Reflections of a Distant Past - Naturalists of the time had trouble classifying

organisms that are very similar in some features, but

What do you think about time?
different in others
-An asteroid 45 meters (150 feet) wide created the mile-
-Naturalists studying body plans were confused by
wide Barringer Crater in Arizona 50,000 years ago
vestigial body parts with no apparent function
-Scientists infer from evidence such as the K-Pg
-Sequences of similar fossils and fossils of giant animals
boundary layer that an asteroid impact near the
with no living representatives also puzzled early
Yucatán 65 million years ago caused the mass extinction
naturalists
of dinosaurs
-Taken as whole, scientific findings did not fit with
Mass extinction
prevailing beliefs of the 19th century
-Simultaneous loss of many lineages from Earth
A Flurry of New Theories
carbon 14- been used by an agent in understanding
Georges Cuvier: proposed that catastrophic geologic
through radiometric dating.
forces unlike those of the present-day shaped Earth's
Confusing Discoveries surface (catastrophism)

By the late 1800s, naturalists were seeing patterns in -he proposed that many species were now extinct
where species live and similarities in body plans.
-He also noticed evidence of changes in the earth's
Biogeography surface.

Study of patterns in the geographic distribution of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed that changes in an
species and communities animal over its lifetime were inherited.

Naturalists suspected that environmental factors affect

Comparative morphology a species' traits over time, causing changes in a line of
The scientific study of anatomical patterns in body descent.
plans.
Evolution- Change in a lineage (a line of descent)
-All living things were part of a great chain of being. Darwin and the HMS Beagle
Great chain of being- all living organisms were never 1831: Charles Darwin set out as a naturalist on a five-
changed after being created and existed as perfect year voyage aboard the Beagle
beings.
-Found many unusual fossils and observed
Fossil- is physical evidence, remains or traces of an animals living in many different environments.
organism. -Influenced by Charles Lyell's Principles of
Geology, which set forth the theory of uniformity
1800s- the concept of the great chain was changed as
-Earth was shaped by gradual processes over long-
new evidence started to accumulate in three main
time spans.
areas:

1. biogeography A Key Insight - Variation in Traits

2. comparative morphology Darwin sent thousands of specimens he collected on his

voyage to England, including fossil glyptodons
3. fossil records
- Fossil glyptodons had many traits in common
Confusing Discoveries with modern armadillos
-If traits of their common ancestor had changed
By the late 1800s, naturalists were seeing patterns in in the line of descent that led to armadillos, what
where species live and similarities in body plans caused the change?
Georges Cuvier- proposed the idea of catastrophism. Principles of Natural Selection

Observations about populations

Jean- Baptiste Lamarck- proposed the idea of a line of
descent/lineage. - Natural populations have an inherent capacity to
increase in size over time.
Charles Lyell - author of principles of geology. He -As a population expands, resources that are used by its
proposed uniformity. individuals (such as food and living space) eventually
become limited.
-When resources are limited, the individuals of a
Limited Resources
population compete for them.
Thomas Malthus observed that:
Observations about genetics
-A population tends to grow until it begins to exhaust
-Individuals of a species share certain traits.
limited environmental resources
-Individuals of a natural population vary in the details of
-When resources become scarce, individuals must those shared traits.
compete for them -Shared traits have a heritable basis, in genes.

Darwin realized that all populations must have the Inferences

capacity to produce more individuals than their -A certain form of a shared trait may make its bearer
environment can support. better able to survive.
Natural Selection
-Individuals of a population that are better able to
Darwin concluded that the process of natural selection, survive tend to leave more offspring.
through variations in fitness and adaptation, is a driving
force of evolution. -Thus, an allele associated with an adaptive trait tends
Fitness -The degree of adaptation to an environment, as to become more common in a population over time.
measured by an individual's relative genetic
contribution to future generations. Fossil Evidence
-Most fossils are mineralized bones, teeth, shells, seeds,
Adaptation (adaptive trait) - A heritable trait that spores, or other hard body parts.
enhances an individual’s fitness.
-Most fossils are found in sedimentary rocks.
Differential survival and reproduction of individuals of a
population that varies in the details of shared, heritable -Trace fossils such as footprints and other impressions,
traits. nests, burrows, trails, eggshells, or feces are evidence of
an organism’s activities.
Great Minds Think Alike
The Fossil Record
Alfred Wallace proposed the theory of natural selection
-Fossils are relatively rare, so the fossil. The record will
in 1858, at the same time as Darwin.
always be incomplete.
Darwin published On the Origin of Species the following
year, in which he described descent with modification -Most ancient species had no hard parts to
or evolution. fossilize
- Many fossils of bony fishes and mollusks
- Few fossils of the jellyfish and soft worms that was
probably much more common.

-Fossils of a lineage with greater numbers or that

existed for a longer time is more likely to be found
Radiometric Dating Plates
-The age of rocks and fossils can be determined using - Slow movement rafts continents to new positions over
radiometric dating. geologic time. Where plates spread apart, molten rock
-a method that can reveal the age of a material. wells up from deep inside the Earth and Solidify
- Where plates collide, one slides under the other and is
The half-life-Characteristic time it takes for half of a destroyed.
quantity of a radioisotope to decay into daughter
elements. Putting Time into Perspective
-Similar sequences of sedimentary rock layers exist
Radiometric dating around the world.
- Estimates the age of a rock or fossil by measuring -Transitions between layers mark boundaries of great
the ratio of a radioisotope and a daughter intervals of time in the geologic time scale.
elements -Each layer's composition offers clues about conditions
on Earth during the time the layer was deposited.
Missing Link
Example: Discovery of intermediate forms of cetaceans Geologic time scale- which is a chronology of Earth’s
(animals that includes whales, dolphins, and porpoises) history.

-DNA sequence comparisons indicate that artiodactyls Morphological Divergence

(hooved land mammals) were ancestors of modern -A body part that appears very different in appearance
cetaceans. may be quite similar in underlying aspects of form-
evidence of shared ancestry.
-Fossils Rodhocetus kasrani and Dorudon atrox, have - Evolutionary pattern in which a body part of ancestor
whalelike skull bones and ankle bones in the same changes in its descendants (homologous structures).
skeletons.
Homologous structure – body parts that appear similar
-Modern cetaceans have no remnant of an to the shared ancestry.
ankle bone
Analogous structures
Drifting Continents Similar structures evolved separately in different
-Pangea lineages.
The supercontinent formed 237 million years ago and
broke up 152 million years ago. Morphological convergence
- Evolutionary pattern in which similar body parts
-Plate tectonics theory- how continents move. evolve separately in a different lineage.

-Gondwana Evidence in Function

The supercontinent that existed before Pangea -Neutral mutations accumulate in DNA at a predictable
(500 mya) rate -lineages that diverged recently have more
-Earth's continents were once part of a single nucleotide sequences in common than ones that
supercontinent that split up and drifted apart diverged long ago.
-Explains how the same types of fossils can occur on -Differences in mitochondrial DNA sequences between
both sides of an Ocean. maternally related individuals are due to mutations, not
genetic recombination during fertilization.
Plate Tectonics
-Earth's outer layer of rock is cracked into
Patterns in Animal Development Crossing over at Introduces new combinations of
-Embryos of related species tend to develop in similar meiosis 1 alleles into chromosomes.
ways
Independent Mixes maternal and paternal
-Similarities in embryonic development patterns result assortment at chromosomes
from master genes (homeotic genes) that have been meiosis 1
conserved over evolutionary time.
Fertilization Combines alleles from two parents.
-Differences in the adult form are brought about by
variations in master gene expression patterns (e.g., An Evolutionary View of Mutations
HoxXCő gene). -Many mutations give rise to structural, functional, or
behavioral alterations that reduce an individual s
Processes of Evolution chances of surviving and reproducing.
Superbug Farms
-cannot be killed easily. - Lethal mutation
Drastically alters phenotype. Usually causes death.
-Every time a cell divides, it is an opportunity for a
mutation to occur - Neutral mutation
Has no effect on survival or reproduction
-Intestinal bacteria E. coli can divide every 17 minutes
- Leads to rapid diversification - Beneficial mutation
Improves the chance of survival or reproduction
-Human use of antibiotics is providing a selective
pressure that results in E. coli being resistant to these Allele Frequency
antibiotics. Gene pool
-Especially common on farms were antibiotics - All the genes in a population
are used in food animals.
Allele frequency
Alleles in Populations -Abundance of a particular allele among
-Individuals in a population share the same traits members of a population.
(phenotype) because they share the same genes -Expressed as a percentage.
(genotype).
Microevolution
-Alleles of the same genes are the main source of -Small-scale change in allele frequencies of a population
variation in a population. -Always Occurring in natural populations
-Two distinct forms: dimorphic -Caused by mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift
-Several distinct forms: polymorphic
- Traits with continuous variation may have
interactions with several genes or be influenced by the Modes of Natural Selection
environment. Natural selection
-Influences allele frequency in a population by operating
The mutation is the source of new alleles. on phenotypes with a heritable, genetic basis
-Occurs in different patterns depending on species and
Sources of Variation in Traits selection pressures

Genetic Event Effect -Directional selection

-Stabilizing selection
Mutation Original source of new alleles -Disruptive selection
Directional Selection Example: The HBS mutation of the beta globin chain of
-Mode of natural selection in which phenotypes at one hemoglobin causes sickle-cell anemia in homozygotes
end of a range of variation are favored. - Heterozygotes have an advantage in areas
-Allele frequencies shift in a consistent direction in where malaria is prevalent
response to selection pressure
Genetic Drift and Gene Flow
Examples: peppered moths, rock pocket mice,
antibiotic-resistant bacteria Genetic drift
-Random change in allele frequencies in a
Stabilizing Selection population over time, due to chance alone
-Mode of natural selection in which intermediate -Effect is greatest in small populations
phenotypes are favored and extreme forms are -Can lead to an allele becoming fixed
eliminated. -All individuals of a population are homozygous for
an allele.
Example: Stabilizing selection maintains an
intermediate body mass in populations of sociable Fixed – all individuals in the population are homozygous
weaver bird from the population’s gene pool.

Disruptive Selection Bottlenecks and Founder Effects

-Mode of natural selection that favors extreme Genetic drift is pronounced in small or inbreeding
phenotypes in a range of variation populations, such as those that occur after an
-Intermediate forms are selected against evolutionary bottleneck.

Example: Dimorphism in seed cracker bill size is Bottleneck

maintained by environmental factors that affect feeding -Reduction in population size so severe that it
performance. reduces genetic diversity.
-Can lead to the founder effect
Natural Selection and Diversity Change in allele frequencies occurs after a small
Sexual selection number of individuals establishes a population.
- Some individuals of a population out-reproduce Founding populations are often necessary.
others because they are better at securing mates.
Founder effect- If the founding group is not
-The most adaptive forms of a trait are those that help representative of the original population In terms of
individuals defeat rivals for mates, or are most allele frequencies, then the new population will not be
attractive to the opposite sex. Sexual dimorphism is one representative of it either.
outcome.
Inbreeding – nonrandom breeding or mating between
close relatives.
Maintaining Multiple Alleles
Gene Flow
Plasmodium – the parasitic protist that causes malaria -The physical movement of alleles between populations,
as individuals immigrate or emigrate
Balanced polymorphism -Can change or stabilize allele frequencies
-Nonidentical alleles for a trait are maintained in
a population Example: jays transfer acorns (and their alleles) among
-Occurs when environmental conditions favor oak trees that otherwise would be genetically isolated.
heterozygotes over homozygotes
Speciation- Process by which new species arise from Key innovation
existing species. An evolutionary trait that allows its bearer to
exploit a habitat more efficiently or in a novel way.
Reproductive isolation
- Absence of gene flow between populations due Coevoltion
to lack of interbreeding Joint evolution of two closely interacting species
-Divergences then lead to speciation -Each species is a selective agent that shifts the range of
variation in the other
Allopatric Speciation Examples: predator and prey, host and parasite,
-A physical barrier arises and separates members of a pollinator and flower
population, ending gene flow between them
-Reproductive isolating mechanisms evolve - if Evolutionary Theory
the populations meet again later, they could not -Biologists have no doubt that macroevolution occurs
interbreed but disagree about the mechanism.

Examples: Great Wall of China; Isthmus of Panama May result from:

-Many microevolutionary events, or an entirely
Sympatric Speciation different process
Populations in the same geographic region exist without
a physical barrier between them. -Dramatic jumps in forms may result from mutations in
-Can occur in a single generation if the homeotic or other regulatory genes
chromosome number multiplies spontaneously.
Phylogeny
Example: mutations in genes that affect color -The evolutionary history of a species or group
perception affect a female's cichlid's choice of mates -Evolutionary biologists determine common
ancestry by identifying derived traits.
Macroevolution -Present in a group under consideration, but not in the
-Large-scale patterns of evolution that occur above the group ancestors.
species level
Clades
-A lineage persists for millions of years with little or no A group whose members share one or more defining
change derived traits.
Example: coelacanth - Each species is a clade

-A lineage uses a structure for a different purpose than Cladistics

its ancestor did - Making hypotheses about evolutionary
Example: feathers in dinosaurs and in birds relationships among clades

Extinct- means they no longer have living members. Cladogram

- Evolutionary tree diagram that summarizes
Adaptive radiation hypotheses about relationships between clades
-One lineage rapidly diversifies into several new species.
Applications of Phylogeny
Example: Adaptation of populations of Hawaiian Preservation of Hawaiian honeycreepers
honeycreepers to different regions of a new -Phylogeny and genetic diversity
environment
Conservation of antelope populations in ORIGIN OF METABOLISM
African savannas Iron-sulfur hypothesis- proposes that early metabolic
- Cladistic analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences reactions took place in rocks around hydrothermal
vents.
Designing effective vaccines
- Phylogenetic analysis of H5N1 showed that the ORIGIN OF GENETIC MATERIAL
virus "jumped" from birds to pigs at least three times
since 2005. DNA – genetic material in all modern cells.
One acquired the potential to be transmitted among
humans. RNA – served a dual role, functioning both as a genome
and as a catalyst.
A cladogram can be viewed as "sets within sets" of
derived traits. Ribozymes – FNAs that function as enzymes.

Earthworm- multicellular with the backbone ORIGIN OF CELL MEMBRANES

Tuna- multicellular with backbone and legs
Lizard- multicellular with backbone and legs Protocell – a membrane-enclosed collection of
mouse and human - multicellular with backbone, legs, interacting molecules that can take up material and
and hair. replicate.

Human Microbiome David Dreamer- thinks that conditions in hot, acidic

pools near ancient volcanoes would have encouraged
Human Microbiome Project – A collaborative project in the formation of protocells.
2007.
ORIGIN OF THREE DOMAINS
Pathogens – agents of disease.
Prokaryotic – no nucleus
Prevotella copri- is associated with an increased risk for Anaerobic – capable of living without oxygen.
rheumatoid arthritis. (a disorder that attacks joints) . Bacteria and Archaea- diverged very early in the history
of life.
Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek- a pioneer in the use of Stromatolites- cell growth and sediment deposition
microscopy. formed dome-shaped, layered structures.

Strain – a genetically distinct subtype of microorganism. ORIGIN OF EUKARYOTES

Eukaryotes – first appeared in the fossil record about
CONDITIONS ON THE EARLY EARTH 1.8 billion years ago; have a nucleus.
Scientists estimates formed about 4.6 billion years
ago. Mitochondria and chloroplasts
- resemble bacteria in their size and shape, and they
ORIGIN OF THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE replicate independently.

Urea- a molecule abundant in urine. Endosymbiont process

Alanine- an amino acid. - explain similarities between mitochondria and
chloroplasts.
Stanley Miller – tested the hypothesis of lightning-
fueled atmospheric reactions. Endosymbionts
– live inside a cell and can be passed to the cell’s
Hydrothermal vent – underwater geyser; a place where descendants when the cell divides.
mineral-rich heated by geothermal energy streams out.
VIRUSES AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
- Unknown pathogen – arises as a result of HIV’s detrimental effects on the
– smaller than even the smallest cells and could not be immune system.
seen with a light microscope.
-known as the virus today. Ebola-enveloped RNA emerged in Africa.

VIRAL STRUCTURE AND REPLICATION NEW FLUS

In many animal-infecting viruses, the protein coat is Flus- caused by enveloped RNA viruses called influenza
enclosed by viral envelope. (Layer of cell membrane viruses.
derived from the host cell in which the viral particle
formed. Flu shot- vaccine designed to protect against the
influenza strains that scientists predict are most likely to
Viral replication- cycles vary in their details, but nearly pose a threat during the upcoming flu season.
all include the following steps.
Viral infection- is like a cellular hijacking. Viral reassortment- swapping of genes between related
Bacteriophages- called phages; are non-enveloped viruses that infect a host at the same time.
viruses that infect bacteria.
Lambda- A bacteriophage; that has a complex structure. Swine flu – H5N1 strain is a bird flu.
Lytic pathway- viral genes are expressed immediately.
Lysogenic pathway- viral DNA becomes integrated into BACTERIA AND ARCHAEA
the host cells’ genome and viral genes are not Bacteria – a more well-known and widespread group of
immediately expressed. cells that do not have a nucleus.
Archaea- more closely related to eukaryotes than to
PLANT VIRUSES bacteria, and many live in extreme habitats.
-typically nonenveloped, with a helical structure and a Porous cell wall- all bacteria and archaea have this in
genome of single-stranded RNA. around their plasma membrane.
Coccus- spherical cell
Plant cells- have a thick wall, so plants are usually Spirillum- spiral-shape one
infected only after insects, pruning, or some other Bacillus- rod-shaped
mechanical injury creates a wound that allows the virus Pili- thin protein filaments as a grappling hook.
into a cell.
REPRODUCTION AND GENE TRANSFERS
Disease vector – an organism that transmits a pathogen Binary fission- a mechanism of asexual reproduction
from one host to the next. that yields two equal-sized, identical descendants’ cells.
Transformation- a prokaryote takes up free DNA, such
Rhinoviruses- infect membranes of our respiratory and as that from a dead cell, from its environment.
cause common colds. Transduction- Virus picks up DNA from one host, then
passes that DNA along to its next host.
Herpesviruses- cause cold sores, genital herpes, Conjugation- one cell donates a small circle of DNA
mononucleosis or chicken pox. called a plasmid to another.
Plasmid- circle of double-stranded DNA with a few
Human papillomavirus- can cause cancers of the cervix. genes.

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)- an RNA virus

that replicated inside human white blood cells.

Reverse transcriptase- A viral enzyme uses viral RNA as

a template to synthesize a double-stranded DNA.
1. Collaborative endeavor that began in 2007 with the aim of 18. The term for extremophiles that live in highly salty
identifying the various microorganisms that live on or in our bodies. environments. - HALOPHILIC “SALT LOVING”
MICROBES (?) 19. The specific site wherein vitamin K is synthesized by E. coli
2. A biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host or bacteria. -HUMAN ENTESTINE OR LIVER (diko sure)
disrupts the normal physiology of another organism. PATHOGENS 20. The common name of pertussis. -WHOOPING COUGH
3. Group of protozoa which are parasitic and lack contractile 21. A mechanism of gene transfer wherein a prokaryotic cell takes
vacuoles and locomotor processes. APICOMPLEXA up and uses DNA from its environment. -NATURAL
4. It refers to a genetically distinct subtype of a particular TRANSFORMATION OR TRANSFORMATION
microorganism. STRAIN 22. The mode of transmission of trichomoniasis. -UNPROTECTED SEX
5. An organic compound that serves an important role in the (diko sure amo ni nakita ko)
metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds by animals and is the 23. The common name of HINI influenza. -SWINE FLU
main nitrogen-containing substance in the urine of mammals. UREA 24. Other hacteria glide along surfaces by using thin protein
6. A fissure on the seafloor like an underwater geyser from which filaments called - as grappling hooks.
geothermally heated water streams out through a rocky opening in 25. The complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell Or
the sea floor. HYDROTHERMAL VENT organism. -GENOME
7. A hypothesis that posits the evolutionary history of life on Earth, 26. The virus that infects membranes of our respiratory system and
in which self-replicating molecules proliferated before the evolution wauses common colds. -RHINOVIRUS
of DNA and proteins. RNA 27. The common name of infectious mononucicosis. - MONO OR
8. A membrane-enclosed collection of interacting molecules that can KISSING DISEASE
take up material and replicate and is considered the ancestor of 28. The general earn for heterotrophic protists that live as single
cellular life. PROTOCELLS cells. - WATER MOLDS
9. Dome-shaped, layered rock-like structures formed by 29. Photosynthetic euglenoids are able to detect light using an an
photosynthetic bacteria as dense mats in shallow waters; they are organelle near the base of their long flagellum. -EUGLENOZOA
considered as earliest known fossils. STROMATOLITE 30. A collection of diverse tiny organisms that live in large bodies of
10. The process by which aerobic and photosynthetic bacteria form water, they provide a crucial source of
symbiotic relationships with a primitive eukaryotic cell. food to many small and large aquatic organismos. -PHYTOPLANKTON
ENDOSYBMIOTIC
31. The only species of elliate that is known to infect humans.
11. An agent which carries and transmits an infectious agent into
PARASITES
another living organism. VECTORS
32. The genus of protozoa that causes malaria. - PLASMODIUM
12. The process of synthesizing DNA using RNA as a template and
33. A common domesticated mammal that can serve as a carrior of
catalytic enzyme. TRANSCRIPTION
toxoplasma. - DOMESTIC CAT
13. This occurs especially among new influenza strains that involve
34. Red algae are tinted red to black by accessory pigments called -
the swapping of genes between related viruses that infect a host at
These pigments allow red algae to carry photosynthesis at greater
the same time. ANTIGENIC SHIFT
depths than other algac.
14. What does the acronym AIDS stand for? acquired
out - PHYCOBILINS
immunodeficiency syndrome
35. An enveloped RNA virus that emerged in Africa and was
15. An extrachromosomal ring of DNA especially of bacteria that
identified in 1976; this virus infects fruit bats and nonhuman
replicates autonomously. PLASMID
primates - EBOLA VIRUS
16. Method of asexual reproduction in which a prokaryote divides Write TRUE if the statement is correct, FALSE if otherwise.
into two identical descendant cells. -BINARY FISSION 36. Viruses can be considered infectious particles. - TRUE
17. The genus of nitrogen-fixing bacteria (mentioned in the text) that 37. All organisms consist of complex organic compounds that they
live inside the roots of legumes. –RHIZOBIA assembled from organic monomers. -TRUE
38. G. lamblia possesses cilia rather than flagellum/flagella. - FALSE
39. Viruses that infect bacteria played a role in the discovery that
DNA is the molecule of inheritance. - TRUE
40. Phages are enveloped viruses that infect bacteria. - TRUE
41. In the lytic pathway, viral DNA becomes integrated into the host
cell's genome and viral genes are not expressed, so the cell remains
healthy. - TRUE
42. Anaerobes are harmed by oxygen because oxidation reactions
damage their biological molecules and they lack enzymes that can
repair the damage. - TRUE
43. Influenza viruses are commonly naked DNA viruses. (DIKO SURE
KUN TRUE)
44. Nitrogen fixation is an important ecological service provided by
bacteria and fungi. - FALSE
45. Lyme disease is transmitted by means of drinking contaminated
water. - FALSE
46. Viruses consist of a protein coat containing both DNA and RNA
core. - TRUE
47. Lactate-fermenting bacteria are decomposers. - TRUE
48. In transduction, a virus picks up DNA from one host, then passes
that DNA along to its next host. - FALSE
49. Plant viruses must penetrate the cell wall; therefore, they often
rely on insects or pruning to provide an opening for entry. - TRUE
50. All animal viruses are non-enveloped or naked. - TRUE
51. The virus that causes HIV is a naked retrovirus. - TRUE
52. Syphilis is an infection that generally affects the respiratory
system. FALSE
53. Cholera is caused by a virus. FALSE
54. Toxoplasmosis is caused by a flagellated protozoan. FALSE
55. Microscopic diatoms have a silica shell. FALSE (?)
56. Kelps are large, multicelled red algae. TRUE
57. Water molds and plasmodial slime molds are fungi. TRUE (?)
58. Sargassum is a green algae. FALSE
59. Chlorella is brown algae. FALSE
60. Dinoflagellates are the protist group with genes most similar to
those of animals. FALSE
61. Trypanosomes that cause human diseases such as sleeping
sickness are transmitted by dog bites. FALSE
Given the bacterial form and arrangement, be able to identify the
appropriate term.
62. Rod-shaped - BACILLUS
63. Cocci in chains - STREPTOCOCCI
64. Cocci in clusters - STAPHYLOCOCCI
65. Cocci resembling a bunch of grapes - STAPHYLOCOCCUS