Functional Programming in JavaScript

Cristian Salcescu

Copyright © 2020 Cristian Salcescu

August 2020 First Edition

Table of contents
Introduction
Setup
Chapter 01: Primitives

Primitives
Methods on Primitives
Immutability
Variables
Recap
Chapter 02: Immutable Data Objects

Objects
Immutability
Freezing
Linting
Working with Immutable Objects
Recap
Chapter 03: Functions

Function Declarations
Function Expressions
Arrow Function Expressions
Arity
Pure Functions
Recap
Chapter 04: Arrays

Filtering
Mapping
Aggregating
Sorting
Searching
forEach
Impure Operations
 Changing Arrays
Recap
Chapter 05: First-Class Functions

First-Class Functions
Higher-Order Functions
Closures
Recap
Chapter 06: Statements

Expressions
Statement Declaration
Conditional Statements
Loop Statements
Disruptive Statements
Recap
Chapter 07: Recursion

Recursive Factorial
Tail-Call Optimization
Stack Overflow Error
Trampoline
Traversing a Tree
Recap
Chapter 08: Pipelines and Currying

Pipelines
Chaining
Currying
Reduce Pipeline
Recap
Chapter 09: Functors

Functors
Functor Laws
Category Theory
 Functors in Practice
Arrays
Recap
Chapter 10: Monads

Flat Mapping
Monads
Monad Laws
Alternative Creation and Naming
Arrays
Recap
Chapter 11: Immutable Collections

List
Map
Recap
Chapter 12: Lazy Transformations

Transducers
Sequence
Range
Recap
Chapter 13: Generators

Finite Generators
toArray
forEach
take
Custom Generators
Recap
Chapter 14: Promises

Creating Promises
Success Handling
Error Handling
Chaining
 Asynchronous Operations
Functor Laws
Monad Laws
Recap
Chapter 15: Observables

Creation Operators
Pipeable Operators
Observers
Subscriptions
Higher-Order Observables
Flattening Operators
Combining Observables
Functor Laws
Monad Laws
Recap
Chapter 16: Elm Architecture

Elm Architecture
Counter with Elm
Counter with React and Redux
Random Number with Elm
Random Number with React and Redux
Recap
Chapter 17: Functional Paradigm

Purity
Immutability
Pipelines
Loops
Naming
Final Thoughts
What’s next?
Introduction
Functional programming is becoming more popular and this
book aims to bring clarity on how to use JavaScript as a
functional language.

It turns out that JavaScript has everything it needs to be

used as a functional language. We just need to remove
features from the language.

In essence, we are going to remove the this keyword from

our code. That means we are not going to use classes or
methods using the this keyword. It also implies not using
custom prototypes.

Removing this has other benefits. this is the source of much

confusion in JavaScript, mainly because it depends on how
the function is invoked, not where the function is defined.
There are many situations where this points to an
unexpected function context and that leads to bugs. By
removing this all the related problems are gone.

JavaScript is both a functional programming language and a

prototype-based language. If we get rid of this , we are left
with JavaScript as a functional programming language. That
is even better.

That being said, we can remove this from our code by

enabling linting.

Here is an example of a lint configuration file disabling the

this keyword from an application built with Create React App
.
{
 "extends": ["react-app"],
"plugins": [
"immutable"
],
"rules": {
"immutable/no-this": "error"
}
}

JavaScript without this looks like a better functional

programming language.

Source Code The project files from this book are

available at https://github.com/cristi-
salcescu/functional-programming-in-javascript .

Feedback I will be glad to hear your feedback. For

comments, questions, or suggestions regarding this
book send me an email to [email protected] .
Thanks in advance for considering to write a review
of the book.
Setup First, we need to setup our
development environment to use the
latest JavaScript features.
Package Manager A package manager is a tool used
to track project dependencies in an easy to use
manner. At the time of writing, Node.js package
manager, in short npm , is the most popular. Let’s start
by installing Node.js .

The following commands can then be used in command

prompt to check the Node.js and npm versions: node --
version
npm --v NPM Packages With npm we can install additional
packages. These packages are the application dependencies.

The package.json file stores all the node packages used in the
project. These packages are the application dependencies.
The application can be shared with other developers without
sharing all the node packages. Installing all the packages
defined in the package.json file can be done using the npm
install command.

Start by creating a package.json file using npm .

npm init We need a tool that converts our JavaScript code into
a backward-compatible version and has support for modules . We
need Babel . Go and install the necessary packages.

npm install @babel/core @babel/node @babel/preset-env --save

The installed packages can be found in the node_modules folder.
The --save flag tells npm to store the package requirement in
the package.json file.

In order to use the latest JavaScript, we need to enable a

preset. Create the .babelrc file and enable the babel/preset-
env preset.
{
"presets": ["@babel/preset-env"]
}

Linting Linting is the process of analyzing the code

for potential errors and stylistic problems. A linter is
a tool that runs and reports these problems. Linters
are also useful for code formatting and for using best
practices.

We are going to use ES Lint . Start by installing it.

npm install eslint --save-dev Lint rules can be defined in a
configuration file named .eslintrc.*

Next, set up a configuration file.

npx eslint --init One plugin we are going to use is eslint-
plugin-functional so let’s install it.

npm install eslint-plugin-functional --save-dev Now go to the

.eslintrc.json config file an write the lint rule that forbids
the usage of this keyword.

{
"plugins": [
"functional"
],
"rules": {
"functional/no-this-expression": "error"
}
}

Here is how you can run linting on all files inside the src
folder.
npx eslint src In an application created with Create React App
we can force linting before starting the development server by
prepending the npx eslint src command followed by && .

"scripts": {
"start": "npx eslint src && react-scripts start"
}

Using && means that things on both sides of the && must
evaluate to true . If the command on the left side fails the
command on the right side will not execute, so in our case,
the development server won’t start.

IDE
For code editing, we need an Integrated Development
Environment, IDE in short.

I am going to use Visual Studio Code but feel free to use any
editor you prefer.

In order to write commands open the application folder in

Visual Studio Code. Then open the terminal from Terminal ->
New Terminal and execute the command.

To run the code inside the filter.js file for example, and
check the results, we can just use the following command.
npx babel-node filter.js For instant linting feedback we can
install the ESLint extension for VSCode . Linting allows us to
work in a better subset of JavaScript.
Chapter 01: Primitives
We start our learning journey by looking at the first kind of
values available in the language.

Primitives The primitive values include

numbers, strings, booleans, null , and undefined .
Log some of these primitive values in the
console.
console.log(1);
console.log('text');
console.log(true); All these primitive values have a type. We
can find the type of a value using the typeof operator. Check
some of them.

console.log(typeof(1));
//"number"

console.log(typeof(''));
//"string"

console.log(typeof(true));
//"boolean"

There are two number types Number and BigInt . Mainly we

are going to use the first one which stores double-precision
floating-point numbers. It is important to know that floating-
point arithmetic is not accurate.
console.log(0.1+0.2);
//0.30000000000000004

console.log(0.1 + 0.2 === 0.3);

//false The integer arithmetic is accurate up to 15 digits. We
can solve the problem above by first multiplying and then
dividing.

console.log(1 + 2 === 3);

//true

console.log(0.1 * 10 + 0.2 * 10) / 10 === 3);

//true BigInt is used to represent larger numbers. We can
create such numbers by appending n to the end of an integer
literal.

console.log(12345678987654321n); Strings are texts. There are

three ways to define a string value, single quotes, double
quotes and backticks.

"text"
'text'
`text`

Undefined is a type with one value undefined . Null is a type

with one value null . Boolean is a type with two values true
and false .

Methods on Primitives Primitives are not

objects but they seem to behave like objects
because they have methods. For example, we
can call the toLowerCase method on a string
primitive. How is that possible if a string is not
an object? JavaScript creates a wrapper object
and destroys it in order to run the toLowerCase
method.
'TEXT'.toLowerCase();
//"text"
We can access existing properties on primitives but we
cannot change them or create new ones. For example, the
length property returns the size of a string.

'ABCDEFG'.length
//7

'ABCDEFG'.type = 'letters';
//Cannot create property 'type' on string 'ABCDEFG'

The only primitives that are not treated as objects are null
and undefined . Trying to call a method on them will throw an
error.
null.toString();
//Cannot read property 'toString' of null Immutability An
immutable value is a value that once created cannot be changed.

Primitives are immutable. For example, when using a

method on a string we create new value. Here is an example
of using the trim method that removes whitespace from
both sides of a string.
' 123 '.trim();
//'123'; The trim method does not modify the existing string.
It creates a new one.

Variables We need to make a distinction

between variables and values. Variables are
not values. Variables store values.
We can assign values to variables. At this point, variables
hold those values. Variables have a name and we can refer
the value using the name of the variable.

We store a value in a variable using the assignment =

keyword. Variables can be declared with let , var , or const
statements. When we declare a variable without assigning it
a value, it has the default value of undefined .
let x;
console.log(x);
//undefined Variables store references to values. Values don’t
contain variables. Values may contain other values.

Values have a type. Variables have the type of the value

they store. Variables are not tied to a type. A value always
has the same type. 1 is always a number, but the following
variable x can first by of type number and then on type
string.
let x;
x = 1;
x = ''; When the value stored by the variable changes, the type
of the variable may change. Dynamic typing means that the type
of the variable can change at run-time. This happens only for
variables declared with let or var .

declares variables that cannot be reassigned so they

const
cannot change their type.

Recap Numbers, strings, booleans, null , and

undefined are primitive values.

Primitive values are immutable.

Values can be stored in variables.

Variables infer the type of the value they store.

Chapter 02: Immutable Data Objects
Next, we will look at what objects are and how to create and
work with immutable objects.

In functional programming, we are going to use objects as

data structures. They will store data and have no behavior.

Objects Objects are a collection of properties.

Each property has a key and a value. Take a
look at an object in the console.
const book = {
title : 'JavaScript Allongé'
author: 'Reginald Braithwaite'
category: 'JavaScript'
};

console.log(book); The key is a string that is unique in the

collection. It is case sensitive.

We can access a property using the dot notation or the

bracket notation.
console.log(book.title);
//"JavaScript Allongé"

console.log(book["title"]); Immutability Immutability is one of

the core principles of functional programming.

Mutation means change. Saying that we changed an

object’s property is the same as saying we mutated that
object.
An immutable object once created cannot be changed.
JavaScript objects are nothing like that. They can be
modified. They are not immutable. Consider the next
example: let fruit = {
name: 'Apple'
};

fruit.name = 'Orange'
//{name : 'Orange'}

As you notice, we can change the existing fruit object. The

same thing happens even when we use the const keyword
declaration.
const fruit = {
name: 'Apple'
};

fruit.name = 'Orange'
// {name : 'Orange'}

The const keyword refers to the variable, not to the value it

stores. It means the variable cannot be reassigned. It truly
becomes a constant when the value it stores is immutable.

Freezing I order to create an immutable object

we can freeze it at creation.
const fruit = Object.freeze({
name: 'Apple'
});

fruit.name = 'Orange'
// Cannot assign to read only property 'name' of object The
only limitation is that Object.freeze does shallow freezing. It
affects the immediate properties of the object, the ones at the
first level in the tree. If for example one of these properties
contains another object, that object will not be affected. Look
at the next example.

const book = Object.freeze({

name: "How JavaScript Works",
author: {
firstName: 'Douglas',
lastName: 'Crockford'
}
});

book.author.firstName = ''; The book object was changed. We

can’t reassign a new object to the author ’s property, but we
can modify its properties. For objects containing other
objects, we should use a deepFreeze() utility function. It will
freeze all the properties of all objects inside a given object.

Linting The other option for enabling

immutability is to use a linter such as ESLint .
There are several plugins for it that can help us
enforcing immutable objects. Such plugins are
eslint-plugin-functional , eslint-plugin-fp , or
eslint-plugin-immutable . We are going to use
eslint-plugin-functional .
npm install eslint-plugin-functional --save-dev After
installing the plugin, change the lint config file
.eslintrc.json to enable immutable data.

"plugins": [
"functional"
],
"rules": {
"functional/immutable-data": "error"
}

At this point, trying to change, delete, or add a property to

an object will result in an error.
const counter = {
value: 1
};

counter.value = 2;
delete counter.value;
Object.assign(counter, { value: 2 });

//Modifying properties of existing object not allowed.

Working with Immutable Objects Next, let’s

look at how to ‘change’ immutable objects.

Changing an immutable object means creating a changed

copied. For this is very useful to use the spread operator
syntax .

Changing Properties Here is an example of modifying

an existing property: const product = {
name: 'Apple',
quantity: 1
};

const newProduct = {
...product,
quantity: 2
};

By using the spread syntax we first copied all the properties

from the product object and then added the property that
should be changed with the new value.

Adding Properties Adding new properties can be

done in a similar way. We clone the object and then
add the additional properties to it.

In the next example, the product object is cloned and the

type property is added.

const product = {
name: 'Apple',
quantity: 1
});

const newProduct = {
...product,
type: 'fruit'
};

Deleting Properties Properties can be removed using

the rest operator in the destructuring syntax . In the
next example, the quantity property is removed from
the new product object by being destructured out
and ignored.
const product = {
name: 'Apple',
quantity: 1
};

const {
 quantity,
...newProduct
} = product;

console.log(newProduct);
//{name: "Apple"}

From now on, in the following examples immutability is

considered to be enabled using a linter tool.

Recap An immutable object cannot be changed

after creation.
We can enable immutable objects by freezing them or using
a linter.

The spread operator is handy for creating changed copies of

existing objects.
Chapter 03: Functions
Functions are our primary way to define and encapsulate
logic.

Functions have a list of parameters and a body of

statements. Depending on how the function was created, it
may have a name. I will aim for having named functions
most of the time.

Let’s look at the main ways to define a function.

Function Declarations A function can be

created using the function keyword declaration,
followed by the name of the function and the
list of parameters. The body of the function
stays inside curly braces.
function sum(x, y){
return x + y;
}

Functions can be invoked using the function name followed

by the list of arguments enclosed in parentheses.
sum(1,2)
//3

Function parameters can be initialized with default values if

no value or undefined is passed. In the following example, if
no value is given for the step parameter when invoking the
increment function, it will default to 1 .

function increment(n, step = 1){

return n + step
}

const n = 1;
console.log(increment(n));
//2

console.log(increment(n, 2));
//3

Functions created this way are hoisted to the top of their

scope and so they can be used before declaration. The
scope of a function can be a module or an outer function in
which the current function is defined.
sum(1,2);
//3

function sum(x, y){

return x + y;
}

Functions return values. The return statement specifies the

returned value. It also stops the execution of the function.

Function Expressions The function keyword can

be used to define a function inside an
expression. In the function declaration, the
function is the first keyword on the line. When
that is not the case we are dealing with
function expressions.
For a function expression, the name is optional, but it can be
handy to have it when implementing recursive functions.
Here is a function expression.
const sum = function(x, y){
return x + y;
}

The following is also a function expression.

!function start(){
console.log('start')
}

Once function is not the first keyword on the line it becomes

a function expression. The function name can be omitted
and it can auto-execute.
!function(){
console.log('start')
}();
//"start"

Arrow Function Expressions Arrow function

expressions are a compact alternative to
regular function expressions.
The arrow function syntax consists of a list of parameters
followed by the => symbol and then the body of the function
optionally enclosed within curly braces.
const sum = (x, y) => x + y;

sum(1,2); There is no function keyword this time and no return

statement. The => symbol points to what is returned.

When the logic inside the arrow function contains multiple

statements we use curly braces. This time the return
statement is needed to return the result.
const sum = (x, y) => {
return x + y;
}

Both function expressions are not hoisted to the top of their

scope. They cannot be used before declaration.

Arity The arity of a function describes how

many parameters the function has.

A unary function has one parameter.

A binary function has two parameters.
A n -ary function has n parameters.
A nullary function has no parameters.

Pure Functions In functional programming,

functions are like mathematical functions. They
do computations. These kinds of functions are
called pure functions.

Pure functions calculate a new value based on the input

parameters.

They are deterministic functions. That means they return

the same result when called with the same input. Math.random
and Date.now are not deterministic functions as they return a
different result each time they are called. They cannot be
used inside pure functions.

Pure functions do not modify the external environment in

which the function was executed, so they do no write into
the outer environment or read data that can change from
the outside.
Here is an example of a pure function.
const number = 1.7654321;

function roundNumber(n, precision = 2){

const noAsString = n.toFixed(precision);
return Number.parseFloat(noAsString);
}

console.log(roundNumber(number));
//1.77

roundNumber is a pure function using other pure functions

toFixed and parseFloat , to rounds a number to n decimals.

Changing data outside the local scope, reading data that

can change from the outside, or any alteration of the
external environment is a side-effect.

For the simple fact that they do only computations based on

their inputs and have no side-effects they are easier to
understand, test, or debug.

Math.min, Math.max , Math.sqrt are pure functions. In fact, all

static methods from the Math object, with the Math.random
exception, are pure functions.

Recap Functions can be created using the

function declarations, the function expressions,
or the arrow function expressions.

In functional programming, functions should be like

mathematical functions doing only computations without
changing the external environment.
Chapter 04: Arrays
Arrays are indexed collections of values. Both arrays and
objects are collections of values. In fact, arrays are
emulated using objects.

We simply create an array using the array literal. Here is an

example.
const arr = [1, 2, 3]; Detecting if a value is an array can be
done with Array.isArray .

Array.isArray(arr);
//true Arrays have a set of methods for data transformations.

Data transformation is one of those tasks where functional

programming really shines. It makes these transformations
easier to manage and understand. It does that by
identifying a core set of operations all transformations do
like filtering, mapping, sorting, and aggregating.

Filtering Consider the next example selecting

only the even numbers from an array.
const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4];

function isEven(n) {
return n % 2 == 0;
}

const evenNumbers = numbers.filter(isEven);

console.log(evenNumbers);
//[2, 4]
The filter method loops throw all the elements in the array
and applies the isEven function. It creates a new array
containing only those elements for which the isEven function
returns true .

isEven is a predicate function.

A predicate function is a function taking an element and

returning a boolean value. The predicate is a unary function.

Next, consider a list of game objects.

const games = [
{ title: 'Starcraft', genre: 'RTS' },
{ title: 'Command and Conquer', genre: 'RTS' },
{ title: 'Heroes of Might and Magic', genre: 'TBS' },
{ title: 'World of Warcraft', genre : 'MMORPG'}
]

We are going to select only strategy games. For this, we will

build a predicate function taking a game object and
deciding if it is a strategy game based on its genre property.
function isStrategy(game){
const strategyGenres = ['RTS', 'RTT', 'TBS', 'TBT'];
return strategyGenres.includes(game.genre);
}

The includes method checks if a value is in the array and

returns true or false .

Now we can use filter with the predicate function to select

only the strategy games.
const strategyGames = games
.filter(isStrategy);

console.log(strategyGames);
//[ { title: 'Starcraft', genre: 'RTS' },
// { title: 'Command and Conquer', genre: 'RTS' },
// { title: 'Heroes of Might and Magic', genre: 'TBS' } ]

Mapping Next, we are going to apply the

mapping transformation on a list of numbers.
const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4];
function triple(n) {
return n * 3;
}

const newNumbers = numbers.map(triple);

console.log(newNumbers);
//[3, 6, 9, 12]

The map method applies the mapping function on all

elements in the array and creates a new array with the
result.
triple is a mapping function.
A mapping function is a function that takes an element and
transforms it into a new value. It is a unary function.

Next, let’s apply a mapping function on the list of game

objects.
const games = [
{ title: 'Starcraft', genre: 'RTS' },
{ title: 'Command and Conquer', genre: 'RTS' },
{ title: 'Heroes of Might and Magic', genre: 'TBS' },
{ title: 'World of Warcraft', genre : 'MMORPG'}
]

The following toGameHtml function takes a game object and

creates the HTML string for it.
function toGameHtml(game){
return `<div>${game.title}</div>`;
}

Template strings allow us to insert variables into strings.

They are a better alternative to string concatenation.
Variables inserted in template strings are surrounded by ${}
. Template strings allow the text to span multiples lines. This
allows creating easier to read HTML strings.
function toGameHtml(game){
return `
<div>
${game.title}
</div>`;
}

We can now use the mapping function to transform all game

objects into HTML strings.
const htmlRows = games
.map(toGameHtml);

console.log(htmlRows);
// [ '<div>Starcraft</div>',
// '<div>Command and Conquer</div>',
// '<div>Heroes of Might and Magic</div>',
// '<div>World of Warcraft</div>' ]

The join method combines all elements of an array into one

string. It takes a separator as a parameter. If no argument is
provided it combines all elements without any separator.
console.log(htmlRows.join());
//"<div>Starcraft</div>,<div>Command and Conquer</div>,
//<div>Heroes of Might and Magic</div>,
//<div>World of Warcraft</div>"

Aggregating Aggregation is about grouping

multiple values into a single summary value.

Consider the following code.

const numbers = [1, 3, 5, 7];

function add(total, n) {
return total + n;
}

const total = numbers.reduce(add, 0);

console.log(total);
//16
The reduce method reduces a list to a single value.

The reduce method applies the reducer function for each

element in the array to compute the aggregate value. It can
take a second parameter as the initial aggregate value.

add is the reducer function.

The reducer function takes the current aggregate value and

the current element and returns the new aggregate value.
The reducer is a binary function.

In the first iteration, the aggregate value is 0 and the current

element is 1 . Applying the reducer results in a new
aggregate value of 1 .

In the fourth iteration, the current aggregate value is 9 and

the current element is 7 . Applying the reducer results in the
new aggregate value of 16 .

Let’s get back to the game objects array and compute the
numbers of games for each genre.
const games = [
{ title: 'Starcraft', genre: 'RTS' },
{ title: 'Command and Conquer', genre: 'RTS' },
{ title: 'Heroes of Might and Magic', genre: 'TBS' },
{ title: 'World of Warcraft', genre : 'MMORPG'}
];

function countByGenre(countMap, game){

const count = countMap[game.genre] || 0;
return {
...countMap,
[game.genre]: count + 1
}
}

const gamesByGenreCounts = games

.reduce(countByGenre, {});

console.log(gamesByGenreCounts);
//{ RTS: 2, TBS: 1, MMORPG: 1 }

countByGenreis the reducer function. It starts with an empty

object as the aggregate value and at each step increments
the number of games for the genre of the current game.
Changing the count on the aggregate object means creating
an object with the new count .

Sorting The sort method allows sorting an array.

const numbers = [4, 2, 3, 1];

function asc(a, b) {
if(a === b){
return 0
} else {
if (a < b){
return -1;
} else {
return 1;
}
}
}

const sortedNumbers = numbers.slice().sort(asc);

console.log(sortedNumbers);
//[1, 2, 3, 4]

The sort method does the sort using the compare function.

The asc function is the compare function. It is a binary

function. It takes two values and returns -1 , 0 , and 1 .

Consider the compare function taking two values a and b .

It returns 0 if the values are equal

It returns -1 if value a comes before value b
 returns 1 if value a comes after value b

sortis an impure method. It modifies the input array. This is

why it gives a lint error. In order to do sorting, we need to
clone the array first.
const sortedNumbers = numbers.sort(asc);
//Modifying an array is not allowed functional/immutable-data

const sortedNumbers = numbers.slice().sort(asc);

const sortedNumbers = [...numbers].sort(asc); slice makes a
copy of the array or a copy of a part of the array. Calling
slice with no arguments makes a copy of the array. The first
parameter is the start index. The second parameter is the
ending index.

Searching find returns the first element that

matches the predicate function. find returns the
first match and stops. filter never stops and
returns an array with all matches. find is faster
than filter .
findIndex returns the index of the first match every returns
true if all elements match the predicate function. It stops at
the first element that doesn’t match and returns false .

somereturns true if at least one element matches the

predicate function. It stops at the first match.

All these four methods use a predicate function and stop

based on the returned value.
const games = [
{ title: 'Starcraft 2', genre: 'RTS' },
{ title: 'Desperados 3', genre : 'RTT'},
{ title: 'Candy Crush Saga ', genre : 'Tile-matching'}
];

function isStrategy(game){
const strategyGenres = ['RTS', 'RTT', 'TBS', 'TBT'];
return strategyGenres.includes(game.genre);
}

const first = games.find(isStrategy);

console.log(first);
//{ title: 'Starcraft 2', genre: 'RTS' }

const firstIndex = games.findIndex(isStrategy);

console.log(firstIndex);
//0

const areAll = games.every(isStrategy);

console.log(areAll);
//false

const hasOne = games.some(isStrategy);

console.log(hasOne);
//true forEach forEach takes a function and calls it with each
element in the array. It calls the function with the current
element as the first argument and with the current index as the
second argument.

forEach never stops and processes the whole list. It ignores

the returned value.
const numbers = [1, 2, 3]

function log(value){
console.log(value);
}

numbers
.forEach(log);
//1
//2
//3

Impure Operations When enabling the

immutable data lint rule for objects we also
force arrays to act as immutable structures.
"functional/immutable-data": "error"

It means that all the impure methods trying to modify the

array like push , pop , unshift , or shift will result in lint errors.

pushadds elements to the end of an array and returns the

new length of the array.

pop removes and returns the last element from an array.

unshiftadds elements to the beginning of an array and

returns the new length of the array.

shift removes and returns the first element from an array.

const arr = [1, 2, 3];

arr.push(4);
arr.pop();

arr.unshift(0);
arr.shift();
//Modifying an array is not allowed Changing Arrays Next, look
at how we can do the basic add, edit, and remove operations on
an immutable array. Consider the array of game objects.

const games = [
{id: 1, title: 'WarCraft'},
{id: 2, title: 'X-COM: UFO Defense' }
]

Adding concat takes one or more arrays and

concatenates them together.

It can be used for adding. It creates a new array with the

new value.
const newValue = {id: 3, title: 'The Settlers'};
const newGames = games.concat([newValue]);
console.log(newGames);

console.log(newGames);
//[ { id: 1, title: 'WarCraft' },
// { id: 2, title: 'X-COM: UFO Defense' },
// { id: 3, title: 'The Settlers' } ]

The other option for adding a value to an array is to use the

spread operator. Here is an example.
const newGames = [...games, newValue]; Editing Changing means
creating a new array containing the new value at the designated
index position.

We can use map for this. The mapping function returns the
new value for the specified index otherwise it returns the
existing value.

Below is an example of changing the game object at index 1

.
const id = 1;
const newValue = { id, title: 'WarCraft 2' };

const newGames = games.map(game =>

(game.id === id)
? newValue
: game
);

console.log(newGames);
//[ { id: 1, title: 'WarCraft 2' },
// { id: 2, title: 'X-COM: UFO Defense' } ]

Removing We can remove an element from an array

using filter . It returns a new array excluding the
element at the specified index.
const id = 1;
const newGames = games.filter(game => game.id !== id);

console.log(newGames);
//[ { id: 2, title: 'X-COM: UFO Defense' } ]

Recap filter selects the elements from the

array that pass the predicate function.

maptransform all elements in the array using a mapping

function and creates a new array with the results.

reduce reduces the array to a single value using a reducer

function.

sortsorts the elements of an array using a compare

function.
Chapter 05: First-Class Functions
A language has first-class functions when it treats functions
as any other values. In JavaScript, functions can be used like
other values. In fact, functions are objects and thus values.

First-Class Functions Functions can be stored in

variables. We already saw such a case before.
const square = x => {
return x * x;
}

Here, we define a function using the arrow function

expression and then store the function in the square variable.
The function infers the name of the variable. Then we can
use the variable to invoke the function by adding
parentheses () at the end.
square(3);
//9

Functions can be put in data structures like arrays. Look at

the next example.
function toUpperCase(text){
return text.toUpperCase();
}

function toLowerCase(text){
return text.toLowerCase();
}

function trim(text){
 return text.trim();
}

const functions = [
toUpperCase,
toLowerCase,
trim
];

const text = ' StARt!';

functions.forEach(f => {
const newText = f(text);
console.log(newText);
});
//"START!"
//"start!"
//"StARt!"

In this example, we define three functions and then put

them into an array called functions . We then iterate through
the array and call each function with a text argument. The
result is displayed in the console.

When we use the function name without parentheses we

refer to the function itself. When we put parentheses after
the function name we refer to the result of calling the
function.

Functions can be passed as arguments to other functions. In

the next example, we define two functions sum and multiply
and send them as an argument to another function called
doOperation .
function sum(a, b){
return a + b;
}

function multiply(a, b){

return a * b;
}

function doOperation(operation, a, b){

return operation(a,b)
}

doOperation(sum, 2, 3);
//5

doOperation(multiply, 2, 3);
//6

Functions can return other functions.

Functions can have properties and methods. For example,

they have the name property giving access to the function
name as a string.

Functions have methods like call() or apply(). These two

methods basically implement the same functionality, the
difference being that call accepts a list of arguments, while
apply takes a single array with all arguments.

Invoking a function with arguments is also known as

applying the function to those arguments. Consider the next
example using the call method to apply the function to a
set of arguments.
function multiply(a, b){
return a * b;
}

multiply.call(null, 2, 3);
//6

Higher-Order Functions Higher-order functions

are functions that operate on other functions.

Higher-order functions take other functions as arguments,

return functions, or do both.

All the array methods like filter , map , reduce , sort taking
functions as inputs are higher-order functions.

The previous custom doOperation function is a higher-order

function as it takes another function as input.

Consider the following higher-order function that returns a

function.
const objects = [
{ id: 1 },
{ id: 2 }
];

function hasId(id){
return function(element){
return element.id === id;
}
}

console.log(objects.find(hasId(1)));
//{ id: 1 }

hasId returns a function. hasId is a higher-order function.

Below is an example where a higher-order function creates

the compare function required by the sort method.
const courses = [
{
title: 'Course 2',
author: 'Author 2'
},
{
title: 'Course 3',
author: 'Author 3'
},
{
title: 'Course 1',
author: 'Author 1'
}
];

function by(name){
return function(a, b){
return a[name].localeCompare(b[name]);
}
}

courses
.slice().sort(by('author')) by is a higher-order function. It
allows us to sort the list using any of the object’s property
that is a string.
Closures Functions can be defined inside other
functions. Besides having access to its
parameters and variables, the inner function
has access to parameters and variables from
the outer functions.
Closure is the ability of an inner function to access variables
from the outer function.

Let’s start with a basic example.

function run(){
const value = 1;

function logValue(){
console.log(value);
}

logValue();
}

run();
//1

All the variables defined inside a function are visible only

inside that function. The logValue function is defined inside
the run function and has access to the value variable.

Closures become significant when the inner functions

survive the invocation of the outer function. Consider the
next example.
function createCount(){
let counter = 0;
 return function count(){
counter = counter + 1;
return counter;
}
}

const count = createCount();

console.log(count());
//1
console.log(count());
//2
console.log(count());
//3

count has access to the counter variable from the outer

function. count survives the invocation of the outer function.
count is a closure.

Recap Functions are values.

Functions can operate on other functions. Functions can
take other functions as input or return functions.

Inner functions can access variables from the outer

functions even after the outer functions have executed.
Chapter 06: Statements
An expression is a combination of one or more values,
variables, operators, and functions that produce a new
value. In short, an expression is a unit of code that produces
a value.

A statement is an instruction to perform an action. In

functional programming, everything should be an
expression that produces a value. In order to achieve this,
we are going to review and remove the statements that do
not produce values.

Expressions For example, 1 + 2 is an expression.

The function invocation is an expression when the function
returns a value. Consider the multiply function.
function multiply(a, b){
return a * b;
}

multiply(2, 3) is an expression.

An expression can contain other expressions. For example,

the expression multiply(2, 3+7) contains the expression 3+7 .

The arithmetic expressions evaluate to numbers.

String expressions evaluate to strings. Here is an example:

"This " + "IS A texT".toLowerCase();
//"This is a text"

Logical expressions evaluate to true or false. These

expressions usually use logical operators like && , || , ! or ===
.
1 === 2;
//false An expression is a piece of code that returns a value.

Statement Declaration There are three

statements for declaring a variable var , let ,
and const .

The var statement declares a variable that has function

scope but has no block scope. This may be confusing. The
var declaration has become obsolete so we can disable its
usage with a lint rule.
"no-var": "error"

I suggest using const as the default declaration and fallback

to let as a second option. const declaration disables
reassigning the variable and because all our values are
immutable we create truly constants that cannot be
reassigned or changed.

Using const declaration means to create a new variable each

time we change something. It promotes function purity.

Conditional Statements if Statement The if

statement does not necessarily return a value,
so in a functional style, we should either
always have the else branch and return a value
or disable the if statement completely.
We are going to disable the following usage of the if
statement.
const n = 3;
let isEven;
if(n % 2 === 0){
isEven = true;
} else {
isEven = false;
}

console.log(isEven); The if statement will be allowed only if

it contains an else statement and all branches have the return
statement.

Here is the lint rule for this.

"functional/no-conditional-statement": ["error", {
"allowReturningBranches": "ifExhaustive"
}]

Below is an example of the if statement with the else

branch that always returns.
function isEven(n){
if(n % 2 === 0){
return true;
} else {
return false;
}
}

console.log(isEven(3)); Conditional Operator The better option

is to use the conditional operator which is an expression that
returns a value.

const n = 3;

const isEven = (n % 2 === 0)

 ? true
: false

console.log(isEven);
//false Below is an example of a function that returns null
when no product object is provided, returns the price when it
is available otherwise returns the lastPrice .

function getPrice(product){
return product
? product.price
? product.price
: product.lastPrice
: null
}

console.log(getPrice(null));
//null
console.log(getPrice({lastPrice: 10}));
//10
console.log(getPrice({price:5, lastPrice: 10}));
//5

switch Statement Similar to if statement, the switch

statement allows writing code that does not return a
value.

The following usage of the switch statement should be

disabled.
function increment(x){
return x + 1;
}
function decrement(x){
return x - 1;
}

function doAction(actionName){
switch(actionName){
case "increment":
number = increment(number);
break;
case "decrement":
number = decrement(number);
break;
}
}

let number = 0;
doAction('increment')
console.log(number);
//1

The switch statement will be used only when it has a default

case and all branches return a value. Check the next
example.
function doAction(x, actionName){
switch(actionName){
case 'increment':
return increment(x);
case 'decrement':
return decrement(x);
default:
 return x;
}
}

const number = 0;
const newNumber = doAction(number, 'increment');
console.log(newNumber);
//1

The better option is to use a map. It favors decomposing the

switch into smaller pieces. Here is how the same logic can be
re-written using an object literal as a map.
function increment(x){
return x + 1;
}

function decrement(x){
return x - 1;
}

const actionMap = {
increment,
decrement
}

function doAction(x, actionName){

const action = actionMap[actionName];
return action
? action(x)
: x;
}

const number = 0;
const newNumber = doAction(number, 'increment');
console.log(number);
//1

Loop Statements There are three looping

statements for , while and do-while in the
language.

for Statement The for loop statement encourages

mutations and side-effects. We are going to replace
the for loops with array methods like filter , map and
reduce . When the algorithm requires more flexibility,
we can fallback to forEach .

The for-in loop iterates over the keys of an object.

const book = {
title : "How JavaScript Works",
author : "Douglas Crockford"
};

for (const propName in book) {

console.log(book[propName])
}

We can implement the same logic using Object.keys and the

array methods.
Object.keys(book).forEach(propName => {
console.log(book[propName])
}); The for-of statement loops over iterable objects like
arrays or strings.

const arr = [1, 2, 3];

for (const element of arr) {

console.log(element);
}

It can be replaced with the forEach method.

arr.forEach(element => {
console.log(element);
}); The while statement loops as long as the condition is true.

The do-while statement is a variant of the while loop that

executes the code once, before checking the condition, then
it loops as long as the condition is true.

The following lint rule disallows all loop statements,

including for , for-of , for-in , while , and do-while .
"no-loop-statement": "error"

Disabling all loop statements is problematic. We still need at

least one loop statement to rarely use for specific
algorithms until the tail-call optimization is available. Here is
how you can deactivate the previous loop rule on a
particular line.
let i = 1;

// eslint-disable-next-line functional/no-loop-statement
while(i < 10){
console.log(i);
i = i + 1;
}

Disruptive Statements There are four

disruptive statements: break , continue , throw ,
and return . We are going to keep only the last
one.

break and continue The break statement “jumps out”

of a loop.

The continue statement “jumps over” one iteration in the

loop.

Both break and continue are similar to the goto statement and
we are not going to use them. Instead, we will use array
methods like find , every , or some .

Consider the next example breaking the loop when the

searched element is found.
const products = [
{id:1, name: 'apple'},
{id:2, name:'mango'}
]

const id = 1;
let product;
for(let i=0; i<products.length; i++){
if(products[i].id === id){
product = products[i];
break;
}
}
console.log(product);
//{id:1, name: 'apple'}

We can implement the same logic using find .

const id = 1;
const product = products.find(p => p.id === id);
console.log(product) Now, look at an example iterating over a
list of words and stopping when a specific word is found.

const words = [
'ability',
'calculate',
'calendar',
'double',
'door'
];

const stopTo = 'double';

for(let word of words){
if(word === stopTo){
break;
}

console.log(word);
}

The same logic can be implemented using every .

words.every(w => {
if(w.startsWith(stopTo)){
return false;
} else {
 console.log(w);
return true;
}
}); break and continue are usually used in loops. Once we
disable the loops we also disable the usage of break and
continue .

breakcannot be used in switch statements as they require to

return on all branches.

throw The throw statement raises an exception.

Below is an example.
throw new Error('The errors details'); Exceptions are not used
in functional programming, which means we need to find other
alternatives for those scenarios.

For asynchronous code, the best way is to return a rejected

promise when the operation fails. We will look at this
scenario when discussing promises. For synchronous code,
we need to return a different result when an error happens.

Here is the lint rule for disabling the throw statement:

"functional/no-throw-statement": "error"

Recap Conditional statements should return a

value on all branches.
The better alternative for the if statement is the conditional
operator.

Switches can be replaced with a map.

We should use the array methods instead of the loop

statements.

We are going to use only one disruptive statement return .

Chapter 07: Recursion
Recursion implies that a function calls itself. The recursion
needs a termination. This happens when a certain condition
is met and the recursive algorithm stops calling itself and
returns a value.

Recursion is a method of solving a problem where the

solution is found by solving smaller instances of the same
problem.

Recursive Factorial Let’s start by looking at the

algorithm for computing the factorial of a
number in an iterative style. As you remember
n! = n * (n-1)! .

function factorial(n) {
let result = 1;

let i = 2;
while(i <= n){
result = result * i;
i = i + 1;
}

return result;
}

console.log(factorial(5));
//i=2, result=2
//i=3, result=6
//i=4, result=24
//i=5, result=120
//120

Here is how we can implement the same algorithm using

recursion.
function factorial(n) {
if (n === 0) {
return 1;
}
else {
return n * factorial(n - 1);
}
}

//n=5 -> 5*f(4)

//n=4 -> 4*f(3)
//n=3 -> 3*f(2)
//n=2 -> 2*f(1)
//n=1 -> 1*f(0)
//n=0 -> 1 Stops!
//n=1 -> 1*f(0) = 1*1 = 1
//n=2 -> 2*f(1) = 2*1 = 2
//n=3 -> 3*f(2) = 3*2 = 6
//n=4 -> 4*f(3) = 4*6 = 24
//n=5 -> 5*f(4) = 5*24= 120

console.log(factorial(5));
//120
The factorial function calls itself until it has the result for n
being 0 . Then it resumes the execution and computes the
result for n equal to 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 and finally 5 .

Below is the same recursive function refactored using the

conditional operator.
function factorial(n) {
return (n === 0)
? 1
: n * factorial(n - 1);
}

console.log(factorial(5));
//120

Tail-Call Optimization Here is another way of

writing the factorial function.
function factorial(n, result = 1) {
//console.log(`n=${n}, result=${result}`);

return (n === 0)
? result
: factorial(n - 1, n * result);
}

console.log(factorial(5));

//n=5, result=1
//n=4, result=5
//n=3, result=20
//n=2, result=60
//n=1, result=120
//n=0, result=120
//120

Notice that this time, once the function arrives at the

stopping condition it returns the result. It does not need to
go back and resume the previous calls to return the end
result. It returns when the ending condition is met because
it has all the necessary data.

A recursive function is tail-recursive when the recursive call

is the last thing the function does.

The tail-recursive functions should be optimized by the

compiler and should perform better.

At the moment of writing the tail-call optimization is not

implemented by the major browsers.

Stack Overflow Error Consider the following

function that computes the sum of all values
from 0 to 10000 in an iterative style
function sumAll(n) {
let total = 0;
let i = 1;
while(i <= n){
total = total + i;
i = i + 1;
}

return total;
}
console.log(sumAll(10000));
//50005000

Below is the equivalent code written with the tail-call

optimization.
function sumAll(n, i = 0, result = 0) {
return (i > n)
? result
: sumAll(n, i + 1, i + result);
}

console.log(sumAll(5));
//15

Calling the recursive function with a larger number leads to

the stack overflow error.
console.log(sumAll(10000));
//Maximum call stack size exceeded Recursion can lead to the
“Maximum call stack size exceeded” error message.

JavaScript reserves for each function call a call-stack, a fixed

amount of memory to keep information about the call.
Information is added to the call-stack like in any other stack
last-in, first-out. Each recursive call adds a new stack-frame
to the call-stack. If the recursive calls create too many
stack-frames the stack overflow error is thrown.

The tail-recursive functions should not create a new stack

frame for each function call, but rather use a single stack
frame.

In theory, any loop can be implemented with recursion.

Because of the missing implementation of the tail-call
optimization, it is not practical to replace any kind of loop
with recursion. At the time of writing, the tail-call recursive
implementation of a loop may have a performance penalty
or may lead to stack-overflow error.

Trampoline Trampolining is a technique that

allows us to work with tail-recursive functions
in a language that does not have the tail-call
optimization.
First, it requires to rewrite the original tail-call function to
return thunks instead of returning the actual values. In our
example, it means that instead of returning the result of
sumAll(n, i + 1, i + result) we return a nullary function
returning that result.
function sumAll(n, i = 0, result = 0) {
return (i > n)
? () => result
: () => sumAll(n, i + 1, i + result);
}

A thunk is a function taking no arguments that invokes

another function with all the necessary arguments and
returns the result.

For example, the following function is a thunk.

const sum100Thunk = () => sumAll(100); The sum100Thunk function
takes no arguments and returns the result of invoking sumAll
with the specific arguments.

After converting the original function to return thunks we

need the trampoline utility function that loops in an iterative
way and invokes the thunk functions. The loop continues as
long as the thunks return other thunk functions.
function trampoline(f) {
 return function(...args){
let result = f(...args);
while (typeof(result) === 'function'){
result = result();
}

return result;
}
}

const _sumAll = trampoline(sumAll);

console.log(_sumAll(10000));
//50005000

Trampolining is a solution to a problem we should not have

and also comes with its own overhead. It basically allows us
to convert the recursive function to an iterative loop.

Traversing a Tree Recursion can be used to

implement specific algorithms that are easier
to solve this way.

In the next example, recursion is used to traverse a tree and

create an array with the top selected node values.

We start by defining the tree, beginning with the root node

object containing other node objects. Each node has the
value and checked properties.

const tree = {
value: 0,
checked: false,
 children: [{
value: 1,
checked: true,
children: [{
value: 11,
checked: true,
children: null
}]
}, {
value: 2,
checked: false,
children: [{
value: 22,
checked: true,
children: null
},{
value: 23,
checked: true,
children: null
}]
}]
}

Here is a visual representation of this tree.

We want to get the values of the top selected nodes. That
means we don’t need all the checked values from the tree. If
the parent node is checked we don’t have to take the
checked values from its children.
function toChildTopSelection(selection, childNode){
return selection.concat(getTopSelection(childNode));
}

function getTopSelection(node){
return node.checked
? [node.value]
: node.children !== null
? node.children.reduce(toChildTopSelection, [])
 : []
}

getTopSelection(tree);
//[1, 22, 23]

getTopSelection takes a tree object and returns an array with

the top selected values. If the node is checked it returns the
value of that node as an array with a single element. When
the node is not checked and has child nodes it returns the
top selection of those child nodes. getTopSelection is called
for each child node inside the tree until the recursive calls
stop at the nodes being checked. Finding a node that is
checked is the ending condition. getTopSelection is not called
for the child nodes of a node that is checked.

Recap A recursive function is a function that

calls itself until a condition is met.

Recursion offers a simpler solution to a set of problems like

traversing trees.

Any iterative loop can be implemented with recursion but

this is not practical until the tail-call optimization is
supported by major browsers.
Chapter 08: Pipelines and Currying
Pipelines are the typical use case for functional
programming.

Currying is commonly used when creating pipelines because

the functions defining the flow of transformations expect
one argument.

Pipelines A pipeline is a series of data

transformations where the output of one
transformation is the input of the next one.
Pipelines enable us to write data transformations in a more
expressive way. Consider the next code: function
capitalize(text) {
return text.charAt(0).toUpperCase() + text.slice(1);
}

function shortenText(text) {
return text.substring(0, 8).trim();
}

const shortText =
shortenText(capitalize("this is a long text"));
console.log(shortText);
//"This is"

We can write these transformations in a more expressive

way using the pipe utility from a functional library like lodash
or ramda .
npm i lodash --save Here is how the transformations look like
in a pipeline.

import { pipe } from 'lodash/fp';

const shortText = pipe(

capitalize,
shortenText
)("this is a long text");

console.log(shortText);
//"This is"

The initial text is the input in the pipeline. capitalize is the

first function to process the text. Then the output of this
transformation goes as input to the next one shortenText .
Then the pipeline finishes and we get the result.
Chaining Chaining is a more common form of
defining a pipeline. It requires to work with an
object.
Consider the following list of debts.
const debts = [
{
contractNo : 1,
daysSinceLastPayment: 91,
currency : 'EUR'
},
{
contractNo : 2,
daysSinceLastPayment: 35,
currency : 'USD'
},
{
contractNo : 3,
daysSinceLastPayment: 45,
currency : 'USD'
}
]; Here is how we can define a pipeline of transformations
using chaining.

const newDebts = debts

.filter(isEur)
.map(toDebtView);

function isEur(debt){
return debt.currency === "EUR";
}

function toDebtView(debt){
return {
...debt,
priority : getPriority(debt)
}
}

function getPriority(debt){
const days = debt.daysSinceLastPayment;
return days > 90
? 1
: days > 60
? 2
: 3;
}

First, the debt list is filtered using isEur predicate function.

Then the result of this operation is transformed using the
toDebtView mapping function.
The Identity Function The identity function is a unary
function that returns the value it gets as its
argument.

In mathematics, it is defined as f(x) = x .

function identity(value){
return value;
}

If we put this transformation in the previous pipeline it will

just create a copy of the array.

The logIdentity function gives a way to inspect the data in

the pipeline without affecting the flow. It returns the
argument it gets but also logs it to the console.
function logIdentity(value){
console.log(value);
return value;
}

debts
.filter(isEur)
.map(logIdentity)
.map(toDebtView)
.map(logIdentity); Currying Currying is a technique for
changing a function expecting n arguments into a series of n
functions each expecting one argument.

Consider the case of filtering a list of words.

const words = [
'ability',
'calculate',
 'calendar',
'double',
'door'
];

function startsWith(word, term){

return word.startsWith(term);
}

words
.filter(w => startsWith(w, 'a'))
.forEach(console.log); Now, look at the same code refactored
using currying.

function startsWith(term){
return function(word){
return word.startsWith(term);
}
}

words
.filter(startsWith('a'))
.forEach(console.log); startsWith is a curried function.
Instead of taking two parameters, it takes only one and returns
a function accepting the second parameter. Notice also that the
curried version has the parameters in the reverse order
compared to the initial version taking two parameters.

You may find it clearer when the curried version is written

using the arrow syntax.
const startsWith = term => word => {
return word.startsWith(term);
}

Another option is to create the curried version of a function

using an auto-curry utility function. Here is an example
using the curry utility from lodash .
import { curry } from 'lodash/fp';

const startsWith = curry(function(term, word) {

return word.startsWith(term);
}); Reduce Pipeline The reduce method uses also a pipeline.
Let’s look again at the code and analyze the data flow.

const numbers = [1, 3, 5];

function add(total, n) {
return total + n;
}

const total = numbers.reduce(add, 0);

console.log(total);
//9

At each step, the reducer takes as input the result of the

previous reducer call as the aggregation value. Here is the
pipeline.
The aggregation value at the first step is 0 . After invoking
the reducer the output of this transformation 1 goes as input
to the next reducer call. Again after invoking the reducer,
the output 4 goes as input to the next reducer call and so
on.

reducecreates a pipeline where at each step we get as input

the result of the previous reducer call and the current
element.

Recap A pipeline defines a series of data

transformations where the output of one
transformation function is the input for the
next one.

Currying is a technique for breaking down a function that

takes multiple arguments into a series of functions each
taking only one argument.
Chapter 09: Functors
Next, we are going to explore functors.

Let’s start with a set of data transformations. Consider the

next example: function toCelsius(kelvin){
const celsius = (kelvin - 273.15);
return Math.round(celsius * 100) / 100;
}

function describeTemperature(temperature){
return temperature < 0
? "Freezing"
: temperature < 15
? "Cold"
: temperature < 28
? "Warm"
: "Hot";
}

const kelvin = 300;

const celsius = toCelsius(kelvin);
const description = describeTemperature(celsius);

console.log(celsius);
//26.85
console.log(description)
//"Warm"
As you can see, the point of this piece of code is to apply
two changes to a single value. It starts with the Kelvin
temperature and applies the toCelsius transformation, then
on the result, it applies the describeTemperature function.

It will be nicer to be able to chain these transformations on

the initial value and create a pipeline. Here is how it may
look like: Mappable(300)
.map(toCelsius)
.map(describeTemperature) This is the kind of situation where
functors are helpful.

Functors A functor is an object with a map

operation that satisfies the functor’s laws.
We can simply create a functor as an object with a map
method. Consider the following function: function F(value){

function map(f){
const newValue = f(value);
return F(newValue);
}

return {
map
}
}

F creates
an object with the map method wrapping a value .
map takes
a transformation function, applies it to the
wrapped value, and returns a new object wrapping the new
value.
F is called a factory function. F returns an object containing
a closure, map , accessing the value variable from its parent.

The F factory function creates a functor.

Functor Laws Functors must respect identity

and composition laws.

Identity Law Passing the identity function into the map

operation of a functor should result in the same
functor, meaning a functor storing the same value.

Consider the identity function.

function identity(n){
return n;
}

functor.map(identiy) = functor Let’s verify the identity law on

our functor.

const functor = F(1);

const newFunctor = functor.map(identity);

//F(1) Composition Law Function composition is an operation
that takes two functions f and g and produces a new function h
where h(x) = g(f(x)) . In this operation, the function g is
applied to the result of applying the function f to x .

We can say that function composition is the operation of

applying a function to the result of another function.

Functors must respect the composition law, meaning that:

functor.map(f).map(g) === functor.map(x => g(f(x))) Let’s
verify the composition law.
function increment(n){
 return n + 1;
}

function double(n){
return n * 2
}

F(1)
.map(increment)
.map(double)
//F(4)

F(1)
.map(n => double(increment(n)))
//F(4) Category Theory A category is a collection of values
that are linked by arrows.

A category has two main properties, the ability to compose

the arrows associatively , and the existence of an identity
arrow for each value.

The arrows, also known as morphisms, are functions

mapping between the values in the category.

Here is a representation of a category with three values.

The category in this example has three values: 1 , 2 , 3 , and
three functions mapping between these values. The f
function maps 1 to 2 . The g function maps 2 to 3 . The
function h mapping from 1 to 3 is equal to g(f(1)) . For each
value applying the identity function results in the same
value.

Functors in Practice In practice, functors are

helpful at chaining operations.
What is important for us from the development perspective
is to know when something is a functor. If it is, we can
inspect its value with the identity function and we use
function composition.
The functor we have created is called the identity functor.

Take into consideration our initial set of data

transformations. Here is how we can chain the two
transformations on a value using the identity functor.
F(300)
.map(toCelsius)
.map(describeTemperature) We can inspect the value inside
using the impure variation of the identity function that logs
the value in the console.

function logIdentity(value){
console.log(value);
return value;
}

F(300)
.map(toCelsius)
.map(logIdentity) //26.85
.map(describeTemperature)
.map(logIdentity) //"Warm"

We get the same result also when applying function

composition.
F(300)
.map(x => describeTemperature(toCelsius(x)))
.map(logIdentity)
//"Warm"

Below is an example of applying function composition using

the compose utility from a functional library like lodash .
import { compose } from 'lodash/fp'
F(300)
.map(compose(describeTemperature, toCelsius))
.map(logIdentity)
//"Warm"

Arrays Arrays are mappable. The map method

iterates over the collection and applies the map
function to each value in the array.

Let’s verify the functor laws on the array.

Applying the identity function on an array creates a copy of

it.
[1, 2, 3]
.map(identity)
.map(logIdentity);
//1
//2
//3

Next, check the composition law.

[1, 2, 3]
.map(increment)
.map(double)
.map(logIdentity);
//4
//6
//8

[1, 2, 3]
.map(x => double(increment(x)))
 .map(logIdentity);
//4
//6
//8

A simple functor wrapping a single value can be created on

the fly using an array with a one value [300]
.map(toCelsius)
.map(describeTemperature)
.map(logIdentity);
//"Warm"

[300]
.map(x => describeTemperature(toCelsius(x)))
.map(logIdentity);
//"Warm"

The built-in arrays are functors.

Recap A category is a collection of values, with

arrows between these values. Arrows represent
mapping functions. Applying the identity
function on any value returns that value.

Functors are mappable objects that respect identity and

composition.

Functors offer us a helpful way of creating pipelines of data

transformations over the wrapped value.
Chapter 10: Monads
A functor is an object that wraps a value and enables
mapping.

A monad is an object that wraps a value and enables

mapping and flat mapping.

Flat Mapping Let’s look again at the map method

available on the array functor. Applying a
mapping function that returns a value results
in a new array wrapping the transformed
values.
function toUpperCase(text){
return text.toUpperCase();
}

const arr = ["raspberry strawberry", "blueberry"]

.map(toUpperCase);

console.log(arr);
//[ 'RASPBERRY STRAWBERRY', 'BLUEBERRY' ]

The initial array has two text values. After applying the
transformation we get an array containing two text values
with uppercase letters.

Check what happens when we apply a mapping function

that returns an array.
function split(text){
return text.split(' ');
}

const arr = ["raspberry strawberry", "blueberry"]

.map(split)

console.log(arr);
//[ [ 'raspberry', 'strawberry' ], [ 'blueberry' ] ]

The split function splits a string into an array of substrings

using a separator. Each substring represents a word in the
original text.

Applying the split mapping function results in an array

containing two other arrays. Each sub-array is a collection of
strings.

Flat mapping is similar to mapping, but it unwraps the

return type.

Next, take a look at applying the same mapping function

using the flatMap method available on arrays.
const arr = ["raspberry strawberry", "blueberry"]
.flatMap(split)

console.log(arr);
//[ 'raspberry', 'strawberry', 'blueberry' ]

The flatMap method first maps each element in the arrays

using the mapping function, then flattens the result into a
new array. The same outcome can be achieved by first using
map and then flatten the result using flat with depth 1 .

const arr = ["raspberry strawberry", "blueberry"]

.map(split)
 .flat();

console.log(arr);
//[ 'raspberry', 'strawberry', 'blueberry' ]

flatcreates a new array with all sub-array values

concatenated into it. It uses recursion to concatenate values
up to the specified depth.
const arr = [1, [2, 3]];

console.log(arr.flat());
//[ 1, 2, 3 ]

Monads We can simply create a monad as an

object with the map and flatMap methods.
Consider the following M function:
function M(value){

function map(f){
const newValue = f(value);
return M(newValue);
}

function flatMap(f){
const newValue = f(value);
return newValue;
}

return {
map,
flatMap
 }
}

Mis a factory function that creates an object wrapping a

value and having two methods to modify it, map and flatMap .

maptakes a transformation function and uses it to create a

new value then uses the M factory function to create an
object wrapping that new value.

flatMapuses the transformation function to compute a new

value and returns it.

Mis the monad constructor. It takes a value and returns a

monad wrapping the value.

M is called the identity monad.

Monad Laws There are three laws monads

should respect.
Left Identity Consider f as a mapping function
returning a monad. Passing the f function into the
flatMap operation of a monad wrapping the value x
should result in the same monad as invoking the
function f(x) .
M(x).flatMap(f) === f(x) Let’s verify the left identity law on
our monad.

function f(){
return M(2)
}

M(1)
.flatMap(f);
 //M(2)

f(1);
//M(2) Right Identity Passing the M function into the flatMap
operation of a monad wrapping a value should result in monad
wrapping the same value.

monad.flatMap(M) === monad Check the law using the M custom

monad.

M(1)
.flatMap(M)
//M(1) Associativity Monads must respect the associativity
law, meaning that: monad.flatMap(f).flatMap(g)
=== monad.flatMap(x => f(x).flatMap(g)) Let’s test the law.

function f(){
return M(2)
}

function g(){
return M(3)
}

M(1)
.flatMap(f)
.flatMap(g);
//M(3)

M(1)
.flatMap(n => f(n).flatMap(g));
//M(3) Alternative Creation and Naming The flat mapping method
comes with different names like bind , chain , or just flatMap
. There is also the practice to create the monad with a
different method called unit . unit does the same thing as the
M factory function does, it creates a new monad.

Below is an example of defining a monad using this

alternative naming.
export default (function defineMonad(){
function M(value){
function map(f){
const newValue = f(value);
return M(newValue);
}

function bind(f){
const newValue = f(value);
return newValue;
}

return {
map,
bind
}
}

function unit(value){
return M(value);
}

return {
unit
}
})(); unit creates a new monad wrapping a value.

bind defines the flat map operation.

Here is how the monad can be created and used.

import M from './M';

function f(){
return M.unit(2)
}

M.unit(1).bind(f)
//M 2

Below you can review how the monad rules can be written
in this case.

Left identity M.unit(1).bind(f)

//M 2

Right identity M.unit(1).bind(M.unit)

//M 1

Associativity M.unit(1).bind(f).bind(g)
//M 3

M.unit(1).bind(x => f(x).bind(g))

//M 3

You may also find bind described as a separate function and

not as a method on the monad object: bind(monad, f) . This
translates to monad.bind(f) when bind is a method on the
monad object.
It is more helpful to describe bind as a method.

Let’s take a look at how we can translate the monad laws

from the function form to the method form.

The following three ways of describing the monad laws are

equivalent.

Left identity bind(unit(x), f) === f(x)

M.unit(x).bind(f) === f(x)

M(x).flatMap(f) === f(x) Note that in the last line, M is used

as the constructor function. M(x) is equivalent to M.unit(x)
and is also equivalent to unit(x) .

Right identity bind(monad, unit) === monad

monad.bind(M.unit) === monad
monad.flatMap(M) === monad Associativity bind(bind(monad, f),
g)
=== bind(monad, x => bind(f(x), g))

monad.bind(f).bind(g)
=== monad.bind(x => f(x).bind(g))

monad.flatMap(f).flatMap(g)
=== monad.flatMap(x => f(x).flatMap(g))) This being said, I
consider that the first implementation of the identity monad as
an object with map and flatMap method is easier to work with.

Arrays Arrays have both the map and flatMap

methods. Let’s check the monad laws on them.

First, we need a function that can create the array from a

value.
function M(value){
return [value];
}

We don’t need to define such a function because there is

already one that does that. It is called Array.of() .
function duplicate(word){
return [word, word]
}

function split(text){
return text.split(" ");
}

Next check the three laws.

Left identity //M(x).flatMap(f) === f(x)

Array.of('mango')
.flatMap(duplicate)
//['mango', 'mango']

duplicate('mango');
//['mango', 'mango']

As you noticed, when creating an array with Array.of , M(x)

translates to Array.of(x) .

Right identity //monad.flatMap(M) === monad

Array.of('lemon')
.flatMap(Array.of)
//['lemon']

Associativity //monad.flatMap(f).flatMap(g)
// === monad.flatMap(x => f(x).flatMap(g)))

Array.of('orange kiwi')
.flatMap(split)
.flatMap(duplicate);
//[ 'orange', 'orange', 'kiwi', 'kiwi' ]

Array.of('orange kiwi')
.flatMap(s => split(s).flatMap(duplicate))
//[ 'orange', 'orange', 'kiwi', 'kiwi' ]

Recap A functor is an object with a map

operation.

A monad is an object with map and flatMap operations.

Functors apply a function to a wrapped value.

Monads apply a function that returns a wrapped value to a

wrapped value.

In essence, a monad is simply a wrapper around a value. We

can create it with an object that stores a single value and
offers support for mapping and flat mapping. In the next
chapters, we are going to explore practical monads like
immutable lists, promises, and observables.
Chapter 11: Immutable Collections
A collection is anything that can be iterated over.

Immutable collections return a new collection on “change”

operations. We are going to look at such collections
available in the Immutable.JS library. Install it first.
npm install immutable --save List Lists are indexed
collections, similar to arrays. In fact, they can be created
from arrays.

import { List } from 'immutable';

const emptyList = List();

// List []

const list = List([

{ name: 'Rhodes' },
{ name: 'Malaga' }
]);
// List [
// { name: 'Rhodes' },
// { name: 'Malaga' }]

List() creates a new immutable List containing the values

provided as the argument. List is a factory function and
does not use the new keyword.

Editing an element set(index, value) allows us to edit

an element at a specific index in the collection. It
returns a new List containing the modification. The
element at the specified index position will be
replaced.
const newList = list.set(0, { name: 'Riomaggiore' });
// List [
// { name: 'Riomaggiore' },
// { name: 'Malaga' }]

console.log(list === newList);

//false Adding an element push(…values) returns a new List with
the provided values appended. It can be used to add a new value
to the list. Below is an example.

const newList = list.push({name: 'Funchal'});

// List [
// { name: 'Rhodes' },
// { name: 'Malaga' },
// { name: 'Funchal'}]

Adding can also be done with concat(…values) . It

concatenates a new collection to the existing one. To add a
single value we call it with an array containing one value.
const newList = list.concat([{name: 'Funchal'}]);
// List [
// { name: 'Rhodes' },
// { name: 'Malaga' },
// { name: 'Funchal'}]

unshift(…values) returns a new List with the provided values

prepended.

Deleting an element delete(index) deletes the

element at the specified index and returns a new List
containing the modification.
const newList = list.delete(0);
// List [{ name: 'Malaga' }]
delete has the remove alias.

pop() returns a new List with the last element removed.

shift() returns a new List with the first element removed.

Clearing the list clear() returns a new List with no

values.
const newList = list.clear();

console.log(newList)
// List []

Data Transformation We can work with lists similar to

arrays. Lists have the filter , map , flatMap , reduce , and
sort methods working like in arrays. The sort method
this time is a pure method returning a new collection.

Here is an example of using the filter method to select only

the destinations to a specific country from a list of
destination objects.
import { List } from 'immutable';

const list = List([

{ name: 'Cascais', country: 'Portugal'},
{ name: 'Sintra', country: 'Portugal' },
{ name: 'Nerja', country: 'Spain' },
]);

function inCountry(country){
return function(destination){
return destination.country === country;
}
}

list
.filter(inCountry('Portugal'))
//List [
// {name:'Cascais',country:'Portugal'},
// {name:'Sintra',country:'Portugal'}]

Note that inCountry is a curried function.

Lists are monads as they support both mapping and flat

mapping.

Finding Elements Lists have methods for retrieving

data.

get(index) returns the element associated with the provided

index.

first() returns the first element in the collection. In case the

collection is empty, it returns undefined . In a similar way,
last() returns the last element in the collection.

find() returns the first element for which the predicate

function returns true . findLast() returns the last element for
which the predicate function returns true . Below is an
example of using these two methods on the previous list.
import { List } from 'immutable';

const list = List([

{ name: 'Cascais', country: 'Portugal'},
{ name: 'Sintra ', country: 'Portugal' },
{ name: 'Nerja ', country: 'Spain' },
]);
const destination = list.find(inCountry('Portugal'));
//{ name: 'Cascais', country: 'Portugal' }

const otherDestionation = list.findLast(inCountry('Portugal'));

//{ name: 'Sintra ', country: 'Portugal' }

Map A map is a collection of key-value pairs.

Immutable maps accept keys of any type.

Here is an example of creating a map of country objects by

id.
import { Map } from 'immutable';

const countryMap = Map({

"1": { name: 'Italy'},
"2": { name: 'Portugal'},
"3": { name: 'UK'}
}); get(key) returns the value associated with the given key.

console.log(countryMap.get("3"));
//{ name: 'UK' }

set(key, value) returns a new Map containing the key-value

pair. If the key already exists, its value is replaced. If the key
does not exist, it will be added. set can be used for adding
and editing a key-value pair.
const newMap = countryMap.set("2", { name: 'Spain'});
console.log(newMap.get("2"));
//{ name: 'Spain' }

has(key) returns true if the given key exists within the map,
otherwise, it returns false .
delete(key) returns a new Map with the specified key
removed.
const newMap = countryMap.delete("3");

console.log(newMap.has("3"));
//false

console.log(newMap.get("3"));
//undefined clear() returns a new Map containing no key-values
pairs.

Data Transformation Maps support both the filter and

map operations.

map(mapper) returns a new Map on which the mapper

function was applied to all values.

filter(predicate) returns a new Map containing only the key-

value pairs for which the predicate function returns true . The
predicate function is applied to the value.

Recap Both List and Map offer a nicer public

interface for working with immutable
collections.

Lists have the filter , map , reduce , and sort methods working
similar to the ones available in arrays.

These immutable data structures are highly optimized. Lists

have efficient addition and removal from both the end and
the beginning of the list of O(1) complexity.
Chapter 12: Lazy Transformations
Array operations like filter , map , reduce make
transformations a lot easier to read and understand, but as
you noticed these transformations create a new array at
each step. This may create performance penalties for large
arrays of thousands of records.

Next, we are going to explore solutions to these cases.

Transducers The fact is that all transformations

can be expressed using the reducer function.
We can do filtering using the reducer function,
mapping can be done using the reducer
function, and so on.

Here is an implementation of the mapping transformation

using reduce .
function map(transform) {
return function reducer(arr, value) {
const newValue = transform(value);
return [...arr, newValue];
}
}

function double(n){
return n * 2;
}

const numbers = [1, 2, 3];

const newNumbers = numbers.reduce(map(double), []);
//[2, 4, 6]

Below is the filtering transformation implemented using

reduce .

function filter(test) {
return function reducer(arr, value) {
if (test(value)) {
return [...arr, value]
} else {
return arr;
}
}
}

function isEven(n){
return n % 2 === 0;
}

const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4];

const newNumbers = numbers.reduce(filter(isEven), []);
//[2, 4]

Note that reduce does not stop and processes all the values
in the array. The find method stops when it finds the value.
The equivalent implementation of find using the reduce
method performs worse because it loops through all the
elements.
function find(test) {
return function reducer(foundValue, value) {
if (test(value) && !foundValue) {
return value
 } else {
return foundValue;
}
}
}

function isEven(n){
return n % 2 === 0;
}

const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4];

const element = numbers.reduce(find(isEven), undefined);
//2

Knowing all these, when doing transformations instead of

building a new array at each step we can build a new
reducer function.

Consider the next example creating an array at each step.

function isEven(n){
return n % 2 === 0;
}

function double(n){
return n * 2;
}

const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4];

const newNumbers =
numbers
.filter(isEven) //[2, 4]
 .map(double); //[4, 8]

The first filter created an intermediate array [2, 4] that is

then used by the map method.

Let’s see what it means to arrive at the same result by

building a reducer that does all the transformations instead
of building intermediate arrays.

This means that filter creates a new reducer applying

filtering, and map takes this reducer and creates a new one
applying the mapping transformation.

Here is the implementation of a filter function that takes a

reducer and creates a new one that applies the predicate
test.
function filter(test) {
return function(reducer){
return function filterReducer(arr, value){
if(test(value)){
return reducer(arr, value);
} else {
return arr;
}
}
}
}

It may look better if we use the arrow function and the

conditional operator to defined this curried function.
const filter = test => reducer => {
return function filterReducer(arr, value){
 return test(value)
? reducer(arr, value)
: arr
}
}

Here is the map function taking a reducer and returning a

new reducer that applies the mapping transformation to all
values.
const map = transform => reducer => {
return function mapReducer(arr, value){
const newValue = transform(value);
return reducer(arr, newValue);
}
}

All these functions work on reducers, so we need an initial

reducer to work on. This will be a function that just makes a
copy of the existing array.
const toArrayReducer = (arr, value) => {
return [...arr, value]
};

Let’s use these functions to refactor the previous

transformations.
function isEven(n){}
function double(n){}

const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4];

const filterTransducer = filter(isEven);
const mapTransducer = map(double);
const newNumbers = numbers
.reduce(
filterTransducer(
mapTransducer(toArrayReducer)
),
[]);
//[4, 8]

The functions created by filter and map are called

transducers.

A transducer takes a reducer and returns a new reducer. In

other words, a transducer is a function that takes a reducer
function as input and returns a new reducer function. A
transducer is a higher-order function.

The transformation may look better if we use the compose

utility. Below is an example where the filter and map
transducers are applied to the toArrayReducer reducer. We
end up with one reducer doing all the necessary
transformations.
import { compose } from 'lodash/fp';

const newReducer = compose(

filter(isEven),
map(double)
)(toArrayReducer); We can then apply this reducer to the
original array.

const newNumbers = numbers.reduce(newReducer, [])); Transducers

come with their overhead. They need to iterate through all the
items at each transformation because the reduce method does not
stop. They need to work on a primary reducer, so an initial
transformation that was not required before is needed now.
Nevertheless, they give us an insight on how to chain
transformations without creating additional collections.

Sequence Lazy sequences allow us to efficiently

chain transformation methods like map and filter
without creating intermediate collections. We
are going to look at the lazy sequence provided
by Immutable.js called Seq .
The Seq collection is immutable. Once created, it cannot be
modified. Any “change” operation returns a new Seq .

Here is an example where an array is converted to a

sequence and then transform without creating other
intermediate arrays.
import { Seq } from 'immutable';

function isEven(n){
return n % 2 === 0;
}

function double(n){
return n * 2;
}

const sequence = Seq([ 1, 2, 3, 4])

.filter(isEven)
.map(double); Then we can convert back to an array data
structure using the toArray() method.

const newArray = sequence.toArray();

//[4, 8]
Note that these conversions to the native array using toArray
can be slow so once we created a sequence and made the
transformations we should stick with it and use it.

Range Range returns a sequence of numbers

from start to the end . When called with no
arguments it starts from 0 . When no end
argument is provided it creates an infinite
sequence. It also accepts a third argument, a
step , defining the increment.

Rangeis a lazy sequence that generates integer numbers in

order. Here is an example of a Range generating the numbers
1,2,3.

import { Range } from 'immutable';

function logIdentity(n){
console.log(n);
return n;
}

Range(1, 4)
.forEach(logIdentity);
//1
//2
//3

Now, look at an example of generating prime numbers.

Check how we can refactor the for loop out using the Range
sequence.
for(let i=0; i<10; i++){
if(isPrime(i)){
 console.log(i)
}
}
//2
//3
//5
//7

function isPrime(number){
if (number <= 1){
return false;
}

for (let i=2; i<=number/2; i++){

if (number % i === 0 ){
return false;
}
}

return true;
}

We can start by replacing the first loop printing the numbers

to the console.
import { Range } from "immutable";

Range(0, 10)
.filter(isPrime)
.forEach(log);
function isPrime(number){ }

function log(number) {
console.log(number);
}

Range(0, 10) generates all numbers from 0 to 9 and then uses

filter to select all the prime numbers and returns a new
sequence containing only those numbers. Then we use
forEach to display those numbers.

Below we can see how to refactor the loop detecting the

prime numbers using the Range sequence.
import { Range } from 'immutable';

Range(0, 10)
.filter(isPrime)
.forEach(log);

function isPrime(number) {
if (number > 2){
const firstDivisor = findFirstDivisor(number);
return !firstDivisor;
} else {
return (number === 2)
? true
: false;
}
}

function findFirstDivisor(number){
 return Range(2, (number / 2) + 1)
.find(isDivisorOf(number));
}

function isDivisorOf(number) {
return function(divisor) {
return (number > 1)
? number % divisor === 0
: false
};
}

function log(number) { }

isDivisorOfis a curried function that gets a number and

returns a predicate function taking a possible divisor and
returning a boolean value.

returns the first divisor of a number. It

findFirstDivisor
checks all numbers from 2 to its half for that.

isPrime decides if a number is a prime based on the result of

findFirstDivisor . If the number has no divisors then it is a
prime number.

Recap Transducers are functions taking a

reducer and returning a new reducer.
Lazy sequences like Seq allow us to efficiently chain
transformation methods without creating intermediate
collections.

Range provides sequences of numbers.

Chapter 13: Generators
A generator is a function that returns the next value from a
sequence each time it is called.

We will start with a simple generator function that gives the

next integer each time it is called. It starts from 0 .
function range() {
let count = 0;
return function() {
const result = count;
count += 1;
return result;
}
}

const nextNumber = range()

console.log(nextNumber()); //0
console.log(nextNumber()); //1
console.log(nextNumber()); //2

nextNumberis an infinite generator. nextNumber is a closure with

an internal private state.

Finite Generators Generators can be finite.

Check the next example where range creates a
generator that returns consecutive numbers
from a specific interval. At the end of the
sequence, it returns undefined .
function range(from, to){
 let count = from;
return function(){
if(count < to){
const result = count;
count += 1;
return result;
} else {
return undefined;
}
}
}

const nextNumber = range(0, 3)

console.log(nextNumber()); //0
console.log(nextNumber()); //1
console.log(nextNumber()); //2
console.log(nextNumber()); //undefined toArray When working
with generators, we may want to create an array with all the
values from the sequence. For this situation, we need a utility
function like toArray taking a generator and returning all the
values from the sequence as an array. The sequence should be
finite.

function toArray(generate) {
let arr = [];
let value = generate();

while (value !== undefined) {

arr = [...arr, value];
value = generate();
}
 return arr;
}

Let’s use it with the previous generator.

const numbers = toArray(range(1, 5));
console.log(numbers);
//[1, 2, 3, 4]

forEach We may also need to run a callback for

each element in the sequence. The forEach
utility function does just that. It gets a
generator and a callback and runs the callback
until the generator returns undefined .
function forEach(callback){
return function(generate){
let value = generate();

while(value !== undefined){

callback(value);
value = generate();
}
}
}

This is a curried function that first takes the callbacks and

then the generator.

In the next example, the log function is called for all

numbers returned by the generator.
function log(x){
console.log(x);
}

const nextNumber = range(1, 4);

forEach(log)(nextNumber);
//1
//2
//3

take Another common scenario is to take only

the first n elements from a sequence. In this
case, we need a new utility function like take
that receives a generator and creates a new
generator returning only the first n elements
from the sequence.
function take(n) {
return function(generate) {
let count = 0;
return function() {
if (count < n) {
count += 1;
return generate();
}
};
};
}

Again take is a curried function and should be called like

this: take(n)(sequence) .

Here is how you can use take and forEach in a pipeline to get
and log to console the first three values from an infinite
sequence of numbers.
import { pipe } from 'lodash/fp';

const nextNumber = range();

pipe(
take(3),
forEach(console.log)
)(nextNumber);
//0
//1
//2

Custom Generators We can create any custom

generator and use it with the previous utility
functions. Let’s create the Fibonacci custom
generator:
function fibonacci() {
let a = 0;
let b = 1;
return function() {
const aResult = a;
a = b;
b = aResult + b;
return aResult;
};
}

We can use the Fibonacci generator with the utility functions

already created to display the first 5 numbers in the
sequence.
import { pipe } from 'lodash/fp';

const generateFibonacci = fibonacci();

pipe(
take(5),
forEach(console.log)
)(generateFibonacci);
//0
//1
//1
//2
//3

Recap A generator is a function that returns a

new value from a sequence, each time it is
called.

Functional generators can return elements from finite or

infinite sequences of values.
Chapter 14: Promises
A promise is an object containing a future result.

A promise has three states: pending, fulfilled, and rejected.

Pending is the initial state of a promise. The result is not

available at this stage.
Fulfilled is the state marking a successful operation. The
result is available at this point.
Rejected is the state marking a failed operation. The
result is not available, instead, we have access to the
error object giving the details of why the operation
failed.

Initially, the promise starts with the pending state. Then it

can go to fulfilled or rejected states. Once a promise is
fulfilled or rejected, it stays in that state.

Here is a representation of the flow a promise can go

through.
Creating Promises Let’s start by creating a
simple promise.
function delay(interval){
return new Promise(function(resolve){
return setTimeout(resolve, interval);
});
}
function logDone(){
console.log('Done');
}

delay(1000)
.then(logDone); delay creates a promise that will resolve in a
specific amount of time. We can use it to delay the execution
of a task.

Creating a promise with new Promise requires passing in a

function called the executor function. This function takes
two callbacks, resolve and reject , that can be called later to
change the state of the promise. The executor function runs
automatically when the promise is created.

Promisehas two utility static methods, resolve and reject , to

quickly create a resolved or rejected promise.

Promise.resolve(value) creates a resolved promise wrapping a

value .

Promise.reject(error) creates a rejected promise.

Success Handling Mapping then acts as a map. It

takes a mapping function and returns a
promise containing the transformed value.
We can use a Promise.resolve to create a simple mappable
object wrapping a value. Then we can transform and inspect
the wrapped value.
function toUpperCase(text){
return text.toUpperCase();
}

function logIdentity(value){
 console.log(value);
return value;
}

Promise.resolve('sTudY')
.then(logIdentity) //"sTudY"
.then(toUpperCase)
.then(logIdentity); //"STUDY"

Flat Mapping then acts also like a flat map.

When the mapping function returns a value, then returns a

promise containing the transformed value. To be more
precise, we should say that the mapping function returns a
value that is not a promise.

When the mapping function returns a promise wrapping a

value, then does not wrap it into another promise. It just
returns the new promise containing the transformed value.

Wrapping a promise into another promise would have meant

to create a promise which contains a promise which wraps a
value.

Take a look at a function, dividing two numbers, that is used

as a mapping function on a promise.
function devideBy(n, divisor){
return n / divisor;
}

function logIdentity(value){}

Promise.resolve(9)
 .then(logIdentity) //9
.then(n => devideB(n, 3))
.then(logIdentity); //3

We can implement devideBy as a curried function and used it

more nicely with then .
function devideBy(divisor){
return function(n){
return n / divisor;
}
}

Promise.resolve(9)
.then(logIdentity) //9
.then(devideBy(3))
.then(logIdentity); //3

When devideBy returns a promise instead of number, then

waits for that promise to complete and returns a promise
wrapping the transformed value.
function devideBy(divisor){
return function(number){
const result = number / divisor;
return Promise.resolve(result);
}
}

Promise.resolve(9)
.then(logIdentity) //9
.then(devideBy(3))
 .then(logIdentity); //3

Error Handling catch handles errors in a promise

chain.
Below is an example of error handling using catch .
function devideBy(divisor){
return function(number){
const result = number / divisor;
return (divisor !== 0)
? Promise.resolve(result)
: Promise.reject("Can't divide by 0")
}
}

function logError(error){
console.error(error);
}

Promise.resolve(9)
.then(logIdentity) //9
.then(devideBy(0))
.then(logIdentity)
.catch(logError) //"Can't divide by 0"

If there is an error in any transformation step the flow jumps

down the closest error handler.

Chaining As you noticed, we can chain several

transformations on the wrapped value.
The then method on a resolved promise will return a new
promise. Likewise, the catch method of a rejected promise
will return a new promise. This creates a pipeline of
transformations where each transform function takes as
input the result of the previous one.
function toCelsius(kelvin){
const celsius = (kelvin - 273.15);
return Math.round(celsius * 100) / 100;
}

function toChangeAction(temperature){
return {
type : 'CHANGE_TEMPERATURE',
temperature
}
}

function logIdentity(value){}

Promise.resolve(280)
.then(logIdentity)
.then(toCelsius)
.then(logIdentity)
.then(toChangeAction)
.then(logIdentity);
//280
//6.85
//{ type: 'CHANGE_TEMPERATURE', temperature: 6.85 }
toCelsius takes the 280 -kelvin temperature as input and
returns 6.85 . toChangeAction takes as input the 6.85 -celsius
temperature and returns an action object containing the
new celsius value.

Asynchronous Operations The code written so

far was synchronous. That means we had the
result of executing a function immediately.
Consider the next code.
const result = Math.pow(2, 3);
console.log(result);
//8

One we execute Math.pow we have the result.

Now think about what it means to make a call to a Web API

and have the returned data in a variable.
const result = fetch('/todos') In order to have the data
returned by the Web API inside the result variable, we need to
wait for the fetch call to finish. Waiting means blocking the
UI and we don’t want that.

Promises offer a solution to this scenario. Instead of

returning the result, the fetch call returns a promise that will
later give access to the result when it is available.

Parcel We can test the network call by starting a

development server. We can create one using the
Parcel web application which requires zero
configuration.

First, install Parcel.

npm install parcel-bundler --save-dev Next, create an
index.html and reference the js files you want to check.
<html>
<body>
<script src="./ajax.js"></script>
</body>
</html> Then, add the dev task scripts in the package.json .

{
"scripts": {
"dev": "parcel index.html"
}
}

Now, you can start the development server and access the
index.html page.

Fetch

The Fetch API provides an interface for fetching resources.

The fetch function takes as input an URL and returns a
promise that resolves to the Response of the request. It fails
when the request fails.

Here is an example of making a fetch call and accessing the

result in the returned promise.
function toJson(response){
return response.json();
}

function logIdentity(value){}

function logError(error){
console.error(error);
}
fetch('https://api.github.com/gists/public')
.then(toJson)
.then(logIdentity)
.catch(logError); The json() method converts the response to a
JavaScript object. It returns a promise wrapping the result of
parsing the response body text as JSON .

Promise.race Promise.race takes an array of

promises and returns the first one that fulfills or
rejects.
const dictionariesPromise =
fetch('/dictionaries').then(toJson);

const todosPromise =
fetch('/todos').then(toJson);

Promise.race([
dictionariesPromise,
todosPromise
]).then(logIdentity); Promise.all Promise.all takes an array of
promises and returns a new promise that resolves when all of
the input’s promises have resolved. If one of the input
promises it rejected it rejects immediately.

can be used to make sure that all input promises

Promise.all
have completed successfully.
Promise.all([
dictionariesPromise,
todosPromise
]).then(logIdentity); Promise.allSettled Promise.allSettled
takes an array of promises and returns a promise that resolves
after all of the input’s promises have either fulfilled or
rejected. It resolves with an array of objects describing the
outcome of each promise.
const dictionariesPromise =
fetch('/dictionaries').then(toJson);
const todosPromise =
fetch('/todos').then(toJson);
const rejectedPromise = Promise.reject('Error');

Promise.allSettled([
dictionariesPromise,
todosPromise,
rejectedPromise
])
.then(logIdentity)
//[
//{status: "fulfilled", value: Array(1)},
//{status: "fulfilled", value: Array(1)},
//{status: "rejected", reason: "Error"}
//]

Functor Laws The then method on a promise

acts as a map when the transformation function
returns an object that is not a promise.
Identity law is respected.
function identity(n){
return n;
}

Promise.resolve(1)
.then(identity)
//Promise 1
The composition law is respected when mapping functions
don’t return promises. In this case, promise.then(f).then(g)
gives the same result as promise.then(x => g(f(x))) .
function f(x){
return x + 1;
}

function g(x){
return x * 2;
}

function logIdentity(value){}

Promise.resolve(1)
.then(f)
.then(g)
.then(logIdentity)

Promise.resolve(1)
.then(x => g(f(x)))
.then(logIdentity) The functor composition law is broken when
one transformation function returns a promise and the other
doesn’t. Here is an example.

function f(x){
return Promise.resolve(x + 1);
}

function g(x){
return x * 2;
}
Promise.resolve(1)
.then(f)
.then(g)
.then(logIdentity);
//4

Promise.resolve(1)
.then(x => g(f(x)))
.then(logIdentity);
//NaN

In this case, the promise does not work as a functor because

it doesn’t respect the composition law. In practical terms,
we should not refactor promise
.then(f)
.then(g) to

promise
.then(x => g(f(x)) Monad Laws The then method on a promise
acts like flatMap when the transformation function returns a
promise.

Calling then with a transformation function creating a

promise, returns a new promise wrapping a value. It does
not return a promise, containing a promise, wrapping a
value.

Promises behave like monads when working only with

mapping functions that return promises.

The left identity is respected.

function f(x){
return Promise.resolve(x + 1);
}

Promise.resolve(1)
.then(f)
//Promise 2

f(1)
//Promise 2

The right identity is also confirmed.

function unit(value){
return Promise.resolve(value)
}

Promise.resolve(1)
.then(unit)
//Promise 1

promise.flatMap(f).flatMap(g) gives the same result as

promise.flatMap(x => f(x).flatMap(g)) .
function g(x){
return Promise.resolve(x * 2);
}

function logIdentity(value){}

Promise.resolve(1)
.then(f)
.then(g)
.then(logIdentity);
Promise.resolve(1)
.then(x => f(x).then(g))
.then(logIdentity); Summing-up, when both mapping functions
return a value, that is not a promise, than acts as map and
composition is respected. When both mapping functions return a
promise, than acts as flatMap and associativity is respected.

Recap Promises are objects wrapping a future

result.

When the transformation function returns a value, then acts

as a map operation. When it returns another promise, then
acts like a flatMap operation.

Strictly speaking promises are not monads but they behave

similarly to monads in many situations.
Chapter 15: Observables
An observable is a stream of data that can arrive over time.
Observable are objects emitting values to listeners as these
values become available.

Observables may become part of the JavaScript language in

the future, but for the time being, we are going to use the
implementation of observables from the RxJS library.
npm install rxjs --save Operators are a powerful feature
available on observables.

Creation Operators Creation operators are

functions used to construct new observables.

Observables are commonly created using creation functions,

like of , from , interval or ajax .

create() The following example creates an observable

that emits the values 1 , 2 , 3 to subscribers and then
completes.
import { Observable } from 'rxjs';

const observable = Observable.create(observer => {

observer.next(1);
observer.next(2);
observer.next(3);
observer.complete();
}); The create operator takes a callback function defining how
to emit values. There are three methods describing what an
observable can do.

next() sends a value to listeners.

 error() sends an error to listeners.
complete() marks the end of the sequence of values.
After calling complete , further calls to next() have no
effect.

next defines the actual data being delivered to a subscriber.

The data flow may either complete with success using
complete or fail marked using error .

We can listen to the observable source using the subscribe

method.
observable
.subscribe(console.log);
//1
//2
//3

If we subscribe again later to the source of data we receive

again all the emitted values.
setTimeout(()=>{
observable.subscribe(console.log);
//1
//2
//3
}, 3000); of() of creates observables from a set of values.
Here is an example of an observable that emits 1 , 2 , 3 in
order.

import { of } from 'rxjs';

const source = of(1, 2, 3);

source
.subscribe(console.log);
// 1
// 2
// 3

from() from can create observables from an array-like

object, a promise, or an observable-like object.

Here is an example of building an observable from an array.

import { from } from 'rxjs';

const observable = from([1, 2, 3]);

observable.subscribe(console.log);
// 1
// 2
// 3

interval() The interval function takes the n number of

milliseconds as input and returns an observable
emitting a new integer in order every n milliseconds.
import { interval } from 'rxjs';

const observable = interval(1000);

observable.subscribe(console.log);
//0 -> after 1s
//1 -> after 2s
//2 -> after 3s
//3 -> after 4s
//4 -> after 5s
//5 -> after 6s ajax() ajax creates an observable getting the
result from a network request. It takes as input either a
request object with the URL, method, data, etc, or a just an
URL string.
Here is an example.
import { ajax } from 'rxjs/ajax';

ajax('https://api.github.com/gists/public')
.subscribe(console.log); The observable stream created with
the ajax function emits the response object returned from the
request.

Below the same request is done with the ajax.getJSON

function creating an observable that emits only the JSON
key of the response object returned from the request.
ajax.getJSON('https://api.github.com/gists/public')
.subscribe(console.log); Pipeable Operators Observables have
the pipe method that allows pipelining multiple operators.

Pipeable operators are those operators that can be piped to

observables using the pipe syntax. These include operators
like filter , map , or take .

A pipeable operator is a function that takes an observable

as input and returns another observable. Subscribing to the
output observable will also subscribe to the input
observable.

Operators transform the values from the stream of data.

They return an observable of the transformed values.

transforms values from an observable source using a

map
mapping function.
import { of } from 'rxjs';
import { map } from 'rxjs/operators';

const dataSource = of(1, 2, 3);

function double(n){
return n * 2;
}

dataSource
.pipe(
map(double)
)
.subscribe(console.log);
//2
//4
//6

filter filters the stream values using a predicate function.

import { of } from 'rxjs';
import { map, filter } from 'rxjs/operators';

const dataSource = of(1, 2, 3, 4, 5);

function isEven(n){
return n % 2 === 0;
}

dataSource
.pipe(
filter(isEven)
)
.subscribe(console.log);
//2
//4
The take operator allows selecting only the first n emitted
values from an observable source. Below is an example of
selecting the first three values from the source.
import { of } from 'rxjs';
import { take } from 'rxjs/operators';

const source = of(1, 2, 3, 4, 5);

source
.pipe(
take(3)
)
.subscribe(console.log);
//1
//2
//3

The pipe method creates a pipeline on the observable

source. It allows us to pass the data through a pipeline of
operators transforming it.
import { of } from 'rxjs';
import { map, filter } from 'rxjs/operators';

const dataSource = of(1, 2, 3, 4, 5);

function isEven(n){
return n % 2 === 0;
}

function double(n){
return n * 2;
}

dataSource
.pipe(
filter(isEven),
map(double)
)
.subscribe(console.log);
//4
//8

Observers Observers are objects having three

callbacks, one for each type of notification
delivered by the observable. Observers are the
consumer of values delivered by observables.

Here is a simple observer object handling all types of

notifications.
const observer = {
next(value){
console.log(`Next: ${value}`)
},
error(msg){
console.error(`Error: ${msg}`)
},
complete(value){
console.error(`Complete`)
}
}; The observer is used as an argument to the subscribe method
of an observable.
const observable = Observable.create(observer => {
observer.next(1);
observer.next(2);
observer.complete('Done');
});
observable.subscribe(observer);
//Next: 1
//Next: 2
//Complete Below is an example of subscribing to an observable
that emits two values and then fails.

const observable = Observable.create(observer => {

observer.next(1);
observer.next(2);
observer.error('Failed');
});

observable.subscribe(observer);
//Next: 1
//Next: 2
//Error: Failed There is no need to have a callback in the
observer object for all notification types. Some notifications
can be ignored.

We can subscribe to an observable by just providing a

callback as an argument and not an observer object. This is
equivalent to creating an observer with just the next handler.
observable.subscribe(value => console.log(`Next: ${value}`));
All three types of callbacks can be provided as arguments to
the subscribe method. This is equivalent to creating an
observer with all three handlers.

observable.subscribe(
 value => console.log(`Next: ${value}`),
msg => console.error(`Error: ${msg}`),
() => console.error(`Complete`)
); Subscriptions A subscription is an object created when
subscribing to an observable. It allows us to unsubscribe form
that observable.

import { interval } from 'rxjs';

const observable = interval(1000);

const subscription = observable.subscribe(console.log);

//later
setTimeout(() => {
subscription.unsubscribe();
}, 3500);
//0 -> after 1s
//1 -> after 2s
//2 -> after 3s The subscription object has just the
unsubscribe method. When all subscribers unsubscribe from an
observable, that observable stops its execution.

An observable starts its execution when it has at least one

subscriber.

Higher-Order Observables In most cases,

observables emit primitives or data objects but
sometimes they may emit other observables. In
this case, they are called higher-order
observables.

Consider for example an observables emitting URL strings.

We may have a mapping function taking the URL and
returning a new observable.
import { from } from 'rxjs';
import { ajax } from 'rxjs/ajax';
import { map } from 'rxjs/operators';

const observable = from([

'/dictionaries',
'/todos'
]);

observable.pipe(
map(ajax.getJSON)
).subscribe(console.log);
//Observable {}
//Observable {}

ajax.getJSONis the mapping function. It takes the URL and

returns an observable emitting the response from the
network request for each URL. After this transformation, we
have an observable of observables, a higher-order
observable.

The challenge is to work with a higher-order observable. In

this case, we need a flattening operation, meaning we need
to convert the higher-order observable into an ordinary
observable.

Flattening Operators Instead of working with

an observable that emits observables wrapping
the data got from the server, we want to work
with an observable emitting the data got from
the server.
concatAll() The concatAll operator subscribes to each
observable inside the “outer” observable and copies
all the emitted values until that inner observable
completes. Then it goes to the next one. It creates a
new observable emitting all these concatenated
values.

Here is how we can use it to flatten the higher-order

observable and get an observable emitting the results of all
network requests.
import { from } from 'rxjs';
import { ajax } from 'rxjs/ajax';
import { map, concatAll } from 'rxjs/operators';

const observable = from([

'/dictionaries',
'/todos'
]);

observable.pipe(
map(ajax.getJSON),
concatAll()
).subscribe(console.log);
//[{name: 'Dictionary'}]
//[{title: 'To Do'}]

mergeAll() Another useful flattening is mergeAll . It

subscribes to each inner observable as it arrives,
then emits each value as it arrives.

Using mergeAll instead of concatAll in the previous example

makes no difference because each of the inner AJAX
observable emits just a single value. The difference can be
seen when the inner observables emit several values over
time.

mergeMap() Consider a mapping function that takes

a value and returns an observable emitting the first
three numbers from a sequence. The sequence of
numbers is defined using the input value as the c
constant and applying the n*c + 1 formula.

When c = 2 the sequence formula is 2n + 1 and the first

three values are 3 , 5 and 7 .

When c = 4 the sequence formula is 4n + 1 and the first

three values are 5 , 9 and 13 .

Here is the toSequence mapping function creating an

observable.
function toSequence(x) {
const getNTerm = createGetNTerm(x);
return of(1, 2, 3).pipe(
map(getNTerm)
)
}

function createGetNTerm(c){
return function(n){
return n * c + 1
}
}

When invoked with the value 2 , toSequence returns an

observable emitting 3 , 5 and 7 .
toSequence(2)
//Observable 3 5 7

toSequence(4)
//Observable 5 9 13

Next, let’s apply the toSequence mapping function to an

observable containing several values that are to be used as
constants in the newly created sequences.
import { from } from 'rxjs';
import { map, mergeAll } from 'rxjs/operators';

from([2, 4]).pipe(
map(toSequence)
)
.subscribe(console.log);
//Observable 3 5 7
//Observable 5 9 13

At this point, we have an observable emitting observables

containing the first three numbers from the sequence.

Using mergeAll will create a new observable emitting the

numbers from all generated sequences. First, it emits all the
numbers from the first sequence, then from the second and
so on.
from([2, 4]).pipe(
map(toSequence),
mergeAll()
)
//.subscribe(console.log);
 //3
//5
//7
//5
//9
//13

mergeMap does the same thing as applying map and then

calling mergeAll .
from([2, 4]).pipe(
mergeMap(toSequence)
)
.subscribe(console.log);
//3
//5
//7
//5
//9
//13

Combining Observables Next, we are going to

look at operators for combining multiple
observables into a single one.
forkJoin() Let’s take the situation of two observables
emitting results from network requests. We want to
execute logic when both network requests have
completed.
import { ajax } from 'rxjs/ajax';
import { forkJoin } from 'rxjs';
const dictionariesObservable = ajax.getJSON('/dictionaries');
const todosObservable = ajax.getJSON('/todos');

forkJoin({
dictionaries: dictionariesObservable,
todos: todosObservable
}).subscribe(console.log);
//{dictionaries: Array(), todos: Array()}

forkJoincreates an observable from other observables.

When all inner observables complete, it provides the last
emitted value from each as a dictionary.

The forkJoin operator allows us to issue multiple requests on

the page loaded and take action when a response has been
received from all. It is similar to Promise.all .

race() race takes several observables and returns the

observable that emits first. It is similar to Promise.race .
import { ajax } from 'rxjs/ajax';
import { race } from 'rxjs';

const dictionariesObservable =
ajax.getJSON('/dictionaries');
const todosObservable =
ajax.getJSON('/todos');

const observable = race(

dictionariesObservable,
todosObservable
);
observable.subscribe(console.log); Functor Laws Observables
have a map operation that respects both functor laws.

Identity Law import { of } from 'rxjs';

import { map } from 'rxjs/operators';

function identity(n){
return n;
}

of(1, 2, 3)
.pipe(
map(identity)
)
//Observable 1,2,3

Composition Law import { of } from 'rxjs';

import { map } from 'rxjs/operators';

function increment(n){
return n + 1;
}

function double(n){
return n * 2
}

of(1, 2, 3)
.pipe(
map(increment),
map(double)
 )
//Observable 4,6,8

of(1, 2, 3)
.pipe(
map(x => double(increment(x)))
)
//Observable 4,6,8

Observables are functors.

Monad Laws Observables have a flat mapping

operation called mergeMap that respects the
monad laws.

Left Identity M.unit(x).flatMap(f) === f(x) We can consider

of as the unit function creating an observable.

import { of } from 'rxjs';

import { mergeMap } from 'rxjs/operators';

function f(n){
return of(n + 1);
}

of(1)
.pipe(
mergeMap(f)
)
//Observable 2

f(1)
 //Observable 2

Right Identity Applying the unit function to an observable

results in an observable emitting the same values.
function unit(value){
return of(value)
}

of(1)
.pipe(
mergeMap(unit)
)
.subscribe(console.log);
//Observable 1

Associativity monad.flatMap(f).flatMap(g)
=== monad.flatMap(x => f(x).flatMap(g))) Here is how we can
translate the law for observables.

function g(n){
return of(n * 2);
}

of(1)
.pipe(
mergeMap(f),
mergeMap(g)
)
//Observable 4

of(1)
 .pipe(
mergeMap(x => f(x).pipe(mergeMap(g)))
)
//Observable 4

Observables are monads.

Recap Observables are streams of data. The

consumers of these observables are the
observers subscribing to those streams.

Creation functions like of , from , interval or ajax make new

observables.

Observables offer a solution for doing asynchronous tasks,

plus they have a set of powerful operators for processing
the results. Pipeable operators like filter , map , or take get
an observable as input and return another observable
emitting the transformed values.

Observables emitting other observables are called higher-

order observables. Flattening operations like concatAll ,
mergeAll , mergeMap allow us to convert higher-order
observables into ordinary observables.
Chapter 16: Elm Architecture
Next, we are going to learn how to create a simple
application in a functional style by building one using the
Elm purely functional language. Then we will implement the
same functionality with React and Redux . The point is to
understand the architecture that supports this style of
programming.

Start by creating the Elm project. Navigate to a new folder

and create the Elm project by running: elm init The
command creates an elm.json file and a src folder for all Elm
files.

elm reactor opens the development server. It starts a server

at http://localhost:8000 . From there we can navigate to any
Elm file.

Elm Architecture The Elm Architecture defines

the data flow inside an Elm application. It
breaks the application into the following core
parts:

Model — defines all the state of the application.

View — is a pure function that transforms the state data
into HTML. The HTML sends back messages.
Messages — expresses the user interaction.
Update — is a pure function returning a new state based
on the current message and the actual state.
In the next examples, we are going to use this architectural
pattern to create a few functionalities.

Counter with Elm Let’s implement a simple

counter page and discuss the Elm Architecture.
Model The model stores all the application data that
can change. In our case, we just need to store a
number to reflect the current count.

The initial value of this counter is 0 .

type alias Model = {
number : Int
}

initialModel : Model
initialModel = { number = 0 }

Messages Messages define user interaction. The user

can increase or decrease the count so we need two
messages to express those actions.
type Msg = Increment | Decrement View Function The view
function takes in the Model as an argument and displays it on
the screen. The view function creates the HTML.
The HTML contains a decrement button that generates the
Decrement message, and an increment button that generates
the Increment message and the current count. The count
number is read from the model, converted to a string, and
then rendered as text inside a div element.

Messages are generated by handling the onClick event for

each button.
view : Model -> Html Msg
view model =
div []
[
div [] [ text (String.fromInt model.number) ]
, button [ onClick Decrement ] [ text "-" ]
, button [ onClick Increment ] [ text "+" ]
]

Update Function The update function describes how to

change the model when receiving a new message.

When it gets the Increment message, it returns a new model

with the number incremented. When it gets the Decrement
message, it returns a new model with the number
decremented.
update : Msg -> Model -> Model
update msg model =
case msg of
Increment ->
{ model | number = model.number + 1 }

Decrement ->
{ model | number = model.number - 1 }
The initial number is zero and it increases and decreases
when the user presses different buttons.

Wiring-Up The main value describes what it is shown

on the screen. It needs the initial model, the view
function to generate the HTML, and update function to
change the model.
import Browser
import Html exposing (Html, button, div, text)
import Html.Events exposing (onClick)

//Code

main =
Browser.sandbox {
init = initialModel,
update = update,
view = view
}

The view function takes the initial model and displays on the
screen. The user actions generate messages. The update
handles those action and updates the model. When the
model is changed the view function is called to render the
new model on screen. This flow repeats endlessly.

Counter with React and Redux Now let’s

implement the same counter page in JavaScript
with React and Redux.
Model The model defines all the application data. We
can define the counter as the number property on the
application state object.
const initialModel = {
number: 0
};

Messages The two messages for increasing and

decreasing the count can be expressed as functions
creating plain data object having the type property.
function Increment(){
return {
type : Increment.name
}
}

function Decrement(){
return {
type : Decrement.name
}
}

export { Increment, Decrement }; View Function The view

function can be implemented using React functional components .
These components return an HTML-like syntax called JSX .

import React from 'react';

import { connect } from 'react-redux';
import { Increment, Decrement } from './store';

function Counter({number, Increment, Decrement}){

return(
<div>
<div>{number}</div>
 <button
type="button"
onClick={Decrement}>-</button>
<button
type="button"
onClick={Increment}>+</button>
</div>
)
}

export default connect(

state => state,
{Increment, Decrement}
)(Counter); Update Function The update function takes the
current model and message and returns the new model.

function reducer(model = initialModel, action){

switch(action.type){
case Increment.name:
return { ...model, number: model.number + 1 };
case Decrement.name:
return { ...model, number: model.number - 1 };
default:
return model;
}
}

export { reducer }; Wiring-Up We can wire up all these in the

application entry point file index.js . Here we specify the
initial state, the view, and the update functions.

import React from 'react';

import ReactDOM from 'react-dom';
import { createStore } from 'redux';
import { Provider } from 'react-redux';
import Counter from './Counter';
import { reducer } from './store';

const store = createStore(reducer);

ReactDOM.render(
<React.StrictMode>
<Provider store={store}>
<Counter />
</Provider>
</React.StrictMode>,
document.getElementById('root')
);

Random Number with Elm Next, we will create

another page that displays a random number.
This may look simpler than previous
functionality but it is actually harder to do
because generating random numbers cannot be
done with a pure function.

Pure functions are deterministic functions. Called with the

same input they always return the same output. Elm is a
purely functional language. That means it allows us to write
only pure functions. How is possible then to generate
random numbers and write only pure functions?

Let’s find out.

Model Again we need a model to store our
application data that can change. The model contains
just a number.
type alias Model = {
number : Int
}

initModel : () -> (Model, Cmd Msg)

initModel _ =
( Model 0
, Cmd.none
)

Messages The user can press the generate button so

we need a message to express that interaction,
GenerateNumber .

type Msg = GenerateNumber View The view function takes the

model and renders the UI. It displays the current number stored
in the model inside a div element. It also shows the button for
generating a new number. When the button is pressed the
GenerateNumber message is created.

view : Model -> Html Msg

view model =
div []
[
div [] [ text (String.fromInt model.number) ]
, button [ onClick GenerateNumber ] [ text "Generate" ]
]

Update The update function takes the current

messages and generates the new model. The update
function is pure. It cannot generate a random
number. Instead what it does is to create a command
telling the Elm framework to generate the random
number and then put the result inside a new
message. We are going to call this new message
SetNumber . At this point we realize that messages can
take arguments, messages can be functions.
type Msg = GenerateNumber | SetNumber Int In order to use the
Random.generate command we need to install an additional
package.

elm install elm/random Here is the update function handling

both messages.

update : Msg -> Model -> (Model, Cmd Msg)

update msg model =
case msg of
GenerateNumber ->
( model
, Random.generate SetNumber (Random.int 1 100)
)

SetNumber number ->

( Model number
, Cmd.none
)

When the update function receives the GenerateNumber

message, it creates a command using the Random.generate
function. The Elm framework runs the command, generates
the random number, and builds a new message SetNumber
containing this random number. The update function does
not modify the model in this case, it returns the same
model.
When the update function receives the SetNumber messages
with the random number it returns a new model containing
the newly generated number. The update function does not
generate any command in this case, it returns Cmd.none .

As noticed in order to work with impure logic the update

function returns two things for each message, the new
model and a new command that the Elm framework has to
execute.

Here is how we can write a function that returns two values

in JavaScript. We simply return an array containing the two
values. Then we use the destructuring assignment syntax
on the left-hand side of the assignment to unpack the
returned values.
function update(model, action){
switch(action.type){
case 'GenerateNumber' : {
const command = {
name: 'Random.generate',
resultMessage : 'SetNumber'
};
return [model, command];
}
case 'SetNumber' : {
const newModel = { ...model, number: action.payload };
const command = { name: 'Cmd.none' };
return [newModel, command];
}
default : {
const command = { name: 'Cmd.none' };
 return [model, command];
}
}
}

const [model, command] = update({}, 'GenerateNumber');

console.log(model);
console.log(command);
//{}
//{name: "Cmd.none"}

Note that a command is a plain object describing the

command to execute. Also, remark that we use curly
brackets inside the switch branches to define a block scope
for each clause and allow declaring variables with the same
name in different branches.

Below is how the data flow looks like when using commands
for handling impure logic.
Random Number with React and Redux Now
let’s implement the same functionality in
JavaScript.

Model We start by defining the model as an object

with the number property set to 0 .
const initialModel = {
number: 0
};

Commands This is the point where we have problems

generating random numbers and still using pure
functions. Redux allows us to define a place where to
put such impure logic but has no solution to avoid it
altogether.

We are going to follow the Redux pattern and define

GenerateNumber as function returning another function. The
returned function is called a thunk and contains the impure
logic. The result of this impure logic will be passed as an
argument to the SetNumber message.
function GenerateNumber(){
return function(dispatch){
const number = Math.floor(Math.random() * 100);
dispatch(SetNumber(number));
}
}

Messages The SetNumber message is needed by the

GenerateNumber command to send the newly generated
number.
function SetNumber(number){
return {
type : SetNumber.name,
number
}
}

View The view function takes the model and creates

the HTML for it. When the generate button is pressed
it dispatches the GenerateNumber command.
import React from 'react';
import { connect } from 'react-redux';
import { GenerateNumber } from './store';

function Counter({number, GenerateNumber}){

return(
<div>
 <div>{number}</div>
<button
type="button"
onClick={GenerateNumber}>Generate</button>
</div>
)
}

export default connect(

state => state,
{ GenerateNumber }
)(Counter) Update The update function handles the application
messages. When the SetNumber message is received it returns a
model with the new number value.

function reducer(model = initialModel, action){

switch(action.type){
case SetNumber.name:
return { ...model, number: action.number };
default:
return model;
}
}

Recap The Elm architecture defines the flow

that allows us to write a practical application in
a functional style.
The model is an immutable object representing all the
application state.
The view function is a pure function building the HTML and
creating messages. The view function is not responsible for
rendering HTML on a screen. It takes a model and returns
HTML. The Elm framework uses the view function to render
this HTML on the screen.

Messages are requests to modify the application’s model.

The update function is a pure function taking in the current

model and a message and returning the new model. When
dealing with side-effects it also returns a new command.
The update function doesn’t effectively change the model.
The Elm framework uses the update function to change the
model. The Elm framework executes the command returned
by the update function and creates a new message with the
result.
Chapter 17: Functional Paradigm
Now we are going to look back at what it means to program
in a functional style.

The main idea in functional programming is to split the

application into small pure functions that communicate
using immutable data and then compose these functions to
implement the required functionality.

Ideally, all the functions in the application should be pure

functions.

Purity As repeated many times, the point of

functional programming is to write pure
functions. These are functions that just
transform values.

When a pure function returns the application has the same

state as when the function was called. An application is
much easier to understand when we don’t have to track
variables changing their values. Pure functions make code
easier to follow by allowing us to focus our attention in one
place.

The challenge is, of course, to create a practical application

doing only transformations with pure functions. Is that even
possible?

We saw that it is achievable if we have the right framework

using these pure functions and doing the impure logic
necessary for a practical application. Such architecture was
implemented in Elm.

Here is the flow of executing impure logic in Elm:

 The pure update function creates a command describing
the impure logic
The Elm framework takes the command, runs the
impure logic and generates a message containing the
result
The pure update function handles this message by
creating a new updated model holding the previous
result

This kind of approach requires having functions to create

commands for any kind of impure logic and using a
framework able to understand those commands.

Next, we are going to look at a similar approach for making

a fetch call with React and Redux using only pure functions.
The fetch call itself is a side-effect, so invoking it in a
function makes that function impure.

Luckily for us, there is a Redux middleware , called Axios

middleware that can intercept fetch messages, do the fetch
call, and then put the result in a new success message.

Let’s look at the parts required to implement this

functionality.

The model initially stores just an empty list of to-dos.

const initialModel = {
todos: []
}; The message object describing the fetch request is created
using the LoadTodos pure function.

function LoadTodos(){
return {
type: LoadTodos.name,
payload: {
 request:{
url:'/todos'
}
}
}
}

The List view function is pure. It takes the list of todos and
creates an HTML. It creates a refresh button that sends
LoadTodos messages on clicks.

import React from 'react';

import { connect } from 'react-redux';
import { LoadTodos } from './store';

function List({todos, LoadTodos}){

return(
<div>
<button
type="button"
onClick={LoadTodos}>
Refresh
</button>
{ todos.map(todo =>
<div>{todo.title}</div> )}
</div>
)
}

export default connect(

 state => state,
{ LoadTodos }
)(List); The update function is pure. It takes the current
model and action and returns the new model. When receiving the
success message it returns a new model with the new list of to-
dos.

function reducer(model = initialModel, action){

switch(action.type){
case `${LoadTodos.name}_SUCCESS`:
return {
...model,
todos: action.payload.data
};
default:
return model;
}
}

That’s it. We manage to make make a fetch call and display

the results on the screen using only pure functions. We can
do it because we have at our disposal a set of libraries that
handle the impure logic.

Note the data flow in this application:

clicking on the refresh button creates a message

describing a fetch request
the Axios middleware intercepts the message, makes
the fetch call and creates a new success message with
the result
the update function handles the success message by
creating a new model with the previous result
When you think about, this logic for retrieving data has
three impure parts:

fetching the data from a Web API

updating the model object
rendering the data on the screen

The Redux-Axios middleware enabled us to make fetch

requests using pure functions creating fetch commands.
Redux offers a solution to update the model using pure
functions. React gives a solution to update the UI using pure
view functions. It helps but these are not the only kinds of
impure logic we can write. There are many more like
coordinating several network requests, creating timer
events, generating random numbers, getting the current
time, writing to the console or to the local storage, and so
on. We call them side-effects.

In JavaScript at the moment of writing the best libraries for

writing applications in a functional style, React and Redux,
still require to write impure logic. In this case, we need to
aim for a high percentage of pure functions. 80% is much
better than 20% .

Immutability It turns out that immutability is

much easier to achieve. We can simply freeze
objects at creation and they become
immutable. Another simple solution is to use a
linter to make sure no mutations are done in
the application.
Immutable data structures are available in libraries like
Immutable.JS. They offer optimization improvements and a
nicer public interface.

We should not be concerned about creating intermediate

collections when processing a list. When the list is small,
less than a thousand records the difference is
indistinguishable. When working with collections of
thousands of objects we can start using sequences that do
not create intermediate collections.

Pipelines We saw different ways of creating

pipelines of data transformations from the pipe
utility to the chaining transformations on
arrays, immutable lists, sequences, promises,
or observables.

All these data structures wrap one or more values and allow
us the create pipelines of pure functions transforming the
wrapped data. Usually, there are a set of common
transformations like filter , map , reduce , or sort that all
these data structures support.

The currying technique is useful in this case to pass

additional arguments to the functions in the pipeline.

Functional programming starts to be about transforming

data with pipelines of pure functions. In a sense, functional
programming promotes a data-flow programming style.
Loops Purely functional languages do not have
loops. Such functionalities are implemented
using the array methods and falling back to
recursion for specific algorithms.

At the moment of writing it is not possible to disable all loop

statements in JavaScript because it lacks the tail-call
implementation.

Naming Splitting the application into pure

functions is not enough. We need to give
intention revealing names to those functions.
So take your time to do that. If you failed the
application will still be harder to understand.

Folder Structure As the application grows more and

more functions will be created. You will need to find a
way to structure these functions in modules. That
means creating files with a clear name containing
those functions. Then you need a way to structure
those files in folders. There will be common functions
and there will be functions used only in a specific
module.

Final Thoughts An application written in a

functional style consists of numerous pure
functions, organized into modules. We use
these functions into pipelines and compose
them to implement the required functionalities
Functional programing makes code easier to
read. Programs that are not easily understood
may lead to bugs and are most often remade.
The essence of functional programming is transforming
immutable data using pure functions. These transformations
become more expressive in pipelines.
What’s next?
If you want to put in practice what you learned and build
modern React applications using functional components and
functional programming principles consider reading
Functional React, 2nd Edition .

Continue your learning path with Functional Architecture

with React and Redux and use React and Redux to build
several applications with an incremental level of complexity.

The functional architecture implies getting the initial state,

showing it to the user using the view functions, listening for
actions, updating the state based on those actions, and
rendering the updated state back to the user again.

Enjoy the Functional Programming with JavaScript and React

book series!
 Table of Contents
Chapter 01: Primitives
Chapter 02: Immutable Data Objects
Chapter 03: Functions
Chapter 04: Arrays
Chapter 05: First-Class Functions
Chapter 06: Statements
Chapter 07: Recursion
Chapter 08: Pipelines and Currying
Chapter 09: Functors
Chapter 10: Monads
Chapter 11: Immutable Collections
Chapter 12: Lazy Transformations
Chapter 13: Generators
Chapter 14: Promises
Chapter 15: Observables
Chapter 16: Elm Architecture
Chapter 17: Functional Paradigm