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HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous system is fully restricted to animals and not found in plants. The main function is control and
coordination of various body functions (responding, understanding and memorising) through neurons
and hence also called as neural system.

Neurons (Basic unit of nervous system)

It functions by detecting and receiving information from different sense organs, i.e., receptors in the
form of stimuli and transmit the stimuli to the central nervous system.
Neuron or nerve cell is a structural and functional unit of neural tissue. Longest cells present in the
human body. Human neural system has about 100 billion neurons and they are mostly present in brain.
Structurally, neuron has following two main parts
Cell Body
It is also known as cyton or soma that very in size and
form. It may be irregular, spherical, oval, round, star-
shaped or pyramidal.
They have neurofibrils and Nissl’s granules. Neurofibrils
the impulse transmission while Nissl’s granules or Nissl’s
bodies are like rough endoplasmic reticulum with
numerous attached free ribosomes and polysomes, i.e.,
synthesise proteins for the cell.
Some neuro-tubules are also present that help in
maintaining the shape of the neuron.
These are associated with metabolic maintenance and
growth.

Neuritis
The processes associated with neurons are called neuritis.
These are mainly of two types
(i) Dendrites These are usually shorter, tapering and much branched structures, which contains neurofibrils, neurotubules and
Nissl’s granules. They conduct nerve impulse towards the cell body and this process is called afferent process (i.e., the receiving
process).
(ii) Axon It is a very long structure of uniform thickness. The part of cyton from where the axon arises is known as axon hillock. It is
mainly dependent on cell body for the supply of protein.
Each branch of axon fiber terminates as a bulb like structure called synaptic knob that possess special chemicals called
neurotransmitters.
Axons are mainly of two types
• Myelinated Axons are nerve fibers enveloped with Schwann cells that form a myelin sheath around the axon. It mainly
found in spinal and cranial nerves.
• Unmyelinated Axons are nerve fiber enveloped by a Schwann cell that does not form a myelin sheath around the axon and
is commonly found in autonomous and motor neurons somatic neural system.
Types of Neurons
Sensory Neurons (Afferent neurons) They conduct impulses from receptors to central nervous system. The terminal ends of
dendrites become modified to form receptor and acts as sensory.
Inter Neurons They act as connectors and functions in connecting the sensory and motor neuron. It mainly carries stimuli in brain
and spinal cord.
Motor Neurons They conduct impulses from central nervous system to the effectors i.e., they mainly transmit impulse from brain
and spinal cord to the muscle or gland, which will respond to the stimulus.
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On the basis of number of dendrites and axons neurons can be of other three types
i.e., Multipolar (with one axon and two or more dendrites), Bipolar (with one axon and one or more dendrites), Unipolar i.e., with
one axon only.

Parts of Human Nervous System

Human nervous system mainly constitutes three different parts
(i) Central Nervous System (CNS)
(ii) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
(iii) Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Central Nervous System (NCS)

It mainly comprises brain and spinal cord.
1. Brain
It is the anterior portion of the CNS which is lodged in the cranial
cavity, i.e., cranium of the skull. It weight from 1220 to 1400 grams.
Structure
Structurally, it consists of three membranes (meninges) i.e., pia mater
membrane (innermost thin, very delicate, vascular and inverts the
brain closely), arachnoid membrane (outer to pia mater, thin, spider
webby structure) and durometer membrane (outermost, tough
fibrous membrane, adhering closely to the inside of the skull).
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Cerebrospinal Fluid
The space between arachnoid membrane and piameter is known as subarachnoid space in which a fluid known as cerebrospinal
fluid, serves as a pad to cushion the central nervous system from shocks. It also provides a medium for exchange of food materials,
wastes, respiratory gases and other materials.

Human brain structurally consists of three main parts

• Fore brain (Prosencephalon)
• Mid brain (Mesencephalon)
• Hind brain (Rhombencephalon)
Forebrain It includes olfactory lobes, cerebrum and diencephalon.
(i) Olfactory Lobes are the anterior part of the brain formed by a pair of short club shaped structure. They are fully covered by
the cerebral hemisphere.
Function of these olfactory Lobes are concerned with the sense of smell.
(ii) Cerebrum is the largest and most complex part of the brain. It mainly has two hemispheres. (i.e., left and right) connected
by a large bundle of myelinated fibers, the corpus callosum and small bundle of fibers.

Cerebrum Structure
The outer portion of cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex. The surface of the cortex is greatly folded. The upward folds are known
as gyri. There is a cavity present inside the cerebrum whose outer part is known as grey matter and the inner part (i.e., beneath the
grey matter) is the white matter.
Functions of Cerebrum It has sensory areas that receives impulse from receptor and motor area that transmits impulse to the
effectors.
Diencephalon The main parts involved it diencephalon are epithalamus, thalamus and hypothalamus.
• Thalamus represents the lateral walls of diencephalon and mainly formed of grey matter. It is the relay station of sensory
inputs and does not produce hormones. It takes part in reproduction.
• Epithalamus thin membrane tissue that acts as a posterior segment of the diencephalon.
• Hypothalamus contains a number of centres that control urge for eating and drinking. It also called as thermostat of the
body, because it acts as thermoregulatory centre. It also integrates and controls the visceral activities. It is also called
“Master of master gland”.
Functions of Diencephalon It controls and coordinates various functions like body temperature, feeling of satisfaction, appetite,
thirst etc.
Mid Brain
It is mainly the portion located in between the thalamus/hypothalamus of the forebrain and pons of the hind brain. There is a canal
known as cerebral aqueduct that passes through the mid brain.
Mid brain and hind brain together forms the brain stem.

Functions of Midbrains
(i) It relays impulse back and forth between cerebrum, cerebellum, pons and medulla.
(ii) It is also concerned with sense of sight.
Hind Brains It involves some parts like cerebellum and pons, medulla.
Cerebellum It is the second largest part of the human brain. It has convoluted surface in order to provide more space for many
more neurons Alcohol effects our brain firstly in cerebellum.
Functions of Cerebellum It controls rapid muscular activities such as running, typing and even talking. Nearly all activities are
involuntary in nature but sometimes may involve learning in early stages.
Pons It is located below mid brain and above the medulla oblongata.
Functions of Pons It relays impulses between medulla to regulate breathing.
Medulla (Oblongata) It extends from the pons varolli in above direction and is continuous with the spinal cord in below direction.
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Functions of Medulla It functions as receiver, integrates signals from spiral cord and sends resulting signal to the cerebellum and
thalamus.
It mainly have centres that regulate heart rate, blood pressure, breathing swallowing salivation, sneezing, coughing, vomiting and
involuntary movements etc.

2. Spinal Cord (Myelon)

It extends from the base of the brain and is
continuous to second lumbar vertebra. In adult,
the spinal cord ranges from 42 to 45 cm in
length. In mainly lies in the neural canal of the
vertebral column. It is basically the posterior
part of CNS which runs mid-dorsally within the
vertebral column. The three meninges. i.e.,
durometer, arachnoid and pia mater which
covers the brain, also continue over the spinal
cord.
The two indentations, i.e., posterior median
sulcus and the anterior median tissues separates
the spinal cord into left and right halves. The inner area is the grey matter, white outside to it
are white column called the white matter.

Functions of Spinal Cord

(i) The stimuli pass from and to the brain through the spinal cord.
(ii) It also acts as the centre of spinal reflex action.

Reflex Arc
A reflex action is an automatic response to a stimulus. The pathway taken by nerve impulses in a reflex action is called the reflex
arc. The simplest unit of nervous activity involves the detection of stimulus in the environment by sensory nerve endings, followed
by impulses that travel via the sensory neurons to the spinal cord.
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Here, the impulses synapse with interneurons, which intern generate impulses to respond to the stimulus. The impulses thus, travel
along the motor neutrons to muscles or glands that respond appropriately.
In some cases, a reflex arc involves an interpretation, for this activity, interneurons transmit impulses up to the spinal cord to the
conscious area of the brain, where an analysis occurs.
Some examples of reflex action are moving our foot away when we step on something sharp, moving our hand away on touching a
hot place a knee jerk, movement of diaphragm during respiration, coughing, yawning etc.

Importance of Reflex Arc

(i) It controls number of body activities.
(ii) Response of harmful stimulus is fast.
(iii) Response to stimulus is accurate and useful.
(iv) Coordinates body activities.

Peripheral Neural System (PNS)

The nerves that originate from central nervous system connect either with
receptor or effector organs from peripheral neural system and those nerves
which arises from brain are called cranial nerves while the nerves
originating from the spinal cord are termed as spinal nerves.
It relays impulse from the CNS to skeletal muscles. in human body there are
12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.

Autonomic Neural system (ANS)

It transmits impulse from the CNS to the involuntary organs and smooth
muscles of the body. This system was discovered by Langley.
It is further divided into two types.
Sympathetic Nervous System
Accelerates heartbeat, enlarge pupils, supply blood to muscles, contract
nerves of urinary bladder, lowers the intestinal digestion activities, helps in
blood clotting, increased secretion of sweat glands, make breathing easier
and promote liver to release sugar and decrease bile production are some
activities controlled by this nervous system.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Works just analogus to the sympathetic nervous system. i.e., slows down heart beat, dilates arteries and lower blood pressure,
speeds up peristalsis, stimulate salivary gland secretion, contracts gall bladder, promotes pancreas for secretion, decreases the
secretion of sweat glands etc.
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HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce and secrete hormones, chemical substances produced in the body that
regulate the activity of cells or organs. These hormones regulate the body's growth, metabolism (the physical and chemical
processes of the body), and sexual development and function.

Glands
A gland is an organ which synthesizes some substances and secretes them at various locations, e.g., sweat gland secretes sweat,
endocrine gland secretes hormones like growth hormone.

Type of Glands
In vertebrates, glands may be classified on the basis of pressure or absence of ducts. These are called exocrine and endocrine
glands.
Differences Between Exocrine and Endocrine Glands
Exocrine Glands Endocrine Glands
These are glands with ducts. These are ductless glands or glands or internal secretions.
The secretions of these glands are carried by ducts to a These glands have no ducts and their secretions
particular organ for some metabolic activities, e.g., salivary (hormones) get absorbed into the immediate surrounding
glands, liver, etc. blood circulation to reach the target (specific) organs to
initiate a particular metabolic change, e.g., thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenals

Hormones
These are the non-nutrient chemicals made up of amino acid derivatives, peptides and steroids etc., that are secreted by endocrine
glands in response to change in external or internal environment. They act as intercellular messengers that regulate the biological
processes in organisms, and are produced in trace amounts. Ernest H Starling coined the term hormone.
The first hormone was discovered by the English physiologist William M Bayliss and Ernest H Starling in 1903.

Characteristics of Hormones
(i) Hormone release directly into the blood and circulate in the body for performing regulatory functions.
(ii) It is always released out in very small amount.
(iii) It regulates various functions in the body like growth and development, behavioral characters, sexual characters,
reproductive activities, metabolic activities act.
(iv) It also helps in maintaining body balance.
It includes the following organs for the purpose of secretion
Endocrine Glands Thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pituitary, thymus and pineal.
Mixed Glands Pancreas
Other Structures include hypothalamus, skin, gastrointestinal mucosa, heart, kidneys, gonads (ovaries in women and testes in
men), placenta and liver.
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Pituitary Gland
Gland Hormone Type Action
Posterior Oxytocin Peptide Initiates labor and milk ejection
Antidiuretic hormone Peptide Stimulates water resorption by kidneys
Anterior Growth hormone Protein Stimulates body growth
Prolactin Protein Promotes lactation
Follicle-stimulating Glycoprotein Stimulates follicle maturation and production of estrogen.
hormone
Luteinising hormone Glycoprotein Triggers ovulation and production of estrogen and progesterone
by ovary.
Thyroid gland T3 (Triiodothyronine) Amine Increases metabolism, blood pressure and regulates tissue
growth
T4 (Thyroxine) Amine Increase metabolism, blood pressure and regulates tissue
growth
Calcitonin Peptide Childhood regulation of blood calcium levels through uptake by
bone
Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone Peptide Increase blood calcium levels through action on bone, kidneys
and intestine
Pancreas Insulin Protein Reduces blood sugar level by regulating cell uptake
Glucagon Protein Increase blood sugar levels

Adrenal Gland
Gland Hormone Type Action
Adrenal medulla Epinephrine Amine Short-term stress response: increased blood sugar levels,
vasoconstriction, increased heart rate and blood diveration
Norepinephrine Amine Short-term stress response; Increased blood glucose levels,
blood volume maintenance and immune suppression
Adrenal cortex Glucocorticoids Steroid Long-term stress response; Increased blood glucose levels,
blood volume maintenance. Immune suppression
Mineralocorticoids Steroid Long term stress response; blood volume and pressure
maintenance, sodium and water retention by kidneys
Pineal gland Melatonin Amine Circadian timing
Thymus Thymosin Peptide Development of T-lymphocytes

Gonads
Gland Hormone Type Action
Testes Androgens Steroid Reproductive maturation and sperm production
Ovaries Estrogens Steroid Reproductive maturation and regulation of menstrual cycle
Progesterone Steroid Regulation of menstrual cycle
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• The study of endocrine glands and hormones secreted by them is called endocrinology.
• The first hormone to be discovered was secretin but the first hormone to be isolated was insulin, by Banting and Mceod.
• Hypothalamus is considered as supreme commander of endocrine system.
• Pituitary gland was considered as master gland of the body but today it is considered as orchestra of endocrine system. Size
– 3-4 cm, Weight – 0.5gm.
• Pituitary gland is the smallest endocrine gland in the human body.
• Thyroid gland is the largest endocrine gland in the human body.
Thyroid Gland
• Located on both side of trachea
• Shape like Butterfly
• Balance Iodine
• Secrete Hormone – Thyroxine Hormone – Activate growth Hormone
• Iodine deficiency – Gland swelling - Goitre

in this

Hormone secretion very low

Gland accept & it as poison

Suicide of gland Self digestion

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Adrenal Gland
• Located on both kidney.
• Also known as '4s' gland, suprarenal gland.
(a) source of energy
(b) salt retaining
(c) sugar metabolism
(d) sex hormone

(i) Release: Glucocorticoid Hormone.

• Control amount of WBC or sodium or potassium
• Increase amount of RBC
• Deficiency: Increase excretion of sodium & potassium
• Known as life saving Hormone
(ii) Adrenalin Hormone
• Conduct digestion, respiration, heartbeat
• Called emergency harmone

Pineal Gland
• Connects with thalamus
• Found in fibrous form –
• Responsible for daily routine
• Secretes:
(i) Melatonin Hormone:
• Works as anti-melanine
(ii) Serotonin Hormone:
• Provide contraction in Blood Vessels.
•  Blood Pressure
Thymus Gland
• Located under/behind sternum
• Secrets Thymosin Hormone
• maintain our immune system
• In old age – Thymosin Hormone become weak and Immunity decreases.

Disorders of Endocrine System

1. Dwarfism It occurs due to deficiency of Growth Hormone (GH) secretions during childhood. Growth of long bones and body
stops prematurely, making person dwarf.
2. Gigantism It occurs when large quantities of growth hormone is secreted during childhood resulting in person with
abnormal height and very long bones.
3. Acromegaly If an acidophilic tumor occurs causing high GH secretion after adolescence, it results in acromegaly in which
jaws and limbs become abnormally large but the body do not attain giant structure.
4. Cretinism It is caused due to the hypo secretion of thyroid hormone in infants. This leads to slow heart beat, lower blood
pressure, low body temperature, stunted growth, mental retardation, retarded sexual development.
5. Addison’s disease It is caused by deficiency of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids.
6. Cushing’s Syndrome It is caused by excess of cortisol which may result in high blood sugar, obesity, rise in blood volume
and pressure.
7. Aldosteronism It is caused by excessive production of aldosterone from adrenal conical fumours.
8. Adrenal virilism It is the appearance of male characters in female, which result in beard, moustaches, etc. It is caused due to
excessive production of male sex corticoids (androgen) in females.
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9. Gynecomastia It is the development of enlarged mammary glands (breasts) in males due to excessive secretion of female
sex hormones (estrogen) in males.
10. Precocious Puberty It is early maturation of ovaries and testes with production of ova before the age of 9 years in girls or
sperms before 10 years in boys, called sexual pseudoprecocity.
11. Eunuchoidism It is a disorder which affects males due to failure of testosterone secretion. A eunuch has under developed
and non-functional secondary sex organs, lacks external or accessory sex characters and does not produce sperms.
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GENETICS
Genetics is a branch of biology that deals with inheritance as well as variation of characters from parents to offspring's. The term
genetics was firstly used by W Bateson in 1905. Inheritance is the process by which characters are passed on from parents to progeny
and is the basis of heredity.

It is due to heredity that, the born offspring's resemble their parents. All organisms such as human beings, plants or animals, exhibit
various characteristics. Each character is carried forward to offspring's by the genes (core component of chromosomes). Variation is the
degree by which progeny differ from their parents.
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Mendel’s Experiment
Gregor Johann Mendel of Austria, was the first who started research on heredity, thus known as father of genetics. He conducted
experiments on garden pea (Pisum sativum) and proposed the laws of inheritance in living organisms.
Mendel’s Experimental Material
Mendel grew pea plant (Pisum sativum) in his garden and selected seven pairs of species varieties, i.e., those plants which had shown
same characters for atleast three successive generations.
Mendel’s Observation
He selected two varieties of pure plants (one tall and one dwarf) and crossed them. The resulting plants of next generation were all tall
like one of their parents. The offspring's obtained by crossing two plants with contrasting characters were called hybrids and their
generations were F1 and F2.
Mendel also coined two words for designating result of his experiment, i.e., dominant and recessive. Out of which, the dominant factor
was denoted by the capital letter like ‘T’ (for tallness). He also deduced from his experiments that there are two factors which express
the same inherited characteristic in every reproductive cell. If these two factors are same then it is called homozygous (i.e., TT) while if
these two factors are opposite, it is called heterozygous (i.e., Tt).

Mendel’s Law of Inheritance

By the experiments done by him and by the process of crossing and pollination, he obtained monohybrid and dihybrid crosses. And
accordingly, on the basis of the conclusion drawn through these crosses, he propounded the following three laws
1. Law of dominance 2. Law of segregation or purity of gametes 3. Law of independent assortment.

1. Mendel’s First Law (Law of Dominance)

According to this law, when two alternative forms of a trait or character (genes) are present in an organism, only one factor expresses
itself in F1 progeny and is called dominant while, the other that remain hidden or masked, is called recessive.
2. Mendel’s Second Law (Law of Segregation)
Factors of a pair segregate from each other such that a gamete receives only one of the two factors. This law is also known as law of
purity of gametes.
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3. Mendel’s Third Law (Law of Independent Assortment)

Law of Independent assortment is also known as ‘inheritance law’. It states that separate genes for separate traits are passed
independently from parents to offspring's. i.e., when two pairs of traits are combined in a hybrid, segregation of one pair of character is
independent of the other pair of character at the time of gamete formation.
Note:
Gene The word gene was coined by Johansson in 1909, Mendel formerly called the gene by the new name factor.
Phenotype The appearance of an individual
Genotype The complete genetic constitution of an individual.
Alleles The two individual genes in a particular gene pair that occupies same locus (position) on a homologous pair of chromosomes.

Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance

de Vries, Correns and Von Tschermak were the three scientists who independently rediscovered Mendel's result on the inheritance of
characters. They also observed thread-like structure in the nucleus and named them chromosomes.

Linkage and Recombination

Linkage is the phenomenon of physical association of genes on a chromosome.

Sex Determination in Human Beings

The establishment of sex through differential development in an individual at the time of zygote formation, is called sex determination.
The sex determining mechanism in humans is XX-XY type.
In humans, among 23 pairs of chromosomes present, 22 pairs are exactly the same in both male and female known as autosomes
(responsible for somatic characters) while the 23rd pair is known as sex chromosome (responsible for sex determination). The sexual
reproduction involves two individuals, male and female which have different structural characters in terms of chromosomes to decide
the sex of the offspring.
These pairs of chromosomes that govern sex are called ‘X’ and ‘Y’ chromosomes.
Males have only one X chromosome and one Y chromosome with autosomes whereas, females have two X chromosomes with
autosomes. Females have no Y chromosome.
When sperm bearing X chromosome fertilises an egg the resulting offspring become females and if the egg is fertilised by the sperm
bearing no X chromosome the male offspring's are produced.
Mutation
Mutation is defined as the phenomenon in which DNA sequences are altered and consequently result in changes in the genotype and the
phenotype of an organism. The factors that cause mutations are known as mutagens. The mutagens can both be physical or chemical.
Mutation can occur in two forms
1. Gene Mutation
2. Chromosomal Mutations

Genetic Disorders
These diseases or disorders are caused due to the absence or excess or abnormal arrangement of one or more chromosomes.

Various Genetic Disorders

Sickle-cell anemia Anemia and interference circulation
PKU (phenyl ketonuria) Brain fails to develop normally
Haemophilia Blood does not clot
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Protanopia Unable to distinguish red colour.

Down's syndrome Extra chromosome 21 (trisomy 21) Reduced intelligence, characteristic facial features
Klinefelter's syndrome Two or more X chromosomes in males, occurs randomly.
turner's syndrome Affects only male, results when one of the X chromosome is missing or partially missing. short height, heart
defects, failure of ovaries.
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HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

The term heredity can be defined as the transmission of traits to offspring's from parents. These traits are mainly passed through
one generation to next generation via DNA, a molecule that encodes genetic information and acts as a genetic material. Mostly all
organisms contain DNA as a genetic material except some virus that contain RNA as their genetic material.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

• DNA is a long polymeric structure of deoxyribonucleotides. The number of nucleotides present in it mainly define its length.
• Chemically DNA nucleotide consists of three components namely nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar (ribose in case of RNA
and deoxyribose for DNA) and a phosphate group.
• Double helix model of DNA was given by Watson and Francis Crick. Its understanding is based on X-ray diffraction data
produced by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

• It was considered as the first genetic material. It acts as genetic material in some viruses and also as a catalyst in some
biochemical reactions. DNA is said to be evolved from RNA.
• Structurally RNA is single stranded, generally made up of different molecules of pentose sugar and phosphate group linked
together.
• RNA occurs in different forms i.e., messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA).
• RNA can be genetic or non-genetic.

Central Dogma
This was given by Francis Crick. According to this phenomenon, the genetic information flows in a forward direction i.e., form DNA
→ RNA → Protein.
Transcription TranslationProtein
Replication of DNA  mRNA 

Evolution
Evolution is defined as the sequence of gradual changes from simple life forms to complex life forms, i.e., from primitive organisms
that existed over millions of years to new organisms that exists today. It is all about changes, improvement and modification from
simple life forms.
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Origin of Life
Mainly, it was known that life originated approximately 3,600 million years ago.
The most widely accepted theory of ‘origin of life’ was given AI Oparin, JBS Haldane, SL Miller and SW Fox that states that life
originated on earth through physiochemical processes of atom that combined to form molecules, to produce inorganic and organic
compounds.

Theories of Organic Evolution

Some theories that explain the scientific basis or organic evolution are
Lamarckism: Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829) was the first who had given theory of evolution.
Darwinism: Most impressive study on evolution was made by Charles Darwin in his book " The origin of Species"
Mutation Theory: Hugo de Vries by a Dutch botanist,

Agents of Evolution
The agents or factors affecting evolution are

Agents of Evolution

Mutation Gene Flow Genetic Drift

Sudden appearance or variation in a Movement of removal of alleles from Occur due to the migration of small
character, lead to new phenotypes, one population to another. group of individuals from a population
occur at random and at slow rates, to a new geographical isolated region.
results in speciation. It occurs only in small populations.

Origin of a new species from the existing one, is called speciation.

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Evidences from Morphology and Comparative Anatomy

(i) Homologous Organs These are the organs having same embryonic origin and basic structure but have different functions.
e.g., forelimbs of frog, bird and human.
(ii) Analogous Organs These are the organs having similar functions but different in embryonic origin and basic structure, e.g.,
wings of insects and birds.
(ii) Vestigial Organs These are non-functional organs which were functional in the ancestral forms e.g., underdeveloped limbs
of snakes, feathers of kiwi, human skin hair, vermiform appendix, etc. Sudden reappearance or refunctioning of some
ancestral organs is called atavism or reversion.

Evidences from Connecting Links

A number of organisms have characteristics of two different groups, thus are called connecting links.
Some Examples of Connecting Link
Organism Connecting Link (in between)
Euglena (Protozoa) Animal and plant
Dipnoi (Lung fish) Pisces and Amphibia
Prototheria (Mammalia) Reptiles and Mammalia

Fossils
Remains of ancient lives, as bone, teeth, shale etc. are called fossils. These are generally found in sedimentary rocks. Age of fossil is
determined by lead-uranium method, carbon dating method, Fission track and electron spin resonance methods.

Origin and Evolution of Man

The evolutionary process leading to the appearance of modern humans, is known as human evolution.
This series in given below
Ancestor Time Description
Dryopithecus 20-25 million years ago They were ape-like in appearance and were hairy having arm and
legs of same length, large brain and walked like gorillas and
chimpanzees.
Ramapithecus 15 million year ago They were more man like and are also hairy, walked like gorillas
and chimpanzees.
Tanzania 3-4 million year ago They were smaller than 4 feet and walked upright and appear man
like primater.
Australo pithecines or 2 million year ago They were articularlyate fruits not meat. They have brain capacities
Mohohabilis of between 650-800 cc. They use stone weapons for hunting. They
appear like humans.
Homon erectus (Java 1.5 million year ago They were probably meat eaters and have brain capacity of around
man) 900 cc.
Neanderthal man 100,000-40,000 years back They have the brain capacity of 1400 cc. They used hides to protect
(Primitive man) themselves and buried their dead.
Homo sapiens (Modern 75000-10,000 years After last glacial period of ice age modern man have evolved. They
man) have brain capacity of 1450 cc.

Note:
• Lobefins evolved into first amphibians that lived on both land and water. These were considered as the ancestors of modern
frog and salamanders.
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• It is believed that in future, human could change due to various factors like gene mutation, gene recombination, natural
selection. HL sapiro named the future man Homo sapiens futuris.