UNIT – I

INTRODUCTION

PART A – 2 Marks

1. What is marketing? (Apr/May 2015) or Define Marketing? (MAY/JUNE–

2016)
Marketing is an organizational function and a set of process for creating,
communicating, and delivering value to customers and for managing customer
relationship in ways that benefit the organization and its stakeholders.
2. What is marketing management?
Marketing management is the art and science of choosing target customers and
getting, keeping and growing customers through creating, delivering and
communicating superior customer value.
3. Define customization.
It means offering customized, personalized and tailor made products or
services.
4. What is product concept?
Product concept holds that consumers will favour those products that offer the
most quality, performance or innovative features.
5. What is production concept?
Production concept holds that consumers will prefer products that are widely
available and inexpensive.
6. What is selling concept?
The selling concept holds that consumers and business, if left alone, will
ordinarily not buy enough of organization’s products. The organization must
therefore undertake an aggressive selling and promotions effort.
7. What is marketing concept? (Nov/Dec 2012)
The marketing concept holds the key to achieve the organizational goals
consists of the company being more effective than competitors in creating,
delivering, and communicating superior customer value to its chosen target
markets.

1
8. What are the factors affecting macro & micro marketing environment?
(Apr/May 2015)
1. Demographic environment
2. Economic environment
3. Social cultural environment
4. Natural environment
5. Political and legal environment
6. Technological environment
9. Define “Marketing Myopia” (Nov/Dec 2012)
It refers to the excessive preoccupation with product, manufacturing or selling
by the marketer.
10. What is exchange & transaction?
Process of obtaining a desired product from someone by offering something in
return. When an exchange is complete, it is called a transaction.

11. Define metamediaries and What is meta-market?

It refers to the intermediaries who assist buyers in meta-market.
Meta-market refers to complementary goods and services that are related in the
minds of
Consumers
12. Differentiate between marketing and selling. (May/Jun 2014)

Marketing Selling
Marketing starts with the buyer Selling starts with the seller
Seeks to convert customer needs in to Seeks to convert products in to
a products Cash
Views business as a “customer Views business as a “goods
satisfying process” producing process”
Consumer determines price Cost determines price
Emphasis on innovation in every Emphasis on staying with the
sphere; on providing better technology. existing technology and reducing

2
 costs.

13. What is De marketing?

De marketing is a marketing in which the task is to temporarily or permanently
reduce demand. Marketing strategy followed when the objective is to decrease
the consumption of a product.
14. List out the features of Marketing Concept.
• Consumer Orientation
• Integrated Marketing
• Long-term Profitability
15. What is societal marketing concept? (Apr/May 2015)
Satisfy the customers more effectively and efficiently than competitors in a way
that preserves and enhances the consumer’s and society’s long-term well
being.
16. What is internal marketing? (Nov/Dec 2012)
It is the task of hiring, training, and motivating able employees who seek to
serve customers well. It ensures that every one in the organization embraces
appropriate marketing principles.
17. What is marketing environment?
The external forces that influence the organization in implementing marketing
plans.
18. What is environmental scanning? ( May/Jun 2014)
The process of collecting information about forces in the marketing
environment.
19. Write GREEN MARKETING?
Definition according to American Marketing Association - "Green marketing is
the marketing of products that are presumed to be environmentally safe."
According to Polonsky 1994 b, 2 - "Green or Environmental Marketing consists
of all activities designed to generate and facilitate any exchanges intended to
satisfy human needs or wants, such that the satisfaction of these needs and
wants occurs, with minimal detrimental impact on the natural environment.

3
20. What are the types of needs?(MAY/JUNE -2016)
There are five types of needs. They are stated needs, real needs, unstated
needs, delight needs and secret needs.
Responding only to the stated need may shortchange the customer. A
responsive marketer finds a stated need and fills it. He is going to lose the
customer in the near future. An anticipative marketer looks ahead into what
needs customers may have in the near future. A creative marketer discovers
and produces solutions customers did not ask for but to which they
enthusiastically respond. Therefore companies must go beyond just asking
consumers what they want. This is necessary because a company‘s sales
comes from two groups, new customers and repeat customers. One estimate
shows that attracting a new customer can cost five times as much as pleasing
an existing one and it might cost sixteen times as much to bring the new
customer to the same level of profitability as the lost customer. Customer
retention is thus more important than customer attraction.

Part – B (13 Marks)

1. Explain in detail what are the difficulties faced by a marketer in
globalization Environment? (Nov/Dec 2012) (Nov/Dec 2014)
Global marketing as ―marketing on a worldwide scale reconciling or
taking commercial advantage of global operational differences, similarities and
opportunities in order to meet global objectives.
Here are three reasons for the shift from domestic to global marketing.
WORLD WIDE COMPETITION
One of the product categories in which global competition has been easy
to track in U.S.is automotive sales. The increasing intensity of competition in
global markets is a challenge facing companies at all stages of involvement in
international markets.
As markets open up, and become more integrated, the pace of change
accelerates, technology shrinks distances between markets and reduces the

4
scale advantages of large firms, new sources of competition emerge, and
competitive pressures mount at all levels of the organization.
Also, the threat of competition from companies in countries such as
India, China, Malaysia, and Brazil is on the rise, as their own domestic
markets are opening up to foreign competition, stimulating greater awareness
of international market opportunities and of the need to be internationally
competitive. Companies which previously focused on protected domestic
markets are entering into markets in other countries, creating new sources of
competition, often targeted to price-sensitive market segments.
Not only is competition intensifying for all firms regardless of their degree
of global market involvement, but the basis for competition is changing.
Competition continues to be market-based and ultimately relies on delivering
superior value to consumers. However, success in global markets depends on
knowledge accumulation and deployment.
Evolution to Global Marketing
Global marketing is not a revolutionary shift, it is an evolutionary
process. While the following does not apply to all companies, it does apply to
most companies that begin as domestic-only companies.
Domestic marketing
A marketing restricted to the political boundaries of a country, is called
"Domestic Marketing". A company marketing only within its national
boundaries only has to consider domestic competition. Even if that competition
includes companies from foreign markets, it still only has to focus on the
competition that exists in its home market. Products and services are
developed for customers in the home market without thought of how the
product or service could be used in other markets. All marketing decisions are
made at headquarters.
The biggest obstacle these marketers face is being blindsided by
emerging global marketers. Because domestic marketers do not generally focus
on the changes in the global marketplace, they may not be aware of a potential

5
competitor who is a market leader on three continents until they
simultaneously open 20 stores in the Northeastern
U.S. These marketers can be considered ethnocentric as they are most
concerned with how they are perceived in their home country exporting goods
to other countries.

International marketing
If the exporting departments are becoming successful but the costs of
doing business from headquarters plus time differences, language barriers, and
cultural ignorance are hindering the company’s competitiveness in the foreign
market, then offices could be built in the foreign countries. Sometimes
companies buy firms in the foreign countries to take advantage of
relationships, storefronts, factories, and personnel already in place.
These offices still report to headquarters in the home market but most of
the marketing mix decisions are made in the individual countries since that
staff is the most knowledgeable about the target markets. Local product
development is based on the needs of local customers. These marketers are
considered polycentric because they acknowledge that each market/country
has different needs.
Disadvantages
 Differences in consumer needs, wants, and usage patterns for products
 Differences in consumer response to marketing mix elements
 Differences in brand and product development and the competitive
environment
 Differences in the legal environment, some of which may conflict with
those of the home market
 Differences in the institutions available, some of which may call for the
creation of entirely new ones (e.g. infrastructure)
 Differences in administrative procedures
 Differences in product placement.

6
2. Discuss about the Market environment that affect or affected by the
organization decision. (May / Jun 2014).
Marketing Environment is affected by external and internal factors. The
internal environment is generally controllable, and is discussed in other parts
of this text. The external environment is components that are not controlled by
the marketing manager or the organization.

Internal factor, these involve (5M's)

Management, Manpower, Machine, Material and Money.
External factors, these include
Macro factor and micro factors. Macro factors are the one that affect the
organization indirectly, these are (pestel)
Demographic environment
 Two major factors influencing the demographic
 The changing character of families. Multiculturalism
 The changing character of families Political environment
 The family structure of a father, mother and two children represents less
25% of Australian families.
 Increase in the number of dual career families.
 Greater reliance on home entertainment
Multiculturalism recognizes and celebrates cultural diversity. The changing
profile of our population has seen changes in what we eat, what we do, and
how we behave.
Socio-Cultural
The social change is perhaps the most difficult external variable for marketing
managers to forecast.
Social factors include Attitudes, Values, Lifestyle
Four key groups
 Baby boomers (1946 - 65)
 Generation X (1965 – 81)

7
  Generation Y (1981 – 2000)
 Generation Z (2000 to present)
Marketing oriented values
• Major changes in the value, and all way of life
• People are more efficient in sourcing information, seeing something that they
are interested and using this information.
• Growth in traditionalism, ethnicity and patriotism, while attributing personal
success with consumerism and technological rationality.
Technological environment
 Technology is one of the most revolutionary dimensions of the external
environment
 Conversion of ideas to products
 The increased speed and capacity of the Internet, and
 The ever-increasing of electronic media devices, allowing for instant
personal
 Communication
Economic environment
Three economic areas of concern for most marketers include:
• The level of disposable income
• Inflation
• Recession
Political and Legal
 Organizations need government regulations to provide protection and
guidance
 in the marketplace
 All aspects of the internal environment is controlled by the laws and
regulations.
 Identifying trends and knowing the laws allows organizations to
maximize their marketing effort.
 Organizations also need to be aware of laws and regulations, in other
countries

8
  While micro factors are those which affect the organization directly it
involve
 Customers
 Competitors
 Suppliers and
 Public

3. What do you mean by marketing management? Explain nature and

scope of marketing management.
Definition of Marketing
According to American Marketing Association, "Marketing is an
organizational function and a set of processes for creating, communicating and
delivering value to customers and for managing customer relationships in ways
that benefit the organization and its stakeholders."
Definition of Management
According to Harold Koontz, "Management is the art of getting things
done through and with people in formally organised groups."
Management consists of the interlocking functions of creating corporate policy
and organising, planning, controlling, directing an organisation's resources in
order to achieve the objectives of the policy.
Definition of Marketing Management
According to Philip Kotler, "Marketing Management is the analysis,
planning, implementation and control of programmes designed to bring about
desired exchanges with target audiences for the purpose of personal and of
mutual gain. It relies heavily on the adoption and coordination of product,
price, promotion and place for achieving responses."
Marketing management is a business process, to manage marketing
activities in profit seeking and non profit organisations at different levels of
management. Marketing management decisions are based on strong knowledge

9
of marketing functions and clear understanding and application of supervisory
and managerial techniques.
Nature of Marketing Management
It Combines the Fields of Marketing and Management. As the name
implies, marketing management combines the fields of marketing and
management. Marketing consists of discovering consumer needs and wants,
creating the goods and services that meet those needs and wants; and pricing,
promoting, and delivering those goods and services. Doing so requires attention
to six major areas - markets, products, prices, places, promotion, and people.
Management is getting things done through other people. Managers
engage in five key activities - planning, organising, staffing, directing, and
controlling. Marketing management implies the integration of these concepts.
Marketing Management is a Business Process
Marketing management is a business process, to manage marketing
activities in profit seeking and nonprofit organisations at different levels of
management, i.e. supervisory, middle-management, and executive levels.
Marketing management decisions are based on strong knowledge of marketing
functions and clear understanding and application of supervisory and
managerial techniques. Marketing managers and product managers are there
to execute the processes of marketing management. We, as customers, see the
results of such process in the form of products, prices, advertisements,
promotions, etc.
Marketing Management is Both Science and Art
“Marketing management is art and science of choosing target markets
and getting, keeping and growing customers through creating, delivering and
communicating superior customer value.” (Kotler, 2006).Marketing
management is a science because it follows general principles that guides the
marketing managers in decision making. The Art of Marketing management
consists in tackling every situation in an creative and effective manner.
Marketing Management is thus a science as well as an art.

10
4. What is marketing process? Explain the steps in marketing process.
The activities of marketers both reflect and shape the world we live in.
Every year new products and services are launched and some of them succeeds
on an unprecedented scale. As in the case of Apple's iPod, iPhone, and also
iPad. They all are great inventions and highly successful in market.
According to marketing concept, the organisation must find ways to
discover unfulfilled customer needs and wants and bring products that satisfy
those needs and wants. This can be done in a sequence of steps that is called
marketing process.

Meaning of Marketing Process

The Marketing Process of a company typically involves identifying the
viable and potential marketing opportunities in the environment, developing
strategies to effective utilise the opportunities, evolving suitable marketing
strategies, and supervising the implementation of these marketing efforts.
Marketing process involves ways that value can be created for the
customers to satisfy their needs. Marketing process is a continual series of
actions and reactions between the customers and the organisations which are
making attempt to create value for and satisfy needs of customers. In
marketing process the situation is analysed to identify opportunities, the
strategy is formulated for a value proposition, tactical decisions are taken, plan
is implemented, and results are monitored.
Steps in Marketing Process
Following are the steps involved in the Marketing Process :-
• Situation Analysis
• Marketing Strategy
• Marketing Mix Decision
• Implementation and Control
1. SITUATION ANALYSIS
Analysis of situation in which the organisation finds itself serves as the
basis for identifying opportunities to satisfy unfulfilled customer needs.

11
Situational and environmental analysis is done to identify the marketing
opportunities, to understand firms own capabilities, and to understand the
environment in which the firm is operating.
2. MARKETING STRATEGY
After identifying the marketing opportunities a strategic plan is developed
to pursue the identified opportunities.
3. MARKETING MIX DECISIONS
At this step detailed tactical decisions are made for the controllable
parameters of the marketing mix. It includes - product development decisions,
product pricing decisions, product distribution decisions, and product
promotional decisions.
4. IMPLEMENTATION AND CONTROL
Finally, the marketing plan is implemented and the results of marketing
efforts are monitored to adjust the marketing mix according to the market
changes.

5. Explain how marketing department related with other functional

department in an organization. (May/Jun 2014) (Nov/Dec 2012) (Apr/May
2015).
Marketing Interfaces with other functional areas
The marketing function within any organization does not exist in
isolation. Therefore it's important to see how marketing connects with and
permeates other functions within the organization. Consider how marketing
interacts with research and development, production/operations/logistics,
human resources, IT and customer service. Obviously all functions within your
organization should point towards the customer i.e. they are customer oriented
from the warehouseman that packs the order to the customer service team
member.
Research and development
Research and development is the engine within an organization which
generates new ideas, innovations and creative new products and services. For

12
example cell phone/mobile phone manufacturers are in an industry that is
ever changing and developing, and in order to survive manufacturers need to
continually research and develop new software and hardware to compete in a
very busy marketplace. Think about cell phones that were around three or four
years ago which are now completely obsolete. The research and development
process delivers new products and is continually innovating.
Innovative products and services usually result from a conscious and
purposeful search for innovation opportunities which are found only within a
few situations.

Production/operations/logistics
As with research and development, the operations, production and
logistics functions within business need to work in cooperation with the
marketing department.
Operations include many other activities such as warehousing, packaging and
distribution.
To an extent, operations also include production and manufacturing, as
well as logistics.
Production is where goods and services are generated and made. For
example an aircraft is manufactured in a factory which is in effect how it is
produced i.e. production. Logistics is concerned with getting the product from
production or warehousing, to retail or the consumer in the most effective and
efficient way. Today logistics would include warehousing, trains, planes and
lorries as well as technology used for real-time tracking.
Obviously marketers need to sell products and services that are currently in
stock or can be made within a reasonable time limit. An unworkable scenario
for a business is where marketers are attempting to increase sales of a product
whereby the product cannot be supplied. Perhaps there is a warehouse full of
other products that our marketing campaign is ignoring.

13
Human resources
Human Resource Management (HRM) is the function within your
organization which overlooks recruitment and selection, training, and the
professional development of employees. Other related functional
responsibilities include well-being, employee motivation, health and safety,
performance management, and of course the function holds knowledge
regarding the legal aspects of human resources.
So when you become a marketing manager you would use the HR
department to help you recruit a marketing assistant for example. They would
help you with scoping out the job, a person profile, a job description, and
advertising the job. HR would help you to score and assess application forms,
and will organise the interviews. They may offer to assist at interview and will
support you as you make your job offer. You may also use HR to organise an
induction for your new employee. Of course there is the other side of the coin,
where HR sometimes has to get tough with underperforming employees. These
are the operational roles of HR.
Finance department
The marketing department will need to work closely with the finance
department to ensure that:
There is an adequate budget to meet the needs for research, promotion
and distribution. The finance department has a whole organisation brief to
ensure that all the business operates within its financial capabilities. They will
want all departments to work within their allocated budgets. Like all
departments, marketing may wish to overspend if profitable marketing
opportunities emerge over the year. The marketing department is likely to
concentrate on sales volume and building market share, while the finance
department may be more focused on cash flow, covering costs and paying back
investment as quickly as possible.

14
6. Describe the coordination between marketing department and the
activities of production, finance and Human relations management?
(MAY/JUNE -2016)

Marketing and human resources aren't as separate as you might think. A

company needs to attract profitable customers to achieve decent sales
numbers, but getting top talent interested in your company is also critical to
long-term success. Whenever you're trying to convince people to help you,
whether you're after their dollars or their working hours, you need to position
and market your proposition so it looks attractive.
Employer Branding
The word "branding" conjures up visions of market research reports,
company logos and product positioning meetings. Your products and services
aren't the only part of your company in need of promotion, though, especially if
you want to attract and retain top talent. People want to work with a company
that boasts a good reputation, that has a strong mission and vision. Showing
people your company's personality is important, especially in the current
economic climate. Lara Moroko and Mark D. Uncles, writers for The Wall Street
Journal, point out that budget squeezes make hiring the right people more
important than ever, since you don't have the funds to employ workers who
don't pull their weight.
Attracting the Right Talent
Since small businesses almost always have tight budgets, even when
times are good, it's even more critical for you to get your staffing decisions right
the first time. The secret to attracting the people you want and need: align your
HR strategy with your business plan. If you want to be a top application
developer for smartphones, you need creative and educated talent. Start
blogging about trends in the smartphone industry. Attend developer
conferences. Hold information sessions at local colleges, and advertise HR
policies that cater to young professionals, like flex time and the chance to
brainstorm new ideas on company time.
Keeping People Happy

15
 One rule of marketing is that you should only promise what you can
deliver. If your product fails to live up to customer standards, loyalty and trust
wane and your brand collapses. Similarly, if you promise a work environment
that you can't offer, you'll hurt employee morale. While creating an image to
attract top talent is important, you also need to sustain it. If your business
can't afford to promise tuition reimbursements, but you do want to attract
employees committed to learning, work lower-cost education opportunities into
your company culture. Have weekly lunch-and-learn sessions where employees
take turns presenting to the group. Promise education funding on a smaller
scale, agreeing to pay for one relevant conference each year.
Keeping Up With Change
Markets change, and so do employee expectations. Just like brands have
to evolve to stay competitive, your employer brand has to change with employee
expectations. You need to stay on top of basic trends, like salary data, but you
also need to know what benefits your competitors are providing. Keep on top of
news about the top places to work in your field. You may be too small to
provide a gym in-house like a major corporate competitor, but maybe you could
afford to offer fitness allowances.
a) Sales and marketing help the firm identify customers for the firm’s
products or services, develop products and services to meet customers’
needs, promote the products and services, sell the products and services,
and provide ongoing customer support.
b) Manufacturing and production systems deal with the planning,
development, and production of products and services, and controlling
the flow of production.
c) Finance and accounting systems keep track of the firm’s financial assets
and fund flows.
d) Human resources systems maintain employee records; track employee
skills, job performance, and training; and support planning for employee
compensation and career development.

16
7. What are the modes that can be used by marketer to entry into foreign
markets? Explain in detail? (MAY/JUNE -2016)

Modes of entry into an international market are the channels which your
organization employs to gain entry to a new international market. This lesson
considers a number of key alternatives, but recognizes that alteratives are
many and diverse. Here you will be consider modes of entry into international
markets such as the Internet, Exporting, Licensing, International Agents,
International Distributors, Strategic Alliances, Joint Ventures, Overseas
Manufacture and International Sales Subsidiaries. Finally we consider the
Stages of Internationalization.
Licensing
Licensing includes franchising, Turnkey contracts and contract
manufacturing.
 Licensing is where your own organization charges a fee and/or royalty for
the use of its technology, brand and/or expertise.
 Franchising involves the organization (franchiser) providing branding,
concepts, expertise, and infact most facets that are needed to operate in
an overseas market, to the franchisee. Management tends to be
controlled by the franchiser. Examples include Dominos Pizza, Coffee
Republic and McDonald’s Restaurants.
 Turnkey contracts are major strategies to build large plants. They often
include a the training and development of key employees where skills are
sparse – for example, Toyota’s car plant in Adapazari, Turkey. You would
not own the plant once it is handed over.
International Agents and International Distributors
Agents are often an early step into international marketing. Put simply,
agents are individuals or organizations that are contracted to your business,
and market on your behalf in a particular country. They rarely take ownership
of products, and more commonly take a commission on goods sold. Agents
usually represent more than one organization. Agents are a low-cost, but low-
control option. If you intend to globalize, make sure that your contract allows

17
you to regain direct control of product. Of course you need to set targets since
you never know the level of commitment of your agent. Agents might also
represent your competitors – so beware conflicts of interest. They tend to be
expensive to recruit, retain and train. Distributors are similar to agents, with
the main difference that distributors take ownership of the goods. Therefore
they have an incentive to market products and to make a profit from them.
Otherwise pros and cons are similar to those of international agents.
Strategic Alliances (SA)
Strategic alliances is a term that describes a whole series of different
relationships between companies that market internationally. Sometimes the
relationships are between competitors. There are many examples including:
 Shared manufacturing e.g. Toyota Ayago is also marketed as a Citroen
and a Peugeot.
 Research and Development (R&D) arrangements.
 Distribution alliances e.g. iPhone was initially marketed by O2 in the
United Kingdom.
 Marketing agreements.
Essentially, Strategic Alliances are non-equity based agreements i.e. companies
remain independent and separate.
Joint Ventures (JV) and modes of entry
Joint Ventures tend to be equity-based i.e. a new company is set up with
parties owning a proportion of the new business. There are many reasons why
companies set up Joint Ventures to assist them to enter a new international
market:
 Access to technology, core competences or management skills. For
example, Honda’s relationship with Rover in the 1980’s.
 To gain entry to a foreign market. For example, any business wishing to
enter China needs to source local Chinese partners.
 Access to distribution channels, manufacturing and R&D are most
common forms of Joint Venture.
Overseas Manufacture or International Sales Subsidiary

18
 A business may decide that none of the other options are as viable as
actually owning an overseas manufacturing plant i.e. the organization invests in
plant, machinery and labor in the overseas market. This is also known as
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). This can be a new-build, or the company
might acquire a current business that has suitable plant etc. Of course you
could assemble products in the new plant, and simply export components from
the home market (or another country). The key benefit is that your business
becomes localized – you manufacture for customers in the market in which you
are trading. You also will gain local market knowledge and be able to adapt
products and services to the needs of local consumers. The downside is that
you take on the risk associated with the local domestic market. An
International Sales Subsidiary would be similar, reducing the element of risk,
and have the same key benefit of course. However, it acts more like a
distributor that is owned by your own company.
Internationalization Stages, and modes of entry
So having considered the key modes of entry into international markets, we
conclude by considering the Stages of Internationalization. Some companies
will never trade overseas and so do not go through a single stage. Others will
start at a later or even final stage. Of course some will go through each stage as
summarized now:
 Indirect exporting or licensing
 Direct exporting via a local distributor
 Your own foreign presences
 Home manufacture, and foreign assembly
 Foreign manufacture
It is worth noting that not all authorities on international marketing agree
as to which mode of entry sits where. For example, some see franchising as a
stand alone mode, whilst others see franchising as part of licensing. In reality,
the most important point is that you consider all useful modes of entry into
international markets – over and above which pigeon-hole it fits into. If in
doubt, always clarify your tutor’s preferred view.

19
The Internet
The Internet is a new channel for some organizations and the sole
channel for a large number of innovative new organizations. The eMarketing
space consists of new Internet companies that have emerged as the Internet
has developed, as well as those pre-existing companies that now employ
eMarketing approaches as part of their overall marketing plan. For some
companies the Internet is an additional channel that enhances or replaces
their traditional channel(s). For others the Internet has provided the
opportunity for a new online company. More
Exporting
There are direct and indirect approaches to exporting to other nations.
Direct exporting is straightforward. Essentially the organization makes a
commitment to market overseas on its own behalf. This gives it greater control
over its brand and operations overseas, over an above indirect exporting. On
the other hand, if you were to employ a home country agency (i.e. an exporting
company from your country – which handles exporting on your behalf) to get
your product into an overseas market then you would be exporting indirectly.
Examples of indirect exporting include:
 Piggybacking whereby your new product uses the existing distribution
and logistics of another business.
 Export Management Houses (EMHs) that act as a bolt on export
department for your company. They offer a whole range of bespoke or a
la carte services to exporting organizations.
 Consortia are groups of small or medium-sized organizations that group
together to market related, or sometimes unrelated products in
international markets.
 Trading companies were started when some nations decided that they
wished to have overseas colonies. They date back to an imperialist past
that some nations might prefer to forget e.g. the British, French, Spanish
and Portuguese colonies. Today they exist as mainstream businesses

20
that use traditional business relationships as part of their competitive
advantage.

21