in the soldering of printed of the board. Once this is determined, the method
wiring boards. The hand-held soldering iron and cleaner can be established. In general, rosin
yields the best results if a small quantity of and activated rosin fluxes, if they must be re-
printed circuits is being manufactured and if moved, are cleaned by a chemical solvent sys-
labor costs are low. tem. Proprietary solvents throughout the industry
have varying degrees of solvent strength. Testing
REPAIR, REWORK, AND TOUCH-UP of the materials to be cleaned is of prime impor-
tance to provide solvent component compatibil-
There is little that can be done to repair printed ity and the proper degree of cleanliness of the
circuit boards. Minor circuit design correction printed circuit assembly. Organic and inorganic
can be made with copper wire. Land or pad areas flux residues must be removed. The usual method
that have lifted from the laminate cannot be prop- of cleaning is to use a neutralizer, then a detergent
erly repaired. For more details on printed circuit wash, followed by a water rinse, ending in either
board repairs, refer to IPC Manual 700A. an alcohol dip or a circulating hot air dryer.
CHAPTER21

SAFETY AND
HEALTH
PROTECTION

INTRODUCTION welding, brazing, and soldering. Proper clothing

and face protection should be provided.
Soldering is a safe operation when proper prac-
Dip or immersion solder pots may contain sol-
tices and procedures are followed. It is essential
der in amounts varying from a few ounces to
that soldering operators be informed of potential
several tons. At the operating temperature, water
hazards and instructed in how to guard against
introduced below the surface of the solder be-
them. It is recommended that each operation be
comes superheated steam, and its very explosive
studied carefully, preferably by a competent
safety or industrial health engineer, and neces- expansion will cause the molten solder to be
sary precautions taken for the particular job. expelled in all directions. This molten solder will
not only cause burns to operators but may ignite
Where applicable, reference should be made to
the requirements given in the Occupational combustible material. Solder pots, if not properly
Safety and Health Standards (OSHA), part 1910. maintained, can develop leaks or cracks which
The possible sources of injury are heat, fumes, permit the molten solder to flow onto the floor.
chemicals, and electrical hazards. Efficient venti- Solder pots should be covered during each initial
lation of the soldering area, protection of the heating operation.
operators from burns, and training in the han- Parts on which fluxes dissolved in water have
dling,of materials, fluxes,and chemicals will be been used should be immersed in a solder pot
instrumental in making the soldering operation cautiously to provide an opportunity for the ex-
safe. One hazard which cannot be covered by any cess water to evaporate above the surface of the
text, that of personal carelessness, can be com- solder. If the parts are large, it may be more
batted only by constant care and vigilance. desirable to dry the excess water out of the flux
before introducing the parts into the pot. The
configuration of parts should be such that water
HAZARDS FROM HEAT
will not be trapped in pockets where steam can be
AND HEAT SOURCES formed. When fluxes dissolved in alcohol,
Since soldering requires heat, the usual precau- acetone, or toluol are used, care should be taken
tions should be taken for the handling of hot to avoid ignition.
objects to prevent the occurrence of burns to A new pot should be thoroughly dried before
personnel. American National Standard (ANSI) molten solder is introduced. When new solder is
Z49.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting, published added to a heated pot, it should be placed on the
by the American Welding Society, discusses in edge of the pot and allowed to preheat suffi-
detail elements of safety which are common to ciently to drive off any moisture which may be

113
114/SOLDERING MANUAL
present. Solder which has been stored out of Cutting Containers That Have Held Combusti-
doors in winter will have considerable condensa- bles. All tanks and similar containers should be
tion present when brought into the workroom. vented. Entering tanks or confined spaces re-
After the solder is dried, it should be slipped into quires extreme precautions.
the pot slowly to avoid splashing. When electri-
cal immersion heaters are used, they should be of ELECTRICAL HEATING
the proper voltage rating, and the pot should be
thoroughly grounded. Thermostatic control When using resistance heating with carbon
should be employed on solder pots to avoid over- blocks for soldering, the voltage should not ex-
heating. ceed 24 volts. It should be obtained from the
In buildings equipped with automatic water secondary of a dual-winding transformer with the
sprinklers, solder pots should be suitably hooded secondary isolated electrically from the primary
so that the water will not be sprayed onto the pot winding.
in case a sprinkler opens. When soldering in resistance heated furnaces,
Electrically heated soldering irons should have care should be taken that neither the operator nor
their exposed metal parts grounded. They should the parts can come in contact with the current-
be placed in a fireproof holder and never allowed carrying elements.
to lie on a floor, chair, or table where they can In induction soldering, one should not contact
come in contact with combustible material or be the coil or the conductors or come close enough
touched accidentally by any person. They should to them to draw an arc.
not be left unattended without being discon- All electrical heating wiring should be in
nected. Excess solder should be wiped off the tip accordance with the National Electrical Code and
rather than flipped off; the molten solder can local requirements.
cause burns or may even cause a fire.

HAZARDS FROM FUMES

GASES AND GAS-HANDLING
EQUIPMENT Fumes often arise from the foreign materials on
the surface of the parts to be soldered. Examples
The handling and use of gases and gas equipment are lubricants or drawing compounds which have
is covered thoroughly in ANSI Z49.1 and re- not been completely removed prior to soldering.
quirements are specified by OSHA. During soldering of these parts, these residues
Equipment should always be kept in good evolve clouds of smoke which may be irritating,
operating condition. Hose clamps should be annoying, or toxic.
used, and the hose should never be allowed to All soldering fluxes give off fumes or smoke
become excessively worn. Worn hose should while soldering heat is applied. Some fluxes,
either be replaced entirely or the worn portion such as the rosin, petrolatum, and reaction type
should be cut off and the connections replaced in fluxes, give off considerable smoke depending
the sound portion of the hose. The hose should be on the soldering temperature and the duration of
kept away from the flame and out of contact with heating. The American Conference of Gov-
heated metal and away from sources of physical ernmental Industrial Hygienists has established a
damage. The use of pliers or pipe wrenches on threshhold limit valtie for pyrolysis products of
torch parts or on regulators should be discour- rosin core solder of 0. 1 mg/m 3 aliphatic al-
aged. dehydes, measured as formaldehyde. This value
A torch should never be used to solder on a has not been incorporated by OSHA.
tank or container which has contained flammable Other fluxes give off fumes that are harmful if
material until the tank has been emptied and then breathed in any but small quantities. Prolonged
thoroughly cleaned using the cleaning procedure inhalation of halides and some of the newer or-
recommended by the American Welding Society ganic fluxes should be avoided. The aniline type
in AWS A6.0, Safe Practices for Welding and fluxes and some of the amines also evolve fumes
 Safety and Health Precautions/liS
which are harmful and can cause dermatitis. should be taken in their handling and use to avoid
Fluorine in a flux may create still another unde- getting them on the skin and eyes. These chemi-
sirable health condition. cals, which are commonly used both in fluxes and
Cadmium, lead, zinc, and other metals as well cleaners, can produce burns, irritation, and der-
as their oxides are toxic when present in the matitis if allowed to come in contact with eyes
atmosphere as fumes or dusts. Since they may be and skin. Prompt washing of the exposed parts
present in the base metal as coatings or as con- will reduce the effects of the acids and alkalis.
stituents of solders, the solderer should take care Several chemicals deserve special attention.
to minimize the evolution of fumes by avoiding Zinc chloride may produce severe burns and
overheating the solder or base metal. Threshold dermatitis if allowed to remain on the skin for any
limit values have been promulgated by OSHA for length of time. Carbon tetrachloride had long
cadmium, lead, zinc oxide, zinc chloride, and been used as a cleaner and degreaser, but it has
other toxic fumes, gases, and dusts. been found to be one of the most dangerous
In all soldering operations, the potential materials in common use. The safest rule is not to
hazards from smoke and fumes should be use this material. Parts which have been de-
evaluated. Adequate ventilation is an absolute greased with other organic solvents should be
necessity to avoid fume and smoke hazards. completely dry before soldering, as their decom-
position products may be toxic.
HAZARDS FROM CHEMICALS Solders, fluxes, and cleaners contain materials
which should not be ingested. Operators should
Acids, alkalis, and other chemicals are used daily be cautioned to wash their hands thoroughly be-
in all soldering operations, and precautions fore eating after handling solders or fluxes.
CHAPTER22

THE SOLDERING
OF PIPE AND
TUBE

INTRODUCTION be exercised to insure that the ends for joining are

true and round. Both fittings and tubing are sized
Soldered tubular joints are widely used for to provide joint clearances for capillary flow of
plumbing, heating and cooling applications in the solder and joint strength.
both domestic and commercial service, and Tables 22. I and 22.2 show the standard dimen-·
in industrial applications for services such as sions of copper tube and copper and cast bronze
compressed air, hot and cold water, and some socket type fittings. Table 22.3 provides the di-
processes. mensions for stainless steel pipe. The dimensions
The most common use of soldered joints is in given in these tables generally allow approxi-
copper tube for plumbing, heating, and cooling mately 0.10 mm (0.04 in.) clearance between the
services. Aluminum, steel, and stainless steel outside wall of the tubing and the inner wall of the
tubular members are also joined by soldering. solder cup. The overall difference in diameter
Very few other materials are joined commer- between the male end (tube end) and the female
cially by soldering. The basic rules of cutting, end (solder cup) is approximately 0.23 mm
sizing, fluxing, heating, and cooling are the same
(0.009 in.). Usually a clearance of 0.10 mm
for all the soldered joints, the only variation in the
(0.004 in.) will assure a sound metallurgical
process being a choice of flux and solder. joint. Joint clearances of less than 0.1 mm
( =0.003 in.) may produce flux inclusions or poor
solder penetration, and clearances larger than
CUTTING AND SIZING
0.15 mm (=0.005 in.) may reduce capillary
Pipe or tubing must be cut square to seat evenly flow and produce voids.
on the shoulder at the bottom of the fitting socket, After cutting, the tube should be reamed to
and all uneven or burred surfaces formed by the remove burrs or uneven cut edges which will
cutting operation should be removed. Hack saws interfere with the flow of the solder or the
or abrasive cut-off discs are suitable for cutting alignment of the mating parts. A half-round file
lengths of pipe and tubing. Smaller size tubing, can be employed to remove surface burrs and
such as copper water service tubing, can be cut irregularities. Care should be exercised to pre-
with a roller cutter. During any cutting operation, vent distortion or excessive flaring of the tube
the tube ends should not be severely clamped to ends or increasing the joint clearance by over-
cause distortion in the wall diameter. Care should reaming of the fitting sockets.

117
 118/SOLDERING MANUAL

Table 22.1-Sizes and weights of copper water tube

Outside
diameter Inside diameter
Types
Nominal size K-L-M-DWV TypeK TypeL TypeM TypeDWV
mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in.
6.4 1/4 9.5 0.375 7.75 0.305 8.00 0.315 8.00 0.325
9.5 3/8 12.7 0.500 10.21 0.402 10.92 0.430 11.43 0.450
12.7 1/2 15.9 0.625 13.39 0.527 13.84 0.545 14.45 0.569
15.9 5/8 19.1 0.750 16.56 0.652 16.92 0.666 17.53 0.690

19.1 3/4 22.2 0.875 18.92 0.745 19.94 0.785 20.60 0.811
25.4 I 28.58 1.125 25.27 0.995 26.04 1.025 26.80 1.055
31.8 I 1/4 34.93 1.375 31.62 1.245 32.13 1.265 32.79 1.291 32.89 1.295
38.2 I 1/2 41.28 1.625 37.62 1.481 38.23 1.505 38.79 1.527 39.14 1.541
50.8 2 53.98 2.125 49.76 1.959 50.42 1.985 51.03 2.09 51.84 2.041

63.5 2 1/2 66.68 2.625 61.85 2.435 62.61 2.465 63.37 2.495
76.2 3 79.38 3.125 73.84 2.907 74.80 2.945 75.72 2.981 77.09 3.035
88.9 3 1/2 92.08 3.625 85.98 3.385 87.00 3.425 87.86 3.459
101.6 4 104.78 4.125 97.97 3.857 99.19 3.905 99.94 3.935 101.83 4.009
127 5 130.18 5.125 122.05 4.805 123.83 4.875 124.64 4.907 126.52 4.981

152 155.58 6.125 145.82 5.741 148.46 5.845 149.38 5.881 151.36 5.959

203 206.38 8.125 192.61 7.583 196.22 7.725 197.74 7.785 200.84 7.907
254 10 257.18 10.125 240.00 9.449 244.48 9.625 246.41 9.701
305 12 307.98 12.125 287.40 11.315 293.75 11.565 295.07 11.617
*Slight variations from these weights must be expected in practice.

Table 22.2-Dimensional data, solder joint fitting ends

Tolerances-solder joint fittings
Male end Female end
(Fitting connection) (solder cup)
Nominal size OD max OD min ID max ID min
mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in.
6.4 1/4 9.55 0.376 9.50 0.374 9.65 0.380 9.60 0.378
9.5 3/8 12.73 0.501 12.67 0.499 12.83 0.505 12.78 0.503
12.7 1/2 15.90 0.626 15.85 0.624 16.00 0.630 15.95 0.628
15.9 5/8 19.08 0.751 20.19 0.749 19.18 0.755 19.13 0.753
19.1 3/4 22.25 0.876 22.20 0.874 22.35 0.880 22.30 0.878

25.4 I 28.61 1.1265 28.54 1.1235 28.71 0.1305 28.66 1.1285

31.8 I 1/4 34.96 1.3765 34.89 1.3735 35.06 1.3805 35.01 1.3785
38.2 I 1/2 41.33 1.627 41.22 1.623 41.44 1.6315 41.38 1.629
50.8 2 54.03 2.127 53.92 2.123 54.14 2.1315 54.08 2.129
63.5 2 1/2 66.73 2.627 66.62 2.623 66.84 2.6315 66.78 2.629

76.2 3 79.43 3.127 79.32 3.123 79.54 3.1315 79.48 3.129

88.9 3 1/2 92.13 3.627 92.02 3.263 92.25 3.632 92.18 3.629
101.6 4 104.8 4.127 104.7 4.123 130.4 5.132 104.9 4.129
127 130.2 5.127 130. I 5.123 130.4 5.132 130.3 5.129
152 155.6 6.127 155.5 6.123 155.8 6.132 155.7 6.129

203 206.4 8.127 206.3 8.123 206.6 8.132 206.5 8.129

254 10 257.2 10.127 257.0 10.119 257.4 10.132 257.3 10.129
305 12 308.0 12.127 307.8 12.119 308.2 12.132 308.1 12129

*For general plumbing use.

**For copper drainage use.
 The Soldering of Pipe and Tube I 119

Wall thickness Weight*

'JYpeK TypeL TypeM 'JYpeDWV 'JYpeK TypeL TypeM TypeDWV

mm in. mm. in. mm in. mm in. kg/m lb/ft kg/m lb/ft kg/m lb/ft kg/m lb/ft
0.89 O.Q3S 0.76 0.030 0.064 0.025 0.216 0.145 0.187 0.126 0.158 0.106
1.24 0.049 0.89 0.035 0.064 0.025 0.400 0.269 0.295 0.198 0.216 0.145
1.24 0.49 1.02 0.040 0.71 0.028 0.512 0.344 0.424 0.285 0.304 0.204
1.24 0.49 1.07 0.042 0.76 0.030 0.622 0.418 0.539 0.362 0.391 0.263

1.6S 0.065 1.14 0.045 0.81 0.032 0.954 0.641 0.677 0.4S5 0.488 0.328
1.6S 0.065 1.27 0.050 0.89 O.Q3S 1.2S 0.839 0.975 0.665 0.692 0.465
1.6S 0.06S 1.40 o.oss 1.07 0.042 1.02 0.040 I.SS 1.04 1.32 0.884 1.01 0.682 0. 0.650
1.83 0.072 I.S2 0.060 1.24 0.049 1.07 0.042 2.02 1.36 1.70 1.14 1.40 0.940 I. 0.809
2.11 0.083 1.78 0.070 1.47 0.058 1.07 0.42 3.07 2.06 2.60 l.7S 2.17 1.46 I. 1.07

2.41 0.09S 2.03 0.080 1.6S 0.065 4.36 2.93 3.70 2.48 3.02 2.03
2.77 0.109 2.29 0.090 1.83 0.072 1.14 0.045 S.9S 4.00 4.96 3.33 3.99 2.68 2. 1.69
3.0S 0.120 2.54 0.100 2.11 0.083 7.62 S.l2 6.38 4.29 S.33 3.S8
3.40 0.134 2.79 0.110 2.41 0.09S 1.47 0.058 9.69 6.SI 8.01 S.38 6.93 4.66 4. 2.87
4.06 0.160 3.18 0.125 2.77 0.109 1.83 0.072 14.4 9.67 11.3 7.61 9.91 6.66 6. 4.43

4.88 0.192 3.56 0.140 3.10 0.122 2.11 0.083 20.7 13.9 IS.2 10.2 13.3 8.92 9. 6.10

6.88 0.271 S.08 0.200 4.32 0.170 2.77 0.109 38.S 25.9 28.7 19.3 24.6 16.S 15. 10.6
8.S9 0.338 6.3S 0.250 S.38 0.212 60.0 40.3 44.8 30.1 38.1 25.6
10.29 0.40S 7.11 0.280 6.4S 0.254 86.0 S7.8 60.1 40.4 S4.6 36.7

Solder joint fittings; Solder joint fittings ••

cast bronze, wrought copper Fitting end length Solder cup depth
Fitting Solder cup• Wrought Cast Wrought Cast
end length length drainage drainage drainage drainage
mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in.
9.5 3/8 7.9 S/16
11.1 7/16 9.S 3/8
14.3 9/16 12.7 1/2
17.5 11/16 IS.9 5/8
20.6 13/16 19.1 3/4

24.6 31/32 23.0 29/32

26.2 1/32 24.6 31/32 17.S 11/16 11.2 0.44 IS.9 5/8 9.7 0.38
29.4 S/32 27.8 I 3/32 19.1 3/4 12.7 0.50 17.S 11/16 11.2 0.44
3S.7 13/32 34.1 I 11/32 20.6 13/16 14.2 0.56 19.1 3/4 12.7 0.50
38.9 17/32 37.3 I IS/32

43.7 I 23/32 42.1 I 21/32 25.4 20.6 0.81 23.8 IS/Hi 19.1 07S
50.0 I 31/32 48.4 I 29/32
SM 2 7/32 54.8 2 S/32 31.8 I 1/4 26.9 1.06 30.2 3/16 2S.4 1.00
69.1 23/32 67.S 2 21/32 33.3 1.31 31.8 1.25
80.2 3 S/32 78.6 3 :f/32 41.1 1.62 38.2 1.50

102.4 4 1/32 100.8 3 31/32 S3.8 2.12 50.8 2.00

104.8 4 1/8 101.6 4
117.5 4 S/8 114.3 4 1/2
120/SOLDERING MANUAL
Table 22.3-Stainless steel pipe

Schedule 40

Nominal Wall
pipe size OD ID thickness
mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in.
3.2 1/8 10.29 0.405 7.80 0.307 1.24 0.049
6.4 1/4 13.72 0.540 10.41 0.410 1.65 0.065
9.5 3/8 17.15 0.675 13.84 0.545 1.65 0.065
12.7 1/2 21.34 0.840 17.12 0.675 2.11 0.083
19.1 3/4 26.67 1.050 22.45 0.884 2.11 0.083
25.4 1 33.40 1.315 27.86 1.097 2.77 0.109
31.8 1 1/4 42.16 1.660 36.63 1.442 2.77 0.109
38.2 1 1/2 48.26 1.900 42.72 1.682 2.77 0.109
50.8 2 60.33 2.375 54.79 2.157 2.77 0.109
63.5 2 1/2 73.03 2.875 66.93 2.635 3.05 0.120
76.2 3 88.90 3.500 82.80 3.260 3.05 0.120
88.9 3 1/2 101.6 4.000 95.50 3.760 3.05 0.120
101 4 114.3 4.500 108.2 4.260 3.05 0.120
127 5 141.3 5.563 134.5 5.295 3.40 0.134
152 6 168.3 6.625 161.5 6.357 3.40 0.134
203 8 219.1 8.625 211.6 8.239 3.76 0.148

Schedule 5

Nominal Wall
pipe size OD ID thickness
mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in.
12.7 1/2 21.34 0.840 18.03 0.710 1.65 0.065
19.1 3/4 26.67 1.050 23.37 0.920 1.65 0.065
25.4 1 33.40 1.315 30.10 1.185 1.65 0.065
31.8 1 1/4 42.16 1.660 38.86 1.530 1.65 0.065
38.2 1 1/2 48.26 1.900 44.96 1.770 1.65 0.065
50.8 2 60.33 2.375 57.02 2.245 1.65 0.065
63.5 2 1/2 73.03 2.875 68.81 2.709 2. II 0.083
76.2 3 88.90 3.500 84.68 3.334 2.11 0.083
88.9 3 1/2 101.6 4.000 97.38 3.834 2.11 0.083
101.6 4 114.3 4.500 110.1 4.334 2.11 0.083

CLEANING so that only the surface contaminants are re-

moved without excessive loss of the base metals.
The ends of tubing or pipe as well as the internal This is best accomplished by lightly abrading the
surfaces of fittings must be thoroughly cleaned to tube ends and solder cups with small wire
provide surfaces which allow for wetting (allo.y- brushes, steel wool, or fine grades (00) of abra-
ing) and distribution of the solder at the joint sive papers or cloth. Embedding of abrasive par-
interfaces. All traces of dirt, grease, lacquers, or ticles in the joint surfaces should be avoided, and
oxides on the base metals must be removed. any material resulting from the mechanical clean-
Degreasing with organic solvents will often re- ing operation must be removed.
move various oils, but solvents will not ordinar- Although mechanical cleaning of steel or cop-
ily be effective in removing oxides or organic per pipe and tubing is usually adequate, mineral
coatings which are applied to provide oxidation acids and alkaline cleaners are occasionally used
resistant surfaces. Cleaning should be performed to prepare surfaces for soldering (see Chapter 5).
 The Soldering of Pipe and Tube I 121
FLUXING OPERATIONS
feathered. To adjust an acetylene flame to its
Fluxes are required for soldering of tubing or neutral state, light a flame which has an excess of
pipe. Since the main purpose of fluxing is to acetylene, then reduce the flow of the gas, or
dissolve or remove very thin oxide films already increase the oxygen flow slowly until the cone
present on precleaned surfaces, fluxes should not just starts to feather.
be used as a primary cleaner of joint surfaces. A The flame should be directed so that it wraps
small brush or clean cloth will assist in coating itself around small diameter pipe or fittings. Mul-
the joint interfaces with flux, and flux should be tiple tip torches or even additional heating
applied as soon as possible after cleaning. torches may be required to solder large diameter
Only surfaces which are to be wetted by sol- (over 100 mm [4 in.]) pipe. The pipe or tube
ders should be coated with flux, and an applica- should be heated before the fittings, and after a
tion of flux to the inside surfaces of pipe should short heating period, the flame is directed alter-
be avoided. Often flux inclusions in the finished nately to the pipe and then to the fitting. This
joint can be minimized by preplacing a ring of will bring the fittings and pipe up to equal heat.
solder at the seat of the pipe joint. Upon heating Holding the flame at one location on the fitting or
and distribution of the solder in the joint, the pipe will cause localized overheating, excessive
metal will flow outward, displacing the flux. drying of the flux, distortion of the pipe, and
possible cracking of the fitting, and should be
avoided.
The inner cone tip of the flame should not
ASSEMBLY impinge directly on the shoulder of the tube and
fitting or into the socket of the fitting. The sharp
Before any JOIDmg operation, the assembly point of the inner cone of the flame should just
should be carefully aligned and adequately sup- touch the metal surfaces and the flame should be
ported. Misalignment will affect the joint by kept in motion so that heat is distributed evenly to
changing the clearance between the tube and the as large an area as possible.
fittings. Vertical pipe runs should be plumb to The correct temperature for making solder
prevent any inconsistencies in joint spacing. pipe joints can be tested by touching the solder to
Supports and fixtures should allow for expansion the heated junction between the pipe and fitting
and contraction of the assembly during the join- and observing the flow of the solder. The flux
ing operation. should be very fluid on both fitting and pipe.
When the solder begins to melt, it is fed into
the capillary space with a gentle pressure. At the
APPLYING HEAT AND SOLDERS same time, the torch is moved around the fitting
with the solder being fed to the joint just behind
the bath of the flame. Heat should not be applied
Most of the pipe and tubing assemblies are made directly to the solder. If the torch flames are
with gas torches fueled with acetylene, propane, directed to the heel or bottom of the socket of the
natural gas, and other gases in the presence of fitting, the solder will distribute itself throughout
oxygen (see Chapter 21 and AWS A6.2, Lens the joint.
Shade Selector). Usually the size of the pipe or Opinions differ as to whether or not a fillet is
tubing being joined will control the selection of necessary or desirable on pipe joints. Often a full,
torch tips and the amount of heat to be delivered annular fillet indicates good solder penetration
to the joint. A low velocity bulbous flame of and distribution in the joint. However, generous
sufficient size to permit rapid and even heating is fillets at the bottom of the assembly may be
ordinarily used. The flame should be neutral or caused by accumulation of the solder, which has
only slightly reducing. A neutral flame has a solidified after flowing over relatively cold
smooth, even inner cone which is as large as can metal. Heating the bottom of the fitting will
be obtained without making the end of the cone largely eliminate this condition.
122/SOLDERING MANUAL

Induction, furnace, radiant, and resistance moved around the periphery of the joint to ensure
heating can also be used to solder pipe and tubing even distribution .
assemblies. Resistance heating of tubular parts is In induction, furnace, and radiant heating, the
accomplished by the use of electrical tongs (see solder is usually preplaced in the fluxed joint.
Fig. 22.1). Tongs are usually employed for join- Alternatively, solder pastes may be used wherein
ingpipeortubingof50 mm(=2 in.)diameteror the joint surfaces are painted with mixtures of
smaller. The tongs are applied to the joint area, flux and powdered alloys before joining. When
and the current is turned on and maintained until mixtures of this type are used, additional solder
solder wire touched to the pipe begins to flow. may be added to assure a filled soldered joint.
The current is then shut off, and the solder is

Fig. 22.1- A solderer using a resistance heater simply holds solder wire to the lip of the joint with the
heat tongs on the solder cup. Solder will not begin flowing until the solder joint is at the required
temperature
 The Soldering of Pipe and Tube/ 123

SOLDERS AND FLUXES FOR ity than rosin base fluxes and are preferred when
JOINING PIPE AND TUBING heat is applied by a fuel gas-air soldering torch.
In soldering nickel or stainless steel, tin-rich
Solders are used to join pipe and tubing because solders such as 60'K tin-40'k lead or 50'K tin-
they possess reasonably high strength and ductil- 50'« lead are usually desirable. Corrosive flux
ity and are economical in their use. The strength mixtures of zinc chloride, ammonium chloride,
of soldered capillary joints depends on the and hydrochloric acid are required to remove
strength of the solder in shear. Although the oxide films when soldering these metals.
eutectic 63'K tin-37'K lead composition provides Aluminum and aluminum alloy pipe and tub-
the maximum shear strength of the binary tin- ing require tin-zinc or cadmium-zinc solders.
lead filler metals, the filler metal does not have a Tin-lead solders are not recommended for
melting range and therefore does not allow for aluminum because of the poor corrosion resis-
easy mainipulation in forming plumbed joints. tance of joints soldered with these solders. Sol-
Most solderers prefer to use solder compositions ders containing 40'k tin-60'k zinc wet aluminum
which have a somewhat lower tin content to pro- well and provide a useful melting range.
vide a greater melting range, ease of application, Aluminum alloys containing 0.5% or more of
and distribution of the solder in the joint during magnesium are susceptible to intergranular cor-
soldering. rosion by molten tin base solders. However, sol-
Low and medium carbon steel pipe and tubing ders containing a minimum of 4'k aluminum will
are usually joined with solders containing 40 to reduce intergranular penetration and dissolution.
60'K tin, balance lead. Acidified zinc-ammonium A solder containing 95'K zinc-5'K aluminum has
chloride base fluxes are most satisfactory. If the been found useful in joining aluminum alloys
pipe is galvanized, the zinc coating must be re- containing magnesium.
moved from joint surfaces by mechanical abra- Aluminum and its alloys have a tenaceous
sion or chemically stripping the coating before oxide film which must be displaced by highly
heat is applied. reactive fluxes during the soldering operation.
Copper and brass pipe and tubing are most Fluxes incorporating zinc and often stannous
frequently joined by soldering with tin-lead sol- (tin) chloride react at approximately 280" to
ders containing 20 to 60% tin. The 50% tin-50% 340° C ( =540° to 640° F) and are used primarily
lead solder is commonly employed to provide with tin-zinc solders. If temperatures above this
strong joints under ambient temperatures and are used in joining, the tin-containing flux should
normal operating pressures. Under conditions of not be used. Zinc-chloride base fluxes are pre-
moderately elevated temperature or higher pres- ferred in this instance. Adequate post cleaning is
sures, the 95% tin-5% antimony solder is some- required after soldering with these fluxes to pre-
times used. Tin-silver solders have comparable vent joint corrosion.
properties but should be qualified by tests as Often it is not practical to clean flux residues
alternates. from soldered aluminum tubing assemblies and
When 95'K tin-5'K antimony solders are used, the nonchloride, organic fluxes are recom-
it must be remembered that they have a narrower mended. These fluxes are considered to be a
pasty range and a higher liquidus temperature nonhygroscopic, and their residues produce little
than tin-lead solders and therefore require dif- or no corrosion if left in place.
ferent techniques and more control to assure
properly filled joints.
The tin-antimony solders are often useful in POST CLEANING OPERATIONS
refrigeration applications where soldered copper
tubing is subjected to very low temperatures. After the solders have solidified, the remaining
Normally, proprietary liquid or paste fluxes flux and residues can be removed from wrought
containing zinc and ammonium chlorides or or- fittings by wiping with a wet cloth or by wet
ganic base fluxes are used to solder copper pipe brushing. Often a cloth is dipped into water con-
and tubing. These fluxes have higher heat stabil- taining a small amount of sodium bicarbonate to
124/SOLDERING MANUAL
assist in neutralizing any flux residues on the
fmishedjoints. Cast fittings should be allowed to
cool naturally before applying swabbing to the
joints.

INSPECTION

Though soldered joints are very rarely examined

or inspected by NOT methods other than visual, it
is possible to conduct both radiogtaphic and ul-
trasonic inspections. Ultrasonic inspection is
fairly quick and easy but usually does not give a
permanent record. Radiography is more time-
consuming, but it does give a permanent record Fig. 22.3 - Radiograph of T-joint in nominal
and may be a better inspection tool. Such inspec- 25 x 13 mm (I x \12 in.) copper tube. The
tion techniques are expensive and are not rec- bright white spots are drops of excess solder. The
ommended except in critical areas or for spot darker gray areas are voids. There is a dif-
checking. ference in density and contrast between the
Figures 22. 2, 22. 3, and 22.4 show radiographs voids on the top and those on the bottom
of solder joints with various amounts of voids.

Fig. 22.4 - Radiograph of L-shaped joint in

Fig. 22.2- Radiograph of nominal 32 mm (I 'It nominal 20 x 13 mm (3.4 x 1h in.) copper
in.) copper tube and coupling. The bright white tube. The bright white spots are excess solde[
spots are drops of excess solder on the bottom. On the 20 mm (3.4 in.) side there is also consider-
The darker gray areas in the gray solder joints are able excess solder on the inside. On the 15 mm
voids. There is a fairly large void on the right ( Y2 in.) side there is a major, serious void
CHAPTER23

PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES OF SOLDER
AND SOLDERED JOINTS

INTRODUCTION the casting conditions, thermo-mechanical his-

tory of the solder, or even the time of storage prior
Although the mechanical properties of solder can to testing. In view of this, whenever a conflict in
be determined by standard tests, solder joints are data exists, the more conservative value is re-
generally designed to take advantage of the prop- ported. Some mechanical properties of particular
erties of the base metal rather than relying upon interest are shown in Table 23. I .
the strength of the solder alone. Due to this de- The tensile strength of solders, as measured by
pendency upon the joint design, experience best tensile testing at strain rates of 0.5 mm/mm/min,
dictates what can or should be soldered with the increases with increasing tin content, reaching a
expectation of reasonable service life. maximum of about 54 000 kPa (7800 psi) at the
However, design problems occasionally arise eutectic composition. Although easy to deter-
which warrant reference to test data for success- mine and quite reproducible, the significance of
ful resolution. The following information may be tensile strength data for any design application is
helpful in such cases. moot, since it is only a measure of the maximum
uniaxially applied load a specimen can withstand
at rapid rates of straining. And, of course, due to
ROOM TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES alloying with the base metal, the tensile strength
OF BULK TIN-LEAD SOLDER of a soldered joint would likely be superior to the
tensile strength of the bulk solder.
Fairly extensive data are available on the bulk As with tensile strength, the shear strength of
properties of tin-lead solders despite the fact that solders increases with increasing tin content. It
these solders are seldom, if ever, used in the bulk might be noted that: (1) the shear strength of bulk
form. While these bulk data may not be identical solder is less than the tensile strength for all
to those develop~d for soldered joints, they fre- compositions of solder tested, particularly at the
quently can be used to afford some reasonable lower tin contents, and (2) the shear strength
basis for design. increases nearly linearly with tin content up to
Typically, the room temperature properties of about 60% tin.
tin-lead solders vary gradually over common The elongation of solders (the ratio of increase
solder compositions, maximizing or minimizing of length of a gage section of the specimen to its
at or near the eutectic composition of 63% original length) would be expected to vary in-
Sn-37% Pb. The properties of bulk solders can versely with tensile strength. It should be noted
vary considerably depending upon such things as that the elongation of solders is quite structure-

125
 N
0\
en-
0
r
Table 23.1- Mechanical properties of bulk tin-lead solders 0
trl
::0
Modulus• Impact 1 Stress 2 z
Cl
of strength to produce
~
Tin Tensile 1 Shear 1 Percent elasticity BrinelP (lzod) creep rate of ;!>
content strength strength elong- X 106 kPa hardness J O.OOOI in./in./day z
w/o kPa psi kPa psi ation x 106 psi number ft•lbs kPa .psi c:
;!>
r
0 I2 000 1800 I2 000 I800 55 I8.0 2.6I 4 8.1 6 I700 250
5 28 000 4000 I4 000 2100 45 8 9.5 7 I400 200
10 30 000 4400 I7 000 2400 30 I9.0 2.76 10 10.8 8
20 33 000 4800 20 000 3000 20 20.0 2.90 11 I5.0 II
30 34 000 5000 28 000 4000 I8 21.0 3.05 I2 I6.3 I2 790 II5
40 37 000 5400 32 000 4600 25 23.7 3.34 I2 I9.0 14
50 4I 000 6000 36 000 5200 35 14 20.3 I5 860 125
60 52 000 7600 39 000 5600 40 30.0 4.35 I6 20.3 I5
63 54 000 7800 37 000 5400 37 I7 20.3 I5 2300 335
70 54 000 7800 36 000 5200 30 35.0 5.08 17 I9.0 I4

1 2 see references
 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Soldered Joints I 127
sensitive so that very large variations can occur in Solders will plastically deform, or creep, under
elongation measurements for a given solder. sustained loads constituting only a small fraction
Nevertheless, even with conservative data, it can of their tensile strength. This critical influence of
be seen that solders are quite ductile over the duration of the load on the stress-strain relation-
composition range of interest. ship severely restricts the use of tensile data for
The ratio of the tensile stress to strain in the design. Consequently, in most applications the
elastic region is defined as the modulus of elastic- creep resistance is the most important design
ity, or Young's Modulus. Consequently, the parameter. Unfortunately, creep data do not exist
modulus is a measure of the stiffness of a for the entire range of interest for solders. How-
material-that is, the greater the modulus the ever, the available data do indicate that solders
stiffer the material or smaller the elastic strain have generally low creep strength. Specifically,
resulting from the application of a given stress. the stress to produce creep rates of 0.0001
While the modulus increases in a nonlinear man- mm/mm/day at room temperature for several
ner with increasing tin content, it should be rec- commonly used solders containing 30-50% tin is
ognized that the values of Young's Modulus for only of the order of 830 kPa ( 120 psi). It should be
solders are, like all soft metals, highly dependent noted that this creep rate is quite rapid, equivalent
upon the rate of loading. to an extension of about 3.5% per year.
The Brinell hardness of bulk solders increases Other physical properties of bulk solder which
with increasing tin content. It is interesting, as in would likely be of interest to designers are the
the case with many metals, that the Brinell hard- density, electrical and thermal conductivities, and
ness of solders appears to correlate directly to the linear expansion. For tin-lead solders, as shown
tensile strength of the solders: Tensile strength in Table 23.2, these properties vary in a predicta-
equals 400 to 450 times the Brinell hardness ble and linear manner with tin content.
number. Measurements have also been made of the
The impact strength of solders, as measured by surface tension and viscosity of several solders,
the Izod impact test, is relatively low, increasing as shown in Table 23.3. These properties of the
with increasing tin content up to about 40% tin. molten solder vary only slightly at the test temp-
However, the fact that the ductile solders do not erature over the range of compositions investi-
fracture in conventional Izod impact tests brings gated.
into question the relevancy of such impact data
for design.

Table 23.2-Physical properties of tin-lead solders

Electrical Coefficient 3 of
Tin conductivity 1 Thermal conductivity 3 linear thermal
content Density' percent W/m•K expansion
w/o g/cm 3 of copper lACS (btu/ft 2 /in./° F/s) per °C X 10' 6 ( 0 fX 10' 6 )

0 11.34 7.9 34.8 0.067 29.3 16.3

5 10.80 8.1 35.2 0.068 28.4 15.8
10 10.50 8.2 35.8 0.069 27.9 15.5
20 10.04 8.7 37.4 0.072 26.6 14.7
30 9.66 9.3 40.5 0.078 25.6 14.2
40 9.28 10.1 43.6 0.084 24.7 13.7
50 8.90 10.9 47.8 0.090 23.6 13.1
60 8.52 11.5 49.8 0.096 21.6 12.0
63 8.34 11.8 50.9 0.098 21.4 11.8
70 8.17 12.5 20.7 11.5

1 3 see references
128/SOLDERING MANUAL

Table 23.3-Physical properties of 0.0001 mm/mm/day in 5% tin-lead solder would

molten tin-lead solders containing 30-60% tin. Lower tin-bearing sol-
ders, say of the order of 5% tin, with higher
Tin Surface solidus temperatures have somewhat superior
content Temperature tension 4 Viscosity 4 creep properties at elevated temperatures. By in-
w/o oc "F dynes poise terpolation, the estimated stress at 80°C
( = 180°F) required to produce a creep rate of
0 391 735 439 0.0244 0.0001 mm/mm/day in ASTM Grade A solders
20 282 540 467 0.0272
be approximately 690 kPa ( 100 psi).
30 282 540 470 0.0245
40 282 540 474 0.0229
50 282 540 476 0.0219
63 282 540 490 0.0197 PROPERTIES OF SOLDER AT
LOW TEMPERATURES
4 see references
Measured properties of solders at cryogenic
PROPERTIES OF SOLDER AT temperatures are found, as shown in Table 23.5,
ELEVATED TEMPERATURES to be directly proportional to the tin content. That
is, the tensile strength and shear strength of the
The low solidus temperature of most tin-lead solders increase with increasing tin content and
solders limits their use for structural joining of decreasing test temperature. Ductility, as mea-
materials for elevated temperature service. For sured by elongation, decreases with increasing
example, at 150° C ( =300° F) the tensile strength tin content and decreasing temperature. Because
of bulk tin-lead solders is approximately 14 000 of embrittlement of joints at temperatures below
kPa (2000 psi) regardless of tin content. As 13° C (55° F) (i.e., tin pest), concern is often
expected, the elongation of these solders at ele- expressed about the stability of solders in service
vated temperature is substantial (see Table 23.4). at low temperatures.
However, the retarding effect of lead may
Table 23.4- Tensile properties of bulk ameliorate any problems with tin pest in solder
tin-lead solders at 150°C ( =300° F) joints used in low temperature service. Since it
has been reported that antimony reduces the ten-
Tin dency of the solder to form tin pest, the ASTM
content Tensile strength 5 Percent Grade B solders, which contain 0.20-0.50% Sb,
w/o kPa psi elongation 5 are often selected for cryogenic use.

0. 5500 800 65
5 10 000 1500 35
10 13 000 1900 70 TIN-LEAD SOLDERS CONTAINING
20 13 000 1900 120 ANTIMONY
30 13 000 1900 140
40 13 000 1900 140
145 It has been long recognized that one part an-
50 13 000 1900
60 12 000 1800 150 timony could be used as a substitute for two parts
of the tin in tin-lead solders without seriously
5 see references affecting the soldering characteristics of the sol-
ders. This substitution is customarily limited so
Most important, however, is the fact that the that the total amount of antimony added does not
creep strength of tin-lead solders is quite mark- exceed 6% of the tin content of the solder. These
edly reduced at elevated temperatures. Available ASTM Grade C solders have certain mechanical
data indicate that at 80°C ( = 180°F) tensile stres- properties, such as shear and tensile strength,
ses of only 205-415 kPa (30-60 psi) would be superior to their tin-lead equivalents, as shown in
sufficient to produce minimum creep rates of Table 23.6.
 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Soldered Joints I 129

Thble 23.5- Mechanical properties of bulk tin-lead solders at cryogenic temperatures

Tin Tensile Shear

content Test strength 6 strength 6 Percent
w/o temperature kPa psi kPa psi elongation 6
w 73°C =-wooF 41 000 5900 31 000 4500 34
20 73° c =-wooF 48 000 7000 37 000 5300 32
40 73°C =-wooF 48 000 6900 40 000 5800 43
60 73°C =-W0°F 59 000 8500 54 000 7900 48

w -196° c =-320°F 59 000 8600 43 000 6300 27

20 -196° c =-320°F 85 000 12 400 58 000 8400 30
40 -196° c =-320°F 87 000 12 600 77 000 II 200 30
60 -196° c =-320°F 130000 18 800 110 000 15 900 w
6 see references

Table 23.6-Mechanical properties of tin-lead-antimony solders

Anti- Impacf Stress to produce 2

Tin mony Tensile 7 Shear7 strength %7 creep rate of
content content strength strength (lzod) Elong- 0.001 mm/mm/day
w/o w/o kPa psi kPa psi J ft•lbs ation kPa psi

30 1.0 46 000 6600 30 000 4400 15.3 11.3 21 2000 295

40 2.5 49 000 7100 37 000 5300 14.1 W.4 34 2900 .420
50 3.0 52 000 7500 42 000 6100 15.0 11.1 29 3300 480
60 3.6 61 000 8800 42 000 6WO 16.0 11.5 18 3300 480

2 7 see references

The addition of antimony to solders causes an operation the tin c.ontained in the molten solder
improvement in creep resistance. That is, at room reacts with the base metal. This reaction can
temperature these solders can sustain a higher result in solution strengthening and/or the forma-
load for a given creep rate than equivalent tin- tion and growth of intermetallic compounds,
lead solders. As with the tin-lead solders, the sm::h as Cu 6 Sn:; or FeSn 2 , in the joint area with
creep resistance of solders containing antimony copper or iron base metals.
is markedly reduced at elevated temperatures. Unfortunately, it is difficult to obtain rigorous
For example, the loads needed to produce data for the soldered joint because the properties
minimum creep rates of 0.0001% per day in an- of the joint can be markedly influenced by a
timonial solders at 80° C ( = 180° F) are about number of soldering parameters other than the
20% of those needed at room temperature, i.e., composition of the solder used. A careful study of
480-830 kPa (70-120 psi). some of the factors which have an effect on the
properties of the soldered lap joints reveal the
following:
PROPERTIES OF THE SOLDERED I. Thickness of the Joint. The strength of the
JOINT solder joint is a function'of the spacing between
the soldered interfaces. On steel, copper, and
The properties of the soldered joint can be sig- brass the optimum joint strength was obtained
nificantly different from those of the bulk sol- when the surfaces were separated by 0. 1-
ders. The reason for this is that in the soldering 0.15 mm ( =0.003-0.005 in.). Thicker joints
130/SOLDERING MANUAL

usually have joint strengths which approach sented here were developed with full cognizance
those of the bulk solder, while joints thinner than and control of these parameters.
0.1 mm (=0.003 in.) may be weak from poor In general, the two mechanical properties of
solder penetration and flux inclusions. the soldered joint of greatest interest are the shear
2. Solder Temperature. The optimum solder- and creep strengths.
ing temperature must be high enough to allow the
flux to flow adequately and clean the area to be SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOLDERED
soldered and not so high as to cause the solder to JOINTS
flow out of the joint area or to build up a thick
intermetallic layer. Good results are obtained at The shear strength of soldered joints was deter-
soldering temperatures approximately 55° C mined by pulling lap joints at a strain rate of
( 100° F) above the liquidus of the solder. The base 0.5 mm/mm/min. The results of these tests for
metal at the point of soldering must be above the ASTM Grade A and Grade C solders are shown
solder's melting point. in Table 23. 7. As can be seen, the shear strengths
3. Soldering Time. Within normal soldering of joints made in either copper, brass, or steel
cycles, the time of contact with molten solder has were maximized with solders containing approx-
little or no influence on joint strength. However, imately 50% tin, under the soldering conditions
prolonged heating may result in rapid deteriora- used. When shear strength data are applied to
tion of the tearing strength of the soldered joint design, it is important to remember that, in prac-
due to a buildup of a brittle intermetallic layer. tice, the forces acting to pull apart lap joints are
4. Quantity of Solder in Joint. Excess solder generally not pure shear but rather a combination
does not add to the strength of the joint provided of shear, tensile, and peel stresses. In some in-
that the joint space is full and that there is stances, the application of a load to a solder joint,
sufficient solder to round out sharp corners. particularly a joint in thin stock, can cause a
These properties of soldered joints are only concentration of stress at the edge of the joint.
meaningful and can be compared meaningfully This in turn causes a slow tearing action or peel-
only if the joints are made in a controlled and ing at this point, which can result in low values of
reproducible manner. The test data on joints pre- joint strength.

Table 23.7- Shear strength of soldered lap joints

Tin Joint between 7 Joint between 7 Joint between 7

content mild steel members copper members brass members
w/o kPa psi kPa psi kPa psi

10 19 000 2700 14 000 2100 12 000 1800

ASTM 20 28 000 4000 21 000 3000 19 000 2800
grade A 30 32 000 4700 28 000 4000 23 000 3300
tin-lead 40 34 000 5000 34 000 5000 28 000 4000
solders 50 34 000 5000 39 000 5600 31 000 4500
60 33 000 4800 39 000 5700 30 000 4300

10 12 000 1800 14 000 2100 12 000 1800

ASTM 20 21 000 3100 21 000 3100 19 000 2800
grade C 30 28 000 4000 29 000 4200 23 000 3300
tin-lead- 40 32 000 4600 34 000 5000 28 000 4000
antimony 50 34 000 4900 39 000 5700 28 000 4000
solders 60 31 000 4500 42 000 6100 28 000 4000

7 see references
 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Soldered Joints! 131

CREEP STRENGTH OF SOLDERED therefore, it is not possible to conduct fatigue

JOINTS tests on such joints under conditions of alternat-
ing tension and compression.
The ability of a soldered joint to safely withstand
a sustained load without failure is probablythe
single most important mechanical property for SOLDERS FOR USE AT ELEVATED
design. For example, the specific measure of this TEMPERATURES
characteristic is the determination of the
maximum allowable stress which will not cause High-Tin AUoys
failure of lap joints in a service life of ten years.
Joints formed with tin-lead and also
Data pertinent to this are presented in Table 23.8.
antimonial-tin-lead solders containing upwards
As can be seen, the maximum allowable stress
of approximately 15'k tin have a low solidus
tin-lead soldered joints can sustain over their
temperature of 183° C (361° F). This low solidus
service life decreases with increasing tin content.
temperature generally precludes consideration of
A similar relationship exists between joint
these solders for joints which will be subjected to
strength and tin content at elevated temperatures,
stresses at or above 150° C ( =300° F).
although the limiting loads at the higher tempera-
There are, however, high tin-containing sol-
tures are quite reduced from room temperature
ders which can be applied at low temperatures but
loads. The data in Table 23.8 were developed for
have appreciably higher solidus temperature§
lap joints in copper.
than the common lead-tin solders. One such
group of solders is the tin-antimony solders. As
shown in Table 23.9, although the liquidus temp-
FATIGUE STRENGTH OF SOLDERED eratures of these solders are about the same order
JOINTS as typical lead-tin solders, their solidus tempera-
tures are higher.
Although soldered joints are often exposed to Consequently, these tin-antimony solders
vibratory loads, such as in automobile radiators, maintain some strength up to relatively high
which could result in fatigue failure, explicit data temperatures of 200° C (400° F). It should be
on the fatigue strength of soldered joints are not noted that at this temperature lead-tin solders
available. One reason for this is that soldered lap containing above 15% tin would be completely or
joints produced with thin gauge material cannot partially melted and would therefore have no
sustain compressive loading along their length; load-carrying capacity.

Table 23.8- Maximum sustained stress at various temperatures

which will not cause failure of soldered lap joints in 10 years (in air)

Tin
content 20° C" 68° F 100° C" 212° F 149° C" 300° F
w/o kPa psi kPa psi kPa psi

5 3400 500 1700 250 1000 150

10 3200 470 1400 200 690 100
20 2500 360 830 120 340 50
30 2100 300 620 90 210 30
40 1800 260 520 75 210 30
50 1700 250 520 75 210 30
60 1700 250 520 75 210 30
"see references
132/SOLDERING MANUAL

Table 23.9- Properties of tin-antimony solder

Composition Liquidus 9 Solidus 9

Tin Antimony
w/o w/o oc op oc op

100 232 450 232 450

97 3 239 462 235 455
95 5 242 468 237 458
93 7 244 471 239 462

• Io see references

The tin-silver eutectic solder (96.5% Sn-3.5% low enough to maintain a relatively high solidus
Ag), having a melting point of 221 o C (430° F), temperature while yielding reasonable soldera-
might be considered for use in elevated tempera- bility and corrosion resistance. The silver is
ture service although the cost of this solder is added for improved creep resistance.
generally high. The effects of using low tin and silver can be
Joints to be soldered with tin-antimony or tin- appreciated by examining the data in Table 23. 10
silver solders for high temperature service should in which copper lap joints, soldered with these
be free of lead. Any lead in the joint can dissolve solders, were evaluated over a wide temperature
in these solders and possibly produce low melting range by a stepped loading test. That is to say, the
ternary eutectic phases in the soldering process. lap joint was stressed to some low level for 24
At elevated temperatures these eutectic phases hours and the load incremented daily until failure
melt, resulting in hot shortness and joint failure. occurred. Although the stepped loading charac-
teristics are not directly relatable to the creep
Lead-Tin-Silver Solder resistance of the soldered joint, they do afford an
The most widely used solders for high excellent semiquantitative measure of this most
temperature application are ternary lead-tin- important property. The superiority of the lead-
silver solders in the composition range of 0-5% tin-silver solders to eutectic tin-lead solders,
Sn, 0-1.5% Ag. The tin content of these solders is under test conditions, is clearly evident.

Table 23.10-Stepped loading creep tests on nominal 15 mm X 3 mm (1/2 in. x 1/8 in.)
overlap joints on copper

Com2osition Breaking stress

Pb Sn Ag Liquidus Solidus
oc op oc op 200CIO 68°F 100°C10 212°F 150°C10 302°F
w/o w/o w/o kPa psi kPa psi kPa psi
98 2 319 608 304 580 4100 600 <2000 <300
95 5 312 594 270 518 3100 540 <2000 <300
97.5 1 1.5 313 595 301 573 11 000 1640 6100 900 4800 700
96.5 2 1.5 306 583 301 573 10 000 1500 6000 880 4800 700
93.5 5 1.5 304 579 301 573 8500 2150 5500 800 3800 560

70 30 256 491 183 361 6100 900 2600 375

60 40 238 466 183 361 5800 850 2000 300
50 50 216 421 183 361 6000 875 2000 300

10 see references
 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Soldered Joints/133

Tensile strength at various temQeratures 10

25°C 80°F 66°C 150° F 149°C 300° F 204°C 400°F
kPa psi kPa psi kPa psi kPa psi

13 000 1900
28 000 1400 20 000 3000 11 000 1600
38 000 5600 38 500 4200 13 500 2000 10 000 1500
48 000 7000 34 000 5000 13 500 2000

LOW TEMPERATURE SOLDERING variables in addition to solder composition. Of

importance are joint clearance, base metal
There are many fusible solders, generally based composition, cleaning procedures, flux, solder-
upon eutectics of bismuth, which can be used ing temperature, soldering time, and cooling
when low temperature soldering is required. rate.
Table 73.11 presents some data concerning the Designs for structural applications usually
properties of these commonly used solders. It is have soldered members loaded in shear. Shear
important to note that while these low melting strength (under rapid application of load) and
solders have relatively high tensile strengths and creep strength in shear are the important
hardnesses, they are not very creep resistant. In mechanical properties. For specialized applica-
fact, sustained tensile loads of approximately 70 tions such as auto radiators, peel strength and
kPa (10 psi) are often sufficient to produce creep fracture initiation strength are thought to be im-
rates in the solders in excess of 1% per year. This portant. In a few cases tensile strength is of in-
creep sensitivity is intensified by structural terest. There are no known techniques for relat-
characteristics of the solder. Rapidly solidified ing one mechanical property to another.
fine grain will, as a rule, exhibit less creep resis-
tance than a coarse grain solder. Shear Strength
The poor creep strength of these solders must Shear strength is determined using single- or
be recognized in any application in which the double-lap specimens or sleeve type cylindrical
solders will be exposed to continuous loads. specimens and testing at cross-head rates of the
order of 25 or 2.5 mm/min (1.0 or 0.1 in./min).
The duration of loading is then very short, either
PROPERTIES OF SOLDERED seconds or minutes. The shear strengths of cop-
COPPER JOINTS per joints soldered with lead-tin solders are
shown in Fig. 23.1. The maximum strength is ob-
tained with solders roughly of the eutectic com-
Goc 1 design practice generally requires that the position (63% tin, 37% lead). If the joints are aged
soldered copper joint will be stressed primarily in at room temperature or moderately elevated tem-
shear, and then the area will be adequate to assure perature for several weeks prior to test, measured
that the stress will be below levels which can short-time shear strength may decrease up to 30%.
cause tensile, creep, or fatigue failure. Reported strengths are sometimes at variance due
The mechanical properties of a soldered cop- to differences in procedures for soldering and
per joint are different from those of the bulk testing. The properties reported here for soldered
solder itself and depend on a number of process copper may not apply on other materials.
134/SOLDERING MANUAL

Table 23.11 11 -Some properties of low melting solder of bismuth

A B

Solder composition(%): Bi 45 49
Pb 23 18
Sn 8 12
Other 5Cd 21 In
19 In
Liquidus o C, "F 47, 117 58, 136
Solidus C, ° F 47, 117 58, 136
Pasty range o C, o F 0 0
Specific gravity 20° C, 68° F 8.9 8.6
Density kg/m 3 8850 8600
lbs /in. 3 0.32 0.31
Tensile strength MPa 37 43
psi 5400 6300
Brinell hardness 12 14
Electrical conductivity 4.5%* 3%*
as% of copper (1.72 microhms/cm)
Thermal conductivity, solid 0.05*
(cal/cm2 /cm/° C/s)
(copper is 0.94)
Specific heat, liquid (cal/grC) 0.035* 0.032*
Latent heat offusion J/kg 14 000*
(btu/lb) 6"'
Coefficient of linear thermal
expansion, mm/mm/° C mean
Volume change liquid-solid -1.4% -1.5%
Volume change (linear 0.05% 0.05%
growth on solidification)

11 see references
* Approximate value
Note: A segment of the safety device industry sometimes defmes a yield temperature as the temperature unde1
which the solder will rupture under a standard load.
 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Soldered Joints /135

c D E F G

50 55 58 42 48
27 45 42 38 28
13 II 15
IOCd 9Cd 9Sb

70, 158 124,255 138, 281 70, 158 103, 217

70, 158 124,255 138, 281 88, 190 227, 440
0 0 0 18, 32 124,223
9.4 10.3 8.7 9.4 9.5
9400 10 300 8700 9450 9500
0.339 0.371 0.315 0.341 0.343
41 44 55 38 90
6000 6400 8000 5500 13 000
9 10 22 9 19
4%* 3%* 4.5%* 4%* 3%*

0.045* 0.04* 0.05* 0.05*

0.040* 0.03* 0.045* 0.040* 0.045*

32 500* 16 000* 46 500* 23 000*
14* 7* 20* 10*
0.000022 0.000015 0.000024

-1.7% -1.5% +0.77% -2% -1.5%

0.6% 0.3% 0.05%* 0.3% 0.5%
 136/SOLDERlNG MANUAL

40 000
6000

n:l
"jq_ 30 000 ~

~ 4000
.r:.
0,
c c
~ ~
iii
(ij 20 000 ~
Q) Q)
..c ..c
U) U)

2000
10 000

0
0 20 40 80 100
Percent tin

Fig. 23.1-Shear strengths of copper joints soldered with tin-lead solders (Ref. 12)

Shear strength decreases with increasing those of the 95% tin-5% antimony solders
temperatures, as shown in Fig. 23.2. Many sol- (Ref. 15).
ders, especially those high in lead content, re- Pressure ratings for soldered copper tubing
main ductile at cryogenic temperatures (to at least with either wrought copper or cast bronze pres-
- 195° C [ =- 320° F]), and strength increases sure fittings are based upon creep strengths
significantly with decreasing temperature below shown in Fig. 23.3. Safety factors are included to
room temperature (Ref. 13). make allowance for defects in workmanship and
stress concentrations. Rated working pressure for
joints in soldered copper tube systems are given
Creep Strength
in Table 23.12.
The bursting strength of a soldered connection
The creep strength in shear of a soldered cop- is determined by increasing the pressure in the
per joint is considerably less than its short-time tubing until failure occurs. Normally, the duration
shear strength. Creep strength is defined as the of the test is short, and stresses close to the shear
maximum stress that will not cause failure under strength of the joint would be required to rupture
continuous application of the load. Failure can the solder bond. However, the tube itself nor-
occur at stresses less than 10% of the short-time mally bursts before the joint fails. The area of the
strength. The creep strengths of a number of fittings is large enough so that the tube splits
solders, including 95% tin-5% antimony and 50% before the solder fails. In contrast, pressure rat-
lead-50% tin solders, the two solders most often ings based on the creep strength of the solder joint
used in plumbing installations, are presented in are much lower. Table 23.13 compares the calcu-
Fig. 23.3. Although these two solders have simi- lated bursting pressures of soldered copper joints
lar short-time shear strengths, there are consider- with their pressure ratings. The calculated burst
able differences between their creep strengths, strengths are more than twenty times higher than
the 95% tin-5% antimony solder being consider- the ratings. This provides a large margin of safety
ably stronger. Tin base solders with from 3.5 to against failures due to pressure surges and other
5% silver offer creep strengths comparable to sudden or short-time applications of stresses.
 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Soldered Joints! 137

Temperature, oc
0 50 100 150 200

·;;;
a.
6000 ..
c..
...
~
.s::;'
en
c
...
.s::;'

~ .,c
en

..
ti
.,...
.r:.
4000
95% tin-5% antimony
.,.....
t;
(/) .r:.
(/)

2000

0~----------~------------~----------~----------~
0 100 200 300
Temperature, oF

l'ig. 23.2 -Shear strengths at elevated temperatures for copper joints soldered with 50% tin-50% lead
and 95%-Y!f, antimony alloys (Ref.I2)
Temperature, oc
0 50 150 200 250

Curve Solder
1 95% tin-5% antimony
2 95% lead-5% tin
3 50% tin-50",{, lead
·;;;
a.
...
.s::;'
.,c
en

t;
.,.,a. 600 2
u
400

200
2

00 100 200 300 400 500

Temperature, oF
Fig. 23.3-Creep strengths at elevated temperatures for copper joints soldered with several alloys
(Ref.l4)
138/SOLDERING MANUAL
Tensile Strength the flux used. Also, it has been shown that solder-
ing in an inert atmosphere can improve the peel
Typical tensile strengths for butt joints sol-
test properties obtained with some fluxes.
dered with five different lead-tin solders on copper
are presented in Table 23.14. Tensile strengths Fracture Initiation Strength
are much higher than shear strengths and also
At the start of the peel test, the applied load
increase with increasing tin content up to the
rises to an abrupt maximum and then rapidly
eutectic composition. Butt joints are not nor-
drops to a relatively constant peel strength. The
mally recommended for soldered systems be-
high initial load is necessary to initiate a crack
cause applied stresses and strains will tend to
which then propagates at lower loads. Typical
concentrate in the very narrow layer of solder.
values of the fracture initiation strength of sol-
Also, any defects in the solder· layer will act as
dered copper are given in Fig. 23.5. Fracture
sharp crack starters when the joint is stressed in
initiation strengths may be several times higher
tension.
than the corresponding peel strengths.
Peel Strength Torsional Strength
In some applications stresses tend to tear open When a soldered joint is twisted, torsional
the solder bond rather than shear it. For these shear stresses are developed in the solder. The
cases the peel strength of the soldered copper strength of such a joint will be somewhat differ-
joint is of interest. To measure peel strength, two ent from that found in lap shear because stresses
thin strips are soldered together at one end to are not constant across the cross-section. Plastic
form a sort of wishbone specimen. The bond is deformation may occur, leading to a stress pat-
then broken by peeling the strips apart, and the tern which is difficult to analyze. Torsional
load required to propagate a crack is recorded. strengths of butt-joined copper bars have been
Peel strength, like all mechanical properties, is determined for a number of solders. The reported
dependent upon the soldering parameters. Exam- values in Table 23. 15 do not take into account the
ples of the influence of flux and soldering temp- stress gradient, so the values appear to be higher
erature are shown in Fig. 23.4. The optimum than the shear strengths measured in lap shear for
temperature for soldering appears dependent on the same solders.
Soldering temperature, oc
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750

Fluxes F,, F2 , F3 , F4

"iii
a. t1l
a.
.c ..><
0, 100 .1:5:
c: 0,
~ F. c:
Cii ~
n; Cii
Q)
a. n;
Q)
a.

Soldering temperature,°F
Fig. 23.4-Peel strength of copper joints soldered with four fluxes over a range of temperatures
(Ref.l7)
 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Soldered Joints I 139
Table 23.12-Rated internal working pressure for joints in copper tube systems
Environment
Solder used Service
Water and noncorrosive liquids and gases
for joints temperature
Tube size, types K L and M
'
6.4mm (\4 in.) to 31.8mm (I \4 in.) to 63.5mm (2'h in.) to 127mm (5 in.) to
25.4mm (I in.) incl. 50.8mm (2 in.) incl. 102mm (4 in.) incl. 203mm (8 in.) incl.
oc op MPa psi MPa psi MPa psi MPa psi
38 100 1.4 200 1.2 175 0.9 !50 0.9 130
50% tin-
66 150 1.0 150 0.9 125 0.6 100 0.6 90
50% lead 70
93 200 0.7 100 0.6 90 0.5 75 0.5
solder a
121 250 0.6 85 0.5 75 0.3 50 0.3 50
38 100 3.4 500 2.8 400 2.1 300 1.9 270
95% tin-
66 150 2.8 400 2.4 350 1.9 275 1.7 250
5% antimony
93 200 2.1 300 1.7 250 1.4 200 1.2 180
solder a
121 250 1.4 200 1.2 175 1.0 150 0.9 135
NOTE: Ratings up to 203 mm (8 in.) are those given in ANSI Standard 816.22 ''Wrought Copper and Bronze''
Solder-Joint Pressure Fittings'' and ANSI 816.18 ''Cast Bronze Solder-Joint Pressure Fittings''
a. Solder alloys are covered by ASTM Standard Specification 832.

Table 23.13-Burst pressures* and pressure ratings for soldered coppeY tube
Calculated burst* *
pressure for Pressure
Tube size, soldered joint, rating at 38° C (100° F)
mm in. Solder MPa psi MPa psi
12.7 112 50% lead-50% tin 99 14 400 1.4 200
19.1 314 50% lead-50% tin 106 15 400 1.4 200
25.4 I 50% lead-50% tin 109 15 900 1.4 200
50.8 2 50% lead-50% tin 80 II 600 1.2 175
12.7 112 95% tin-5% antimony 99 14 400 3.4 500
19.1 3/4 95% tin-5% antimony 106 15 400 3.4 500
25.4 I 95% tin-5% antimony 109 15 900 3.4 500
50.8 2 95% tin-5% antimony 80 II 600 2.8 400
*Typical shear strength of 31 MPa (4,500 psi) assumed for both solders
**Tube will fail at lower pressures.

Table 23.14-Tensile strength of soldered copper butt joints

Solder Tensile, strength 6
Tin, wt.% Lead, wt.% MPa psi
20 80 78 II 300
30 70 95 13 800
40 60 116 16 800
50 50 125 18 200
63 37 135 19 600
"see references
140/SOLDERING MANUAL

Soldering temperature, oc

97.5% Pb-1% Sn-1.5% Ag

Fluxes F,, F2 , F3 , F4

F,

F~
F, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ ~

600 700
Soldering temperature,°F

Fig. 23.5-Fracture initiation strength for copper joints soldered with four fluxes over a range of
temperatures (Ref.17)

Factors Influencing Strength

ing tin content and temperature of the solder bath.
Reactions take place at the interface between These data show that soldering time should be
the liquid and solid during soldering. These reac- minimized and that time is most critical when the
tions account for the apparent wetting of the solid solder has a high tin content.
by the liquid and influence the strength of the The volume of liquid solder in contact with the
final joint. During the soldering of copper with solid is also important. The larger the volume,
tin alloys, intermetallic compounds CusSns and the more rapid the reaction. Fig. 23.9 shows that
Cu 3 Sn form at the solid-liquid interface. They the width of the reaction layer increases as the
may grow to appreciable thicknesses, and as volume of the solder between the mating surfaces
thicknesses increases, strength decreases. For increases.
soldered copper and brass, Fig. 23.6 shows the Joint spacing has long been recognized as im-
reduction in peel strength as the thickness of the portant to the strength of soldered fittings. Most
reaction layer increases. investigators report that a clearance of the order
Intermetallic layers will grow during storage of 0. 1 to 0. 15 mm ( =0. 003 to 0. 006 in.) provides
or service at room or elevated temperatures, and maximum shear strength for copper soldered
this can reduce the mechanical properties. For with tin-lead solders. The influence of joint spac-
example, the total intermetallic compound thick- ing on shear strength may be seen in Fig. 23. 10.
ness on 60% tin-40% lead solder coated copper The foregoing discussion indicates the impor-
has been observed to follow the relations shown tance of treating each solder problem individu-
in Fig. 23.7. The presence of stress during ele- ally. By understanding the effects of design,.
vated temperature exposure may alter the growth equipment, and process parameters, the proper-
rate of the compounds. ties of soldered copper may be optimized without
Fig. 23.8 shows that the rate of reaction be- making major changes in manufacturing mate-
tween solder and copper increases with increas- rials and equipment.
 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Soldered Joints/141
0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035mm
35
37% Pb-63% Sn Solder 225
0 510° F
30 Alloy 260: 6. 680° F
0 850° F 200
e 510° F
Copper 102: & 680° F
• 850°F 175
co
·u; a..
-"
a.
~ £Cl
0, c
c ~
~ 1iJ
1iJ Qi
Qi Q)
Q) a..
a..
15 100
Alloy 260

75
10

50

Reaction layer thickness, 0.001 in.

Fig. 23.6--Inftuence of reaction layer thicknesses on the peel
strength of copper no. I02 and copper alloy no. 260 (Ref.19)
7 14 28 56 112 224 350 da'f.:,..:::S:....__ __,
~ 170°C 1 "5

35

1.25
30
E
::!.

"'c"'
Q)
25 1.0 "'
Q)
.s:::
0
-"
0 135°C .s
£ 6
-o 20 0.75
c u)
"'
:::J
0 Q)
a. c
E 15 -"
0
0
0 E
co 0.5 1-

~ 10
100°C
0.25
5
-...-7ooc

2 4 6 8 10
v'llrlle (days)
Fig. 23.7-Compound thickness when 60% tin-40% lead solder coatings on annealed copper are
stored for various times and temperatures (Ref. 20)
142/SOLDERING MANUAL

10,000
ecopper102 0
0 Copper alloy 260

1000
510 F

-c:
0
c:·-
Oll"l
:;o
oo
mo• 100

I
(I)
.... o
.... "0
.Em
Eg
(I) (I)

i=C.

0
10

Tin 37 70 85 95 Lead
(100) Solder Composition, % (1 00)

Fig. 23.8-Effect of temperature and tin content on the reaction

rates of lead-tin solders with copper and brass (Ref. 21) (Test data
reported in U.S. customary units)
 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Soldered Joints/143
mm

1.0 ,....-"""""T-'o~·;:::50::......--r-..:1,.0r:1-.-....:1_,.5=2~.--==2'T.o~3~.--=2;:r.5:.;;:4__, 0 . 025

850 F
1 minute
--------o 0.020

O.Q15
.~ E
00 E
ci
0.010

0.005

0.020 0.040 0.060 0.080 0.100

Volume per unit area, inches

Fig. 23.9-Influence of volume of solder on the reaction of copper alloy no. 260 with 70% lead-
30% tin (Ref.21)

mm

·~ 6000
s::."
0>
c:
~
1ii
(ij
Ql
.I:.
(/)

Joint spacing , inches

Fig. 23.10-Effect of joint spacing on the shear strength of copper soldered with 56% tin-44%
lead alloy and zinc chloride flux (Ref.22)
144/SOLDERING MANUAL

Table 23.15---Torsional shear strength of soldered copper *

Solder, % by wt. Torsional shear strength,
Sn Pb Sb Ag MPa psi
100 47 6880
50 50 52 7580
63 37 55 8000
40 60 57 8280
95 5 76 II 080
95 5 73 10 610
98 2 30 4420
*Copper rods 20 mm ('¥. in.) in diameter were butted together and joined with solder in a clearance of
0.13 mm (0. 005 in.) (Ref. 5)
REFERENCES
I. Greenfield, L. T., and Forrester, P. G. The
14. Maupin, A.R., and Swanger, W.H. 1942.
Strength of sleeve joints in copper tubing
properties of tin alloys. Tin Research Insti-
made with various lead-base solders. NBS
tute, Publication 155.
Report BMS 83, May 5.
2. Baker, W.A. 1939. Creep properties of soft
solder and soft soldered joints. J. institute of 15. Zurn, H., and Nesse, T. 1966. Contribution
metals: 65. to the long-time test behavior of soldered
3. American Society for Metals. 1961. Metals joints made with tin solders at room tempera-
handbook. lst ed. ture. Schweissen and Schneiden 18:2-10,
4. Latin, A. 1946. Capillary flow in the solder- January.
ing process and some measurements of the 16. Miller, V.R., Schwaneke, A. E., and Jan-
penetration coefficients of soft solders. J. sen, J. W. 1967. Test for tin-lead solders and
Institute of Metals: 72. solder joints. U.S. Department of Interior,
5. Lead Industries Association. 1952. Lead in Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations
modern industry. 6963.
17. Beat, R. E. 1969. How soldering process
6. Christian, J.L., and Wilson, J.F. Tensile
variables affect joint strength. CDA Report
and shear properties of several solders at
804/9, August.
cryogenic temperatures. Society of Auto- 18. Rhines, F. N., and Anderson, W.A. 1941.
motive Engineers, Publication 595E.
Substitute solders. Metals and alloys,
7. Nightingale, S.J., and Hudson, O.F. 1942.
November: 704-711.
Tin solders: a modern study of the properties 19.Howes, M.A.H., and Saperstein, Z.P.
of tin solders and soldered joints. British 1968. Mechanical properties of soldered
Non-Ferrous Metals Research Association. joints in copper alloys. CDA Report 801/8,
8. American Smelting and Refining Co. 1961. June.
Soldet-its nature, properties and uses. 20. Unsworth, D. A., and MacKay, C. A. 1972.
9. Hansen, M. 1958. Constitution of binary al- A preliminary report on growth of compound
loys. New York: McGraw-Hill. layers on various metal bases plated with tin
10. McKeown, J. 1948. Properties of soft sol- and tin alloys. CDA-ASM Conference on
ders and soldered joints. British Non- Copper, October 16-19, 1972, Cleveland,
Ferrous Metals Research Association, Ohio.
Monograph 5. 21. Howes, M.A.H., and Saperstein, Z.P.
11. American Smelting and Refining Co. 1962. 1967. The reaction of tin-lead solders with
ASARCOLo fusible alloys. copper alloys. CDA Report 804/7, Sep-
12. Maupin, A.R., and Swanger, W.H. 1940. tember.
Strength ofsoft-soldered joints in copper tub- 22. Nightingale, S.J., and Hudson, O.F. 1942.
ing. NBS Report BMS 58, September. Tin solders. British Non-Ferrous Metals Re-
13. Christian, J. L. 1963. Design criteria for sol- search Association.
ders in cryogenic environment. Elec-
trotechnology 71,6:109-112.
INDEX

abrasion: cleaning, 37; solders, 95 capillary flow: in joint design, 23-26,fig., 26; in tin-
abrasion tools: for aluminum alloys, 95; for magnesium antimony-lead solders, 8
alloys, 98 capillary tests, I, 51
accelerated aging, fig., 53 carbon tetrachloride, as a health hazard, 115
acid cleaning, 35-37 cast copper and copper alloy, table, 67
acids: for cleaning, 35-37; inorganic, 14, table, 15 cast irons, 105, 106
activated rosin fluxes, 16 caustic cleaners for aluminum alloys, 95
age-hardenable alloys, 79 chemical hazards, 115
alloying, 2, 125 chlorides in fluxes, 15
alloys, melting and solidification process of, 3 chromium plated steels, 72
aluminum and aluminum alloys, 5, 10, 13, 91-96, circuit board joints,figs ., 32, 33
fig .• 93 cleaning, 2, 35-39; with acid, 35; by abrasive
aluminum coated steels, 71 techniques, 35; by chemical means, 35, 73; by
American Society for Testing Materials. See ASTM degreasing, 35; by mechanical means, 37, 120; of
American Standard Z 49 .1, 113, 114 pipe and tube, 120; of precious metal, 108; of
amines, in intermediate fluxes, 15 printed circuits, 112; of stainless steels, 75-76
ammonium chloride, 14, 17 clearances: for joints in steel, 70; for coated steel joints,
antimony, 5, 7, 8, 123, table, 6, 7, 129 71
ASTM,5,11,130 coated copper base alloys, 65
coated steels, 71
base metal: alloying of, 125; corrosion of by flux re- cold solder joint, table, 57, fig., 58
sidues, 49; selection of, 92; selection of, in joint commercial forms of solder, table, 12
design, 21-34 contaminants: ionic,fig., 61; surface, 13
bell and spigot joints, 87 contamination checks, 61-62
bismuth: soldering of, 10; properties of low melting conveyors, 48
alloys of, 133, table, /34. See also fusible alloys cooling method, 2
blowpipe for tin soldering, 101 copper and copper alloys, 1, 63-68, tables, 66-68,
brass: solders, 63; surface preparation of, 64 fig. 65
bridging, 33,fig., 59 copper tips, in soldering irons, 43
Brinell hardness, 60, 127 copper tube, sizes and weights of, tables, 118
bronzes: flux for soldering, 19; solders for, 63 corrosion, 91
butt joints, 21, 22,fig., 22, 138, table, 139 corrosive fluxes, 2, 14-15, 64,70
cable sheath joints, 88,figs., 84-86 creep strength, 127, 128, tables, 129, 131, 132
cadmium coated steel, 72 creep test, 60
cadmium-silver solder, 9, table, 10 cup joint in lead pipe, 88
cadmium-zinc solders, 10, table, 10
calorized tips, 42 defects in soldered joints, table, 57, fig., 58
can manufacturing industry, soldering for, 4, 73 design of soldered joints. See joint design

145
146/Jndex

destructive testing, 51-62; fatigue test, 60; impact test, table, 15; for lead and lead alloys, 87; for mag-
61; peel test, 59; shear test, table, 60; stress rupture nesium, 98; for nickel and high-nickel alloys, 80;
test, 60; tension test, 59 for nickel plated steels, 72; noncorrosive, 16, 20;
dewetting,jig., 59 paste, 16; for pipe and tube, 121, 123; for plumbing
dip soldering, 4, 43 and heating applications, 117; for precious metals,
direct spread test, 51 108; for printed circuits, Ill; reaction, 17, 94;
disturbed soldered joint,jig. 58 selection of, 18, 19, table, 18; self-neutralizing, 2;
dry flux and solder for cast irons, 105 for stainless steels, 76; for steels, 70; surface con-
dry flux for steels, 70 taminants of, 13; for temeplate, 72; testing of, 20;
dust, metal, 115 theories of, 13; for tin, 102; for tinplate, 72; types
dye penetrant inspection, 58 of, 14-17;zincchloride, 14, 15, 17-19,49;forzinc
coated steels, 74
edge dip test, 52 fluxless soldering: magnesium and magnesium alloys,
effects of impurities on solders, 4-5 97-99; of aluminum alloys, 95
electrical conductivity of solder, 127, tables, 127, 134 flux removal, 2, 47, 49, 50
electrical connections, 27-33, tables and figs., 30-33 flux residues, 14; corrosive, 49-50; on aluminum al-
electrical heating, precautions for, 114 loys, 91; paste, 50
electrical resistance method for testing soldered joints, focused infrared soldering, 46
59 fracture initiation strength of joints, 138, table, 140
electrically heated soldering irons, 41-42. See also fusible alloys, 10, table, 10. See bismuth
soldering irons
electrochemical surface cleaning for cast irons, 105 galvanized iron. See zinc coated steels
electrodeposited coatings, 73 gas-handling equipment, 114
electroplating, 39, 95 globule solderability test,jig., 52
embrittlement of nickel and high nickel by lead solders, gold, 107, table, 108
79
environmental tests, 61 hardness: of lead joints, 83; tests for, 60, 127
equipment, 41-43 hazards: from chemicals, 115; from fumes, 114; health
etching, 37 and safety, 113-15; from heat, 113
eutectic compositions, 3 heat conductivity: of aluminum coated steels, 71; of
excess solder in joints, table, 57, jig., 58 cast iron, 105-06; of magnesium alloys, 98
expansion, thermal. See thermal expansion heating methods, 2; for cast iron, 105- 06; for copper
and copper alloys, 64; for lead and lead alloys, 87;
for magnesium, 98; for nickel and high-nickel sol-
face fed joints, 48
ders, 79; for pipe and tubing, 121, 122; for stainless
failure, cyclic, 49
steels, 76; for steels, 69; for temeplate, 72; for tin,
fast cooling, 2
101-02
fatigue: in lead and lead alloys, 33; tests for, 60
hot gas soldering, 46
Federal Specifications, 16; address for obtaining, II;
high-nickel alloys, composition of, table, 80
limiting impurities in tin-lead solders, 4, 5
hoses for gas fuel, 114
flame heated soldering irons, 41
hydrochloric acid, 15, 17; for acid cleaning, 36
flow point, 3
hydrofluoric acid, 15; for acid cleaning, 36
fluidity of molten solder, I
fluorides in fluxes, 15 impact strength, tables, 126, 129
flux action,. !3,fig., 14 impurities, 5
fluxes, 13-20; activated rosin, 16; for air conditioning indium solders, II , tables, 11, 108
and refrigerating equipment, 17; for aluminum and induction heating, 4, 44, 114
aluminum alloys, 94; for aluminum coated steels, inorganic salts and acids, 14, table, 15
71; ammonium chloride and zinc chloride mix- inspection and testing of soldered joints, 51-62
tures, 123; for auto bodies, 17; for auto radiators, insufficient solder in joint, table, 57
17; for cadmium coated steels, 72; for cast irons, intergranular penetration, 92
105-06; chemical, 94; corrosive, 2, 14-15, 17-19, intermediate fluxes, 15-16, table, 15
table, 18; for coated steels, 71; for copper and intermetallic compounds, 8, 140
copper alloys, 63; intermediate constituents of, 15, ionic contaminants,.fig., 61
19, table, 15; inorganic salts and acids in, 14-15, Izod impact test, table, 129
 Index/ 147
jigging, 2, 24,fig., 25, table, 31 orthophosphoric acid, 15; for acid cleaning, 36
joint clearance, 23, 24, 26, fig .. 26, 133; for coated oven soldering, 4, 46
steels, 71; for pipe and tube, 117; for steel, 70; for oxide films: on aluminum alloys, 91; on magnesium
tin-antimony-lead solders, 8; for tin-lead solders, 4 alloys, 97; removal of, 13
joint design, 21-33,figs., 22-26,32,33, tables, 28-32;
for aluminum alloys, 94-95; for lead and lead al- palladium, 107
loys, 87; for magnesium, 98; for nickel and nickel paste fluxes, 16
alloys, 80; for precious metals, 108; for stainless paste solder, 16
steel, 77; for steel, 70; for terneplate, 72; for tin, peel test, 59,fig., 60, 138, 140, table, 141
102-03 percentage of solder fill, 23,fig., 26
joint fit-up, 2 personal cleanliness, 115
joint properties, 21, 129-43, tables, 129-35, 134-42, pewter soldering, I 01-03, fig., 102
figs., 136-38, 140-43 pipe and tubes, 117-24, tables, 118-20, fig., 124
joints, defects in, table, 57; in pipes and tubes, 124 pipe joints in lead and lead alloys, 87
pipe of tin, 10 1-03
land spacing, 27 plated magnesium, 99
lap joints, 21, 22, 27 plumbers soil, 83
lap shear test, 59 polished stainless steel soldering, 76
lead and lead alloys, 83-89; fatigue of, 83; fluxes of, post soldering treatment: for cast irons, I 06; for copper
87; hardness of, 83; heating methods, 87; mechani- and copper alloys, 65; for lead alloys, 88; for mag-
cal cleaning of, 83; mechanical properties of, 83; nesium alloys, 98-99; for nickel and high-nickel
post soldering treatment of, 88; soldering of, 88; alloys, 80; for pipe and tubes, 123; for precious
solders for, 83; surface preparation of, 83; metals, table, 108; for stainless steels, 77; for tin
technique for wiping,figs., 84-86; thermal expan- and tin alloys, 103
sion of, figs., 28-29; types of joints of, 87, 88; potassium chloride in flux, 15
wetting ability of, I precious metal~. 107-0S,fig., 108, table, 108
lead-bismuth solders, 91 precoating, 2, 37; for indium solders, 10; of nickel and
lead pipe and plumbing joints, 87, 88 high-nickel alloys, 79-80; of steel, 69
lead pull test, fig., 60 preformed leads,fig., 33
lead-silver solders, 9, tables, 9, 11 preheating in wave soldering, 47
lead-tin antimony, 128-29 pressure ratings for copper tubing, 136, table, 139
lead-tin solders, 3-5, fig., 5,table, 6-7, pressure testing, 58 table, 139
liquidus temperatures, I, 3-12, 132-35, tables, 6-7, pretinning, 95-96
9-12, 132-35,fig .. 5 printed circuits, 32-33, table, 32, figs., 32, 33, 61,
lock joints, 22-24,fig ., 23; forlead and lead alloys, 87 !09-12,fig., JJO
low temperature (room temperature) properties of sol- procedures for soldering, I, 2
der, 125, table, 126 (cryogenic) 128, table, 129 process,soldering: torch, 43; dip, 43; induction heating,
low temperature soldering, 133, table, 134 44; resistance heating, 45; oven, 46; ultrasonic, 46;
focused infrared, 46; hot gas, 47
magnesium and magnesium alloys, 97-99, table, 98 properties of soldered joints, 21, 129-43
melting characteristics, 3-ll,fig ., 5, tables, 6-7, 9-JJ, properties of solders at elevated temperatures, 128
132-35
metal coatings on steels, table, 74
motor-generator equipment for induction heating, 45 radiators, 4, 25
movement in soldered joint, fig., 58 radiography, 59, I24,fig., 124
reaction fluxes for aluminum and aluminum alloys, 94
nickel and cobalt plated steels, 72
reactions between solder and copper, I40,figs., 142,
nickel and high nickel alloys, 79-81, table, 80; acids
143
for cleaning, 37
removal of surface films by ultrasonic vibration, 46,
nitric acid, 36
95-97
nondestructive testing of soldered joints, 57-59, 124
repair of printed circuits, 112
organ pipes of soldered tin,fig ., 103 residues, 14, 49-50. See also flux removal; flux
organic acids in intermediate fluxes, 15 residues
organic hydrohalides used in intermediate fluxes, 15 resistance heating, 45; of tubular parts, fig., 122; flux
ornamental trim of soldered stainless steel, 77 selection, 32
148/Index

rhodium, 107 98; for nickel alloys, 79; for nickel and cobalt
rosin base flux, 2, 9, 16, 20, 102 plated steels, 72; for precious metals, 107-08, ta-
rosin joint, table, 57, fig., 58 ble, 108; preplacement of, fig., 24; for printed
rotary dip test, 53,fig., 53 circuits, 111; properties of, 125-44; for sealing, 88;
for stainless steels, 75; for steel, 69; for tin, 101;
safety and health protection, 113-15, 136, table, 139 tin, table, 11; tin-antimony, 8, table, 7; tin-
sanitary cans, 73 antimony-lead, 8; tin-cadmium, 98; tin-lead, 4,
sealing solder, 88 table, 6, 91, 93, 97, 98; tin-silver, 8, table, 7;
self-jigging support, 24, 25, 3l,figs., 25, 31 tin-zinc, 8, table, 9, 91, 93, 97, 98; tin-zinc-
shear strength, 125, 130, table, 130 cadmium, 97, 98; for zinc, 5; zinc-aluminum, 10,
shear tests, 60,fig., 60 table, 10; for zinc coated steels, 73
siiver, 7, 107, 108, table, 108 solid state converters for induction heating, 45
socket joint for tubes, 23,fig., 23 solidus temperature, 1, 3, 4, 98
sodium chloride in fluxes, 15, 17 solvent degreasing, 35
solder coatings on aluminum alloys, 95 spray gun soldering, 43
solder cups, 117 stainless steels, 75-77
solder joint defects, 57-59, table, 57, fig., 58, 59 stannous chloride in fluxes, 15
solder pots, 113, 114 stearic acid as a flux, 83
solderability, 52-55; of aluminum alloys, table, 93; of steels, 69-70
cadmium plated steels, 72; of copper alloys, table, stress during elevated temperatures; 131 , table, 131 ,
68; of high-nickel alloys, table, 80 140,fig., 141
solderability tests, 1, 52-55,figs., 52-56 stress rupture tests, 60
soldered cable joints, 88 substrate composition, 133
soldered joints: corrosion of, 91; designs of, 21-33; of sulphuric acid for cleaning, 36
electrical circuits, tables, 30-32; inspection and surface contaminants, 13
testing of, 51-62; of lead and lead alloys, 87, 88; of surface films. See oxides
printed circuits, 109-12; of stainless steel at high surface preparation, 35-39; of aluminum and aluminum
temperatures, 76; properties of, 129-44; visual alloys, 64, 95; of cast irons, 105; of copper and
examination of, 57 copper alloys, 36, 64; oflead and lead alloys, 83; of
soldering: applications of, 2; of aluminum alloys, magnesium 98; of nickel alloys, 37, 79; of precious
91-96; of cadmium coated.steels, 71, 72; of coated metals, 108; of printed circuits, 111; of stainless
steels, 71-74; of copper and copper alloys, 63-68; at steels, 37, 75; of steel, 69; of tin, 101
elevated temperatures, 131; equipment for, 41-43; surface tension of solder, 127; test, 55-56,fig., 56
of lead and lead alloys, 83-89; of lead cable sleeves, table,l28
88; at low temperatures, 133; of magnesium alloys, tank-to-tube plate joint, 26,fig ., 26
97-99; of nickel and nickel alloys, 79-81; of nickel tensile strength, 8, 125, table, 126; test, 60
plated steels, 72; of pewter, 101-03,fig., 102; of terneplate, 69, 72, table, 74
pipe and tubes, 117-23; of plated magnesium, 99; testing of soldered joints, 51-62
of precious metals, 102-08; principles of, 1; of thermal conductivity: of copper, 63; of magnesium, 98;
printed circuits, 109-12; processes of, 43-48; of of stainless steel, 76; of solders, table, 127
stainless steels, 75-77; of steels, 69-70; steps in, 2; thermal expansion, 125, 127; of aluminum and
of terneplate, 72; of tin, 101-03; of tubular joints, aluminum alloys, 91; of metals and alloys, tables,
117, 121 28, 29;.of solders and base metals, 21; of stainless
soldering irons, 41-48,figs. 42, 44; for lead joints, 87; steels, 26
for soldering steel, 69; grounding of, 114 thickness of joint properties, 129
soldering temperature, 133 time, soldering, 130
solders, 3-12; abrasion, 95; for aluminum alloys, tin and tin alloys, 101-03; in tin-antimony solders, 8,
91-96; for brass pipe and tubing, 123; cadmium- table, 7; in tin-antimony-lead solders, 8; in tin-
silver, 9, table, 10; cadmium-zinc, 10, table, 10, cadmium solders, 97, 98; in tiv-Iead-alloy system,
91-92; for cast iron, 105; for coated steels, 71-74; fig., 5; in tin-lead solders, tables, 6-7, 89, 97, 98; in
commercial forms of, table, 12; for copper and tin-silver solders, 8, table, 7; in tin-zinc solders,
copper alloys, 63, 123; fusible alloy, 10, table, 10; 8-9, table, 10, 97, 98; in tin-zinc-cadmium solders,
indium, 11, table, 11; for lead and lead alloys, 83; 97,98
lead-bismuth, 91, 93; lead-silver, 9, table, 11; for tin coated steels, 73
magnesium and magnesium alloys, 97-98, table, tin pipe, 102-03
 /ndex/149

tinning, I warpage, 2
torch soldering, 4, 43; of pewter, fig., 102; of tin water soluble flux residue, 50
alloys, 101 wave fluxing, 47
torsional strength, 138, table, 144; tests, 59 wave shapes, 48
TRI-Moore test, 53 wave soldering, 47-48,fig., 65
Tube connections: socket joint, fig., 26; tank-to-tube wetting characteristics, I, 2; of aluminum alloys,
plate,fig., 23 93-94; of solders for magnesium, 97; testing of, I,
53,figs., 54, 55; of tin:Jead solders, 4
width of reaction layer, !40,fig., 143
ultrasonic soldering, 46; of aluminum alloys, 95-96; of
wiped joints, 87,jigs., 84-86
magnesium alloys, 97
wiping solder, 83
wire connections, 27, 30-32,fig., 32
vacuum tube oscillator for induction heating, 45 wrapping test, 51
ventilation, 113, 115
venting of closed-end joint, 23,fig., 23 zinc, I, 5, 10, tables, 10, 11; cadmium-zinc solders,
viscosity, table, 128 IO,tabl;, 10, 91, 92, tin-zinc solders, 8, IO,table,
visual examination, 57 11, 91, 92; zinc-aluminum solder, 10, table, 10
visual method for grading solder defects, table, 57, zinc chloride, 2, 14, 17, 18, 19
fig., 58 zinc coated sheets, 73