Lesson 8 or zero is referred to as a bit (a contraction of

binary digit); a group of eight bits is a byte. The

Hardware source: Information System fir first personal computers could process 8 bits of
Business and Beyond. data at once; modern PCs can now process 64
bits of data at a time, which is where the term
Introduction
64-bit processor comes from.
There were many items that were once not
Understanding Binary
considered digital devices are now becoming
computerized themselves. As you know, the system of numbering we are
most familiar with is base-ten numbering. In
Digital technologies are now being integrated
base-ten numbering, each column in the
into many everyday objects, so the days of a
number represents a power of ten, with the far-
device being labeled categorically as computer
right column representing 10^0 (ones), the next
hardware may be ending. Examples of these
column from the right representing 10^1 (tens),
types of digital devices include automobiles,
then 10^2 (hundreds), then 10^3 (thousands),
refrigerators, and even softdrink dispensers.
etc. For example, the number 1010 in decimal
The physical parts of computing devices – those represents: (1 x 1000) + (0 x 100) + (1 x 10) + (0
that you can actually touch – are referred to as x 1).
hardware.
Computers use the base-two numbering system,
As stated above, computer hardware also known as binary. In this system, each
encompasses digital devices that you can column in the number represents a power of
physically touch. This includes devices such as two, with the far-right column representing 2^0
the following: (ones), the next column from the right
representing 2^1 (tens), then 2^2 (fours), then
• desktop computers 2^3 (eights), etc. For example, the number 1010
• laptop computers in binary represents (1 x 8) + (0 x 4) + (1 x 2) + (0
x 1). In base ten, this evaluates to 10.
• mobile phones
As the capacities of digital devices grew, new
• tablet computers terms were developed to identify the capacities
• e-readers of processors, memory, and disk storage space.
Prefixes were applied to the word byte to
• storage devices, such as flash drives represent different orders of magnitude. Since
these are digital specifications, the prefixes
• input devices, such as keyboards, mice, and
were originally meant to represent multiples of
scanners
1024 (which is 210) but have more recently been
• output devices such as printers and speakers. rounded to mean multiples of 1000.
Digital Devices

A digital device processes electronic signals that

represent either a one (“on”) or a zero (“off”).
The on state is represented by the presence of
an electronic signal; the off state is represented
by the absence of an electronic signal. Each one
A Listing of Binary Prefixes: cycles per second. The CPU’s processing power
is increasing at an amazing rate.

Besides a faster clock time, many CPU chips now

contain multiple processors per chip. These
chips, known as dual-core (two processors) or
quad-core (four processors), increase the
processing power of a computer by providing
the capability of multiple CPUs.

Moore’s Law

We all know that computers get faster every

Tour of a PC year. Many times, we are not sure if we want to
All personal computers consist of the same buy today’s model of smartphone, tablet, or PC
basic components: a CPU, memory, circuit because next week it won’t be the most
board, storage, and input/output devices. It also advanced any more. Gordon Moore, one of the
turns out that almost every digital device uses founders of Intel, recognized this phenomenon
the same set of components, so examining the in 1965, noting that microprocessor transistor
personal computer will give us insight into the counts had been doubling every year.
structure of a variety of digital devices. So let’s His insight eventually evolved into Moore’s Law,
take a “tour” of a personal computer and see which states that the number of transistors on a
what makes them function. chip will double every two years. This has been
Processing Data: The CPU generalized into the concept that computing
power will double every two years for the same
The CPU can be thought of as the “brains” of price point.
the device. The CPU carries out the commands
sent to it by the software and returns results to There will be a point, someday, where we reach
be acted upon. the limits of Moore’s Law, where we cannot
continue to shrink circuits any further. But
The earliest CPUs were large circuit boards with engineers will continue to seek ways to increase
limited functionality. Today, a CPU is generally performance.
on one chip and can perform a large variety of
functions. There are two primary manufacturers Motherboard
of CPUs for personal computers: Intel and The motherboard is the main circuit board on
Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). the computer. The CPU, memory, and storage
The speed (“clock time”) of a CPU is measured components, among other things, all connect
in hertz. A hertz is defined as one cycle per into the motherboard. Motherboards come in
second. Using the binary prefixes mentioned different shapes and sizes, depending upon how
above, we can see that a kilohertz (abbreviated compact or expandable the computer is
kHz) is one thousand cycles per second, a designed to be. Most modern motherboards
megahertz (MHz) is one million cycles per have many integrated components, such as
second, and a gigahertz (GHz) is one billion video and sound processing, which used to
require separate components. The motherboard
provides much of the bus of the computer (the Solid-State Drives
term bus refers to the electrical connection
A relatively new component becoming more
between different computer components). The
common in some personal computers is the
bus is an important determiner of the
solid-state drive (SSD). The SSD performs the
computer’s speed: the combination of how fast
same function as a hard disk: long-term storage.
the bus can transfer data and the number of
Instead of spinning disks, the SSD uses flash
data bits that can be moved at one time
memory, which is much faster.
determine the speed.
Solid-state drives are currently quite a bit more
Random-Access Memory
expensive than hard disks.
When a computer starts up, it begins to load
However, the use of flash memory instead of
information from the hard disk into its working
disks makes them much lighter and faster than
memory. This working memory, called random-
hard disks. SSDs are primarily utilized in
access memory (RAM), can transfer data much
portable computers, making them lighter and
faster than the hard disk. Any program that you
more efficient. Some computers combine the
are running on the computer is loaded into RAM
two storage technologies, using the SSD for the
for processing. In order for a computer to work
most accessed data (such as the operating
effectively, some minimal amount of RAM must
system) while using the hard disk for data that is
be installed. In most cases, adding more RAM
accessed less frequently.
will allow the computer to run faster. Another
characteristic of RAM is that it is “volatile.” This Removable Media
means that it can store data as long as it is
receiving power; when the computer is turned Besides fixed storage components, removable
off, any data stored in RAM is lost. storage media are also used in most personal
computers. Removable media allows you to take
RAM is generally installed in a personal your data with you. And just as with all other
computer through the use of a dual-inline digital technologies, these media have gotten
memory module (DIMM). The type of DIMM smaller and more powerful as the years have
accepted into a computer is dependent upon gone by. Early computers used floppy disks,
the motherboard. As described by Moore’s Law, which could be inserted into a disk drive in the
the amount of memory and speeds of DIMMs computer.
have increased dramatically over the years.
Around the turn of the century, a new portable
Hard Disk storage technology was being developed: the
USB flash drive. This device attaches to the
While the RAM is used as working memory, the
universal serial bus (USB) connector, which
computer also needs a place to store data for
became standard on all personal computers
the longer term. Most of today’s personal
beginning in the late 1990s. As with all other
computers use a hard disk for long-term data
storage media, flash drive storage capacity has
storage. A hard disk is where data is stored
skyrocketed over the years, from initial
when the computer is turned off and where it is
capacities of eight megabytes to current
retrieved from when the computer is turned on.
capacities of 64 gigabytes and still growing.
Why is it called a hard disk? A hard disk consists
of a stack of disks inside a hard metal case.
Network Connection 150 feet. For devices to communicate via
Bluetooth, both the personal computer and the
When personal computers were first developed,
connecting device must have a Bluetooth
they were stand-alone units, which meant that
communication chip installed.
data was brought into the computer or removed
from the computer via removable media, such Input Devices
as the floppy disk. Beginning in the mid-1980s,
All personal computers need components that
however, organizations began to see the value
allow the user to input data. Early computers
in connecting computers together via a digital
used simply a keyboard to allow the user to
network. Because of this, personal computers
enter data or select an item from a menu to run
needed the ability to connect to these
a program. With the advent of the graphical
networks. Initially, this was done by adding an
user interface, the mouse became a standard
expansion card to the computer that enabled
component of a computer. These two
the network connection, but by the mid-1990s,
components are still the primary input devices
a network port was standard on most personal
to a personal computer, though variations of
computers. As wireless technologies began to
each have been introduced with varying levels
dominate in the early 2000s, many personal
of success over the years. For example, many
computers also began including wireless
new devices now use a touch screen as the
networking capabilities.
primary way of entering data. Besides the
Input and Output keyboard and mouse, additional input devices
are becoming more common. Scanners allow
In order for a personal computer to be useful, it
users to input documents into a computer,
must have channels for receiving input from the
either as images or as text. Microphones can be
user and channels for delivering output to the
used to record audio or give voice commands.
user. These input and output devices connect to
Webcams and other types of video cameras can
the computer via various connection ports,
be used to record video or participate in a video
which generally are part of the motherboard
chat session.
and are accessible outside the computer case.
In early personal computers, specific ports were Output Devices
designed for each type of output device. The
Output devices are essential as well. The most
configuration of these ports has evolved over
obvious output device is a display, visually
the years, becoming more and more
representing the state of the computer. In some
standardized over time. Today, almost all
cases, a personal computer can support
devices plug into a computer through the use of
multiple displays or be connected to larger-
a USB port. This port type, first introduced in
format displays such as a projector or large-
1996, has increased in its capabilities, both in its
screen television. Besides displays, other output
data transfer rate and power supplied.
devices include speakers for audio output and
Bluetooth printers for printed output.

Besides USB, some input and output devices What Hardware Components Contribute to the
connect to the computer via a wireless- Speed of My Computer?
technology standard called Bluetooth.
The speed of a computer is determined by many
Bluetooth was first invented in the 1990s and
elements, some related to hardware and some
exchanges data over short distances using radio
related to software. In hardware, speed is
waves. Bluetooth generally has a range of 100 to
improved by giving the electrons shorter In the years that followed, portable computing
distances to traverse to complete a circuit. Since continued to improve, giving us laptop and
the first CPU was created in the early 1970s, notebook computers. The “luggable” computer
engineers have constantly worked to figure out has given way to a much lighter clamshell
how to shrink these circuits and put more and computer that weighs from 4 to 6 pounds and
more circuits onto the same chip. And this work runs on batteries. In fact, the most recent
has paid off – the speed of computing devices advances in technology give us a new class of
has been continuously improving ever since. laptop that is quickly becoming the standard:
these laptops are extremely light and portable
The hardware components that contribute to
and use less power than their larger
the speed of a personal computer are the CPU,
counterparts. The MacBook Air is a good
the motherboard, RAM, and the hard disk. In
example of this: it weighs less than three
most cases, these items can be replaced with
pounds and is only 0.68 inches thick!
newer, faster components. In the case of RAM,
simply adding more RAM can also speed up the Finally, as more and more organizations and
computer. individuals are moving much of their computing
to the Internet, laptops are being developed
Other Computing Devices
that use “the cloud” for all of their data and
A personal computer is designed to be a application storage. These laptops are also
general-purpose device. That is, it can be used extremely light because they have no need of a
to solve many different types of problems. As hard disk at all! A good example of this type of
the technologies of the personal computer have laptop (sometimes called a netbook) is
become more commonplace, many of the Samsung’s Chromebook.
components have been integrated into other
Smartphones
devices that previously were purely mechanical.
We have also seen an evolution in what defines The first modern-day mobile phone was
a computer. Ever since the invention of the invented in 1973. Resembling a brick and
personal computer, users have clamored for a weighing in at two pounds, it was priced out of
way to carry them around. reach for most consumers at nearly four
thousand dollars. Since then, mobile phones
Portable Computers
have become smaller and less expensive; today
In 1983, Compaq Computer Corporation mobile phones are a modern convenience
developed the first commercially successful available to all levels of society. As mobile
portable personal computer. By today’s phones evolved, they became more like small
standards, the Compaq PC was not very computers. These smartphones have many of
portable: weighing in at 28 pounds, this the same characteristics as a personal
computer was portable only in the most literal computer, such as an operating system and
sense – it could be carried around. But this was memory. The first smartphone was the IBM
no laptop; the computer was designed like a Simon, introduced in 1994.
suitcase, to be lugged around and laid on its
In January of 2007, Apple introduced the
side to be used. Besides portability, the Compaq
iPhone. Its ease of use and intuitive interface
was successful because it was fully compatible
made it an immediate success and solidified the
with the software being run by the IBM PC,
future of smartphones. Running on an operating
which was the standard for business.
system called iOS, the iPhone was really a small
computer with a touch-screen interface. In phones are smartphones.2 Almost 200,000
2008, the first Android phone was released, tablet computers are predicted to ship in 2013.
with similar functionality. According to the report, PC shipments will
continue to decline as phone and tablet
Tablet Computers
shipments continue to increase.
A tablet computer is one that uses a touch
Integrated Computing
screen as its primary input and is small enough
and light enough to be carried around easily. Along with advances in computers themselves,
They generally have no keyboard and are self- computing technology is being integrated into
contained inside a rectangular case. The first many everyday products. From automobiles to
tablet computers appeared in the early 2000s refrigerators to airplanes, computing technology
and used an attached pen as a writing device for is enhancing what these devices can do and is
input. These tablets ranged in size from small adding capabilities that would have been
personal digital assistants (PDAs), which were considered science fiction just a few years ago.
handheld, to full-sized, 14-inch devices. Most Here are two of the latest ways that computing
early tablets used a version of an existing technologies are being integrated into everyday
computer operating system, such as Windows products:
or Linux.
• The Smart House
These early tablet devices were, for the most
• The Self-Driving Car
part, commercial failures. In January, 2010,
Apple introduced the iPad, which ushered in a The Commoditization of the Personal
new era of tablet computing. Instead of a pen, Computer
the iPad used the finger as the primary input
device. Instead of using the operating system of Over the past thirty years, as the personal
their desktop and laptop computers, Apple computer has gone from technical marvel to
chose to use iOS, the operating system of the part of our everyday lives, it has also become a
iPhone. Because the iPad had a user interface commodity. The PC has become a commodity in
that was the same as the iPhone, consumers felt the sense that there is very little differentiation
comfortable and sales took off. The iPad has set between computers, and the primary factor that
the standard for tablet computing. After the controls their sale is their price. Hundreds of
success of the iPad, computer manufacturers manufacturers all over the world now create
began to develop new tablets that utilized parts for personal computers. Dozens of
operating systems that were designed for companies buy these parts and assemble the
mobile devices, such as Android. computers. As commodities, there are
essentially no differences between computers
The Rise of Mobile Computing made by these different companies. Profit
margins for personal computers are razor-thin,
Mobile computing is having a huge impact on
leading hardware developers to find the lowest-
the business world today. The use of
cost manufacturing.
smartphones and tablet computers is rising at
double-digit rates each year. The Gartner Group, There is one brand of computer for which this is
in a report issued in April, 2013, estimates that not the case – Apple. Because Apple does not
over 1.7 million mobile phones will ship in the make computers that run on the same open
US in 2013 as compared to just over 340,000 standards as other manufacturers, they can
personal computers. Over half of these mobile
make a unique product that no one can easily
copy. By creating what many consider to be a
superior product, Apple can charge more for
their computers than other manufacturers. Just
as with the iPad and iPhone, Apple has chosen a
strategy of differentiation, which, at least at this
time, seems to be paying off.

The Problem of Electronic Waste

Personal computers have been around for over

thirty-five years. Millions of them have been
used and discarded. Mobile phones are now
available in even the remotest parts of the
world and, after a few years of use, they are
discarded. Where does this electronic debris
end up?

Often, it gets routed to any country that will

accept it. Many times, it ends up in dumps in
developing nations. These dumps are beginning
to be seen as health hazards for those living
near them.

Though many manufacturers have made strides

in using materials that can be recycled,
electronic waste is a problem with which we
must all deal.