Overview (cont.

)
Section 1.2
Basic Language Features ● Characteristics

➢ provides high-level OO functionality

1. Overview  polymorphism

2. Terminology  generic programming using templates

 operator overloading
3. Operators  multiple inheritance

4. Control and data structures  exception handling

5. Variables and data types ➢ allows calls to low-level C functions

6. Standard I/O streams

7. Functions
8. References
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1.2.1 Overview 1.2.2 Terminology

● History of C++ ● Expression
➢ sequence of operations that resolve to a single value
➢ general purpose object-oriented programming language ➢ examples:
 a + b ­ 3 * c
➢ developed by Bjarne Stroustrup, starting in 1979  d * pow(g, a)

➢ “C with classes”, i.e. object-oriented C

● Statement
➢ expression terminated by a semi-colon
➢ examples:
 tmpValue = a + b ­ 3 * c;
 what happens here: d * pow(g, a);
➢ statements also resolve to a single value
 value may be void

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 Terminology (cont.) 1.2.3 Operators
● Block ● Types of operators:
➢ sequence of statements between a pair of matching braces
➢ arithmetic: +  ­  *  /  %  ++ ­­
➢ examples:
 functions ➢ relational: ==  !=  <  >  <=  >=
 loops, if-statements
 free-floating blocks! ➢ logical: &&  ||  !

➢ spot the difference: ➢ bitwise: ~  &  |  ^  >>  <<

int x = 8, size = 5, i = 0; int x = 8, size = 5, i = 0;
while (i <= size) { while (i <= size) {
  x = i;      int x = i;
➢ assignment: =  +=  ­=  *=  /=  %=
  ++i;   ++i;
} }
cout << x << endl; cout << x << endl; ➢ conditional: ?:

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Terminology (cont.) Operators (cont.)

● Scope ● Characteristics of operators:
➢ the part of the program where a variable can be used ➢ arity
 number of operands
● Block scope:  operators can be unary, binary, or ternary

➢ variables are declared inside a block

➢ precedence
 these are called local variables
 order in which operators execute
➢ any kind of block can have local variables  remember BEDMAS?

● Global scope (also called file scope) ➢ associativity

➢ variables are declared outside of any block  order in which operators of the same precedence execute
 these are called global variables  associativity can be left-to-right, or right-to-left
➢ industrial quality software never uses global variables

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 1.2.4 Control and Data Structures 1.2.5 Variables and Data Types
● Control structures ● Program memory is like a bookshelf full of boxes
➢ the boxes have different sizes
➢ conditional ➢ each box has a label or name
 example: if­else
➢ each box contains something

➢ selective
➢ each box is in a specific location on the shelf
 example: switch
● Variables are like those boxes
➢ iterative ➢ they come in different sizes, based on data type
 example: for, while, do­while  examples: int, double, char
➢ they have a name
➢ jump ➢ they contain something, called a value
 example: break, continue
➢ they have a location in memory
 represented as a memory address where the value is stored

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Control and Data Structures (cont.) Variables and Data Types (cont.)
● Data structures ● Characteristics of variables:

➢ C-style structs ➢ name

 in C++, they have variables and functions, just like classes  identifier that the program uses to access or modify the content
 by default, their members are public
 bad software engineering ➢ value
 content of the variable
➢ classes
 like Java, they have variables and functions ➢ data type
 by default, their members are private  determines the number of bytes required in memory
 using classes follows the principle of least privilege
 good software engineering ➢ location in memory
 address in memory where the value is stored

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 Variables and Data Types (cont.) 1.2.7 Functions
● Data types ● In C++, there are two types of functions:

➢ primitive (built-in) ➢ global functions

 examples: int, float, double, char, bool  defined outside of any block
 available to all functions and classes in the program
➢ user defined  example: main()
 defined by programmer (you!)
 these are your classes ➢ member functions
 defined within a class
➢ memory address  may be accessed on an object of that class
 example: pointers  static member functions can also be accessed on the class itself

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1.2.6 Standard I/O Streams Functions (cont.)

● C++ library stream objects ● Important terminology:
➢ declared in iostream library
➢ function declaration
➢ encapsulated in std namespace
 function prototype/signature

● cout ➢ function implementation

➢ ostream object used for standard output  the code between the braces
 the “body” of the function

● cin
➢ istream object used for standard input
● Member functions:

➢ declaration and implementation are stored in different files

● cerr
➢ ostream object used for standard error

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 Function Design Function Design (cont.)
● Characteristics of correctly designed functions: ● Parameters

➢ take data in, do something, return result ➢ they are treated as local variables inside a function
 two ways to return results: return value or using parameters
● Parameter modifiability:
➢ are single-purpose
 have a single goal, do one thing only ➢ pass-by-value
 parameter value is copied from the calling function
➢ encapsulate (hide) their functionality  function works on local copy
 other programmers know what function does, not how it does it
➢ pass-by-reference
➢ should be reusable  parameter is memory address of variable declared in calling function
 in the same program, or in other programs  allow variables in calling function to be modified
 in C++, this can be done using pointers or references

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Function Design (cont.) Function Design (cont.)

● Return values: ● Every parameter has a role to play in the function:

➢ often used to indicate success or failure ➢ input parameter

 value required by function to do its work
➢ used to return simple results from very simple functions  data sent by calling function
 mostly “getter” functions
➢ output parameter
➢ normally, results are returned using an output parameter  stores a result of the function doing its work
 this allows multiple values to be returned to calling function  this is how results are correctly “returned” to the calling function
 ... more on this coming up...
➢ input-output parameter
 plays both an input parameter role, and an output parameter role
 its value is needed by the function
 it gets modified by the function

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 1.2.8 References
● To pass parameters by reference:

➢ we need to use a memory address as a variable

➢ best way to do this is with pointers

 pointers are very powerful, but can be difficult to learn
 ... more on pointers later ...

➢ alternative to pointers: references

 used for pass-by-reference
 not very versatile

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References (cont.)
● What is a reference not?
➢ a reference is not a variable! it does not occupy memory
➢ it must be assigned a value on declaration
➢ its value can never change

● So what is it?
➢ a binding, or an alias, for an existing variable
➢ declaring and initializing a reference creates a bond between:
 the reference name
 an existing variable
➢ the bond is unbreakable
➢ most common use is passing parameters by reference

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