Module ENG3182 Project & Business

Management.
Unit 2 (c) Lecture 2 Project Management
Study element Project Planning Methods
Activity on Arrow (AoA)
Study Time

Modern Planning Techniques 2 (Scheduling)

The objectives of the planning process are to optimise the project process and to prevent problems
arising during the process. This is achieved through a systematic evaluation of the projects constituent
activities, their duration and their logical linkage (sequencing). The use of graphical or network
techniques helps in the presentation of the plan and also allows it to be revised when required.

Having identified the activities through the WBS (planning) (see Unit 3), the next step is arranging
them in a logical sequence and then estimating their time requirements or durations (scheduling).

Scheduling is the process that converts the plan into a specific set of dates (calendar) for the
individual activities to be started and finished.

Estimating durations is one of the most difficult aspects of the process, and estimates become more
uncertain the further ahead in time the activity is being considered.

The most widely used tools for the development of schedules are Gantt Charts (see Unit 4) and
network techniques.

Network techniques provide a graphical means of expressing more complex projects. Network
diagrams show all the logical dependencies between activities. The planner can ensure for example,
that bricklaying will never be scheduled to start before the construction of its underlying foundations.
Such mistakes are easily possible with complex Gantt Charts.

Arrow Diagramming (Activity on the Arrow).

Arrow Diagramming, also called ‘Activity on the Arrow’ is one of two versions of the Critical Path
Method.

ACTIVITY ON ARROW (A-o-A)

The method whereby the description of the activity is written on the arrow.

It was developed along two parallel streams:-

Military – 1958 devised for The Polaris by The Program Evaluation Branch of the Special Projects
Office of the US Navy, helped by the Lockheed Missile Systems Division and the consultant firm of
Booz – Allen and Hamilton – Method known as PERT (Project Evaluation and Review Technique)

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Industrial – 1956 devised by the Integrated Engineering Control Group of the American chemical firm
E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co who looked for new methods of scheduling projects. Du Pont and
Remington Rand produced the Critical Path Method in 1957 – CPM

Arrow diagram notation.

Since Arrow Diagramming is also called “activity–on-the-arrow” it should come as no surprise that
the primary element of the arrow diagram is a set of arrows. One arrow is required for each activity.
The tail of the arrow is the start of the activity. The head of the arrow is the completion of the activity.

Since we want the diagram to show sequence, “nodes” are placed at the tail and head of each activity
arrow. To illustrate how the nodes are used to show sequence between activities, the sketches below
show several fragments of a schedule.

Example 1

Activity Prior Activity

A None
B A

Example 2

Activity Prior Activity

A None
B A
C A

Example 3

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Activity Prior Activity
A None
B None
C A,B
D A,B

The combination of all the activities in a schedule is called a “network”. An arrow diagram for a
complete project may also be referred to as a network diagram. One of the characteristic factors of
projects (as opposed to processes) is that projects should have a single start node and end node. With a
single start and end node, the start date and finish date of projects may be clearly shown in diagrams
and easily identified on scheduling software reports.

It is vital when putting together networks that logic is maintained, below is an example of an incorrect
application. The arrow for Activity C starts at the end of the project and ends at the start of the
project. The kind of activity listing should be considered a “process” and not a project. Regardless of
the technique, Arrow Diagramming or Precedence Diagramming, the Critical Path Method cannot
include “loops”.

Activity Prior Activity

A None
B None
C D,E
D A
E B

Logic Dummies

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When the arrow diagram was developed, there were two important problems associated with the
method. The first problem is that since an arrow served to represent both the sequence and duration of
an activity, there are case where showing the sequence with a single arrow is inadequate. The
examples below show examples where a single arrow cannot graphically illustrate the sequence
required.

In this example Activity C has a prior of A and Activity B has both A and B as priors.

Activity Prior Activity

A None
B None
C A
D A,B

If we try to create an arrow diagram with this notation it is incorrect.

The developers of the arrow diagram created the “logic dummy”, an activity with zero duration, links
together activities whose sequences would otherwise not be shown. To designate a dummy activity, a
dotted line is normally shown. As on the figure below, the logic dummy is used to show the sequence
between Activity A and D without the problem of linking Activity B with Activity C. one way to
know if a logic dummy is needed is to look at the activity list and find those activities that share some
but not the entire set of prior activities.

Logic dummies are quite versatile. Consider the examples which follow. Notice that Activities D, E
and F do not share the same set of prior activities. As a result, two logic dummy activities are needed
to properly illustrate the sequence of tasks on the project.

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Activity Prior Activity
A None
B None
C None
D A,B
E B
F B,C

Another example where logic dummies are needed is shown below. Notice that Activities C, D and E
do not share the same set of prior activities. Since Activities C, D, and E do not share both Activities
A and B as priors, logic dummies are needed to properly show the sequence using an arrow diagram.

Activity Prior Activity

A None
B None
C A
D A,B
E B

While the logical dummy is a very useful tool to allow the arrow diagram to show all the required
sequence contained in a set of activities, the logical dummy should only be used where necessary to
show the proper sequence. The next example illustrates when not to use a dummy.

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In the diagram above, only the prior activity to Activity D is Activity A. in this case a logic dummy is
needed between Activity A and Activity D.

Logic dummies are one of the most common problem areas in the Activity-on-Arrow method.

Numbering Dummies

The computer notation used for arrow diagrams was derived from the operations research formulation
of acyclic networks. A frequently used notation in mathematics is the summation sign. When using
the summation sign we often talk about summing from “I” to “J”.

Each activity on an arrow diagram is identified according to a pair of numbers that list the node at the
tail of an activity’s arrow and the node at the head of an activity arrow. The node at the tail, or the
start of the activity is called the “I” node. The node at the head, or end of an activity, is called the “J”
node. The figure below shows the I – and J – nodes for a single activity. If another activity is added at
the end of the activity, then the J – node of the activity would be the I – node for the following
activity.

These nodes are labelled with node numbers or alpha-numeric. A rule when creating node numbers is
that the I – node must always be less than the J – node. Creating a schedule in this way will keep
arrow diagrams from having a “loop”. The figure below shows example node numbers for Activity A.

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In large networks, activities are referred to using the shorthand notation provided by their I – node and
J – node numbers. In order not to mistake one activity for another a unique pair of I – node and J –
node numbers is required for each activity.

Since activities in networks share I – nodes and J – nodes, a unique designation of each activity may
not be possible using the standard arrow notation.

The figure below illustrates the difficulties.

Numbering dummies are used when activities have the same node number pair. The figure below uses
numbered dummies for Activity A and Activity B to ensure that all these activities in the network
have unique number pairs.

Numbering Activity Diagrams can cause problems when trying to learn the method.

Key Points

 Every activity must have a pair of unique numbers. If more than one activity with the same
numbered node pair, then a numbering dummy must be added.
 There must be no loops in an arrow diagram. Always number the J –node larger than the I –
node.

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Forward pass notation

The goal for the forward pass is to determine the earliest time that an event could take place. For
example, what is the earliest that a project or activity might be started and finished?

To show the data on the forward pass, two additional elements are added to the arrow. The first
element is the duration of each activity, usually shown in the centre of the arrow.

The second element is the “Early Event Time” boxes above each node.

These refer to the Early Event Times of each node and not “Early Start” or “Early Finish” of the
activity. This is because these times refer to the event at the node. If several activities start and end at
a given node, then the Early Event Time becomes for some, the “Early Finish” time, for others the
“Early Start” time.

Early event times

To perform a forward pass two ingredients are needed, the starting date of the project. Unless
otherwise instructed all projects may be assumed to start on day one (1).

Some planners however start from the premise of day zero (0)

The second component needed is a complete set of activity durations.

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The goal of the forward pass is to determine the earliest time at which each event in the schedule may
occur, the forward pass is conducted by adding the Early Event Time at the start of each activity with
the duration to find the Early Event Time at the end of each activity.

The figure below begins with the Early Event Time at node 5 being set to the project start time of 1.

It will take 19 working days to complete this project. The use of working days is deliberate since
gangs working 5 day weeks could be expected to take almost four calendar weeks to complete this 19
day project.

Most schedules however are not this simple, with multiple activities starting and finishing at nodes
within the schedule.

Multiple priors

When calculating a forward pass it is no problem till you reach node that has several incoming
activities.

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What happens at node 20?

There are three possibilities here, but the Early Event Time at 20 cannot occur until the latest of all
possible incoming Event Times, we therefore place a 10 in Node 20.

Rule – always take the highest summation in a forward pass.

Dummies

Most Arrow Diagrams will contain dummies.

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Dummies by definition have zero duration, there purpose to maintain logic in the diagram.

To calculate the effect of the dummies, they carry the value from their tail nodes to the head of the
node, the same rule then applies the highest summation is used.

Backward pass notation

Once the forward pass has been completed, the second part of the Critical Path Method, the
“Backward Pass”, may be performed. The backward pass tells you the latest time at which an event
can occur.

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The backward pass is a simple application of subtraction, the exception to this rule being where more
than one activity starts from the same node.

Consider the schedule shown below.

Notice two logic dummies shown as Activities 10 – 20 and 15 – 20.

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The objective of the backward pass is to select the earliest of any incoming Late Event Times.

Rule – always take the lowest summation on a backward pass.

Float or Slack.

Conceptually, float represents the amount of time an activity may be delayed without impacting on
the overall time for the completion of the project.

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It two tasks were to be accomplished simultaneously and one task took 10 days and the other took 20
days, it is obvious that the entire project will take 20 days to complete, but you do not have to start the
10 day task straight away. The activity need not start then on its earliest event time, this is the idea
behind float.

The objective of the Forward and Backward Pass is to allow the float to be calculated. We are mainly
concerned with Total Float (sometimes referred to as ‘slack). Other kinds of float are available, Free
Float and Interfering Float for example, but we tend to mainly use Total Float in construction
planning.

Total Float is the time an activity may be delayed without impacting the overall project completion
time.

In the linked bar chart below you can see a graphic presentation of Total Float.

The earliest the overall project can finish is the middle of June. You can see this by looking at activity
4. Activity 4 depends on Activity 2

A delay to Activity 2 and 4 will delay the planned completion for the whole project.

When a delay to an activity impacts the time when the overall project is complete, this set of activities
is identified as the “critical path”.

Another example, notice that the activities are listed in order 1, 3, 4, 5, and 2 to ensure that the
graphical layout of the links is clear.

In this example Activities 2 and 4 are again on the critical path.

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In the final example, look at Activity 5, which is shown to finish the week of 8 th of June. Since the
overall project will not complete until two weeks later, we can delay the start, or extend the duration
of Activity 5 up to an additional two weeks without delaying the overall project.

To demonstrate that Total Float is a property of a path of activities and not just a single activity
consider Activity 4 and Activity 5. A total delay of two weeks could be experienced by any
combination of delays in these two activities. If, however, the combined delays exceed two weeks,
then the entire project will be delayed and the critical path would move from Activities 1, 2, and 3 to
Activities 1, 4, and 5.

The amount of time you can delay an activity (either through late start or increased actual duration)
without impacting the overall completion of the project is the Total Float.

In the arrow diagram the total float for each activity is the Late Event Time minus the Early Event
Time minus the Duration (LET – EET – DUR = TOTAL FLOAT)

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Tutorial Questions

QUESTION 1.

ACTIVITY ON ARROW EXAMPLE – ESTABLISHING THE SITE

The figure above shows the plan of a site compound layout which is to be set up at the
commencement of a project. A schedule of activities has been abstracted from the drawing and listed
in a table. The activities have not been listed in any specific order.

The next stage is to establish a sequence of work, and identify the I – J numbers.

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Activity Duration (days) Description
1-2 3 Excavate and stone up access road
2-3 4 Erect fence
3-4 4 Site strip compound
3-5 1 Electrical service
3-6 3 Drain connection
3-8 3 Water service
4-7 2 Stone up compound
5-9 0 Dummy
6-9 0 Dummy
7-9 5 Erect site accommodation
8-9 0 Dummy
9 -10 1 Fit gates
9 - 11 5 Fit out
10 - 11 0 Dummy

Construct and analyse the network.

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QUESTION 2

ACTIVITY ON ARROW EXAMPLE – SEWAGE WORKS

The following example illustrates the use of arrow diagrams to prepare a cumulative forecast for a
sewage treatment works project at both earliest and latest event times.

Construct the network from the following table.

Activity Duration(weeks) Description

1-2 3 Site strip
2-3 4 Excavate tanks
2-4 2 Erect kiosk
2-5 5 Sewer outfall
3-5 4 Foundations
3-6 3 Install tanks
4–6 0 Dummy
4-7 4 Electrics
5-7 7 Pump house
6-7 2 Bunding
7-8 4 Commission

Prepare separate bar charts showing the programme using both earliest event times and latest event
times for the project

QUESTION 3
Critical Path Example

The following table shows the activities required in a simple building project.

Columns 1 and 2 give the event numbers of the preceding and succeeding events. Columns 3 and 4
give the duration in days and a description of the activities.

By using the event references construct the Network. Analyse it to determine for each activity:-

Early start day

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 Earliest finish day

Latest start day

Latest finish day

Total float

Free float

Indicate clearly the Critical path on the network diagram.

ACTIVITY DURATION DESCRIPTION

1–2 14 Foundations

1–9 1 Contact & pay Electricity Board

1 – 12 4 Drainage

2–3 26 Superstructure & scaffold

3–4 3 Floors, stairs. Carp 1 st fix.

3–5 1 Start glazing

3–6 1 Elect 1 st fix.

4–5 0 Dummy

4–6 2 Internal partitions

4–8 1 Services carcassing

5–7 1 Finish glazing

6–8 2 Tack ceiling

7–8 0 Dummy

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7–9 0 Dummy

7 – 16 3 Ext. paint & strike scaffold

8 – 11 8 Plaster & floor screeds

9 - 10 1 Lay electrical cables

10 – 14 0 Dummy

10 – 16 0 Dummy

11 – 13 0 Dummy

11 – 14 0 Dummy

11 – 15 5 Dry out

12 – 13 0 Dummy

12 – 16 0 Dummy

13 – 15 6 2 nd fix plumbing & carp

14 – 15 2 2 nd fix electrics

15 – 17 9 Decorate & floor tiles

16 – 17 4 Paths & external works

G. J. Bailey 2022

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