[PRACTICAL FILE]

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

SUBMITTED TO – ER NAVEEN SHARMA
INDEX

SNO. EXPERIMENT PAGE REMARKS

1 To measure the negative sequence reactance of synchronous 1

machines.

2 To analyse unsymmetrical faults like LG, LL, LLG 6

3 To study the IDMT over current relay and determine the time 10
current characteristics.
4 To study percentage differential relay. 12

5 To study operation of oil testing set. 14

6 To study Impedance, MHO and Reactance type distance relays. 16

7 To study the earth resistance using three spikes. 21

EXPERIMENT NO. -1
​ AIM – To measure the negative sequence reactance of synchronous
machines.

​ EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED -
1. Ammeter: – 0 - 15A; 0 - 2.5A.
2. Voltmeter: – 0 – 40V; 0 – 250V.
3. Wattmeter: – 0 -1400 W.
​ CONNECTION DAIGRAM –

1- OPEN CIRCUIT DAIGRAM

2- SHORT CIRCUIT DAIGRAM

 3- CONNECTION DAIGRAM TO DETERMINE X2

4- CONNECTION DAIGRAM TO DETERMIN X0

​ THEORY AND PROCEDURE -

DETERMINATION OF POSITIVE SEQUENCE REACTANCE (X1)

A system component operating under balanced condition of voltage and
current is in effect in a positive sequence mode. The positive sequence
reactance X1 of a synchronous machine under steady state condition is the
direct axis synchronous reactance Xd of the machine. The positive sequence
impedance can also be defined as the impedance offered by the machine to
the flow of positive sequence currents in the armature windings create a
rotating magnetic field. The positive sequence reactance can be
calculated by the expression
X1=E / Isc
where E and Isc are No load armature voltage and short circuit armature
current respectively.

1. OPEN CIRCUIT TEST

​ Run the machine at rated speed.

​ Connect a voltmeter and ammeter according to the open circuit diagram

​ Note the readings for different exciting currents.

2. SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

​ Make the connections as shown in Short circuit diagram

​ Run the machine at rated speed.

​ Apply low voltage to the field circuit so that exciting current is small.
Alternately connect a high resistance in the field circuit with full applied
voltage.

​ Apply three-phase short circuit at the synchronous machine terminal with

an ammeter connected in any phase.

​ Measure the short circuit current corresponding to the field current.

3. DETERMINATION OF NEGATIVE
SEQUENCE REACTANCE (X2)
The negative sequence reactance X2 can be obtained by running the machine at
rated speed with a low excitation and with a sustained two-phase short circuit
between the open phase and any short-circuited phase. Let open circuit voltage
be Vos and the short circuit current Isc. The negative sequence impedance Z2
and reactance X2 can be calculated using the following expressions:

Z2=Vos/3. Isc

X2=Z2 sin Ø

where Ø = cos-1(P/Sc Isc)

 ​ Make the connections as shown in figure for determining X2

​ Run the machine at rated speed.

​ Short circuit two phases of the alternator through an ammeter and the
current coil of the wattmeter.

​ Connect the voltage coil of the wattmeter and the voltmeter between the
open phase and any short-circuited phase.

​ Gradually increase the excitation such that the short circuit current does not
exceed its rated value.

​ Note the reading of voltage, current and power.

C. DETERMINATION OF ZERO SEQUENCE REACTANCE (X0)

The machine is driven at rated speed. Connect all three phases in parallel and the
voltmeter and ammeter according to the figure for determining X0 .

​ Connect the armature winding in parallel according to the circuit diagram

​ Run the machine at rated speed.

​ Apply low voltage from a variac and measure both voltage V0 and current I0
taken by the armature windings and zero sequence reactance can be
calculated using the following expression:

X0=3.Z0/I0
EXPERIMENT NO. - 2

​ AIM: To analyse unsymmetrical faults like LG, LL, LLG

​ SOURCE - MATLAB
​ THEORY:

SINGLE LINE-TO-GROUND FAULT

The single line-to-ground fault is usually referred as “short circuit” fault and
occurs when one conductor falls to ground or makes contact with the neutral
wire. The general representation of a single line-to-ground fault is shown in
Figure 3.10 where F is the fault point with impedances Zf. Figure 3.11 shows
the sequences network diagram. Phase a is usually assumed to be the faulted
phase, this is for simplicity in the fault analysis calculations.

Since the zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence currents are equals as it can
be observed in Figure 3.11. Therefore,
Line-to-Line Fault A line-to-line fault may take place either on an overhead
and/or underground transmission system and occurs when two conductors are
short-circuited. One of the characteristics of this type of fault is that its fault
impedance magnitude could vary over a wide range making very hard to
predict its upper and lower limits. It is when the fault impedance is zero that
the highest asymmetry at the line-to-line fault occurs the general
representation of a line- to-line fault is shown in Figure 3.12 where F is the fault
point with impedances Zf. Figure 3.13 shows the sequences network diagram.
Phase b and c are usually assumed to be the faulted phases; this is for
simplicity in the fault analysis calculations [1],

DOUBLE LINE-TO-GROUND FAULT

A double line-to-ground fault represents a serious event that causes a
significant asymmetry in a three-phase symmetrical system and it may spread
into a three-phase fault when not clear in appropriate time. The major problem
when analysing this type of fault is the assumption of the fault impedance Zf ,
and the value of the impedance towards the ground Zg. The general
representation of a double line-to-ground fault is shown in Figure 3.14 where F
is the fault point with impedances Zf and the impedance from line to ground Zg
. Figure 3.15 shows the sequences network diagram. Phase b and c are
assumed to be the faulted phases, this is for simplicity in the fault analysis
calculations.
​ CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
​ PROCEDURE:
1. Open MATLAB-->Simulink--> File ---> New---> Model
2. Open Simulink Library and browse the components
3. Connect the components as per circuit diagram
4. Set the desired voltage and required frequency
5. Simulate the circuit using MATLAB
6. Plot the waveforms

​ Graph:

​ PRECAUCTIONS:
1. It must be done under the guidance of the teacher.
2. Student should know the equipment’s and use of MATLAB.
3. Check the connection before run the programme.
EXPERIMENT NO.- 3

​ AIM: To study the IDMT over current relay and determine the time current
characteristics.
​ APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Voltmeter (0-300 V) Digital

2. Ammeter (0-10 A) Digital
3. Loading C.T.
4. Auto Transformer 0-270V
5. Indicating Light
6. I.D.M.T. Relay Type CDG
7. Timer with Start & Stop facility
8. Push Button for Timer START & STOP
9. Rotary Switch
10.1 DP Switch
11. Insulating terminals
​ THEORY:
There are several over current protections such as fuse, thermal relay &
IDMT Relay. IDMT (Inverse Definite Minimum Time) Relay is a high accuracy
over current relay. If we do not want to flow the current in lines more than 1
Amp, we will set the tripping current in our relay 1 Amp. As the current will
become
1.10 or 1.20, the relay disc will start forward and trip the breaker after
certain time. It is widely used to prevent over current on transmission lines,
power transformers etc, because the error & tripping time of the relay is
tolerable by the lines and transformer. As the requirement of system is that
the faulted line should be open instantaneously. If the faulted line breaker
fails to open the faulted line, the next supply breaker has to be open to for
making dead the faulty line. The next breaker may be at higher voltage line
or the same voltage. The next breaker should open only after the first
breaker failure. So, we will allow approx. 0.4 sec time to operate first
breaker. If first breaker does not become open within 0.4 sec than it will be
assume failure and the next breaker will become functional. These times
and current distinguish is made by IDMT relay.
​ CIRCUIT DAIGRAM:

​ PROCEDURE –
STUDY THE OPERATING CURRENT & DE-OPERATING CURRENT OF DISC.

1. Keep the current source at minimum.

2. The amp adj / relay test rotary switch is kept at AMP ADJ.
3. Switch ON the test set.
4. Increase the current source slowly and pay attention at disc of relay.
5. At certain current, it just moves in forward direction, this current is
operating current and note the current.
6. Now decrease the current through current source and pay hard attention
at disc.
7. The disc will stop at certain current and moves in reverse direction just
after reducing the current. This current is de-operating current and note its
value

​ RESULT: We have drawn the characteristics of IDMT relay after

performing the test.
EXPERIMENT NO. - 4

​ AIM: To study percentage differential relay.

​ APPARATUS USED:
1. Relay Single Pole Version 1 A (Numerical Type) ‘AREVA’ make MBCH-12

2. Timer

3. Auto Transformer 0-270V, 10 A

4. Ammeter (10 A, AC) - 2 Nos.

5. Neon lamp 1A, AC, 230 V

6. Rheostat 5 A, 45 Ohms - 1 Nos.

7. Rheostat 10 A, 20 Ohms - 1 Nos.

8. Isolation Transformer

9. Auxiliary DC Supply Unit with Transformer.

​ THEORY:
It is a very important protection of the transformer. It is based on the ratio
of H.T. current and L.T. current should be constant. Consider the Fig No ‘1’,
here we considering the single pole of 132/33 KV Transformer. It’s H.T.
current and L.T. current ratio will be 1:4. If the CT of H.T. side is considered
100/1 Amp, so the CT of L.T. side will be 400/1 Amp. The secondary current
of L.T. side CT and H.T. side CT will always equal in normal condition. Both
the secondary of CTs will enter in Numerical type % Differential Relay. The
secondary of CT connection is make in such a way that the CT current will
flow only through coil circuit and no extra current is to flow from Differential
coil. As soon as the fault occurs in transformer, the H.T. current will high. The
ratio of H.T. current and L.T. current will change. The secondary of H.T. side
CT current will become high with respect to secondary of L.T. side CT
current. So the difference of current will flow through differential winding.
The
 secondary of differential winding transformer will go to an electronic circuit
that will operate a tripping relay to trip the breaker of main transformer. The
through windings are used to restraining the differential relay. It will more
clearly by drawing the curve between through current and differential
current.

​ CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

​ RESULT: We have performed the test on percentage differential relay.

EXPERIMENT NO. - 5

​ Aim: To study operation of oil testing set.

​ APPARATUS USED: Oil Testing Set.

​ THEORY:

When a sample of oil is subjected to dielectric stress in a gap between two

spheres the materials of higher conductivity and higher spheres capacity are
drawn into the intense field between the spheres and causes a distortion of
the field resulting in local high density and disruption begins at these points.
When testing transformer oil, it is found often that one or more discharge
occurs across the gap at comparatively low voltages due to the presence of
water particles but that the voltage can be raised to a very much higher
value before complete rupture occurs. If particles of higher dielectric
constant than the oil are drawn into the intense field, they will cause
excessive local stress which may result in dissociation or ionization of oil and
the gases of ionization may bridge the gap and causes complete rupture.
In standard specifications for ‘Insulating Oil’ the method of applying the
testing voltage (which must be alternating or approximately sine waveform
of frequency between 25 and 100 Hz and with a peak factor of √2 +5% has
been laid down. The test has to be carried out under standard conditions.
The minimum dimensions of the test cell, diameter of the electrode and the
distance between them are specified

​ Procedure: When testing oils, the set is operated according to a

particular method (in compliance with the regulations) i.e., with a fixed
spark gap and variable testing voltage. The voltage should be increased
gradually under continues observation of the measuring until the
breakdown occurs. To test oils of high quality the distance between
electrodes should be adjusted to
 2 mm. The equipment permits 310 KV/cm to be measured. For testing oils
of medium quality or inferior quality the spark gap should be adjusted to 4
mm by means of a distance gauge. The insulating material oil testing cup is
equipped normally with two calotte-shaped electrodes of 36 mm dia, radius
of each sphere is 25 mm. The oil testing cup is kept as small as possible to
do with minimum quantity of oil. Suitable safety contacts are provided to
put the set out of operation as soon as the top lid is opened in order to
insert or remove the test cup, thus eliminating HT danger. The set is
disconnected automatically as soon as the puncture occurs. No oil tests are
possible as long as the lid of the rear of the cabinet is open.
​ CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
EXPERIMENT NO. - 6

​ AIM - To study Impedance, MHO and Reactance type distance relays.

​ THEORY – Types of relay
a) Impedance relay
b) MHO relay
c) Distance relay
​ IMPEDANCE RELAY - The relay whose working depends on the
distance between the impedance of the faulty section and the position
on which relay installed is known as the impedance relay or distance
relay. It is a voltage-controlled equipment. The relay measures the
impedance of the faulty point, if the impedance is less than the
impedance of the relay setting, it gives the tripping command to the
circuit breaker for closing their contacts. The impedance relay
continuously monitors the line current and voltage flows through the CT
and PT respectively. If the ratio of voltage and current is less than the
relay starts operating then the relay starts operating.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF IMPEDANCE RELAY

In the normal operating condition, the value of the line voltage is more than
the current. But when the fault occurs on the line the magnitude of the current
rises and the voltage becomes less. The line current is inversely proportional to
the impedance of the transmission line. Thus, the impedance decreases
because of which the impedance relay starts operating. The figure below
explains the impedance relay in much easier way. The potential transformer
supplies the voltage to the transmission line and the current flows because of
the current transformer. The current transformer is connected in series with
the circuit. Consider the impedance relay is placed on the transmission line for
the protection of the line AB. The Z is the impedance of the line in normal
operating condition. If the impedances of the line fall below the impedance Z
then the relay starts working. Let, the fault F1 occur in the line AB. This fault
decreases the impedance of the line below the relay setting impedance. The
relay starts
operating, and it send the tripping command to the circuit breaker. If the fault
reached beyond the protective zone, the contacts of the relay remain unclosed.

​ MHO RELAY - A mho Relay is a high-speed relay and is also known as

the admittance relay. In this relay operating torque is obtained by the
volt- amperes element and the controlling element is developed due to
the voltage element. It means a mho relay is a voltage controlled
directional relay. A mho relay using the induction cup structure is shown
in the figure below. The operating torque is developed by the interaction
of fluxes due to pole 2, 3, and 4 and the controlling torque is developed
due to poles 1, 2 and 4.

If the spring controlling effect is indicated by –K3, the torque equation becomes,
Where Θ and τ are defined as positive when I lag behind V. At balance point,
the net torque is zero, and hence the equation becomes

If the spring-controlled effect is neglected i.e., k3 = 0.

OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC OF MHO RELAY

The operating characteristic of the mho relay is shown in the figure below. The
diameter of the circle is practically independent of V and I, except at a very low
magnitude of the voltage and current when the spring effect is considered,
which causes the diameter to decrease. The diameter of the circle is expressed
by the equation as ZR= K1 / K2 = ohmic setting of the relay
The relay operates when the impedance seen by the relay within the circle. The
operating characteristic showed that circle passes through the origin, which
makes the relay naturally directional. The relay because of its naturally
directional characteristic requires only one pair of contacts which makes it fast
tripping for fault clearance and reduces the VA burdens on the current
transformer. The impedance angle of the protected line is normally 60º and 70º
which is shown by line OC in the figure. The arc resistance R is represented by
the length AB, which is horizontal to OC from the extremity of the chord Z. By
making the τ equal to, or little less lagging than Θ, the circle is made to fit
around the faulty area so that the relay is insensitive to power swings and
therefore particularly applicable to the protection of long or heavily loaded
lines. For a given relay the τ is constant, and the admittance phasor Y will lie on
the straight line. The characteristic of mho relays on the admittance diagram is,
therefore, a straight line and is shown in the figure below.

Mho relay is suitable for EHV/UHV heavily loaded transmission lines as its
threshold characteristic in Z-plane is a circle passing through the origin, and its
diameter is ZR. Because of this, the threshold characteristic is quite compact
enclosing faulty area compactly and hence, there is lesser chance to operate
during power swing and also it is directional.
​ DISTANCE RELAY - Distance protection is the name given to the
protection; whose action depends upon the distance of the feeding point
to the fault. The time of operation of such a protection is a function of
the ratio of voltage and current i.e., impedance. This impedance between
the relay and the fault depends upon the electrical distance between
them. Distance relays differ in principle from other forms of protection in
their performance and is not governed by the magnitude of the current
or the voltage in the protected circuit but rather on the ratio of these two
quantities. Distance relays are actually double actuating quantity relays
with one coil energized by voltage and the other coil by current. The
current element produces a positive or pick-up torque while the voltage
element produces a negative or reset torque. The relay operates only
when the V/I ratio falls below a predetermined value (or set value).
During a fault on a transmission line the fault current increases and the
voltage at the fault point decreases. The V/I ratio is measured at the
location of CTs and Pts. The voltage at PT location depends on the
distance between PT and the fault. If the fault is nearer, measured voltage
is lesser and if the fault is farther, measured voltage is more. Hence
assuming constant fault impedance each value of V/I measured from
relay location corresponds to distance between relaying point and the
fault along the line. Hence such protection is called the distance
protection or impedance protection. Distance protection is non-unit type
protection, the protection zone is not exact. The distance protection is
high speed protection and is simple to apply. It can be employed as a
primary as well as backup protection. It can be employed in carrier aided
distance schemes and in auto-reclosing schemes. Distance protection is
very commonly used in protection of transmission lines. Distance relays
are used where overcurrent relaying is too slow and is not so selective.
Distance relays are used for both phase fault and ground fault protection
and they provide higher speeds for clearing faults than overcurrent
relays. Distance relays are also independent of changes in magnitude of
the short-circuit currents and hence they are not much affected by
changes in the generation capacity and the system configuration. Thus,
they eliminate long clearing times for faults near the power sources
required by overcurrent relays if used for the purpose.
EXPERIMENT - 7

​ AIM – To study the earth resistance using three spikes.

​ REQUIRED EQUIPMENT:

a) Earth Tester (4 Terminal or 3 Terminal)

b) 4 No’s of Electrodes (Spike)
c) 4 No’s of Insulated Wires
d) Hammer
e) Measuring Tap

1. Connections:
1. First, isolate the grounding electrode under measurement by
disconnecting it from the rest of the system.
2. For Small System:
3. For 4 Terminal Earth Tester Short Current Terminal (C1) and Potential
Terminal (P1) together with a short jumper on the earth tester and
connect it to earthing electrode under test.
4. For 3 Terminal Earth Tester Connect current terminal (C1) to the earth
electrode under measurement.
5. Drive another Current Electrode (C2) into the earth 100 to 200 feet at
depth of 6 to 12 inches from the center of the electrode and connect
to C2 Terminal of earth tester.
6. Drive another potential terminal (P2) at depth of 6 to 12 inches into
the earth midway between the Current Electrode (C1) and Current
Electrode (C2) and connect to Earth Tester on P2
7. For Large System
8. Place the current electrode (C2) 400 to 600 feet from the measuring
Earth Current Electrode (C1)
9. Place the potential electrode (P1)8% of the distance from the Earth
Current Electrode (C1)
10.Measure the resistance
 11.Move the current electrode (C2) farther 50 to 100 Feet away from its
present position.
12.Place the potential electrode (P2) 61.8% of the distance from the
Earth Current Electrode (C1).
13.Spike length in the earth should not be more than 1/20th distance
between two spikes.

● TESTING PROCEDURE:

1. Press START and read out the resistance value. This is the actual value
of the ground electrode under test.
2. Move the potential electrode 10 feet farther away from the electrode
and make a second Measurement.
3. Move the potential probe 10 feet closer to the electrode and make a
third measurement.
4. If the three measurements agree with each other within a few
percent of their average, then the average of the three measurements
may be used as the electrode resistance.
 5. If the three measurements disagree by more than a few percent from
their average, then additional measurement procedures are required.
6. The electrode centre location seldom is known. In this case, at least
three sets of measurements are made, each with the current probe a
different distance from the electrode, preferably in different
directions.
7. When space is not available and it prevent measurements in different
directions, suitable measurements can be made by moving the
current probe in a line away from or closer to the electrode.
8. For example, the measurement may be made with the current probe
located 200, 300 and 400 feet along a line from the electrode.
9. Each set of measurements involves placing the current probe and
then moving the potential probe in 10 feet increments toward or
away from the electrode.
10.The starting point is not critical but should be 20 to 30 feet from the
electrode connection point, in which case the potential probe is
moved in 10 feet increments toward the current probe, or 20 to 30
feet from the current probe, in which case the potential probe is
moved in 10 feet increments back toward the electrode.
11.The spacing between successive potential probe locations is not
particularly critical, and does not have to be 10 feet, as long as the
measurements are taken at equal intervals along a line between the
electrode connection and the current probe.
12.Larger spacing means quicker measurements with fewer data points.
smaller spacing means more data points with slower measurements.
13.Once all measurements have been made, the data is plotted with the
distance from the electrode on the horizontal scale and the measured
resistance on the vertical scale.

● PRECAUCTIONS-
1. Experiment must be done under the guidance of the teacher
2. Connect the electrodes properly.
3. Check the connection properly