‫ قسم هندسة‬- ‫مستوى رابع‬

.‫النفط والغاز‬
Department of Oil & Gas Engineering
OGE 421: Oil & Gas Reservoir Engineering IV ‫ عامر بن مرضاح‬.‫د‬
Theoretical: 3 hours Practical: 2 hours Credit hours: 4 hours

Course Outline:
1. Water influx modeling and water influx in MBE analysis
2. Water and gas coning
3. Dry gas reservoirs
4. Wet Gas Reservoirs
5. Gas – condensate reservoirs
6. Analysis of Decline Curves

Textbook:
1. B.F. Towler, Fundamental Principles of Reservoir Engineering, SPE Textbook No.8, 2002.

References:
1. B. C. Craft and M. Hawkins, revised by R. E. Terry, Applied Petroleum Reservoir
Engineering, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1991.
2. L. D. Dake, Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering, Elsevier, 1978.
3. Tarek Ahmed: “Reservoir Engineering Handbook”, Second Edition, 2001.

Course Objectives:
1. Diagnose water influx, perform water influx calculations by various models and incorporate in
MBE analysis.
2. Prediction of water and gas coning in vertical and horizontal wells.
3. Able to use volumetric method, material balance equation to perform reserves and
performance prediction of dry and wet gas reservoirs.
4. Be able to understand the behavior of gas condensate reservoirs and carry out performance
prediction for these reservoirs.
5. Diagnose natural reservoir decline trends and perform a decline curve analysis.

Water influx modeling and water influx in MBE analysis

Properties of oilfield water:-

 Like hydrocarbon systems, the properties of the formation water depend on the pressure,
temperature, and composition of the water.
 The formation water usually contains salts, mainly sodium chloride (NaCl), and dissolved gas that
affect its properties.
 Generally, formation water contains a much higher concentration of NaCl, ranges, from 10,000 to
300,000 ppm, than the seawater concentration of approximately 30,000 ppm.
 The concentrations of the solids present in brines are reported in several different ways. Among
these are:
 Parts per million: Grams of solids per one million grams of brine
 Milligrams per liter.: Milligrams of solids per liter of brine.
 Weight percent solids which are obtained by dividing parts per million by 10000.
 Milliequivalents per liter

Water influx
 Many reservoirs are bounded on a portion or all of their peripheries by water-bearing rocks called
aquifers.

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 The aquifers are hydraulically connected to the reservoirs to supply the water drive mechanism
that may be classified as strong or weak depending on the aquifer size as compared to the
reservoir size.
 If the aquifer volume is less than 10 times the hydrocarbon reservoir volume, then the water drive
mechanism will be small. However, if the aquifer size is significantly larger (than 10times), then
the water drive mechanism may be the principal source of reservoir energy.
 When a well is produced, pressure is lowered in the reservoir. This creates a pressure differential
across the oil/water (or gas/water) contact. Following the basic laws of fluid flow porous media,
the aquifer reacts by providing water encroachment across the original hydrocarbon/water
contact.
 The water which encroaches into a reservoir upon a decline in pressure due to one or a
combination of the following:
1- Artesian flow, where the water-bearing formation outcrop is located structurally higher than
the pay zone and is recharged by surface waters
2- Expansion of the water in the aquifer
3- Compaction of the aquifer rock (reduction in the pore size volume).

Some of the indicators used to determine the presence of water drive are:
1. The hydrocarbon (oil or gas) is underlain by water.
2. Sufficient permeability must exist to support water movement (usually at least 50 md),
3. With time or cumulative hydrocarbon production, water production is seen to be
increasing,
4. Material balance is the best indicator.

Reservoir-aquifer systems are commonly classified on the basis of:

 Degree of pressure maintenance
 Flow regimes
 Outer boundary conditions
 Flow geometries

Degree of pressure maintenance:

Based on the degree of the reservoir pressure maintenance provided by the aquifer, the natural water
drive is often qualitatively described as:
 Active water drive
 Partial water drive
 Limited water drive

 The term active water drive refers to the water encroachment mechanism in which the rate of
water influx equals the reservoir total production rate. Active water-drive reservoirs are typically
characterized by a gradual and slow reservoir pressure decline.
 If during any reasonably long period the rate of production and reservoir pressure remain
substantially constant, it obvious that the volumetric withdrawal rate or reservoir void age rate
must be equal to the water influx rate, or

[Water influx rate] = [oil flow rate] + [free gas flow rate] + [water production rate]
𝑒𝑤 = 𝑄𝑜 𝐵𝑜 + 𝑄𝑔 𝐵𝑔 + 𝑄𝑤 𝐵𝑤 (1)

Where:
ew = Water influx rate, bbl/day
Qo = Oil flow rate, STB/day
Bo = Oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB

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Qg = Free gas flow rate, SCF/day
Bg = Gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF
Qw = Water flow rate, STB/day
Bw = Water formation volume factor, bbl/STB

Equation (1) can be equivalently expressed in terms of cumulative production by introducing the
following derivative terms:

dWe dNp dNp dWp

ew = = Bo + (GOR − R s ) Bg + Bw (2)
dt dt dt dt

Where:
We: Cumulative water influx, bbl
t: Time, days
Np: Cumulative oil production, STB
Rs: Current gas solubility, SCF/STB
GOR: Current gas-oil ratio, SCF/STB
Wp : Cumulative water production, STB
dNp/dt = Daily oil flow rate, STB/day
dWp/dt = Daily water flow rate, STB/day
dWe/dt = Daily water influx rate, bbl/day
(GOR − Rs) dNp/dt = Daily free gas flow rate, SCF/day

Example:
Calculate the water influx rate in a reservoir whose pressure is stabilized at 3000 psi. Given:
Initial reservoir pressure = 3500 psi dNp/dt = 32,000 STB/day Bo = 1.4 bbl/STB
GOR = 900 SCF/STB Rs = 700 SCF /STB Bg = 0.00082 bbl/ SCF
dWp/dt = 0 Bw = 1.0 bbl/STB

Solution:
𝑑𝑊𝑒 𝑑𝑁𝑝 𝑑𝑁𝑝 𝑑𝑊𝑝
= 𝐵𝑜 + (𝐺𝑂𝑅 − 𝑅𝑠 ) 𝐵𝑔 + 𝐵
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑤
= 1.4 × 32000 + (900 − 700) × 32000 × 0.00082 + 0 = 50048 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑑𝑎𝑦

Outer boundary conditions:

The aquifer can be classified as infinite or finite (bounded). Geologically all formations are finite, but
may act as infinite if the changes in the pressure at the oil-water contact are not “felt” at the aquifer
boundary. In general, the outer boundary governs the behavior of the aquifer and, therefore:
a. Infinite system indicates that the effect of the pressure changes at the oil/aquifer boundary can
never be felt at the outer boundary. This boundary is for all intents and purposes at a constant
pressure equal to initial reservoir pressure.
b. Finite system indicates that the aquifer outer limit is affected by the influx into the oil zone and
that the pressure at this outer limit changes with time.

Boundary pressure: is the average pressure at the oil-water or gas-water contact. The boundary
pressure will generally be higher than the average reservoir pressure, in some studies, the average
reservoir pressure being used for the average boundary pressure.
Flow Geometries:
Reservoir-aquifer systems can be classified on the basis of flow geometry as:
a. Edge-water drive
b. Bottom-water drive
c. Linear-water drive

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In edge-water drive, as shown in Figure (1), water moves into the flanks of the reservoir as a result
of hydrocarbon production and pressure drop at the reservoir-aquifer boundary. The flow is essentially
radial with negligible flow in the vertical direction.
Bottom-water drive occurs in reservoirs with large areal extent and gentle dip where the reservoir-
water contact completely underlies the reservoir. The flow is essentially radial and, in contrast to the
edge-water drive, the bottom-water drive has significant vertical flow.
In linear-water drive, the influx is from one flank of the reservoir. The flow is strictly linear with a
constant cross-sectional area.

Figure (1): Flow geometries.

Water Influx Models:

To apply the material balance equation, the amount of aquifer influx, We, as a function of time must
be determined if the material balance is used to determine the original oil in place (OOIP) and original
gas in place (OGIP). We is dependent on the size of the aquifer and the pressure drop from the aquifer
into the reservoir. The mathematical water influx models that are commonly used in the petroleum
industry include:
1. Pot aquifer
2. Schilthuis’ steady-state
3. Hurst’s modified steady-state
4. The Van Everdingen-Hurst unsteady-state
- Edge-water drive
- Bottom-water drive
5. Fetkovich’s method
- Radial aquifer
- Linear aquifer

The following sections describe these models and their practical applications in water influx
calculations. The VEH unsteady-state model is the most generally applicable.

The pot aquifer model:

It is the simplest model that can be used to estimate the water influx into a gas or oil reservoir and it is
based on the basic definition of compressibility. A drop in the reservoir pressure, due to the
production of fluids, causes the aquifer water to expand and flow into the reservoir. The
compressibility is defined mathematically as:

∆𝑉 = 𝑐𝑉∆𝑃 (3)
Applying the above basic compressibility definition to the aquifer gives:

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Water influx = (aquifer compressibility) (initial volume of water) (pressure drop)

𝑊𝑒 = (𝑐𝑤 + 𝑐𝑓 )𝑊𝑖 (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃) (4)

Where:
We : Cumulative water influx, bbl
cw : Aquifer water compressibility, psi-1
cf : Aquifer rock compressibility, psi-1
Wi : Initial volume of water in the aquifer, bbl
Pi : Initial reservoir pressure, psia
P : Current reservoir pressure (pressure at oil-water contact), psia

Equation (4) suggests that water is encroaching in a radial form from all directions as shown in Figure
(2). Quite often, water does not encroach on all sides of the reservoir, or the reservoir is not circular in
nature. To account for these cases, a modification to Equation (4) must be made to include the
fractional encroachment angle f in the equation, as illustrated in Figure (3), to give:

𝑊𝑒 = (𝑐𝑤 + 𝑐𝑓 )𝑊𝑖 𝑓(𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃) (5)

Where:
θ
f : Fractional encroachment angle = 360

Calculating the initial volume of water in the aquifer requires the knowledge of aquifer dimension and
properties. For instance, if the aquifer shape is radial, then:

𝜋(𝑟𝑎2 − 𝑟𝑒2 )ℎ∅

𝑊𝑖 = (6)
5.615

Where:
ra : Radius of the aquifer, ft
re : Radius of the reservoir, ft
h : Thickness of the aquifer, ft
 : Porosity of the aquifer

The pot aquifer model is only applicable to a small aquifer whose dimensions are the same order of
magnitude as the reservoir itself.

Figure (2): Water influx into a cylindrical reservoir.

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 Figure (3): Radial aquifer geometries.
Example:
Calculate the cumulative water influx that results from a pressure drop of 200 psia at the oil-water
contact with an encroachment angle of 80°. The reservoir-aquifer system is characterized by the
following properties:

Properties Reservoir Aquifer

Radius, ft 2600 10000
Porosity 0.18 0.12
cf, psia-1 4×10-6 3×10-6
cw, psia-1 15×10-6 4×10-6
h, ft 20 25

Solution:
𝜋(𝑟𝑎2 − 𝑟𝑒2 )ℎ∅ 3.14 × (100002 − 26002 ) × 25 × 0.12
𝑊𝑖 = = = 156.4 𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑙
5.615 5.615
80
𝑊𝑒 = (𝑐𝑤 + 𝑐𝑓 )𝑊𝑖 𝑓(𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃) = (4 + 3) × 10−6 × 156.4 × 106 × × (200) = 48657.78 𝑏𝑏𝑙
360

Schilthuis, steady state model:

The assumptions in the Schilthuis model are :

1. It is assumed that the aquifer is very large and highly permeable. In fact, the aquifer is taken to
have permeability so high that the pressure gradient across the aquifer itself is negligible.
2. The aquifer is so huge that the pressure within the aquifer never declines; i.e., the initial
pressure, Pi, always exists within the aquifer.

The hydraulic analog to the Schilthuis steady-state model is shown in Figure (4).
Schilthuis (1936) proposed that for an aquifer that is flowing under the steady-state flow regime,
where the rate of water influx is directly proportional to the decline in reservoir pressure (P i – P). The
rate of water influx can then be determined by the following equation:
𝑑𝑊𝑒
= 𝑘(𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃) (7)
𝑑𝑡

Integrating of Equation (7):

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 𝑡

𝑊𝑒 = 𝑘 ∫(𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃)𝑑𝑡 (8)

0
Where:
k: The water influx constant, bbls/day/psia
(Pi – P): The boundary pressure drop, psia
Pi: Initial reservoir pressure, psia
P: Stabilized pressure after certain production time period, psia

When the pressure drop (Pi − P) is plotted versus the time t, as shown in Figure (5), the area under the
𝑡
curve represents the integral ∫0 (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃) 𝑑𝑡
This area at time t can be determined numerically by using the trapezoidal rule (or any other
numerical integration method), as:

The above equation can be written as:-

𝑡

𝑊𝑒 = 𝐶 ∑ ∆𝑃 × ∆𝑡
0

When the rate of influx is equal, the voidage rate so that the reservoir pressure will stabilize. This is an
analog of steady-state water influx into a reservoir as expressed analytically by Equation (7).

Figure (4): Hydraulic analog of steady-state water influx into a reservoir.

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 Figure (5): Calculating the area under the curve

Example:
Calculate the water influx constant when reservoir pressure stabilizes. Given:
dWe
Pi = 2275 psia P = 2090 psia (stabilized pressure) dt = 401,000 cu ft/day
Solution:
𝑑𝑊𝑒
= 𝑘(𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃)
𝑑𝑡
401000 = 𝑘 × (2275 − 2090)
∴ 𝑘 = 2167.6 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦/𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
Example:
Given:
Pi = 3500 psi P = 3000 psi Qo = 32,000 STB/day Bo = 1.4 bbl/STB
GOR = 900 SCF/STB Rs = 700 SCF /STB Bg = 0.00082 bbl/ SCF
Qw = 0 Bw = 1.0 bbl/STB
Calculate Schilthuis’ water influx constant.
Solution:
Step 1, solve for the rate of water influx:
𝑑𝑊𝑒 𝑑𝑁𝑝 𝑑𝑁𝑝 𝑑𝑊𝑝
= 𝐵𝑜 + (𝐺𝑂𝑅 − 𝑅𝑠 ) 𝐵𝑔 + 𝐵
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑤
= 1.4 × 32000 + (900 − 700) × 32000 × 0.00082 + 0 = 50048 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑑𝑎𝑦

8
Step 2, solve for the water influx constant:
𝑑𝑊𝑒
= 𝑘(𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃)
𝑑𝑡
50048 = 𝑘 × (3500 − 3000)
∴ 𝑘 = 100 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑑𝑎𝑦/𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎

Example:
The pressure history of a water drive oil reservoir is given below:-

t, day 0 100 200

P, psia 3500 3450 3410

The aquifer is under a steady state flowing condition with estimated water influx constant of 130
bbl/day/psia. Calculate the cumulative water influx after 100 and 200 days using the steady state
model?
Solution:-
Step 1, calculate the total pressure drop at each time:-
t, day P, psia Pi – P, psia
0 3500 0
100 3450 50
200 3410 90

Step 2, calculate the cumulative water influx after 100 days:-

50
𝑊𝑒 = 130 × ( ) × (100 − 0) = 325000 𝑏𝑏𝑙
2

Step 3, calculate the cumulative water influx after 200 days:-

50 50 + 90
𝑊𝑒 = 130 × [( ) × (100 − 0) + ( ) × (200 − 100)] = 1235000 𝑏𝑏𝑙
2 2

Hurst modified steady-state model:

In some reservoirs, the rate of influx not equals the voidage rate so that the reservoir pressure will
decline. In this case reservoir pressure can never fully stabilize at constant production rate, but will
continue to decline at a rate dependent upon the relative sizes of the reservoir and aquifer. In this case
the declining value of k is represented by (c / ln at) and the Hurst modified steady-state equation can
be written in a more simplified form as:
𝑑𝑊𝑒 𝑐(𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃)
𝑒𝑤 = = (9)
𝑑𝑡 𝑙𝑛(𝑎𝑡)
And in terms of the cumulative water influx:
𝑡
(𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃)
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑐 ∫ 𝑑𝑡 (10)
𝑙𝑛(𝑎𝑡)
0
Or
𝑡
∆𝑃
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑐 ∑ [ ] ∆𝑡 (11)
𝑙𝑛(𝑎𝑡)
0
Where:
c: Water influx constant, bbl/day/psia
a: Time conversion constant which depends upon the units of the time t.

9
The Hurst modified steady-state equation contains two unknown constants, i.e., a and c, that must be
determined from the reservoir-aquifer pressure and water influx historical data. The procedure of
determining the constants a and c is based on expressing Equation (9) as a linear relationship.

𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃 1
= 𝑙𝑛(𝑎𝑡) (12)
𝑒𝑤 𝑐
Or
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃 1 1
= 𝑙𝑛(𝑎) + 𝑙𝑛(𝑡) (13)
𝑒𝑤 𝑐 𝑐
𝑃𝑖 −𝑃 1
Equation (13) indicates that a plot of versus ln(t) will be a straight line with a slope of and
𝑒𝑤 𝑐
1
intercept of 𝑐 𝑙𝑛(𝑎) .

Example:
The following data, as presented by Craft and Hawkins (1959), documents the reservoir pressure as a
function of time for a water-drive reservoir. Using the reservoir historical data, Craft and Hawkins
calculated the water influx by applying the material balance equation. The rate of water influx was
also calculated numerically at each time period. Assuming the boundary pressure would drop to 3379
psi after 1186.25 days of production. Calculate cumulative water influx at that time.

Time, days Pressure, psi We, Mbbl ew, bbl/day pi  p , psi

0 3793 0 0 0
182.5 3774 24.8 389 19
365.0 3709 172.0 1279 84
547.5 3643 480.0 2158 150
730.0 3547 978.0 3187 246
912.5 3485 1616.0 3844 308
1095.0 3416 2388.0 4458 377

Solution:
Step 1, construct the following table:

Time, days Ln(t) pi  p , psi ew, bbl/day  pi  p  ew

0 - 0 0 -
182.5 5.207 19 389 0.049
365.0 5.900 84 1279 0.066
547.5 6.305 150 2158 0.070
730.0 6.593 246 3187 0.077
912.5 6.816 308 3844 0.081
1095.0 6.999 377 4458 0.085

𝑃𝑖 −𝑃
Step 2, plot the term versus ln(t) and draw the best straight line through the points as shown in
𝑒𝑤
Figure (6), and determine the slope of the line:
Slope = 0.020
Step 3, determine the coefficient c of the Hurst equation from the slope:
1 1
𝑐= = = 50 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑑𝑎𝑦/𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 0.02

11
Step 4, using any point on the straight line, solve for the parameter a by applying Equation (9):
a = 0.064
Step 5, the Hurst equation is represented by:
𝑡 𝑡
∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑐 ∑ [ ] ∆𝑡 = 50 ∑ [ ] ∆𝑡
𝑙𝑛(𝑎𝑡) 𝑙𝑛(0.064𝑡)
0 0

0.09
y = 0.0193x - 0.0506
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 2 4 6 8
ln (t)

Figure (6): Determination of c and a.

Step 6, calculate the cumulative water influx after 1186.25 days:

1186.25
∆𝑃
𝑊𝑒 = 2388 × 103 + 50 ∑ [ ] ∆𝑡
𝑙𝑛(0.064𝑡)
1095
3793 − 3379 3793 − 3416
+
𝑙𝑛(0.064 × 1186.25) 𝑙𝑛(0.064 × 1095)
𝑊𝑒 = 2388 × 103 + 50 [ ] × (1186.25 − 1095)
2

= 2808.5 𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑙

Van Everdingen and Hurst unsteady state model:

 Figure (20) provides a hydraulic analog of the Van Everdingen and Hurst aquifer model using a
series of tanks interconnected with sand-filled pipes. Each tank has its own pressure (P1, P2, etc.),
but all are less than the initial pressure Pi; note that the hydrocarbon reservoir pressure, P, is
actually that at the original oil/water contact which is the inner boundary of the aquifer.
 Study of Figure (7) will show that, even with an infinite number or aquifer tanks, pressure can
never fully stabilize as the water must come from ever increasing distances. The authors’ solution
can be used to determine the water influx in the following systems:
 Edge-water-drive system (radial system)
 Bottom-water-drive system

11
 Figure (7): Hydraulic analog of unsteady-state water influx into a reservoir

Edge-Water Drive
 Figure (8) shows an idealized radial flow system that represents an edge-water-drive reservoir. The
inner boundary is defined as the interface between the reservoir and the aquifer. The flow across
this inner boundary is considered horizontal and encroachment occurs across a cylindrical plane
encircling the reservoir. With the interface as the inner boundary, it is possible to impose a constant
terminal pressure at the inner boundary and determine the rate of water influx across the interface.

 The authors expressed their mathematical relationship for calculating the water influx in a form of
a dimensionless parameter that is called dimensionless water influx WeD. They also expressed the
dimensionless water influx as a function of the dimensionless time tD and dimensionless radius rD,
thus they made the solution to the diffusivity equation generalized and applicable to any aquifer
where the flow of water into the reservoir is essentially radial. The solutions were derived for cases
of bounded aquifers and aquifers of infinite extent. The authors presented their solution in tabulated
and graphical forms as reproduced here in Figure (9) and Tables (1) and (2).

Figure (8): Idealized radial flow model

12
Figure (9): Dimensionless water influx WeD for several values of ra/re.

Table (1): Dimensionless water influx WeD for infinite aquifer

13
Continue Table (1)

14
Table (1-2): Dimensionless water influx WeD for several values of ra/re

Continue Table (2)

15
The two dimensionless parameters tD and rD are given by:

𝑘𝑡
𝑡𝐷 = 6.328 × 10−3 (14)
∅𝜇𝑤 𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑒2
𝑟𝑎
𝑟𝐷 = (15)
𝑟𝑒
𝑐𝑡 = 𝑐𝑤 + 𝑐𝑓 (16)

Where:
t: Time, day
k : Permeability of the aquifer, md
 : Porosity of the aquifer, fraction
w : Viscosity of water in the aquifer, cp
ra : Radius of the aquifer, ft
re
: Radius of the reservoir, ft
cw
: Compressibility of the water, psi-1
cf
: Compressibility of the aquifer formation, psi-1
ct : Total compressibility coefficient, psi-1

The water influx is then given by:

𝑊𝑒 = 𝐵∆𝑃𝑊𝑒𝐷 (17)
𝜃
𝐵 = 1.119∅𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑒2 ℎ (18)
360
Where:
We: Cumulative water influx, bbl
B: Water influx constant, bbl/ psi
p : Pressure drop at the boundary, psi

16
W eD : Dimensionless water influx, which is a function of dimensionless time ( t D )
h : Thickness of the aquifer, ft
 : Angle subtended by the reservoir circumference, e.g., for a full circle  =360o and for a
semicircular reservoir against a fault,  =180o, as shown in Figure (10).

Figure (10): Angle subtended by reservoir

Example 1:
Calculate water influx at the end of 1, 2, and 5 years into a circular reservoir with an aquifer of infinite
extent. The initial and current reservoir pressures are 2500 and 2490 psi, respectively. The reservoir-
aquifer system has the following properties.

Reservoir Aquifer
Radius, ft 2000 ∞
h, ft 20 25
k, md 50 100
,% 15 20
µw, cp 0.5 0.8
cw, psi-1 1106 0.7 106
cf, psi-1 2 106 0.3 106

Solution:
Step 1, calculate the total compressibility coefficient:
𝑐𝑡 = 𝑐𝑤 + 𝑐𝑓 = 0.7 × 10−6 + 0.3 × 10−6 = 1 × 10−6 𝑝𝑠𝑖 −1
Step 2, determine the water influx constant:
𝜃 360
𝐵 = 1.119∅𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑒2 ℎ = 1.119 × 0.2 × 1 × 10−6 × 20002 × 25 × = 22.4 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑝𝑠𝑖
360 360
Step 3, calculate the corresponding dimensionless time after 1, 2, and 5 years:
𝑘𝑡 100 × 𝑡
𝑡𝐷 = 6.328 × 10−3 2
= 6.328 × 10−3 = 0.9888 𝑡
∅𝜇𝑤 𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑒 0.2 × 0.8 × 1 × 10−6 × 20002

17
 t, days t D  0.9888  t
365 361
730 722
1825 1805

Step 4, using Table (1), determine the dimensionless water influx WeD:
t, days t D  0.9888  t WeD
365 361 123.5
730 722 221.8
1825 1805 484.6
Step 5, calculate the cumulative water influx.
𝑊𝑒 = 𝐵∆𝑃𝑊𝑒𝐷 = 22.4(2500 − 2490) × 𝑊𝑒𝐷
t, days WeD We, bbl
365 123.5 27,664
730 221.8 49,683.2
1825 484.6 108,550.4

Example 1 illustrates how to calculate water influx as a result of a single pressure drop. The van
Everdingen-Hurst computational steps for determining the water influx are summarized below in
conjunction with Figure (11):
1. Assume that the boundary pressure has declined from its initial value of Pi to P1 after t1 days. To
determine the cumulative water influx in response to this first pressure drop, Δp1 = Pi − P1 can be
simply calculated from Equation (17), or:
𝑊𝑒 = 𝐵∆𝑃1 (𝑊𝑒𝐷 )1

Where We is the cumulative water influx due to the first pressure drop Δp1. The dimensionless
water influx (WeD)1 is evaluated by calculating the dimensionless time at t1 days. This simple
calculation step is shown in section A of Figure (11).
2. Let the boundary pressure decline again to P2 after t2 days with a pressure drop of ΔP2 = P1 − P2.
The cumulative (total) water influx after t2 days will result from the first pressure drop Δp1 and the
second pressure drop Δp2, or:
We = water influx due to Δp1 + water influx due to Δp2
𝑊𝑒 = (𝑊𝑒 )∆𝑃1 + (𝑊𝑒 )∆𝑃2
Where:
(𝑊𝑒 )∆𝑃1 = 𝐵∆𝑃1 (𝑊𝑒𝐷 )𝑡2
(𝑊𝑒 )∆𝑃2 = 𝐵∆𝑃2 (𝑊𝑒𝐷 )𝑡2 −𝑡1

The above relationships indicate that the effect of the first pressure drop ΔP1 will continue for the
entire time t2, while the effect of the second pressure drop will continue only for (t2 − t1) days as
shown in section B of Figure (11).
3. A third pressure drop of ΔP3 = P2 − P3 would cause an additional water influx as illustrated in
section C of Figure (11). The cumulative (total) water influx can then be calculated from:
𝑊𝑒 = (𝑊𝑒 )∆𝑃1 + (𝑊𝑒 )∆𝑃2 + (𝑊𝑒 )∆𝑃3
Where:
(𝑊𝑒 )∆𝑃1 = 𝐵∆𝑃1 (𝑊𝑒𝐷 )𝑡3
(𝑊𝑒 )∆𝑃2 = 𝐵∆𝑃2 (𝑊𝑒𝐷 )𝑡3 −𝑡1
(𝑊𝑒 )∆𝑃3 = 𝐵∆𝑃3 (𝑊𝑒𝐷 )𝑡3 −𝑡2

The van Everdingen-Hurst water influx relationship can then be expressed in a more generalized form
as:
18
 𝑊𝑒 = 𝐵 ∑ ∆𝑃𝑊𝑒𝐷

The authors also suggested that instead of using the entire pressure drop for the first period, a better
approximation is to consider that one-half of the pressure drop,
1⁄2 (Pi − P1), is effective during the entire first period. For the second period, the effective pressure
drop then is one-half of the pressure drops during the first period, 1⁄2 (Pi − P2), which simplifies to:
p 2  12  pi  p1   12  p1  p 2   12  pi  p 2 
p n  12  p n 2  p n  p3  12  p1  p3  p 4  12  p 2  p 4 

Figure (11): Illustration of the superposition concept

Example:
Using the data given in Example (1), calculate the cumulative water influx at the end of 6, 12, 18, and
24 months. The predicted boundary pressure at the end of each specified time period is given below:
Time, months Boundary pressure, psi
0 2500
6 2490
12 2472
18 2444
24 2408

Solution:
Water influx at the end of 6 months
1- Determine water influx constant:
B = 22.4 bbl/psi
2-Calculate the dimensionless time tD at 182.5 days:
𝑡𝐷 = 0.9888𝑡 = 0.9888 × 182.5 = 180.5
3-Calculate the first pressure drop ΔP1.
1 1
∆𝑃1 = (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃1 ) = (2500 − 2490) = 5 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
2 2
4-Determine the dimension water influx WeD from Table (1) at tD = 180.5:
𝑊𝑒𝐷 = 69.46

19
5-Calculate the cumulative water influx at the end of 182.5 days due to the first pressure drop of 5 psi
by using the van Everdingen-Hurst equation, or:
𝑊𝑒 = 22.4 × 5 × 69.46 = 7779.5𝑏𝑏𝑙

Cumulative water influx after 12 months

1-After an additional six months, the pressure has declined from 2490 psi to 2472psi:
1 1
∆𝑃2 = (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃2 ) = (2500 − 2472) = 14 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
2 2
2-The cumulative (total) water influx at the end of 12 months would result from the first pressure drop
ΔP1 and the second pressure drop ΔP2. The first pressure drop ΔP1 has been effective for one year, but
the second pressure drop, ΔP2, has been effective only 6 months, as shown in Figure (12).

Figure (12): Duration of the pressure drop

Separate calculations must be made for the two pressure drops because of this time difference and the
results added in order to determine the total water influx, i.e.:
𝑊𝑒 = (𝑊𝑒 )∆𝑃1 + (𝑊𝑒 )∆𝑃2
3-Calculate the dimensionless time at 365 days as:
𝑡𝐷 = 0.9888𝑡 = 0.9888 × 365 = 361
4-Determine the dimensionless water influx at tD = 361 from Table (1-1) to give:
𝑊𝑒𝐷 = 123.5
5-Calculate the water influx due to the first and second pressure:
(𝑊𝑒 )∆𝑃1 = 𝐵∆𝑃1 (𝑊𝑒𝐷 )𝑡2 = 22.4 × 5 × 123.5 = 13893.75 𝑏𝑏𝑙
(𝑊𝑒 )∆𝑃2 = 𝐵∆𝑃2 (𝑊𝑒𝐷 )𝑡2 −𝑡1 = 22.4 × 14 × 69.46 = 21782.65 𝑏𝑏𝑙
6-Calculate total (cumulative) water influx after one year:
𝑊𝑒 = 13893.75 + 21782.65 = 35676.4 𝑏𝑏𝑙
Water influx after 18 months:
1- Calculate the third pressure drop ΔP3:
1 1
∆𝑃3 = (𝑃1 − 𝑃3 ) = (2490 − 2444) = 23 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
2 2
2-Calculate the dimensionless time after 18 months:
𝑡𝐷 = 0.9888𝑡 = 0.9888 × 547.5 = 541.5
3-Determine the dimensionless water influx at tD=541.5 from Table (1-1):
𝑊𝑒𝐷 = 173.7
4-The first pressure drop will have been effective the entire 18 months, the second pressure drop will
have been effective for 12 months, and the last pressure drop will have been effective only 6 months,
as shown in Figure (13). Therefore, the cumulative water influx is calculated below:
Time, days t D Δp W eD B pW eD
547.5 541.5 5 173.7 19454.4
365 361 14 123.5 38729.6
182.5 180.5 23 69.46 35785.8
We = 94138.8 bbl

21
 Figure (13): Pressure drop data for Example (14)

Edwardson and coworkers (1962) developed three sets of simple polynomial expressions for
calculating the dimensionless water influx WeD for infinite-acting aquifers. The proposed three
expressions essentially approximate the WeD values in three different dimensionless time regions:
1- For tD < 0.01:
𝑡𝐷 0.5
𝑊𝑒𝐷 = 2 ( )
𝜋
2- For 0.01 < tD < 200:
1.12838√𝑡𝐷 + 1.19328𝑡𝐷 + 0.269872𝑡𝐷1.5 + 0.00855294𝑡𝐷2
𝑊𝑒𝐷 =
1 + 0.616599√𝑡𝐷 + 0.0413008𝑡𝐷
3- For tD > 200:
4.29881 + 2.02566𝑡𝐷
𝑊𝑒𝐷 =
𝑙𝑛(𝑡𝐷 )

Bottom-Water Drive
Allard and Chen (1988) suggested that it is possible to derive a general solution that is applicable to
bottom water drive system in terms of the dimensionless time tD, dimensionless radius rD, and a newly
introduced dimensionless variable zD.
ℎ
𝑍𝐷 =
𝑟𝑒 √𝐹𝑘
Where:
𝑘
𝐹𝑘 = 𝑣⁄𝑘
ℎ
Where:
ZD: Dimensionless vertical distance
h : Aquifer thickness, ft
Fk: The ratio of vertical to horizontal permeability
kv: Vertical permeability
kh: Horizontal permeability
They also developed a solution to the bottom-water influx that is comparable in form with that of van
Everdingen and Hurst as:
𝑊𝑒 = 𝐵∆𝑃𝑊𝑒𝐷
Where:
𝐵 = 1.119∅𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑒2 ℎ
Notice that the water influx constant B does not include the encroachment angle ϴ.
The actual values of WeD are different from those of the van Everdingen-Hurst model because WeD for
the bottom-water drive is also a function of the vertical permeability. Allard and Chen tabulated the
values of WeD as a function of rD, tD, and ZD. These values are presented in Tables (3).

21
 Table (3): Dimensionless water influx WeD for several values of ZD

The solution procedure of a bottom-water influx problem is identical to the edge-water influx problem
outlined in Example (2). Allard and Chen illustrated results of their method in the following example.

Example (2):
An infinite-acting bottom-water aquifer is characterized by the following properties:
ra = ∞ kh = 50 md Fk = 0.04 ϕ = 0.1 µw = 0.395 cp
6 1
ct  8 10 psi   360 
h=200 ftt r = 2000ft
e
The boundary pressure history is given below:

Time, days P, psi

0 3000
30 2956
60 2917
90 2877
120 2844
150 2811
180 2791
210 2773
240 2755

Calculate the cumulative water influx as a function of time by using the bottom-water-drive solution
and compare with the edge-water-drive approach.

22
Solution
1-For an infinite-acting aquifer:
𝑟𝐷 = ∞
2-Calculate ZD :
ℎ 200
𝑍𝐷 = = = 0.5
𝑟𝑒 √𝐹𝑘 2000√0.04

3- Calculate the water influx constant B:

𝐵 = 1.119∅𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑒2 ℎ = 1.119 × 0.1 × 8 × 10−6 × 20002 × 200 = 716 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑝𝑠𝑖

4- Calculate the dimensionless time tD:

𝑘𝑡 50 × 𝑡
𝑡𝐷 = 6.328 × 10−3 = 6.328 × 10−3
= 0.2503 𝑡
∅𝜇𝑤 𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑒2 0.1 × 0.395 × 8 × 10−6 × 20002

5-Calculate the water influx:

t tD Δp Bottom-Water Model Edge -Water Model

days psi
WeD We, Mbbl WeD We, Mbbl
0 0 0 - - - -
30 7.5 22 5.038 79 6.029 95
60 15.0 41.5 8.389 282 9.949 336
90 22.5 39.5 11.414 572 13.459 678
120 30.0 36.5 14.994 933 16.472 1,103
150 37.5 33.0 16.994 1,353 19.876 1,594
180 45.0 26.5 19.641 1,810 22.897 2,126
210 52.5 19.0 22.214 2,284 25.827 2,676
240 60.0 18 24.728 2,782 28.691 3,250

Fetkovich’s Method:
Fetkovich (1971) developed a method of describing the approximate water influx behavior of a finite
aquifer for radial and linear geometries. Fetkovich’s model is based on the premise that the
productivity index concept will adequately describe water influx from a finite aquifer into a
hydrocarbon reservoir. This approach begins with two simple equations. The first is the productivity
index (PI) equation for the aquifer, which is analogous to the PI equation used to describe an oil or gas
well:
𝑑𝑊𝑒
𝑒𝑤 = = 𝐽(𝑃̅𝑎 − 𝑃𝑟 ) (19)
𝑑𝑡
Where:
ew : Water influx rate from aquifer, bbl/day
J : Productivity index for the aquifer, bbl/day/psi
pa
: Average aquifer pressure, psi
Pr : Inner aquifer boundary pressure, psi
The second equation is an aquifer material balance equation for a constant compressibility, which
states that the amount of pressure depletion in the aquifer is directly proportional to the amount of
water influx from the aquifer, or:
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑐𝑡 𝑊𝑖 (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃̅𝑎 )𝑓 (20)
Where:
Wi : Initial volume of water in the aquifer, bbl
ct : Total aquifer compressibility, cw + cf, psi−1

23
Pi : Initial pressure of the aquifer, psi
Equation (20) suggests that the maximum possible water influx (We) occurs if Pa = 0, or:
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑐𝑡 𝑊𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑓 (21)
Combining Equation (20) with (21) gives:
𝑊𝑒 𝑊𝑒
𝑃̅𝑎 = 𝑃𝑖 (1 − ) = 𝑃𝑖 (1 − ) (22)
𝑐𝑡 𝑊𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑓 𝑊𝑒𝑖
Differentiating Equation (1-22) with respect to time gives:
𝑑𝑊𝑒 𝑊𝑒𝑖 𝑑𝑃̅𝑎
=− (23)
𝑑𝑡 𝑃𝑖 𝑑𝑡
Fetkovich combined Equation (23) with (19) and integrated to give the following form:
𝑊𝑒𝑖 −𝐽𝑃𝑖 𝑡
𝑊𝑒 = (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑟 )𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) (24)
𝑃𝑖 𝑊𝑒𝑖
Where:
We: Cumulative water influx, bbl
Pr: Reservoir pressure, i.e. pressure at the oil- or gas-water contact
T: Time, days
Fetkovich suggested that, if the reservoir-aquifer boundary pressure history is divided into a finite
number of time intervals, the incremental water influx during the nth interval is:
𝑊𝑒𝑖 −𝐽𝑃𝑖 ∆𝑡𝑛
(∆𝑊𝑒 )𝑛 = [(𝑃̅𝑎 )𝑛−1 − (𝑃̅𝑟 )𝑛 ] [1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )] (25)
𝑃𝑖 𝑊𝑒𝑖

p 
Where a n 1 is the average aquifer pressure at the end of the previous time step. This average
pressure is calculated from Equation (22) as:
(∆𝑊𝑒 )𝑛−1
(𝑃̅𝑎 )𝑛−1 = 𝑃𝑖 (1 − ) (26)
𝑊𝑒𝑖
p 
The average reservoir boundary pressure r n is estimated from:
(𝑃̅𝑟 )𝑛 + (𝑃̅𝑟 )𝑛−1
(𝑃̅𝑟 )𝑛 = (27)
2
The following steps describe the methodology of using the Fetkovich’s model in predicting the
cumulative water influx:
1- Calculate initial volume of water in the aquifer from:
𝜋(𝑟𝑎2 − 𝑟𝑒2 )ℎ∅
𝑊𝑖 =
5.615
2- Calculate the maximum possible water influx Wei :
𝑊𝑒𝑖 = 𝑐𝑡 𝑊𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑓
3- Calculate the productivity index, J, for flow from the aquifer to the reservoir with the
following equation:
0.00708𝑘ℎ𝑓
𝐽=
𝜇[𝑙𝑛(𝑟𝐷 ) − 0.75]

4- Calculate the incremental water influx (ΔWe)n from the aquifer during the nth time interval,
during the first time interval Δt1:
𝑊𝑒𝑖 −𝐽𝑃𝑖 ∆𝑡1
(∆𝑊𝑒 )1 = [𝑃𝑖 − (𝑃̅𝑟 )1 ] [1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )]
𝑃𝑖 𝑊𝑒𝑖
𝑃𝑖 + (𝑃𝑟 )1
(𝑃̅𝑟 )1 =
2
For the second time interval Δt2
𝑊𝑒𝑖 −𝐽𝑃𝑖 ∆𝑡2
(∆𝑊𝑒 )2 = [(𝑃̅𝑎 )1 − (𝑃̅𝑟 )2 ] [1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )]
𝑃𝑖 𝑊𝑒𝑖
24
 p 
Where a 1 is the average aquifer pressure at the end of the first period and removing (ΔW e)1 barrels
of water from the aquifer to the reservoir. It calculates from Equation (1-26):
(∆𝑊𝑒 )1
(𝑃̅𝑎 )1 = 𝑃𝑖 (1 − )
𝑊𝑒𝑖
5- Calculate the cumulative (total) water influx at the end of any time period from:
𝑛

𝑊𝑒 = ∑(∆𝑊𝑒 )𝑖
𝑖=1
Example:
Using Fetkovich’s method, calculate the water influx as a function of time for the following reservoir-
aquifer and boundary pressure data:
Pi = 2740 psi h = 100 ft ct = 7 × 10-6 psi μw = 0.55 cp k = 200 md ϕ = 25%
θ = 140° reservoir area = 40,363 acres aquifer area = 1,000,000 acres.

Time, days Pr, psi

0 2740
365 2500
730 2290
1095 2109
1460 1949
Figure (14) shows the wedge reservoir-aquifer system with an encroachment angle of 140°.

re = 37935 ft

Figure (14): Aquifer-reservoir geometry

Solution:
1-Calculate the reservoir radius re:
40363 × 43560
𝑟𝑒 = √ = 37935.69 𝑓𝑡
140
(360) 𝜋

2- Calculate the equivalent aquifer radius ra:

1000000 × 43560
𝑟𝑎 = √ = 188823.58 𝑓𝑡
140
(360) 𝜋

3-Calculate the dimensionless radius rD:

25
 𝑟𝑎 188823.58
𝑟𝐷 = = =5
𝑟𝑒 37935.69
4-Calculate initial water in place Wi:
𝜋(𝑟𝑎2 − 𝑟𝑒2 )ℎ∅ 3.14 × (188823.572 − 37935.692 ) × 100 × 0.25
𝑊𝑖 = = = 478.59 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑙
5.615 5.615
5- Calculate the maximum possible water influx Wei :
140
𝑊𝑒𝑖 = 𝑐𝑡 𝑊𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑓 = 7 × 10−6 × 478.59 × 109 × 2740 × = 3.57 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑙
360
6- Calculate the productivity index J of the radial aquifer:
140
0.00708𝑘ℎ𝑓 0.00708 × 200 × 100 × 360
𝐽= = = 116.5 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑑𝑎𝑦/𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝜇[𝑙𝑛(𝑟𝐷 ) − 0.75] 0.55 × (𝑙𝑛(5) − .75)

𝑊𝑒𝑖 −𝐽𝑃𝑖 ∆𝑡𝑛

(∆𝑊𝑒 )𝑛 = [(𝑃̅𝑎 )𝑛−1 − (𝑃̅𝑟 )𝑛 ] [1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )]
𝑃𝑖 𝑊𝑒𝑖
𝐽𝑃𝑖 116.5 × 2740
= = 8.941 × 10−5
𝑊𝑒𝑖 3.57 × 109
Since the time step Δt is fixed at 365 days, then
𝐽𝑃𝑖 ∆𝑡1
1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− ) = 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝(−8.941 × 10−5 × 365) = 0.03211
𝑊𝑒𝑖
3.57 × 109
(∆𝑊𝑒 )𝑛 = [(𝑃̅𝑎 )𝑛−1 − (𝑃̅𝑟 )𝑛 ] × 0.03211 = 41834[(𝑃̅𝑎 )𝑛−1 − (𝑃̅𝑟 )𝑛 ]
2740

7-Calculate cumulative water influx as shown in the following table:

n t, days pr  p r n  pa n 1  pa n 1   pr n  W e n W e 
MMbbl MMbbl
0 0 2740 2740 2740 0 0 0
1 365 2500 2620 2740 120 5.0201 5.0201
2 730 2290 2395 2736 341 14.2654 19.286
3 1095 2109 2199 2729 530 22.172 41.458
4 1460 1949 2029 2723 694 29.033 70.491

Calculate water influx by using MBE:

The general material balance equation is given by:
𝐵𝑔 𝑐𝑤 𝑠𝑤𝑖 + 𝑐𝑓
𝑁(𝐵𝑡 − 𝐵𝑡𝑖 ) + 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑡𝑖 ( − 1) + (𝑊𝑒 − 𝑊𝑃 𝐵𝑤 ) + 𝑁𝐵𝑡𝑖 (1 + 𝑚) [ ] ∆𝑃
𝐵𝑔𝑖 1 − 𝑠𝑤𝑖
= 𝑁𝑃 [𝐵𝑡 + (𝑅𝑃 − 𝑅𝑠𝑖 )𝐵𝑔 ]
Where:
N: Initial (original) oil in place, STB
Bti : Initial two phase formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Np: Cumulative oil produced, STB
Bt : Two phase formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bgi: Initial Gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF
Rsi: Initial solution gas-oil ratio, SCF/STB
Rp: Cumulative produced gas-oil ratio, SCF/STB
Bg: Gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF
m: Ratio of initial volume of free gas to initial oil volume, bbl/bbl
Wp: Cumulative water produced, STB
Bw: water formation volume factor, bbl/ STB

26
We: Water influx into reservoir, bbl
p : Change in reservoir pressure (pi- p), psia
Swi: initial water saturation
cf: formation isothermal compressibility, psi-1
cw: Water isothermal compressibility, psi-1

Example:
A combination-drive reservoir contains 10 MMSTB of oil initially in place. The ratio of the original
gas-cap volume to the original oil volume, m, is 0.25. The initial reservoir pressure is 3,000 psia at
150°F. The reservoir produced 1 MMSTB of oil, 1,100 MMSCF of 0.8 specific gravity gas, and
50,000 STB of water by the time the reservoir pressure dropped to 2,800 psi. The following PVT is
available:

Pressure, psi 3000 2800

Bo, bbl/STB 1.58 1.48
R s , SCF/STB 1040 850
Bg 0.00080 0.00092
, bbl/SCF
Bt, bbl/STB 1.58 1.655
Bw 1.000 1.000
, bbl/STB
The following data is also available:
swi = 0.20 cw = 1.5×10-6 psi-1 cf = 1×10-6 psi-1
Calculate:
a. Cumulative water influx.
b. Net water influx.

Solution:
a. Calculate cumulative gas-oil ratio Rp:
𝐺𝑃 1100 × 106 𝑆𝐶𝐹
𝑅𝑃 = = 6
= 1100
𝑁𝑃 1 × 10 𝑆𝑇𝐵
Arrange the general MBE to solve for We:
𝐵𝑔 𝑐𝑤 𝑠𝑤𝑖 + 𝑐𝑓
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑁𝑃 [𝐵𝑡 + (𝑅𝑃 − 𝑅𝑠𝑖 )𝐵𝑔 ] − 𝑁(𝐵𝑡 − 𝐵𝑡𝑖 ) − 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑡𝑖 ( − 1) − 𝑁𝐵𝑡𝑖 (1 + 𝑚) [ ] ∆𝑃
𝐵𝑔𝑖 1 − 𝑠𝑤𝑖
+ 𝑊𝑃 𝐵𝑤
6 [1.655
𝑊𝑒 = 1 × 10 + (1100 − 1040) × 0.00092] − 10 × 106 (1.655 − 1.58) − 10 × 106 × 0.25
0.0008
× 1.58 ( − 1) − 10 × 106
0.00092
1.5 × 10−6 × 0.2 + 1 × 10−6
× 1.58(1 + 0.25) [ ] (3000 − 2800) + 50000 × 1
1 − 0.2
= 411.281 𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑙

b. Calculate net water influx:

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝑊𝑒 − 𝑊𝑃 𝐵𝑤 = 411.281 × 103 − 50000 × 1 = 361.281 𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑙

Water-Drive Reservoirs:
The full MBE can be expressed again as:
𝐹 = 𝑁[𝐸𝑜 + 𝑚𝐸𝑔 + 𝐸𝑓,𝑤 ] + 𝑊𝑒
Dake (1978) points out that the term Ef,w can frequently be neglected in water-drive reservoirs. This is
not only for the usual reason that the water and pore compressibilities are small, but also because a

27
water influx helps to maintain the reservoir pressure and, therefore, the Δp appearing in the Ef,w term
is reduced, or
𝐹 = 𝑁[𝐸𝑜 + 𝑚𝐸𝑔 ] + 𝑊𝑒
If, in addition, the reservoir has no initial gas cap, then the above Equation can be further reduced to:
𝐹 = 𝑁𝐸𝑜 + 𝑊𝑒
For a water-drive reservoir with no gas cap, the above Equation can be rearranged and expressed as:
𝐹 𝑊𝑒
=𝑁+
𝐸𝑜 𝐸𝑜
Example:
The material balance parameters, the underground withdrawal F, and oil expansion Eo of a saturated-
oil reservoir (i.e., m = 0) are given below:

Time p F Eo
months (psi)
0 3500 - -
19 3488 2.04 106 0.0548
31 3162 8.77 106 0.1540
43 2782 17.05 106 0.2820

Assuming that the rock and water compressibilities are negligible, calculate the initial oil in place.
Solution:
For simplicity, select the pot-aquifer model to represent the water encroachment calculations in the
MBE as given by the following Equation:

𝐹 𝑘∆𝑃
=𝑁+
𝐸𝑜 𝐸𝑜

Calculate the terms (F/Eo) and (Δp/Eo):

p Δp F Eo F Eo Δp/Eo
(psi) MMSTB
3500 0 - - - -
3488 12 2.04 106 0.0548 37.226 219.0
3162 338 8.77 106 0.1540 57.948 2194.8
2782 718 17.05 106 0.2820 60.461 2546

Plot (F/Eo) versus (Δp/Eo), and determine the intercept.

Intercept = N = 35.04 MMSTB

28
 70
60

F/Eo, MMSTB
50
40
30
20 y = 0.0102x + 35.04
10 R² = 0.9989
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Δp/Eo

Gas and Water Coning

Coning is a term used to describe the mechanism underlying the upward movement of water and/or
the down movement of gas into the perforations of a producing well .Coning can seriously impact the
well productivity and influence the degree of depletion and the overall recovery efficiency of the oil
reservoirs. The specific problems of water and gas coning are listed below:
 Costly added water and gas handling
 Gas production from the original or secondary gas cap reduces pressure without obtaining the
displacement effects associated with gas drive
 Reduced efficiency of the depletion mechanism
 The water is often corrosive and its disposal costly
 The afflicted well may be abandoned early
 Loss of the total field overall recovery

Delaying the encroachment and production of gas and water are essentially the controlling factors in
maximizing the field’s ultimate oil recovery. Since coning can have an important influence on
operations, recovery, and economics, it is the objective of this chapter to provide the theoretical
analysis of coning and outline many of the practical solutions for calculating water and gas coning
behavior.

Coning:
Coning is primarily the result of movement of reservoir fluids in the direction of least resistance,
balanced by a tendency of the fluids to maintain gravity equilibrium. Let the original condition of
reservoir fluids exist as shown schematically in Figure (1), water underlying oil and gas overlying oil.

Figure (1): Original reservoir static condition

29
Production from the well would create pressure gradients that tend to lower the gas-oil contact and
elevate the water-oil contact in the immediate vicinity of the well. Counterbalancing these flow
gradients is the tendency of the gas to remain above the oil zone because of its lower density and of
the water to remain below the oil zone because of its higher density as shown schematically in Figure
(2).

Figure (2): Gas and water coning

There are essentially three categories of correlation that are used to solve the coning problem. These
categories are:
 Critical rate calculations
 Breakthrough time predictions
 Well performance calculations after breakthrough
The above categories of calculations are applicable in evaluating the coning problem in vertical and
horizontal wells.

Coning in Vertical wells:

Vertical Well Critical Rate Correlations:

Critical rate (Qoc) is defined as the maximum allowable oil flow rate that can be imposed on the well
to avoid a cone breakthrough. The critical rate would correspond to the development of a stable cone
to an elevation just below the bottom of the perforated interval in an oil-water system or to an
elevation just above the top of the perforated interval in a gas-oil system. There are several empirical
correlations that are commonly used to predict the oil critical rate, including the following
correlations:
 Meyer-Garder
 Chaperson
 Schols

The Meyer-Garder Correlation

Meyer and Garder (1954) suggest that coning development is a result of the radial flow of the oil and
associated pressure sink around the wellbore. In their derivations, Meyer and Garder assume a
homogeneous system with a uniform permeability throughout the reservoir, i.e.,kh = kv. They
developed three separate correlations for determining the critical oil flow rate:
 Gas coning.
 Water coning.
 Combined gas and water coning.

31
Gas coning:
Consider the schematic illustration of the gas-coning problem shown in Figure (3).

Figure (3): Gas coning

The well perforated interval hp, in a gas-oil system, is essentially defined as:
ℎ𝑝 = ℎ − 𝐷𝑡
Meyer and Garder propose the following expression for determining the oil critical flow rate in a gas-
oil system:
𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑔 𝑘𝑜
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.246 × 10−4 [ 𝑟 ]( ) [ℎ2 − (ℎ − 𝐷𝑡 )2 ] (1)
𝑒
𝑙𝑛( ⁄𝑟 ) 𝜇 𝐵
𝑜 𝑜
𝑤
Where:
Qoc = Critical oil rate, STB/day
𝜌𝑔 , 𝜌𝑜 = Density of gas and oil, respectively, lb/ft3
ko = Effective oil permeability, md
re, rw = Drainage and wellbore radius, respectively, ft
h = Oil column thickness, ft
Dt = Distance from the gas-oil contact to the top of the perforations, ft
Water Coning:
Meyer and Garder propose a similar expression for determining the critical oil rate in the water coning
system shown schematically in Figure (4). The proposed relationship has the following form:
𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 𝑘𝑜
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.246 × 10−4 [ 𝑟 ]( ) [ℎ2 − ℎ𝑝2 ] (2)
𝑙𝑛( 𝑒⁄𝑟 ) 𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜
𝑤
Where:
𝜌𝑤 = Density of water, lb/ft3
hp = Perforated interval, ft.

Figure (4): Water coning

31
Simultaneous Gas and Water Coning:
If the effective oil-pay thickness h is comprised between a gas cap and a water zone (Figure (5)), the
completion interval hp must be such as to permit maximum oil-production rate without having gas and
water simultaneously produced by coning, gas breaking through at the top of the interval and water at
the bottom. For this combined gas and water coning, Pirson (1977) combined Equations (1) and (2) to
produce the following simplified expression for determining the maximum oil-flow rate without gas
and water coning:
2
−4
𝑘𝑜 ℎ2 − ℎ𝑝2 𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑔
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.264 × 10 ( ) [(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 ) ( )
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝑙𝑛(𝑟𝑒 ⁄𝑟𝑤 ) 𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑔
2
𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑔
+ (𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑔 ) (1 − ) ] (3)
𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑔

Figure (5): The development of gas and water coning

Example (1):
A vertical well is drilled in an oil reservoir overlaid by a gas cap. The related well and reservoir data
are given below:
Horizontal and vertical permeability, i.e., kh, kv = 110 md
Oil relative permeability, kro =0.85 Oil density, ρo = 47.5 lb/ft3
Gas density, ρg = 5.1 lb/ ft3 Oil viscosity, μo = 0.73 cp
Oil formation volume factor, Bo = 1.1 bbl/STB Oil column thickness, h = 40 ft
Perforated interval, hp = 15 ft Depth from GOC to top of perforations, Dt = 25 ft
Wellbore radius, rw = 0.25 ft Drainage radius, re = 660 ft
Using the Meyer and Garder relationships, calculate the critical oil flow rate.

Solution:
1- Calculate effective oil permeability:
𝑘𝑜 = 𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝑘 = 0.85 × 110 = 93.5 𝑚𝑑
2- Calculate the critical oil flow rate:
𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑔 𝑘𝑜
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.246 × 10−4 [ 𝑟 ]( ) [ℎ2 − (ℎ − 𝐷𝑡 )2 ]
𝑒
𝑙𝑛( ⁄𝑟𝑤 ) 𝜇 𝐵
𝑜 𝑜
47.5 − 5.1 93.5 𝑆𝑇𝐵
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.246 × 10−4 [ ]( ) [402 − (40 − 25)2 ] = 21.2
𝑙𝑛(660⁄0.25) 0.73 × 1.1 𝑑𝑎𝑦

32
Example (2):
Resolve Example (1) assuming that the oil zone is under laid by bottom water. The water density is
given as 63.76 lb/ft3. The well completion interval is 15 feet as measured from the top of the
formation (no gas cap) to the bottom of the perforations.

Solution:
𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 𝑘𝑜
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.246 × 10−4 [ 𝑟 ] ( ) [ℎ2 − ℎ𝑝2 ]
𝑙𝑛( 𝑒⁄𝑟𝑤 ) 𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜
63.76 − 47.5 93.5 𝑆𝑇𝐵
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.246 × 10−4 [ ]( ) [402 − 152 ] = 8.13
𝑙𝑛(660⁄0.25) 0.73 × 1.1 𝑑𝑎𝑦

Example (3):
A vertical well is drilled in an oil reservoir that is overlaid by a gas cap and under laid by bottom
water. The following data are available:
Oil density ρo = 47.5 lb/ft3 Water density ρw = 63.76 lb/ft3
Gas density ρg = 5.1 lb/ft3 Oil viscosity μo = 0.73 cp
Oil FVF Bo = 1.1 bbl/STB Oil column thickness h = 65 ft
Depth from GOC to top of perforations Dt = 25 ft Well perforated interval hp = 15 ft
Wellbore radius rw = 0.25 ft Drainage radius re = 660 ft
Oil effective permeability ko = 93.5 md
Horizontal and vertical permeability, i.e., kh, kv = 110 md
Oil relative permeability kro = 0.85
Calculate the maximum permissible oil rate that can be imposed to avoid cones breakthrough, i.e.,
water and gas coning.
Solution:
2 2
−4
𝑘𝑜 ℎ2 − ℎ𝑝2 𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑔
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.264 × 10 ( ) [(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 ( ) ) + (𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑔 ) (1 − ) ]
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝑙𝑛(𝑟𝑒 ⁄𝑟𝑤 ) 𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑔
93.5
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.264 × 10−4 × ( )
0.73 × 1.1
652 − 152 47.5 − 5.1 2
× [(63.76 − 47.5) ( )
𝑙𝑛(660⁄0.25) 63.76 − 5.1
47.5 − 5.1 2 𝑆𝑇𝐵
+ (47.5 − 5.1) (1 − ) ] = 17.1
63.76 − 5.1 𝑑𝑎𝑦

Chaperson’s Method:
Chaperson (1986) proposed a simple relationship to estimate the critical rate of a vertical well in an
anisotropic formation (kv  kh). The proposed correlation has the following form:
2
−4
k h (h − hp )
Qoc = 0.0783 × 10 ∆ρq∗c (4)
μo Bo
Where:
kh = Horizontal permeability, md
Δρ = ρw - ρo, Density difference, lb/ft3
q ''
Joshi (1991) correlated the coefficient c with the parameter  as
q∗c = 0.7311 + (1.943⁄α∗ ) (5)
Where:
r k
α∗ = ( e⁄h)√ v⁄k (6)
h

33
Example (4):
The following data are available on an oil-water system:
h = 50 ft re = 1000ft μo = 0.73 cp Bo = 1.1 bbl/STB ρw = 63.76 lb/ft3 kh = 100
md ρo = 47.5 lb/ft3 kv = 10 md hP = 15 ft
Calculate the critical rate?

Solution:
1-Calculate 𝛼 ∗ :
r k
α∗ = ( e⁄h)√ v⁄k = (1000⁄50)√10⁄100 = 6.324
h
2-Calculate 𝑞𝑐∗ :
q∗c = 0.7311 + (1.943⁄α∗ ) = 0.7311 + (1.943⁄6.324) = 1.0383
3-Calculate 𝑄𝑜𝑐 :
2
k h (h − hp )
Qoc = 0.0783 × 10−4 ∆ρq∗c
μo Bo
100 × (50 − 15)2 𝑆𝑇𝐵
= 0.0783 × 10−4 (63.76 − 47.5) × 1.0383 = 20.16
0.73 × 1.1 𝑑𝑎𝑦

Schols’ Method:
Schols (1972) developed an empirical equation based on results obtained from numerical simulator
and laboratory experiments. His critical rate equation has the following form:
(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )𝑘𝑜 (ℎ2 − ℎ𝑝2 ) 3.142 0.14
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.0783 × 10−4 [ ] [0.432 + ] (ℎ⁄𝑟𝑒 ) (7)
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝑙𝑛(𝑟𝑒 ⁄𝑟𝑤 )
Schols’ Equation (2-7) is only valid for isotropic formation, i.e., kh = kv.

Example (5):
In an oil-water system, the following fluid and rock data are available:
h = 50 ft hp = 15 ft ρo = 47.5 lb/ft3 ρw = 63.76 lb/ft3
µo = 0.73 cp Bo = 1.1 bbl/STB re = 1000 ft rw = 0.25 ft
ko = k = 93.5 md
Calculate the critical oil flow rate?

Solution:
(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )𝑘𝑜 (ℎ2 − ℎ𝑝2 ) 3.142 0.14
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.0783 × 10−4 [ ] [0.432 + ] (ℎ⁄𝑟𝑒 )
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝑙𝑛(𝑟𝑒 ⁄𝑟𝑤 )
2
(63.76 − 47.5) × 93.5 × (50 − 15 ) 2
3.142 0.14
= 0.0783 × 10−4 [ ] [0.432 + ] (50⁄1000)
0.73 × 1.1 𝑙𝑛(1000⁄0.25)
𝑆𝑇𝐵
= 18
𝑑𝑎𝑦

Breakthrough Time in Vertical Wells

Critical flow rate calculations frequently show low rates that, for economic reasons, cannot be
imposed on production wells. Therefore, if a well produces above its critical rate, the cone will break
through after a given time period. This time is called time to breakthrough (tBT). One of the most
widely used correlations is documented below.
The Sobocinski-Cornelius Method:
Sobocinski and Cornelius (1965) developed a correlation for predicting water breakthrough time
based on laboratory data and modeling results. The authors correlated the breakthrough time with two

34
dimensionless parameters, the dimensionless cone height and the dimensionless breakthrough time.
Those two dimensionless parameters are defined by the following expressions:

Dimensionless cone height Z:

(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )𝑘ℎ ℎ(ℎ − ℎ𝑝 )
𝑍 = 0.492 × 10−4 (8)
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝑄𝑜
Where:
Qo = oil production rate, STB/day

Dimensionless breakthrough time (tD)BT:

4𝑍 + 1.75𝑍 2 − 0.75𝑍 3
(𝑡𝐷 ) 𝑇𝐵 = (9)
7 − 2𝑍
The authors proposed the following expression for predicting time to breakthrough from the
calculated value of the dimensionless breakthrough time (tD) BT:
20325𝜇𝑜 ℎ∅(𝑡𝐷 ) 𝑇𝐵
𝑡𝑇𝐵 = (10)
(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )𝑘𝑣 (1 + 𝑀𝛼 )
Where:
tBT = Time to breakthrough, days
ϕ = Porosity, fraction
kv = Vertical permeability, md
M = water-oil mobility and is defined by:
(𝑘𝑟𝑤 )𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝜇𝑜
𝑀=[ ]( )
(𝑘𝑟𝑜 )𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝜇𝑤
With:
(kro)swc = Oil relative permeability at connate water saturation.
(krw)sor = Water relative permeability at residual oil saturation.
𝛼 = 0.5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀 ≤ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 = 0.6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 < 𝑀 ≤ 10
Joshi (1991) observed by examining Equation (9) that if Z = 3.5 or greater, there will be no water
breakthrough. This observation can be imposed on Equation (8) with Z = 3.5 to give an expression for
calculating the critical oil flow rate, or
(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )𝑘ℎ ℎ(ℎ − ℎ𝑝 )
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.141 × 10−4 (11)
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜

Example (6):
Calculate the water breakthrough using the Sobocinski-Cornelius method for a vertical well producing
at 250 STB/day. The following reservoir data are available:
Qo = 250 STB/day h = 50 ft hp =15 ft ρw = 63.76 lb/ft3
ρo = 47.5 lb/ft 3
μo = 0.73 cp Bo = 1.1 bbl/STB kv = 9 md kh = 93 md
ϕ =13% M=3

Solution:
1-Calculate Z:
(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )𝑘ℎ ℎ(ℎ − ℎ𝑝 ) (63.76 − 47.5) × 93 × 50 × (50 − 15)
𝑍 = 0.492 × 10−4 = 0.492 × 10−4
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝑄𝑜 0.73 × 1.1 × 250
= 0.6486
2-Calculate (tD)TB:
4𝑍 + 1.75𝑍 2 − 0.75𝑍 3 4 × 0.6486 + 1.75 × 0.64862 − 0.75 × 0.64863
(𝑡𝐷 ) 𝑇𝐵 = = = 0.5481
7 − 2𝑍 7 − 2 × 0.6486
3-Calculate tTB:

35
 20325𝜇𝑜 ℎ∅(𝑡𝐷 )𝑇𝐵 20325 × 0.73 × 50 × 0.13 × 0.5481
𝑡𝑇𝐵 = = = 123𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )𝑘𝑣 (1 + 𝑀 )
𝛼 (63.76 − 47.5) × 9 × (1 + 30.6 )

Example (7):
Using the data given in Example (6), approximate the critical oil flow rate by using Equation (11)?

Solution:
(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )𝑘ℎ ℎ(ℎ − ℎ𝑝 )
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.141 × 10−4
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜
(63.76 − 47.5) × 93 × 50 × (50 − 15)
= 0.141 × 10−4 = 46.47𝑆𝑇𝐵/𝑑𝑎𝑦
0.73 × 1.1

The Bournazel-Jeanson Method:-

Based on experimental data, Bournazel and Jeanson (1971) developed a methodology that uses the
same dimensionless groups proposed in the Sobocinski-Cornelius method. The procedure of
calculating the time to breakthrough is given below.
Step 1, Calculate the dimensionless core height Z from Equation (8).
Step 2, Calculate the dimensionless breakthrough time by applying the following expression:
𝑍
(𝑡𝐷 )𝑇𝐵 = (12)
3 − 0.7𝑍
Step 3, Solve for the time to breakthrough by using the following equation:-
20325𝜇𝑜 ℎ∅(𝑡𝐷 )𝑇𝐵
𝑡𝑇𝐵 = (13)
(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )𝑘𝑣 (1 + 𝑀𝛼 )
As pointed out by Joshi (1991), Equation (12) indicates that no breakthrough occurs if Z ≥ 4.286.
Imposing this value on Equation (13) gives a relationship for determining Qoc:-
(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )𝑘ℎ ℎ(ℎ − ℎ𝑝 )
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.1148 × 10−4 (14)
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜
Example (8):-
Resolve Example (6) by using the Bournazel-Jeanson method?
Solution:-
1. Calculate Z:-
From Example (6), Z = 0.6486
2. Calculate dimensionless breakthrough time:-
𝑍 0.6486
(𝑡𝐷 ) 𝑇𝐵 = = = 0.2548
3 − 0.7𝑍 3 − 0.7 × 0.6486
3. Calculate the time to breakthrough:-
20325𝜇𝑜 ℎ∅(𝑡𝐷 )𝑇𝐵 20325 × 0.73 × 50 × 0.13 × 0.2548
𝑡𝑇𝐵 = = = 57.2 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )𝑘𝑣 (1 + 𝑀 )𝛼 (63.76 − 47.5) × 9 × (1 + 30.6 )

Well Performance Calculations after Breakthrough:

Once the water breakthrough occurs, it is important to predict the performance of water production as
a function of time. Kuo and Desbrisay (1983) applied the material balance equation to predict the rise
in the oil-water contact in a homogeneous reservoir and correlated their numerical results in terms of
the following dimensionless parameters:
 Dimensionless water cut (fw)D.
 Dimensionless breakthrough time tDBT
 Dimensionless limiting water cut (WC)limit
The specific steps of the proposed procedure are given below:
1- Calculate the time to breakthrough tBT by using the Sobocinski-Cornelius method by using
Equations (8), (9) and (10).

36
 2- Assume any time t after breakthrough.
3- Calculate the dimensionless breakthrough time ratio tDBT from:
𝑡
𝑡𝐷𝐵𝑇 =
𝑡𝐵𝑇
4- Compute the dimensionless limiting water cut from:
𝑀
(𝑊𝐶)𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = (15)
𝑀 + (ℎ⁄ℎ )
𝑤
With the parameters in Equation (12) as defined below:
(𝑘𝑟𝑤 )𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝜇𝑜
𝑀=[ ]( )
(𝑘𝑟𝑜 )𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝜇𝑤

ℎ = 𝐻𝑜 (1 − 𝑅)
ℎ𝑤 = 𝐻𝑤 + 𝐻𝑜 𝑅
1 − 𝑠𝑤𝑐
𝑅 = (𝑁𝑃 ⁄𝑁) [ ]
1 − 𝑠𝑜𝑟 − 𝑠𝑤𝑐
Where:
(WC)limit = Current limiting value for water cut
M = Mobility ratio
(krw)sor = Relative permeability for the water and residual oil saturation (Sor)
(kro)swc = Relative permeability for the oil at the connate water saturation (Swc)
µo, µw = Oil and water viscosities, cp
Ho = Initial oil zone thickness, ft
Hw = Initial water zone thickness, ft
h = current oil zone thickness, ft
hw = Current water zone thickness, ft
Np = Cumulative oil production, STB
N = Initial oil in place, STB
5- Calculate the dimensionless water cut (fw)D based upon the dimensionless breakthrough time
ratio as given by the following relationships:
(𝑓𝑤 )𝐷 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝐷𝐵𝑇 < 0.5
(𝑓𝑤 )𝐷 = 0.29 + 0.94𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑡𝐷𝐵𝑇 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0.5 ≤ 𝑡𝐷𝐵𝑇 ≤ 5.7
(𝑓𝑤 )𝐷 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝐷𝐵𝑇 > 5.7
6- Calculate the actual water cut fw from the expression:
𝑓𝑤 = (𝑓𝑤 )𝐷 (𝑊𝐶)𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
7- Calculate water and oil flow rate by using the following expressions:
𝑞𝑤 = 𝑓𝑤 𝑞𝑇
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑞𝑇 − 𝑞𝑤
Where:
qw, qo, qT are the water, oil, and total flow rates, respectively.

It should be pointed out that as oil is recovered, the oil-water contact will rise and the limiting value
for water cut will change. It also should be noted the limiting water cut value (WC)limit lags behind
one time step when calculating future water cut.

Example (9):
The rock, fluid, and the related reservoir properties of a bottom-water drive reservoir are given below:
Well spacing = 80 acres
Initial oil column thickness = 80 ft
hp = 20 ft ρo = 47 lb/ft3 ρw = 63 lb/ft3 re = 1053 ft
rw = 0.25ft M = 3.1 ϕ = 14% Sor = 0.35

37
Swc = 0.25 Bo = 1.2 bbl/STB µo = 1.6 cp µw= 0.82 cp
kh= 60 md kv = 6 md Hw = 20 ft
Calculate the water cut behavior of a vertical well in the reservoir assuming a total production rate of
500 STB/day and elapsed time of 250 days.

Solution:
1-Calculate Z:
(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )𝑘ℎ ℎ(ℎ − ℎ𝑝 ) (63 − 47) × 60 × 80 × (80 − 20)
𝑍 = 0.492 × 10−4 = 0.492 × 10−4
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝑄𝑜 1.6 × 1.2 × 500
= 0.2362
2-Calculate (tD)TB:
4𝑍 + 1.75𝑍 2 − 0.75𝑍 3 4 × 0.2362 + 1.75 × 0.23622 − 0.75 × 0.23623
(𝑡𝐷 ) 𝑇𝐵 = = = 0.1582
7 − 2𝑍 7 − 2 × 0.2362
3-Calculate tTB:
20325𝜇𝑜 ℎ∅(𝑡𝐷 )𝑇𝐵 20325 × 1.6 × 80 × 0.14 × 0.1582
𝑡𝑇𝐵 = = = 202𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )𝑘𝑣 (1 + 𝑀 ) 𝛼 (63 − 47) × 6 × (1 + 3.10.6 )
4-Calculate initial oil inplace:
𝐴∅ℎ(1−𝑠𝑤𝑖 ) 80×0.14×80(1−0.25)
𝑁 = 7758 = 7758 × = 4344480 STB
𝐵𝑜 1.2
5- Calculate the parameter R:
𝑁𝑝 = 500 × 202 = 101000𝑆𝑇𝐵
1 − 𝑠𝑤𝑐 1 − 0.25
𝑅 = (𝑁𝑃 ⁄𝑁) [ ] = (101000/4344480) [ ] = 0.04315
1 − 𝑠𝑜𝑟 − 𝑠𝑤𝑐 1 − 0.35 − 0.25
ℎ = 𝐻𝑜 (1 − 𝑅) = 80 × (1 − 0.0435) = 76.52
ℎ𝑤 = 𝐻𝑤 + 𝐻𝑜 𝑅 = 20 + 80 × 0.04315 = 23.45
6-Calulate the dimensionless limiting water cut:
𝑀 3.1
(𝑊𝐶)𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = = = 0.476
𝑀 + (ℎ⁄ℎ ) 3.1 + (76.52⁄23.45)
𝑤
7- Calculate the dimensionless water cut (fw)D:
𝑡 250
𝑡𝐷𝐵𝑇 = = = 1.2376
𝑡𝐵𝑇 202

(𝑓𝑤 )𝐷 = 0.29 + 0.94𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑡𝐷𝐵𝑇 ) = 0.29 + 0.94𝑙𝑜𝑔(1.2376) = 0.377

8- Calculate the actual water cut:
𝑓𝑤 = (𝑓𝑤 )𝐷 (𝑊𝐶)𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 0.377 × 0.476 = 0.1795
9-Calculate water and oil flow rate:
𝑆𝑇𝐵
𝑞𝑤 = 𝑓𝑤 𝑞𝑇 = 0.1795 × 500 = 89.73
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑆𝑇𝐵
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑞𝑇 − 𝑞𝑤 = 500 − 89.73 = 410.27
𝑑𝑎𝑦
10-Calculate cumulative oil produced from breakthrough to 250 day:
410.27 + 500
∆𝑁𝑃 = [ ] (250 − 202) = 21846.48 𝑆𝑇𝐵
2
11-Calculate cumulative oil produced after 250 day:
𝑁𝑃 = 101000 + 21846.48 = 122846.48𝑆𝑇𝐵
12-Find the recovery factory:
122846.48
𝑅𝐹 = = 0.0283 = 2.83%
4344480

38
2.3 Coning in Horizontal Wells
The applications of horizontal well technology in developing hydrocarbon reservoirs have been
widely used in recent years. One of the main objectives of using this technology is to improve
hydrocarbon recovery from water and/or gas-cap drive reservoirs. The advantages of using a
horizontal well over a conventional vertical well are their larger capacity to produce oil at the same
drawdown and a longer breakthrough time at a given production rate. As in vertical wells, the coning
problem in horizontal wells involves the following calculations:
 Determination of the critical flow rate
 Breakthrough time predictions
 Well performance calculations after breakthrough

2.3.1 Horizontal Well Critical Rate Correlations:

The following two correlations for estimating critical flow rate in horizontal wells are discussed:
 Chaperson’s Method
 Efros’ Method

Chaperson’s Method:
Chaperson (1986) provides a simple and practical estimate or the critical rate under steady-state or
pseudo-steady state flowing conditions for an isotropic formation. The author proposes the following
two relationships for predicting water and gas coning:

Water Coning:
𝐿𝑞𝑐∗ 𝑘ℎ [ℎ − (ℎ − 𝐷𝑏 )]2
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.0783 × 10−4 ( ) (𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 ) (16)
𝑦𝑒 𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜

Gas Coning:
𝐿𝑞𝑐∗ 𝑘ℎ [ℎ − (ℎ − 𝐷𝑡 )]2
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.0783 × 10−4 ( ) (𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑔 ) (17)
𝑦𝑒 𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜
The above two equations are applicable under the following constraint:
1 ≤ 𝛼 ∗ < 70 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑦𝑒 < 4𝐿
Where:
ye k v
α∗ = ( ) √ (18)
h kh
Db = Distance between the WOC and the horizontal well.
Dt = Distance between the GOC and the horizontal well.
Qoc = Critical oil rate, STB/day
ρ = Density, lb/ft3
kh = Horizontal permeability, md
h = Oil column thickness, ft
ye = Half distance between two lines of horizontal wells
(Half drainage length perpendicular to the horizontal well)
L = Length of the horizontal well.
qc* = Dimensionless function
*
Joshi (1991) correlated the dimensionless function qc with the parameter 𝛼 ∗ :
𝑞𝑐∗ = 3.9624955 + 0.0616438𝛼 ∗ − 0.000504(𝛼 ∗ )2 (19)

39
Example (10):
A 1,640-ft-long horizontal well is drilled in the top elevation of the pay zone in a water-drive
reservoir. The following data are available:
h = 50 ft kh = 60 md kv = 15 md Bo = 1.1 bbl/STB
µo = 0.73 cp rw = 0.3 ft Db = 50 ft ρo = 47.5 lb/ft3
ρw = 63.76 lb/ft 3
ye = 1320 ft
Using the Chaperson method, calculate:
a. The oil critical flow rate for the horizontal well.
b. Repeat the calculation assuming a vertical well with hp = 15 ft and re = 1489 ft.
Solution:
a. The oil critical flow rate for the horizontal well.
1-Calculate 𝛼 ∗ :
ye k v 1320 15
α∗ = ( ) √ = ( ) √ = 13.2
h kh 50 60
2-Calculate 𝑞𝑐∗ :
𝑞𝑐∗ = 3.9624955 + 0.0616438𝛼 ∗ − 0.000504(𝛼 ∗ )2
= 3.9624955 + 0.0616438 × 13.2 − 0.000504 × 13.22 = 4.6884
3-Calculate 𝑄𝑜𝑐 :
𝐿𝑞𝑐∗ 𝑘ℎ [ℎ − (ℎ − 𝐷𝑏 )]2
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.0783 × 10−4 ( ) (𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )
𝑦𝑒 𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜
−4
1640 × 4.6884 60 × [50 − (50 − 50)]2 𝑆𝑇𝐵
= 0.0783 × 10 ( ) (63.76 − 47.5) = 138.5
1320 0.73 × 1.1 𝑑𝑎𝑦

b. The oil critical flow rate for the vertical well

1- Calculate 𝛼 ∗ :

r k 1489 15
α∗ = ( e⁄h)√ v⁄k = ( ) √ = 14.89
h 50 60
2-Calculate 𝑞𝑐∗ :
q∗c = 0.7311 + (1.943⁄α∗ ) = 0.7311 + (1.943⁄14.89) = 0.8616
3-Calculate 𝑄𝑜𝑐 :
2
k (h − hp )
−4 h
Qoc = 0.0783 × 10 ∆ρq∗c
μo Bo
60 × (50 − 15)2 10𝑆𝑇𝐵
= 0.0783 × 10−4 (63.76 − 47.5) × 0.8616 =
0.73 × 1.1 𝑑𝑎𝑦

Efros’ Method:
Efros (1963) proposed a critical flow rate correlation that is based on the assumption that the
critical rate is nearly independent of drainage radius. The correlation does not account for the
effect of the vertical permeability. Efros developed the following two relationships that are
designed to calculate the critical rate in oil-water and gas-oil systems:

Water Coning:
−4
𝑘ℎ (𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )[ℎ − (ℎ − 𝐷𝑏 )]2 𝐿
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.0783 × 10 (20)
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 [𝑦𝑒 + √𝑦𝑒2 + (ℎ2 ⁄3)]

41
 Gas Coning:
𝑘ℎ (𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑔 )[ℎ − (ℎ − 𝐷𝑡 )]2 𝐿
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.0783 × 10−4 (21)
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 [𝑦𝑒 + √𝑦𝑒2 + (ℎ2 ⁄3)]
Where:
L = length of the horizontal well, ft
ye = half distance between two lines of horizontal wells
ρ = density, lb/ft3
h = net pay thickness
k = permeability, md

Example (11):
Using the horizoal well data given in Example (10), solve for the horizontal well critical flow
rate by using Efros’ correlation.

Solution:
𝑘ℎ (𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )[ℎ − (ℎ − 𝐷𝑏 )]2 𝐿
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 0.0783 × 10−4
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 [𝑦𝑒 + √𝑦𝑒2 + (ℎ2 ⁄3)]
60 × (63.76 − 47.5)[50 − (50 − 50)]2 × 1640 𝑆𝑇𝐵
= 0.0783 × 10−3 = 15
0.73 × 1.1 [1320 + √13202 + (502 ⁄3)] 𝑑𝑎𝑦
Horizontal Well Breakthrough Time:
Several authors have proposed mathematical expressions for determining the time to breakthrough in
horizontal wells. One methodology is presented in the following section:
Papatzacos’ Method: Papatzacos et al. (1989) proposed a methodology that is based on semi
analytical solutions for time development of a gas or water cone and simultaneous gas and water
cones in an anisotropic, infinite reservoir with a horizontal well placed in the oil column.

Water Coning
1- Calculate the dimensionless rate qD from the following expression:
𝑞𝐷 = 20333.66𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝑄𝑜 ⁄[𝐿ℎ(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )√𝑘𝑣 𝑘ℎ ] (22)
Where:
ρ = Density, lb/ft3
kv = Vertical permeability, md
kh = Horizontal permeability, md
h = Oil zone thickness, ft
L = Length of horizontal well
2- Solve for the dimensionless breakthrough time tDBT by applying the following relationship:
3𝑞𝐷
𝑡𝐷𝐵𝑇 = 1 − (3𝑞𝐷 − 1)𝑙𝑛 ( ) (23)
3𝑞𝐷 − 1
3- Estimate the time to the water breakthrough tBT by using the water and oil densities in the
following expression:
22758.528ℎ∅𝜇𝑜 𝑡𝐷𝐵𝑇
𝑡𝐵𝑇 = (24)
𝑘𝑣 (𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )
Where:
tBT = Time to water breakthrough as expressed in days

Gas Coning:
1- Calculate the dimensionless flow rate qD:
𝑞𝐷 = 20333.66𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝑄𝑜 ⁄[𝐿ℎ(𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑔 )√𝑘𝑣 𝑘ℎ ] (25)
2- Solve for tDBT by applying Equation (2-20).

41
 3- Estimate the time to the gas breakthrough tBT by using the gas and oil densities in the
following expression:
22758.528ℎ∅𝜇𝑜 𝑡𝐷𝐵𝑇
𝑡𝐵𝑇 = (26)
𝑘𝑣 (𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑔 )

Example (12):
Resolve Example (10) by using Papatzacos’ method, where Qo = 1000 STB/day.

Solution:
1-Calculate the dimensionless flow rate qD:
20333.66 × 0.73 × 1.1 × 1000
𝑞𝐷 = 20333.66𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝑄𝑜 ⁄[𝐿ℎ(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )√𝑘𝑣 𝑘ℎ ] = = 0.408
1640 × 50 × (63.76 − 47.5)√15 × 60
2-Calculte tDBT:
3𝑞𝐷 3 × 0.408
𝑡𝐷𝐵𝑇 = 1 − (3𝑞𝐷 − 1)𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 1 − (3 × 0.408 − 1)𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 0.6196
3𝑞𝐷 − 1 3 × 0.408 − 1
3- Estimate the time to the water breakthrough tBT:
22758.528ℎ∅𝜇𝑜 𝑡𝐷𝐵𝑇 22758.528 × 50 × 0.15 × 0.73 × 0.6196
𝑡𝐵𝑇 = = = 316.5 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
𝑘𝑣 (𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 ) 15 × (63.76 − 47.5)

Dry Gas Reservoirs

 A reservoir that produced only gas and no appreciable hydrocarbon liquids is called a dry-gas
reservoir. Gas reservoirs often have high recovery factors irrespective of the drive mechanism.
 Recovery factors of more than 80% are not uncommon and can even be found in volumetric
reservoirs. Natural gas (as it is called when sold and used) is very compressible and has a very low
viscosity, and both factors contribute to the high recovery factor.
 If a strong water drive is present, trapping of residual gas at higher pressures can reduce the
recovery factor substantially, to the range of 50 to 60% and 70 to 80 % for partial water drive.
The recovery factor is lower in water drive reservoirs primarily because water drive leaves behind
a residual gas saturation that is unrecoverable.

Estimating Initial Gas in Place for Dry Gas Reservoirs

This section presents two approaches for estimating initial gas in place G and the gas recovery for
volumetric and water-drive mechanisms:
• Volumetric method
• Material balance approach
The Volumetric Method
 Volumetric method is used early in the life of a reservoir before significant development and
production.
 In many gas reservoirs, particularly during the development period, the bulk volume is not known.
In this case it is better to place the reservoir calculations on a unit basis, usually one acre-foot of
bulk reservoir rock, and the volumetric calculations as follows:
1. Under initial conditions one acre-foot of bulk reservoir rock contains
Bulk volume = A h (acre-feet)
Pore volume= A h (acre-feet)
Reservoir gas volume = A h (1 - Swi) (acre-feet)
= 43560 A h (1 - Swi) (res.cu ft)
= 43560(1-Swi) (cu ft /ac-ft)
Original gas in place (OGIP), G = 43560(1-Swi)/ Bgi (SCF/ac-ft)
Connate water = 43560Swi (cu ft /ac-ft)

42
Where,
G Initial gas in place, SCF
A = area of reservoir, acres
h = average reservoir thickness, ft
porosity, (fraction)
Swi = water saturation, (fraction)
Bgi = gas formation volume factor, ft3/ SCF

Note: The water in the oil-and gas-bearing parts of a petroleum reservoir above the transition zone is
called connate, or interstitial water. The connate water is important primarily because it reduces the
amount of pore space available to oil and gas and its also affects their recovery.
2. With continued production, reservoir pressure drops. If Bga is the gas volume factor at
abandonment pressure, then the standard cubic feet of gas remaining at abandonment is
Ga  43560 Ah (1  Swi )/ Bga (SCF)
Ga  43560 (1  Swi )/ Bga (SCF/ac-ft)
Gas produced (Gp) Initial gas Remaining gas
 1 1 
G p  43560 Ah (1  S wi )    (SCF )
 B gi B ga 
 
 1 1 
G p  43560  (1  S wi )    (SCF ac  ft )
 B gi B ga 
 
Gas Production (G p ) ( gi   ga ) SCF cu ft
Fractional recovery (Recovery factor)= =
IGIP (Gi )  gi , SCF cu ft

Example 1:
A gas reservoir has the following characteristics:
A 3000 acres h 30 ft 0.15 Swi 20% T 150°F pi = 2600 psi

P, psi z
2600 0.82
1000 0.88
400 0.92

Calculate cumulative gas production and recovery factor at 1000 and 400 psi.
Solution:
Step 1. Calculate the reservoir pore volume P.V:
P.V  43560Ah  43560  3000  30  0.15  588.06 MMft 3
Step 2. Calculate Bg at every given pressure by using the following Equation:
zT
B g  0.02827
p
P, psi z Bg, cu ft/SCF
2600 0.82 0.0054
1000 0.88 0.0152
400 0.92 0.0397

Step 3. Calculate initial gas in place at 2600 psi:

G i = P.V(1 - Swi )/ Bgi = 588.06 106 (1-0.2)/ 0.0054 = 87.12 MMMSCF

43
Step 4. Since the reservoir is assumed volumetric, calculate the remaining gas at 1000 and 400 psi.
• Remaining gas at 1000 psi
G1000 psi = P.V(1 - Swi )/ Bg = 588.06 106 (1 - 0.2)/ 0.0152 = 30.95 MMMSCF
• Remaining gas at 400 psi
G 400 psi = P.V(1 - Swi )/ Bg = 588.06 106 (1 - 0.2)/ 0.0397 = 11.95 MMMSCF
Step 5. Calculate cumulative gas production Gp and the recovery factor RF at 1000 and 400 psi.
• At 1000 psi:
G p = Gi - G1000 psi = (87.12 - 30.95) 109 = 56.17 MMMSCF
Gas Production (G p ) 56.17 109
Recovery factor (RF) = =  64.5%
IGIP (Gi ) 87.12 109
• At 400 psi:
G p = Gi -G 400 psi = (87.12 - 11.95) 109 = 75.17 MMMSCF
Gas Production (G p ) 75.17 109
Recovery factor (RF) = =  86.3%
IGIP (Gi ) 87.12 109
Example:
Using the data in Example 1 and assuming the bulk reservoir rock equal one acre-foot, calculate the
cumulative gas production and recovery factor at 1000 and 400 psi.
Solution:
Step 1. Calculate the reservoir pore volume P.V:
P.V  43560   43560  0.15  6534ft 3
Step 2. Calculate Bg at every given pressure by using the following Equation:
zT
B g  0.02827
p
P, psi z Bg, cu ft/SCF
2600 0.82 0.0054
1000 0.88 0.0152
400 0.92 0.0397

Step 3. Calculate initial gas in place at 2600 psi:

Gi = P.V(1 - Swi )/ Bgi = 6534(1- 0.2)/ 0.0054 = 968,000 SCF ac-ft
Step 4. Since the reservoir is assumed volumetric, calculate the remaining gas at 1000 and 400 psi.
• Remaining gas at 1000 psi
G1000 psi = P.V(1 - Swi )/ Bg = 6534(1 - 0.2)/ 0.0152 = 343894.74 SCF ac-ft
• Remaining gas at 400 psi
G 400 psi = P.V(1 - Swi )/ Bg = 6534(1 - 0.2)/ 0.0397 = 131,667.51 SCF ac-ft
Step 5. Calculate cumulative gas production Gp and the recovery factor RF at 1000 and 400 psi.
• At 1000 psi:
G p = Gi - G1000 psi = 968,000 - 343,894.74= 624,105.26 SCF ac-ft
Gas Production (G p ) 624,105.26
Recovery factor (RF) = =  64.5%
IGIP (Gi ) 968,000
• At 400 psi:
G p = Gi -G 400 psi = 968,000 - 131,667.51= 836,332.49 SCF ac-ft

44
 Gas Production (G p ) 836,332.49
Recovery factor (RF) = =  86.3%
IGIP (Gi ) 968,000

3. Calculation of unit recovery from gas reservoirs under water Drive. Water encroachment occurs
when the pressure at the reservoir/aquifer boundary is reduced due to gas production from the
reservoir.
a) In many reservoirs under water drive the pressure suffers an initial decline, after which water
enters the reservoir at a rate to equal the production, and the pressure stabilizes. In this case the
stabilize pressure is the abandonment pressure. The gas remaining at abandonment in those
portions of reservoir which have invaded by water is:
Reservoir gas volume = 43560 Sgr (cu ft/ac-ft)
Surface units of gas = 43560 Sgr Bga (SCF/ac-ft)
Water volume = 43560 (1 - Sgr) (cu ft/ac-ft)
Unit recovery is the difference between the initial and the residual surface units of gas, or
Unit recovery in SCF/ ac-ft = 43560 1  Swi  B gi  S gr B ga 
1  Swi  B gi  S gr B ga 
Recovery factor expressed in per cent =   100
1  Swi  B gi
b) If the water drive is very active so that there is essentially no decline in reservoir pressure, unit
recovery and the recovery factor become

Unit recovery in SCF/ ac-ft = 43560 1  Swi  S gr B gi 
1  Swi  S gr
Recovery factor expressed in per cent = 100
1  Swi 
Where,
Bga = gas volume factor at abandonment pressure, SCF/cu ft
Sgr = residual gas saturation, (fraction)

Example:
A gas reservoir has the following characteristics:
Average porosity = 22 per cent connate water = 23 per cent
Residual gas saturation after water displacement = 34 per cent Area = 160 acres
B gi  188.0 SCF cu ft at pi  3250 psia Net productive thickness = 40 ft
B g  150.0 SCF cu ft at 2500 psia
 27.6 SCF cu ft at 500 psia
Calculate cumulative gas production and recovery factor at 3250, 2500, and 500 psia under partial and
complete water drive.

Solution:
Step 1. Calculate the reservoir pore volume P.V:
P.V  43560Ah  43560 160  40  0.22  61.33MM cu ft
Step 2. Calculate cumulative gas production Gp and the recovery factor RF at 3250, 2500, and 500
psia.

•At 3250 psi:


Unit recovery = gas production  G p  = 43560 Ah 1  Swi  S gr B gi 
= 43560 160  40  0.22 1  0.23  0.34  188  4958.118MM SCF

45
 1  Swi  S gr 1  0.23  0.34
Recovery factor = 100 = 100  55.844%
1  Swi  1  0.23
• At 2500 psi:
 
Unit recovery = gas production G p = 43560 Ah 1  Swi  B gi  S gr B ga 
= 43560 160  40  0.22 1  0.23188  0.34 150  5750.533MM SCF
1  Swi  B gi  S gr B ga 
Recovery factor =   100 = 1  0.23 188  0.34 150 100  64.77%
1  Swi  B gi 1  0.23 188
• At 500 psi:
Unit recovery = gas production  Gp  = 43560 Ah 1  Swi  B gi  S gr B ga 
= 43560 160  40  0.22 1  0.23188  0.34  27.6  8302.945MM SCF
1  Swi  B gi  S gr B ga 
Recovery factor =   100 = 1  0.23 188  0.34  27.6 100  93.52%
1  Swi  B gi 1  0.23 188
The Material Balance Method
 In general, the use of pressure decline as a means to calculate the original gas in place assumes
that the space occupied by the gas is constant. This means that the expansion of the rock and
water is negligible and that no subsidence or collapse of the reservoir rock exists.
 If enough production-pressure history is available for a gas reservoir, the initial gas in place G
and the gas reserves can be calculated without knowing A, h, , or Sw.
 This is accomplished by forming a mass or mole balance on the gas as:
np ni nf (1)
Where,
np moles of gas produced
ni moles of gas initially in the reservoir
nf moles of gas remaining in the reservoir

Notice that if there is a water drive, then the final hydrocarbon pore volume is not equal to the
original volume as shown in Figure 1 . the final volume is equal to:
V f V  ( W e  BwW p )
The gas moles in Equation 1 can be replaced by their equivalents using the real gas law to give:
psc G p p V  (W e  BwW p ) 
 
pV
 i (2)
RT sc z i RT z RT
Where,
V s .c  G p
pi initial reservoir pressure, psi
Gp cumulative gas production, SCF
p current reservoir pressure or reservoir pressure after Gp production , psi
V original gas volume or initial reservoir volume occupied by gas, ft3
Vf = gas occupied reservoir volume after Gp, Wp production, ft3
zi gas deviation factor at pi
z gas deviation factor at p
T temperature, °R
46
We cumulative water influx or volume of encroached water, ft3
Wp= cumulative water production, STB
Bw = water formation volume factor, cu ft/STB

Figure 1: Schematic diagrams by material balance in gas reservoir.

Equation 2 is essentially the general material balance equation (MBE). Equation 2 can be
expressed in numerous forms depending on the type of the application and the driving mechanism. In
general, dry gas reservoirs can be classified into two categories:
• Volumetric gas reservoirs
• Water-drive gas reservoirs

Volumetric Gas Reservoirs

For a volumetric reservoir and assuming no water production, Equation 2 is reduced to:
psc G p  pi   p 
   V   V (3)
T sc z T
 i   z T 
Equation 3 is commonly expressed in the following two forms:

Form 1. In terms of p/z

Rearranging Equation 3 and solving for p/z gives:
p pi  psc T 
  G p (4)
z z i  T scV 
Equation 4 is an equation of a straight line when (p/z) is plotted versus the cumulative gas
production Gp, as shown in Figure 1. This straight-line relationship is perhaps one of the most widely
used relationships in gas-reserve determination.
The straight-line relationship provides the engineer with the reservoir characteristics:
• Slope of the straight line is equal to:
p T
slope  sc
T scV
The original gas volume V can be calculated from the slope and used to determine the areal extend
of the reservoir from:
V  43560 Ah (1  Swi )
Where A is the reservoir area in acres.
• Intercept at Gp = 0 gives pi/zi
• Intercept at p/z = 0 gives the gas initially in place G in SCF
• The gas recovery at any particular value of p/z can be read directly from the plot.

47
 pi
zi

psc T
slope 
T scV
p/z

Gp
Figure 1: Gas material balance equation.

Example:
A volumetric gas reservoir has the following production history.

Time, t Reservoir pressure, z Cumulative production,

years p Gp
psia MMMSCF
0.0 1798 0.869 0.00
0.5 1680 0.870 0.96
1.0 1540 0.880 2.12
1.5 1428 0.890 3.21
2.0 1335 0.900 3.92

The following data is also available:

13% Swi = 0.52 A = 1060 acres h = 54 ft T = 164°F
Calculate the gas initially in place volumetrically and from the MBE.
Solution:
Step 1. Calculate Bgi:
zT 0.869  624
B gi  0.02827  0.02827  0.00853 ft 3 SCF
p 1798
Step 2. Calculate the gas initially in place volumetrically:
43560 Ah (1  Swi ) 43560 1060  54  0.13(1  0.52)
G    18.2 MMMSCF
B gi 0.00853
Step 3. Plot p/z versus Gp as shown in Figure 2 and determine G.
G = 14.2 MMMSCF

Time, t Reservoir z p/z Cumulative production,

years pressure, p Gp
psia MMMSCF
0.0 1798 0.869 2069.045 0.00
0.5 1680 0.870 1931.034 0.96
1.0 1540 0.880 1750 2.12
1.5 1428 0.890 1604.494 3.21
2.0 1335 0.900 1483.333 3.92

48
 2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
P/z

1200
1000
800
600
400 G = 14.2 MMMSCF
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Gp, MMMSCF
Figure 2: Relationship of p/z vs. Gp

The initial reservoir gas volume V can be expressed in terms of the volume of gas at standard
conditions by:
p z T 
V  B gi G   sc i G
 T sc pi 
Combining the above relationship with that of Equation 4 gives:
p pi  pi 1 
  G p (5)
z z i  z i G 
Again, Equation 5 shows that for a volumetric reservoir, the relationship between (p/z) and Gp is
essentially linear. This popular equation indicates that by extrapolation of the straight line to abscissa,
i.e., at p/z = 0, will give the value of the gas initially in place as G = Gp.
The graphical representation of Equation 5 can be used to detect the presence of water influx, as
shown graphically in Figure 3. When the plot of (p/z) versus Gp deviates from the linear relationship,
it indicates the presence of water encroachment.

49
 Figure 3: Effect of water drive on p/z vs. Gp relationship.

Recovery Factor:
If the reservoir is homogenous and volumetric (i.e no water drive), the recovery factor can be
determined from
p i T sc p T
 a sc
( gi   ga ) SCF cu ft p z T p sc z a T
Recovery factor =  sc i
 gi , SCF cu ft p i T sc
p sc z i T
p i pa

zi za z p
  1 i a
pi z a pi
zi
Form 2. In terms of Bg
From the definition of the gas formation volume factor, it can be expressed as:
V piT sc pT sc
B gi  cu ft SCF B gi  SCF cu ft Bg  SCF cu ft
G psc z iT psc zT
 psc z i T  V
   (6)
 pi T sc  G
Where,
V = volume of gas originally in place, ft3
G = volume of gas originally in place, SCF
pi = original reservoir pressure
zi = gas compressibility factor at pi
Equation 6 can be combined with equation 3, to give:
G p B g  G (B g  B gi ) (7)

51
 Equation 7 is an equation of a straight line when (GpBg ) is plotted versus (Bg -Bgi), as shown in
Figure 4, which has an intercept, b, of b = 0 and a slop ,m, of m = G if the reservoir has no water
influx and the formation compressibility is negligible. If the line in the plot is not straight but curves
upward, it means that a water drive is present. If the line in the plot is not straight but curves
downward, it means that formation compressibility is not negligible.

GpBg

Slope = G

Bg -Bgi
Figure 4: Relationship of GpBg vs Bg - Bgi.

Example:
After producing 360 MMSCF of gas from a volumetric gas reservoir, the pressure has declined
from 3200 psi to 3000 psi, given:
Bgi = 0.005278 ft3/SCF Bg = 0.005390 ft3/SCF
a. Calculate the gas initially in place.
b. Recalculate the gas initially in place assuming that the pressure measurements were incorrect and
the true average pressure is 2900 psi. The gas formation volume factor at this pressure is 0.00558
ft3/SCF.
Solution:
a. Calculate G.
Gp Bg 360 106  0.00539
G   17.325 MMMSCF
B g  B gi 0.00539  0.005278
b. Recalculate G by using the correct value of Bg.
Gp Bg 360 106  0.00558
G   6.652 MMMSCF
B g  B gi 0.00558  0.005278

Water-Drive Gas Reservoirs

If the gas reservoir has a water drive, then there will be two unknowns in the material balance
equation. These two unknowns are initial gas in place and cumulative water influx.
Equation 7 can be modified to include the cumulative water influx and water production to give:
G p B g  G (B g  B gi )  W e  BwW p
G p B g  (W e  Bw W p )
G (8)
B g  B gi
Where,
Gp cumulative gas production, SCF
G = volume of gas originally in place, SCF
We = water influx, cu ft

51
Wp= cumulative water production, STB
Bw = water formation volume factor, cu ft/STB
Bgi = gas volume factor at initial pressure, cu ft/SCF
Bg = gas volume factor at current pressure, cu ft/SCF

Example:
Calculate water influx and residual gas saturation in water-drive gas reservoirs.
Given:
Initial bulk reservoir volume = 415.3 MM cu ft
Average porosity = 0.172 Average connate water = 0.25 Initial pressure = 3200 psia
Bgi = 0.005262 cu ft/SCF Final pressure = 2925 psia Bg = 0.005700 cu ft/SCF
Cumulative water production = 15,200 STB Bw = 1.03 bbl/STB
GP = 935.4 MM SCF at 14.7 psia and 60 oF
Bulk volume invaded by water at 2925 psia = 13.04 MM cu ft
Solution:
V  (1  Swi ) 415.3 106  0.172  (1  0.25)
Initial gas in place  G  i   10.174 MMMSCF
B gi 0.005262
W e  G p B g  G (B g  B gi )  BwW p
 935.4 106  0.005700  10.174 109 (0.005700  0.005262)  1.03  5.615 15200  963.476 Mcu ft

This much water has invaded 13.04MM cu ft of bulk rock, which initially contained 25 per cent
connate water. Then the final water saturation of the flooded portion of the reservoir is
connate water  water influx  produced water (13.04 106  0.172  0.25)  963.476 103  15200 1.03  5.615
Sw  
pore space 13.04 106  0.172
 0.6404 or 64.04%

Then the residual gas saturation Sgr is 35.96%

Material Balance Equation as a Straight Line

Havlena and Odeh (1963) expressed the material balance in terms of gas production, fluid
expansion, and water influx as:

Underground withdrawal = Gas expansion + Water expansion/ pore compaction + Water influx
cw Swi  c f
G p B g W p Bw  G (B g  B gi )  GB gi p  We
1  Swi
Using the nomenclature of Havlena and Odeh gives:
F  G (E g  E f , w )  W e (9)
With the terms F, Eg, and Ef,w as defined by:
• Underground fluid withdrawal F:
F  G p B g  W p Bw

• Gas expansion Eg:

E g  B g  B gi
• Water and rock expansion Ef,w:
cw Swi  c f
E f , w  B gi p
1  Swi

52
 Assuming that the rock and water expansion term Ef,w is negligible in comparison with the gas
expansion Eg, Equation 9 is reduced to:
F  GE g W e
Finally, dividing both sides of the equation by Eg gives:
F W
G  e (10)
Eg Eg
Dake (1994) points out that the plot will have one of the three shapes depicted in Figure 5. If the
reservoir is of the volumetric depletion type, We = 0, then the values of F/Eg evaluated, and plot as a
straight line parallel to the abscissa whose ordinate value is the GIIP.
Alternatively, if the reservoir is affected by natural water influx then the plot of F/E g will usually
produce a concave downward shaped arc.
The graphical presentation of Equation 10 is illustrated by Figure 6. A graph of F/Eg vs.
 pW eD E g yields a straight line. The resulting straight line intersects the y-axis at the initial gas in
place G and has a slope equal to the water influx constant B.

Figure 5. Defining the reservoir-driving mechanism.

Slope = B
F/Eg

  pW eD  E g
Figure 6. Havlena-Odeh MBE plot for a gas reservoir.

53
Example:
The volumetric estimate of the gas initially in place for a dry-gas reservoir ranges from 1.3 to 1.65
× 1012 SCF. Production, pressures, and pertinent gas expansion term, i.e,
Eg = Bg - Bgi, are presented in Table below. Calculate the original gas in place G.

Solution:
Step 1. Assume volumetric gas reservoir.
Step 2. Plot (p/z) versus Gp or Gp Bg/(Bg - Bgi) versus Gp.
Step 3. A plot of Gp Bg/(Bg - Bgi) vs. Gp Bg indicating water influx as shown in Figure 7.

Table: Havlena-Odeh Dry-Gas Reservoir Data

Time, Average Eg  F  pW eD 106 F

months Reservoir
Pressure,   
B g  B gi 106 G p B g 10 
6
B g  B gi Eg
psi GpBg
1012
(ft3/SCF) (ft3) B g  B gi

0 2,883 0.0 - - -
2 2,881 4.0 5.5340 0.3536 1.3835
4 2,874 18.0 24.5967 0.4647 1.3665
6 2,866 34.0 51.1776 0.6487 1.5052
8 2,857 52.0 76.9246 0.7860 1.4793
10 2,849 68.0 103.3184 0.9306 1.5194
12 2,841 85.0 131.5371 1.0358 1.5475
14 2,826 116.5 180.0178 1.0315 1.5452
16 2,808 154.5 240.7764 1.0594 1.5584
18 2,794 185.5 291.3014 1.1485 1.5703
20 2,782 212.0 336.6281 1.2426 1.5879
22 2,767 246.0 392.8592 1.2905 1.5970
24 2,755 273.5 441.3134 1.3702 1.6136
26 2,741 305.5 497.2907 1.4219 1.6278
28 2,726 340.0 556.1110 1.4672 1.6356
30 2,712 373.5 613.6513 1.5174 1.6430
32 2,699 405.0 672.5969 1.5714 1.6607
34 2,688 432.5 723.0868 1.6332 1.6719
36 2,667 455.5 771.4902 1.7016 1.6937

Step 4. Assuming a linear water influx, plot Gp Bg/(Bg Bgi) versus  pW eD B g  B gi as
shown in Figure 8.
Step 5. From Figure 8, determine the original gas in place G and the linear water influx constant B
as:
G  1.3134 1012 SCF
B  221.4 103 ft 3 psi

54
 1.8
1.7
1.6
F/Eg, 1012 SCF 1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0 200 400 600 800
Gp Bg, MM ft3

Figure 7: Indication of the water influx.

1.8
y = 0.2214x + 1.3134
1.7 R² = 0.9732
F/Eg, 1012 SCF

1.6

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
(∑ΔPWeD / Bg - Bgi), MM
Figure 8: Havlena-Odeh MBE

Wet Gas Reservoirs

 If we consider Figure 1, point A represents either initial or current conditions. The vertical line
(constant temperature) represents the pressure traverse taken in the reservoir caused by production.
 Notice that vertical line is to the right of the phase envelope, and therefore, the fluid state in the
reservoir remains 100% gas with pressure depletion. However, the pressure-temperature traverse
from the reservoir pressure at point A through the tubular to the separator dose enter the two-phase
region with resultant liquid dropping out.
 Because (1) there is associated liquid production and (2) single phase gas in the reservoir.
However, the cumulative gas production should be modified to include the “gas equivalent” of
these condensed liquids. If liquids do drop out in the reservoir, then the methods of the “gas
condensate” chapter can be used.
 The produced liquid or condensate can be converted to its gas equivalent (if the specific gravity,
γo, is known) by assuming that it behaves as an ideal gas when vaporized in the produced gas.
The gas equivalent, GE, is:

55
 nRT sc 350.5 o RT sc
GE V   scf STB
psc M o p sc

If standard conditions are 14.7 psia and 520 oR, and the gas constant, R =10.73, then the gas
equivalent is:
o
GE  133, 000 scf STB (1)
Mo
Cragoe has provided the following formula as an estimate of the molecular weight of the condensate:
44.29 o 6084
Mo  
1.03   o API  5.9
It is common for a small amount of water to be produced as a condensate from the gas phase. If it is
actually from the gas phase, it will be fresh and should be added to the gas production. Since the
specific gravity of fresh water is 1.00 and its molecular weight 18, its gas equivalent is:
nRT sc 350.5 1.00 RT sc
GEw    scf STB
psc 18 psc
At the same conditions as for Equation 1, the gas equivalent for water produced as condensate is 7,390
scf/STB.

Figure 1: Phase diagram of a typical wet gas with line of isothermal reduction of
reservoir pressure.
Example:
Determine the total daily gas production from a reservoir, including the gas equivalents of liquid
hydrocarbons (condensate) and water. The available data are:
Separator-gas production = 1.0 MMscf/D condensate production = 20.0 STB/D
Stock- tank gas production = 3.0 Mscf/D fresh-water production = 3.0 STB/D
Initial pressure = 3500 psia current reservoir pressure = 1000 psia
Reservoir temperature = 200 oF condensate gravity = 60 oAPI (0.739 sp.gr.)
Solution:
44.29 o 44.29  0.739
Mo    112.5 lb mole
1.03   o 1.03  0.739

56
 o 0.739
GE  133, 000 133, 000  873.7 scf STB
Mo 112.5
Or GE  873.7  20  17, 474scf D
Total hydrocarbon gas equivalent production = 1000,000 + 17,474 + 3,000
= 1,020,474 scf/D
Water equivalent production:
According to Slider, for material balance calculations, any water production in excess of the original
equilibrium (saturated) water vapor should be treated as produced water. Note that Figure 2 indicates
increased water content of natural gas at lower pressures. But, if this is happening in the reservoir, it is
connate water that is being vaporized. The production of some interstitial (connate) water acts to
increase the pore volume available to gas. When calculating gas equivalent water production, use the
water content (from Figure 2) at the original reservoir pressure.
From Figure 2, at 3500 psia and 200 oF, the equilibrium water vapor is 260 lb/MMscf.
bbl/MMscf = 260/350 = 0.743 bbl/MMscf.
Gas equivalent water production = 0.743×7390×1.020474 ≈5600 scf/D
Hence, the total daily vapor (equivalent gas) production is:
Gp = 1020.5+5.6 = 1026.1 Mscf/D
And at 1000 psia, the reservoir liquid water production (to be used with the material balance equation)
is: Qw = 3 - (0.743×1.02) = 2.24 bbl/D

57
Figure 2: Water content of natural gas in equilibrium with liquid water.

Calculation of Initial in-Place Gas and Oil From Field Data-Wet Gas Reservoir
 The method can also be used for a retrograde gas condensate reservoir if the measured data have
been obtained early in the life of the reservoir when the reservoir fluid is in a single phase. Gas-
cap and condensate can be determined in the same manner.
 It is important to note that there is gas production at the separator and at the stock tank. Additional
gas escapes from the oil (condensate) at stock tank conditions. Thus, to get the average produced
gas gravity:
(q g ,sep )( g ,sep )  (q g , tank )( g , tank )
 g ,avg 
(q g ,sep  q g , tank )
where:
 g ,avg : average produced gas gravity (air = 1.0),
q g ,sep : producing gas rate measured at the separator, Mscf/D,
 g ,sep : separator gas gravity (air = 1.0),
q g ,tank : Stock tank vent gas rate, Mscf/D, and
 g ,tank : vent gas gravity (air = 1.0).

58
 Then, the actual producing gas/oil ratio is:

 q g ,sep  q g ,tank 
R =  1000
 q o 
Where:
R = producing gas/oil ratio, scf/STB, and
q o = oil (condensate) producing rate, STB/D.

Now, consider one stock barrel of produced condensate and its associated gas, R (scf). Then, the
total pounds of well fluid is:
R   g ,avg  28.97
mw   350 o  0.07636 R  g  350 o
379.4
 R 
Weight of the gas =     g ,avg  28.97  Weight of the oil = 350 o
 379.4 
Where:
mw = Total pounds of well fluid associated with one STB of condensate,
 o = Specific gravity of the stock tank condensate (water = 1),
28.97= The molecular weight of air,
379.4= number of cu ft of gas in 1 mole at 60 oF and 14.7 psia,
350 = number of pounds that one barrel of water weighs.

The tank oil specific gravity (60 oF and 14.7 psia) is obtained from the API gravity of the tank oil
using the following equation:
141.5
o 
API  131.5

Then, the total moles of gas and oil associated with one barrel of oil condensate is:
R 350 o 350 o
nt    0.002636 R 
379.4 Mo Mo
Where:
nt = total moles of gas and oil associated with 1 STB of condensate,
γo = Tank oil specific gravity (water = 1.0), and
Mo = Molecular weight of condensate.

Where the molecular weight of the tank oil is not known it may be estimated using the following
formula:
44.29 o 6084
Mo  
1.03   o API  5.9

The total well fluid molecular weight can be calculated:

m 0.07636 R  g  350 o
Mw  w 
nt 350 o
0.002636 R 
Mo
Mw
Total well fluid gas gravity (air = 1) is or
28.97

59
 R  g  4584 o
w  (1)
o
R  132,800
Mo
Assume that specific gravity from equation 1 is representative of the reservoir vapor. Now
determine approximate pseudocritical pressure and temperature from the condensate well fluids
curves of Figure 2-2. With the reservoir temperature and discovery pressure, pseudoreduced
temperature and pressure are calculated:
p T
p pr  T pr 
p pc T pc

Where:
Ppr = pseudoreduced pressure, discovery conditions,
P = reservoir static discovery pressure, psia,
Ppc = pseudocritical pressure, psia,
Tpr = pseudoreduced reservoir temperature,
Tf = formation temperature, oF, and
Tpc = pseudocritical temperature, oR.

The z factor is obtained from Figure 1.5.

If we consider that (43,560)(ϕ)(1-Swi) is equal to the volume in cubic feet available for reservoir
gas in one acre-foot of reservoir rock.
At this point, let “G” represent the total initial standard cubic feet of gas (one phase reservoir
vapor including gas, condensate vapor, and water vapor) in place per net acre-foot of reservoir rock.
Then, the total moles in “G”: n = G/379.4
Substitute both the volume and mole results into the real gas law:
pV  znRT
 G 
p  43560  (1  Swi )   z   R T f  460 
 379.4 

Simplifying and using R = 10.73, obtain:

p (1  Swi )
G  1,540, 230  (SCF/ac-ft)
z T f  460 

Where:
G = total initial scf of reservoir vapor per net ac-ft of reservoir rock,
P = discovery pressure, psia,
ϕ = porosity, fraction,
Swi = water saturation, fraction,
z = reservoir gas discovery conditions z factor, and
Tf = formation temperature, oF.

The surface gas mole fraction is:

ng R 379.4
fg  
n g  no R 379.4  350  o
Mo
Where f g is equal to the gas mole fraction related to gas and condensate. This is also equal to the
mole fraction of reservoir fluid that will be surface gas. Then:
GIP  f gG

61
Where:
GIP = initial hydrocarbon in place (scf/net ac-ft) that will be gas at the surface, or we usually say
initial gas in place.
GIP
OIP 
R
Where:
OIP = initial oil (condensate) in place, STB/net ac-ft).

qf =
q g ,sep  q g ,  tank

fg
Where:
q f = total daily reservoir fluid (gas +condensate) production, Mscf/D.

Then, to calculate total daily reservoir voidage:

 q g ,sep  q g ,tank   T f  460  14.7 

Voidage =     z
 f g   s .c
T  460  p 
Where:
Voidage = total daily reservoir volume of hydrocarbon fluid withdrawn, thousands of reservoir
cubic feet per day, (Mcf/D, not Mscf/D),
Tf = formation temperature, oF.
P = formation pressure, psia, and
z = z factor corresponding to pressure, p.

Example:
Determine the initial gas and condensate in place per net acre-foot of reservoir rock for the
following data:
Discovery pressure = 3000 psia Reservoir temperature =200 oF
Average porosity = 20% Average water saturation = 30%
Oil (condensate) producing rate = 200 STB/D Oil gravity, 60 oF = 55 oAPI
Gas producing rate = 3,000 Mscf/D Separator gas gravity = 0.70
Vent gas produced at the stock tank = 100 Mscf/D Vent gas gravity = 1.10
Solution:
Average gas gravity =
(q g ,sep )( g ,sep )  (q g ,tank )( g , tank ) (3000  0.7)  (100 1.10)
 g ,avg    0.713
(q g ,sep  q g ,tank ) (3000  100)
141.5 141.5
o    0.759
API  131.5 55  131.5

6084 6084
Mo    123.9
API  5.9 55  5.9

total gas 3000 + 100

R=  1000 = 15,500 SCF/STB
total oil 200

61
 R   g ,avg  28.97 15500  0.713  28.97
mw   350 o   350  0.759  1,109.5 lb
379.4 379.4
R 350 o15,500 350  0.759
nt      43.00 moles
379.4 Mo 379.4 123.9

mw 1,109.5
Mw    25.80
nt 43.00
Mw 25.80
w    0.891
28.97 28.97
From Figure 2-2, at γw = 0.891, Tpc = 426 oR and ppc = 651 psia using the condensate curves.
Then
p 3000 T 660
p pr    4.608 T pr    1.49
p pc 651 T pc 426
Using Fig. 1.5, the gas deviation factor is 0.813 at 3000 psia and 200 oF. Then the initial
hydrocarbon vapor in place per acre-foot of reservoir rock is:
p (1  S wi ) 3000  0.20(1  0.30)
G  1, 540, 230  =1, 540, 230 
z T f  460  0.813  660
The mole
=1,205,592 scf/ac-ft =1,205.6 Mscf/acre-foot
fraction of the total initial hydrocarbon fluid in place that is residue or sales gas is:
R 379.4 15,500 379.4
fg    0.9502
o 0.759
R 379.4  350 15,500 379.4  350
Mo 123.0
Then,
Initial gas in place = f g G  0.9502 1, 205.6  1,145.5 Mscf ac  ft
G 1,145,500
Initial oil in place =   73.9 STB ac  ft
R 15,500
The total daily hydrocarbon vapor production is:
daily gas 3000 + 100
G p =  = 3,262 Mscf/day
0.9502 0.9502
The total daily reservoir voidage is
 q g ,sep  q g , tank   T f  460  14.7 
Voidage =     z
 f g   s .c
T  460  p 
660 14.7
 3, 262, 000    0.813  16, 493cu ft / day
520 3000
Gas/Condensate Reservoirs
 When a gas reservoir produces significant quantities of liquids along with the gas, it is called a
wet-gas or retrograde-condensate reservoirs.
 As the reservoir is produced, the temperature remains constant but the pressure decreases through
the dewpoint line into the two-phase region and liquids start to drop out into the reservoir.
 As the temperature of a retrograde gas/condensate gets closer to the critical temperature, the
gas/condensate becomes richer in terms of condensate content. A fluid with a pressure above
dewpoint and a temperature just above critical temperature is a rich gas/condensate. If the
temperature is slightly lower than the critical temperature, the reservoir fluid is a volatile oil.

62
 A retrograde- gas/ condensate reservoir must be managed differently because the liquids can
condense out in the reservoir, which can greatly reduce recovery of the liquids. Therefore, it is
desirable to keep the reservoir pressure above the dew point at all times to prevent condensation of
the liquids. The most common way to do this is to reinject the dry produced gas after it is
separated from the liquids, this process is called gas cycling.
 Other methods that have been used include nitrogen injection, flue-gas injection (flue gas is
primarily nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide), and waterflooding. Injecting gases,
such as nitrogen and flue gas, tends to contaminate the reservoir gas and can make subsequent
separation necessary; however, it is still economical.

The Difference between the Gas/Condensate and Volatile Oil Reservoirs

 A very rich gas/ condensate has a pressure and temperature slightly above critical and a very
volatile oil has pressure and temperature slightly below critical.
 Defining the difference between these reservoir fluids, the reservoir fluid at reservoir pressure and
temperature is put into a PVT cell. The volume is increased to lower the pressure until the dew
point or bubble point pressure is reached. Lowering the pressure further causes the one phase to
start separating into two phases. If the new phase has a lower density and starts forming at the top
of the cell, the fluid is a volatile oil and gas is bubbling out of the oil. If the new phase appears at
the bottom of the cell, it is a gas/ condensate and liquid is condensing out of the gas.

Gas/Condensate Material Balance

Gas/condensate material balance is similar to dry-gas material balance except that some extra
terms appear in the definitions of variables. Using the nomenclature of Havlena and Odeh gives:
F  G (E g  B gi E f , w )  W (1)
With the terms F, Eg, Ef,w, and ΔW, as defined by:
E g  Btg  B gi (2)
 cw Swi  c f 
Ef    p
 1  Swi
,w

W  W e  Bw W p W i 
 B g 1  R s Rvi    Rvi  Rv  B o 
B tg    (3)
 1  Rv R s  

 B o 1  Rv R si    R si  R s  B g 
B to   
 1  Rv R s  

 B  Rs B g   B g  Rv B o 
F Np o   G p  G i    (4)
 1  Rv R s   1  Rv R s 
Where,
Ef,w = formation expansion factor
Eg = gas expansion factor, bbl/SCF
F = reservoir voidage from production, bbl
We = water encroachment from aquifer, res. bbl
Wi = cumulative water injected at current conditions, STB
Wp = cumulative water produced at current conditions, STB
Gi = cumulative gas injected at current conditions, SCF

63
Gp = cumulative gas produced at current conditions, SCF
Bg = gas formation volume factor at current conditions, bbl/SCF
Bgi = initial gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF
Bo = oil formation volume factor at current conditions, bbl/STB
Boi = initial oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Btg = total gas formation volume factor at current conditions, bbl/SCF
Bto = total oil formation volume factor at current conditions, bbl/STB
Bw = water formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Rs = solution-gas/oil ratio at current conditions, SCF/STB
Rsi = initial solution-gas/oil ratio, SCF/STB
Rv = volatile- oil/gas ratio at current conditions, STB/SCF
Rvi = initial volatile- oil/gas ratio, STB/SCF
Swi = initial water saturation

Notes:
 Because gas injection (cycling) is common in gas/condensate reservoirs, the gas-injection term is
included in Equation 4.
 While the pressure remains above the dewpoint, Rv = Rvi = Np/Gp, Eq. 3 reduces to Btg = Bg, Eq. 2
becomes Eg = Bg - Bgi, and Eq. 4 reduces to F = Bg (Gp-Gi). Therefore, when a gas/condensate
reservoir is above the dewpoint and no gas is reinjected, F = Bg Gp. however, if the reservoir
pressure is above the dewpoint and all the produced is reinjected, then effectively Gp - Gi = 0 and
Eq. 4 reduces to F = 0.
 Above the dewpoint, Bo and Rs are not defined because there is no liquid phase, just as Bg and Rv
are not defined above the bubble point in an oil reservoir because no gas phase exists. We can
show theoretically that
1 Bg
Rs  and B o   B g Rs
Rvi Rvi above the dewpoint

Material Balance Plots for Gas/Condensates

The first two material-balance plots for gas/condensates are the same as for dry-gas reservoirs and
apply only when the gas/condensate reservoir is above the dewpoint.
Plot 1:
G p B g vs .  B g  B g i 
GpBg

Slope = G

Bg -Bgi

This plot has an intercept, b, of b = 0 and a slop, m, of m = G provided that the reservoir has no
water influx, the formation compressibility is negligible, and the pressure is above the dewpoint. If the
64
line in the plot is not straight but curves upward, it usually means that ΔW is not negligible and a
water drive is present. If the line in the plot is not straight but curves downward, it means that (E f,w ) is
not negligible.

Plot 2:
p
vs . G p
z

pi
zi

pi
slope 
z G
p/z

Gp

In this plot, b = pi/zi on the y axis, b = G on the x axis, and m = pi/ziG. The gas recovery at any
particular value of p/z can be read directly from the plot. As with plot 1, if the line in the plot curves
upward, it usually means that ΔW is not negligible and a water drive is present. If the line curves
downward, it means that (Ef,w ) is not negligible.

Plot 3:
In gas/condensate reservoirs with a water drive, Eq. 1 can be rearranged as

F W
G 
E g  B gi E f ,w E g  B gi E f ,w

F
vs . t or G p
E g  B gi E f ,w

65
 If no water drive is present, the line would be horizontal and equal G. if the reservoir is affected by
natural water influx then the plot will usually produce a concave downward shaped arc.
Plot 4:
To analyze both infinite and finite acting aquifers, Havlena and Odeh suggested the following plot for
dry-gas reservoirs, but it is equally applicable to gas/condensate reservoirs.
F/Eg vs.   pW eD  E g

Slope = B
F/Eg

  pW eD  E g
The slope, m, of this plot is the aquifer constant (B), and the intercept, b, is the OGIP, G.
Plot 5:
To account properly for water and formation compressibilities and for production below the dew
point, plot 1 needs to be generalized to include the compressibility terms and the condensate
production to obtain
F vs. E g  B gi E f ,w
F

Slope = G

Eg + Bgi Ef,w

This plot is linear, m, G and b = 0 and this plot is a more general version of plot 1 and it applies
below as well as above the dewpoint.

Note: with all these plots, once G has been determined, the amount of condensate in place is equal to
GRvi.

66
Example:
A gas/condensate reservoir has the fluid PVT and production data given in the table below:

P Np Gp Wp Bg Bo Rs Rv
(psia) (MMSTB) (MMMSCF) (STB) (RB/MSCF) (RB/STB) (SCF/STB) (STB/MMSCF)

3558 0 0 0 0.74311 - - 148.0

3428 0.410 2.8 0 0.7722 1.76766 2155.55 148.0
3000 1.160 9.4 0 0.82457 1.65259 1555.46 87.5105
2400 2.520 20 0 0.97304 1.54709 1020.55 50.2976
1800 3.930 35 0 1.30459 1.3605 637.632 33.4408
1200 5.060 49 0 1.99091 1.1914 290.637 27.4227
700 6.150 60 0 3.54322 1.07162 107.997 29.5971
Calculate Bto , Btg, F, Eg and plot Bto , Btg, Rs and Rv as functions of pressure and make a plot of F vs.
Eg to determine the original gas and condensate in place. for this reservoir, the dewpoint pressure is
3428 psia and cf cw are negligible.
Solution:
Step 1. Calculate Bto , Btg, F, and Eg.

P Bto Btg F Eg
(psia) (RB/STB) (RB/SCF) (MMres bbl) (RB/MSCF)
3558 - 0.0007431 0 0
3428 1.76766 0.0007722 2.161 0.02909
3000 2.12491 0.0008505 7.895 0.10739
2400 2.61815 0.0010301 20.345 0.28702
1800 3.31334 0.0013665 47.151 0.62339
1200 4.87268 0.0020654 99.850 1.32230
700 8.28466 0.0036251 215.616 2.88200

Step 2. plot Bto , Btg, Rs and Rv as functions of pressure and plot F vs. Eg.

9
8
7
6
Bto, RB/STB

5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Pressure, psia

67
 0.004
0.0035
0.003
0.0025
Btg, RB/SCF 0.002
0.0015
0.001
0.0005
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Pressure, psia

2500

2000
Rs, SCF/STB

1500

1000

500

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Pressure, psia

160
140
Rv, STB/MMSCF

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Pressure, psia

68
 250
y = 74.979x - 0.1018
R² = 0.9999
200

F,MM res bbl

150

100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4
Eg, RB/MSCF

Step 3. the original gas is 74.979 MMMSCF and the original condensate in place is
GRvi  74.979 109 148 106  11.1MMSTB

Analysis of Decline Curves

 Decline curves are one of the most extensively used forms of data analysis employed in evaluating gas
reserves and predicting future production.
 The decline-curve analysis technique is based on the assumption that past production trends and their
controlling factors will continue in the future and, therefore, can be extrapolated and described by a
mathematical expression.
 The method of extrapolating a “trend” for the purpose of estimating future performance must satisfy the
condition that the factors that caused changes in past performance, for example, decline in the flow rate,
will operate in the same way in the future. These decline curves are characterized by three factors:
• Initial production rate, or the rate at some particular time
• Curvature of the decline
• Rate of decline
 Application of decline-curve analysis techniques to gas reservoirs is most appropriate when more
conventional volumetric or material-balance methods are not accurate or when sufficient data are not
available to justify complex reservoir simulation.

 Arps (1945) proposed that the “curvature” in the production-rate-versus-time curve can be expressed
mathematically by a member of the hyperbolic family of equations. Arps recognized the following three
types of rate-decline behavior:
• Exponential decline
• Harmonic decline
• Hyperbolic decline

 Each type of decline curve has a different curvature, as shown in Figure 1. This figure depicts the
characteristic shape of each type of decline when the flow rate is plotted versus time or versus cumulative
production on Cartesian, semi log, and log-log scales.
 The main characteristics of these decline curves can be used to select the flow-rate decline model that is
appropriate for describing the rate–time relationship of the hydrocarbon system:
 For exponential decline: A straight-line relationship will result when the flow rate versus time is plotted
on a semi log scale and also when the flow rate versus cumulative production is plotted on a Cartesian
scale.
 For harmonic decline: Rate versus cumulative production is a straight line on a semi log scale; all other
types of decline curves have some curvature. There are several shifting techniques that are designed to
straighten out the curve that results from plotting flow rate versus time on a log-log scale.

69
 For hyperbolic decline: None of the above plotting scales, that is, Cartesian, semi log, or log-log, will
produce a straight-line relationship for a hyperbolic decline. However, if the flow rate is plotted versus time
on log-log paper, the resulting curve can be straightened out with shifting techniques.

Figure 1: Classification of production decline curves. (After Arps, J.J. “Estimation of Primary Oil Reserves,”
Courtesy of Trans., AIME, vol. 207,1956 ).

 Nearly all conventional decline-curve analysis is based on empirical relationships of production rate versus
time, given by Arps (1945) as follows:

qi
qt 
1  bDi t 
1/ b
(1)
Where;
qt = gas flow rate at time t, MMscf/day
qi = initial gas flow rate, MMscf/day
t = time, days
Di = initial decline rate, day −1
b = Arps’ decline-curve exponent

 The mathematical description of these production-decline curves is greatly simplified by the use of the
instantaneous (nominal) decline rate, D. This decline rate is defined as the rate of change of the natural
logarithm of the production rate, that is, ln(q), with respect to time, t, or
d  ln q  1 dq
D  
dt q dt (2)

 The minus sign has been added because dq and dt have opposite signs and it is convenient to have D
always positive. Notice that the decline rate equation, Equation 2, describes the instantaneous changes in
the slope of the curvature, dq/dt, with the change in the flow rate, q, over time.
 The parameters determined from the classical fit of the historical data, namely the decline rate, D, and the
exponent, b, can be used to predict future production. This type of decline-curve analysis can be applied to
individual wells or the entire reservoir.

71
 The accuracy of the entire-reservoir application is sometimes even better than for individual wells due to
smoothing of the rate data. Based on the type of rate-decline behavior of the hydrocarbon system, the value
of b ranges from 0 to 1, and, accordingly, Arps’ equation can be conveniently expressed in the following
three forms:

Case b Rate–Time Relationship

Exponential b=0 q
qt  Dii t  q i e  Di t
e
qt  q i exp  Di t  (3)
Hyperbolic 0<b<1 qi
qt  (4)
1  bDi t 
1/ b

Harmonic b=1 qi
qt  (5)
1  Di t 

 Figure 2 illustrates the general shape of the three curves at different possible values of b. These
mathematical relations can be applied equally for gas and oil reservoirs.
 It should be pointed out that these three forms of decline-curve equations are applicable ONLY when the
well/reservoir is under pseudosteady (semi steady)-state flow conditions, that is, boundary-dominated flow
conditions.
 Arps’ equation has been often misused to model the performance of oil and gas wells whose flow regimes
are in a transient state. When a well is first open to flow, it is in a transient (unsteady-state) condition. It
remains in this condition until the production from the well affects the total reservoir system by reaching its
drainage boundary, at which time the well is said to be flowing in a pseudo steady state or boundary-
dominated flow condition. The following is a list of inherent assumptions that must be satisfied before
performance of rate-time decline-curve analysis:
i. It assumes that the well analyzed is producing from an unchanging (constant) drainage area with no-flow
boundaries. If the size of the drainage area changes, the character of the well’s decline changes. If, for
example, water is entering the well’s drainage area, the character of the well’s decline may change
suddenly, abruptly, and negatively.
ii. The equation assumes that the well analyzed has constant permeability and skin factor. If permeability
decreases as pore pressure decrease, or if skin factor changes because of changing damage or deliberate
stimulation, the character of the well’s decline changes.
iii. The well is produced at a constant bottom-hole pressure. If the bottom-hole pressure changes, the
character of the well’s decline changes.
iv. It must be applied only to boundary-dominated (stabilized) flow data if we want to predict future
performance of even limited duration.

71
 Figure 2: Decline curve-rate/time (exponential, harmonic, hyperbolic).

 As shown in Figure 3, the area under the decline curve of q versus time between the times t 1 and t2 is a
measure of the cumulative oil or gas production during this period. Dealing with gas reservoirs, the
cumulative gas production, Gp, can be expressed mathematically:
t2

G p   qt dt
t1

Figure 3
 Replacing the flow rate, qt, in the above equation with the three individual expressions that describe types
of decline curves (Equations 3, 4, and 5), and integrating gives the following:

72
Exponential b = 0: G p t  
q i  qt  (6)
Di
   qt  
1b
 qi
Hyperbolic 0 < b < 1: G p t    1     (7)
D
 i 1  b     q i  
q   qi 
Harmonic b = 1: G p t    i  ln   (8)
 Di   qt 
Where;
Gp(t) = cumulative gas production at time t, MMscf
qi = initial gas flow rate at time t = 0, MMscf/unit time
t = time, unit time
qt = gas flow rate at time t, MMscf/unit time
Di = nominal (initial) decline rate, 1/unit time

 Any convenient unit of time can be used, but, again, care should be taken to make certain that the time unit
of the gas flow rates, qi and qt, matches the time unit of the decline rate, Di, for example, for flow rate q in
scf/month or STB/month with Di in month−1.
 The practical applications of these three commonly used decline curves for gas reservoirs are as follows:

Exponential Decline, b = 0
 The graphical presentation of this type of decline curve indicates that a plot of q t versus t on a semi log
scale or a plot of qt versus GP(t) on a Cartesian scale will produce linear relationships that can be described
mathematically by
qt  q i exp  Di t  or linearly as ln qt   ln q i   Di t
Similarly,

G p t  
q i  qt  or linearly as qt  q i  Di G p t 
Di

 This type of decline curve is perhaps the simplest to use and perhaps the most conservative. It is widely
used in the industry for the following reasons:
• Many wells follow a constant decline rate over a great portion of their productive life and will deviate
significantly from this trend toward the end of this period.
• The mathematics involved, as described by the line expressions just given, are easier to apply than those
for the other line types.
 Assuming that the historical production from a well or field is recognized by its exponential production-
decline behavior, the following steps summarize the procedure to predict the behavior of the well or the
field as a function of time.
Step 1. Plot qt versus Gp on a Cartesian scale and qt versus t on semi log paper.
Step 2. For both plots, draw the best straight line through the points.
Step 3. Extrapolate the straight line on qt versus Gp to Gp = 0, which intercepts the y-axis
with a flow rate value that is identified as qi.
Step 4. Calculate the initial decline rate, Di, by selecting a point on the Cartesian straight
line with a coordinate of (qt, Gpt) or on a semilog line with a coordinate of (qt, t)
and solve for Di by applying Equation 9 or Equation 01.
ln q i qt 
qt  q i exp  D i t   D i  (9)
t
G p t 
q  qt   D  q i  q t 
 i (11)
i
Di G p t 
Step 5. Calculate the time it will take to reach the economic flow rate, qa (or any rate) and
corresponding cumulative gas production from Equations 00 and 01.

73
 ln q i q a 
ta  (11)
Di

G pa 
q i  q a  (12)
Di
Where;
Gpa = cumulative gas production when reaching the economic flow rate or at abandonment, MMscf
qi = initial gas flow rate at time t = 0, MMscf/unit time
ta = abandonment time, unit time
qa = economic (abandonment) gas flow rate, MMscf/unit time
Di = nominal (initial) decline rate, 1/time unit

Example:
The following production data are available from a dry gas field:

qt MMscf/day Gp MMscf qt MMscf/day Gp MMscf

320 16,000 208 304,000
336 32,000 197 352,000
304 48,000 184 368,000
309 96,000 179 384,000
272 160,000 184 400,000
248 240,000 - -

Estimate
(a) The future cumulative gas production when the gas flow rate reaches 80 MMscf/day
(b) Extra time to reach 80 MMscf/day
Solution
Part a
Step 1. A plot of Gp versus qt on a Cartesian scale, as shown in Figure 4, produces
a straight line indicating an exponential decline.
Step 2. From the graph, cumulative gas production is 633,600 MMscf at
qt = 80 MMscf/day, indicating an extra production of 633.6 – 400.0 = 233.6 MMMscf.
Step 3. The intercept of the straight line with the y-axis gives a value of
qi = 344 MMscf/day.
Step 4. Calculate the initial (nominal) decline rate Di by selecting a point on the straight
line and solving for Di by applying Equation 01. Selecting a Gp(t) of 352
MMMscf, at a qt of 197 MMscf/day, gives

Di 
q i  qt    344  197   0.000418day 1
G p t  352, 000
Step 5. Calculate the cumulative gas production at qt = 80 MMscf/day using the
following equation:

G pa 
q i  qa    344  80   631,579 MMscf
Di 0.000418

74
 Figure 4: Decline curve data
It should be pointed out that the monthly and yearly nominal decline, that is, Dim and Diy, respectively, can be
determined as
D im = (0.000418) × (30.4) = 0.0126 month -1
D iy = (0.0126) × (12) = 0.152 year -1
Part b
To calculate the extra time to reach 80 MMscf/day, apply the following steps:
Step 1. Calculate the time to reach the last recorded flow rate, 184 MMscf, using
Equation 10:
ln q i q a  ln  344 184 
ta    1497 days  4.1034 years
Di 0.000418
Step 2. Calculate the total time to reach a gas flow rate of 80 MMscf/day:

ln q i qt  ln  344 80 
t   3489.5 days  9.5655 years
Di 0.000418
Step 3. Extra time = 9.5655 - 4.1034 = 5.4621 years

Example:
A gas well has the following production history:
Date Time t, months qt MMscf/ month
1-1-02 0 1240
2-1-02 1 1193
3-1-02 2 1148
4-1-02 3 1104
5-1-02 4 1066
6-1-02 5 1023
7-1-02 6 986
8-1-02 7 949
9-1-02 8 911
10-1-02 9 880
11-1-02 10 843
12-1-02 11 813
1-1-03 12 782

75
 (a) Use the first six months of the production history data to determine the coefficient of the decline-curve
equation.
(b) Predict flow rates and cumulative gas production from August 1, 2002 through January 1, 2003.
(c) Assuming that the economic limit is 30 MMscf/month, estimate the time to reach the economic limit and
the corresponding cumulative gas production.
Solution
Part a
Step 1. A plot of qt versus t on a semi log scale, as shown in Figure 5, indicates an
exponential decline.
Step 2. Determine the initial decline rate, Di, by selecting a point on the straight line and
substituting the coordinates of the point in Equation 9 to give
ln q i qt  ln 1240 986 
Di    0.0382 month 1
t 6
10000
qt MMscf/ month

1000

100

10

1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time t, months

Figure 5:. Decline-curve data.

Part b
Use the following Equations to calculate qt and Gp(t), and tabulate the results as follows:
qt  q i exp  Di t   1240exp  0.0383t 

G p t  
q i  q t   q i  q t 
Di 0.0383
Date Time Actual qt Calculated qt Gp(t)
months MMscf/ month MMscf/ month MMscf
2-1-02 1 1193 1193 1227
3-1-02 2 1148 1149 2387
4-1-02 3 1104 1105 3514
5-1-02 4 1066 1064 4599
6-1-02 5 1023 1026 4643
7-1-02 6 986 986 6647
8-1-02 7 949 949 7614
9-1-02 8 911 913 8545
10-1-02 9 880 879 9441
11-1-02 10 843 846 10,303
12-1-02 11 813 814 11,132
1-1-03 12 782 783 11,931

76
Part c
Apply Equations 11 and 12 to calculate the time, ta, to reach an economic flow rate, qa, of 30 MMscf/month,
and the corresponding reserves, Gpa:
ln q i q a  ln 1240 30 
ta    97 months  8 years
Di 0.0383

G pa 
q i  qa   1240  30   31.6 MMMscf
Di 0.0383

Harmonic Decline, b = 1
The production-recovery performance of a hydrocarbon system that follows a harmonic decline (i.e., b = 1 in
Equation 1) is described by the following equations.

qi q   qi 
qt  G p t    i  ln  
1  Di t   Di   qt 

These two expressions can be rearranged and expressed as follows:

1 1 D 
   i t (13)
qt q i  q i 
D 
ln qt   ln q i    i G p t  (14)
 qi 
The basic two plots for harmonic decline-curve analysis are based on these two relationships. Equation 13
indicates that a plot of 1/qt versus t on a Cartesian scale will yield a straight line with a slope of (D i/qi) and an
intercept of 1/qi. Equation 14 suggests a plot of qt versus Gp(t) on a semi log scale and will yield a straight line
with a negative slope of (−Di/qi) and an intercept of qi.

Other relationships that can be derived from Equations 5 and 8 include the time to reach the economic flow
rate, qa (or any flow rate), and the corresponding cumulative gas production, Gp(a):
qi  qa q   qi 
ta  G p a    i  ln  
qa Di  Di   qa 

Hyperbolic Decline, 0 < b < 1

The two governing relationships for a reservoir or a well whose production follows the hyperbolic decline
behavior are given by Equations 4 and 7:

   qt  
1b
qi  qi
qt  G p t    1    
1  bDi t   D i 1  b     q i  
1/ b

The following simplified iterative method is designed to determine Di and b from the historical production data.
Step 1. Plot qt versus t on a semi log scale and draw a smooth curve through the points.
Step 2. Extend the curve to intercept the y-axis at t = 0 and read qi.
Step 3. Select the other end-point of the smooth curve, record the coordinates of the point,
and refer to it as (t2, q2).
Step 4. Determine the coordinate of the middle point on the smooth curve that
corresponds to (t1, q1) with the value of q1, as obtained from the following expression:
q1  q i q 2
The corresponding value of t1 is read from the smooth curve at q1.
Step 5. Solve the following equation iteratively for b:

77
 bk bk
q  q 
f (b k )  t 2  i   t 1  i   t 2  t 1  (15)
 q1   q2 
The Newton-Raphson iterative method can be employed to solve the previous nonlinear function by using the
following recursion technique:

k 1 f (b k )
b b  k
(16)
f (b k )
where the derivative, f '(bk), is given by
bk bk
q  q  q  q 
f (b k )  t 2  i  ln  i   t 1  i  ln  i  (17)
 q1   q1   q2   q2 

Starting with an initial value of b = 0.5, that is, bk = 0.5, the method will usually converge after 4-5 iterations
when the convergence criterion is set at [bk+1 − bk] ≤ 10−6.
Step 6. Solve for Di with Equation 4, by using the calculated value of b from Step 5 and the coordinate of a
point on the smooth graph, for example, (t2, q2), to give

b
 qi 
  1
Di   2 
q
(18)
bt 2
The next example illustrates the proposed methodology for determining b and Di.

Example 1:
The following production data were reported by Ikoku (1984) for a gas well:

Date Time qt MMscf/ day Gp(t)

years MMscf
Jan 1,1979 0.0 10.00 0.00
Jul 1,1979 0.5 8.40 1.67
Jan 1,1980 1 7.12 3.08
Jul 1,1980 1.5 6.16 4.30
Jan 1,1981 2.0 5.36 5.35
Jul 1,1981 2.5 4.72 6.27
Jan 1,1982 3.0 4.18 7.08
Jul 1,1982 3.5 3.72 7.78
Jan 1,1983 4.0 3.36 8.44

Estimate the future production performance for the next 16 years.

Solution
Step 1. Determine the type of decline that adequately represents the historical data. This
can be done by constructing the following two plots:
• Plot qt versus t on a semi log scale, as shown in Figure 6. The plot does not yield a straight line, and, thus, the
decline is not exponential.
• Plot qt versus Gp(t) on a semi log scale, as shown in Figure 7. The plot again does not produce a straight line,
and, therefore, the decline is not harmonic.
The two generated plots indicate that the decline must be hyperbolic.
Step 2. From Figure 8, determine the initial flow rate, qi, by extending the smooth
curve to intercept with the y-axis, at t = 0, to give qi = 10 MMscf/day
Step 3. Select the coordinate of the other end-point on the smooth curve as (t2, q2), to give
t2 = 4 years and q2 = 3.36 MMscf/day

78
 Figure 6: Rate-time plot.

Figure 7: Rate-cumulative plot.

Step 4. Calculate q1 from the following equation and determine the corresponding time:

q1  q i q 2  10  3.36  5.8 MMscf / day

the corresponding time t1 = 1.719 years

Step 5. Given b = 0.5, solve Equation 14 iteratively for b:
bk bk
q  q 
f (b )  t 2  i   t 1  i   t 2  t 1 
k

 q1   q2 

79
f (b k )  4 1.725  1.719  2.976   2.26
bk bk

and
bk bk
q  q  q  q 
f (b k )  t 2  i  ln  i   t 1  i  ln  i 
 q1   q1   q2   q2 

f (b k )  2.18 1.725  1.875  2.976 

bk bk

With
k 1 f (b k )
b b k

f (b k )
It is convenient to perform the iterative method by constructing the following table:

K bk f(bk) f (b k ) bk+1

0 0.500000 7.108×10-3 -0.37138 0.519139
1 0.519139 -3.305×10-4 -0.40957 0.518332
2 0.518332 -2.015×10-6 -0.40794 0.518327
3 0.518327 1.59×10-8 -0.40793 0.518327

The method converges after 3 iterations with a value of b = 0.518327

Step 6. Solve for Di by using Equation 15.

b
 qi   10 
0.518327

  1   1
Di   q2 
  3.36 
 0.36656 year 1
bt 2 0.518327  4
or, on a monthly basis,
Dim = 0.36656/12 = 0.0305 month −1
or, on a daily basis,
Did = 0.36656/365 = 0.001 day −1
Step 7. Use Equations 4 and 7 to predict the future production performance of the gas well. Notice that in
Equation 4 the denominator contains Dit and, therefore, the product must be dimensionless, or
qi 10 106
qt  
1  bDi t  1  0.518327  0.36656t 
1/ b 1/ 0.518327

Where,
qt = flow rate, MMscf/day
t = time, years
Di = decline rate, year −1
In Equation 7, the time basis in qi is expressed in days and, therefore, Di must be expressed in day -1, or
   qt   
1b
 qi 10 106    qt 10.518327 
G p t    1        1   6  
D
 i 1  b  
  i   
q  0.001 1  0.518327     10 10  

The results of Step 7 are tabulated below and shown graphically in Figure 8.

81
 Figure 8: Decline-curve data.

Time Actual q Calculated q Actual Calculated

years MMscf/ day MMscf/ day cumulative gas cumulative gas
MMscf MMscf
0 10 10 0 0
0.5 8.4 8.392971 1.67 1.671857
1 7.12 7.147962 3.08 3.08535
1.5 6.16 6.163401 4.3 4.296641
2 5.36 5.37108 5.35 5.346644
2.5 4.72 4.723797 6.27 6.265881
3 4.18 4.188031 7.08 7.077596
3.5 3.72 3.739441 7.78 7.799804
4 3.36 3.36 8.44 8.44669
5 2.757413 9.557617
6 2.304959 10.477755
20 0.486091 15.86563

Gentry (1972) developed a graphical method for the coefficients b and Di, as shown in Figures 9 and 10. Arps’
decline-curve exponent, b, is expressed in Figure 9 in terms of the ratios qi/q and Gp/(t qi), with an upper limit
for qi/q of 100. To determine the exponent b, enter the graph with the abscissa with a value of Gp/(t qi) that
corresponds to the last data point on the decline curve and enter the coordinate with the value of the ratio of
initial production rate to last production rate on the decline curve, qi/q. The exponent b is read by the
intersection of these two values. The initial decline rate, Di, can be determined from Figure 10 by entering the
coordinate with the value of qi/q and moving to the right to the curve that corresponds to the value of b. The
initial decline rate, Di, can be obtained by reading the value on the abscissa divided by the time t from qi to q.

81
Figure 9: Relationship between production rate and cumulative production. (After Gentry, 1972.)

Figure 10: Relationship between production rate and time. (After Gentry, 1972.)

82
Example:
Using the data given in Example 1, recalculate the coefficients b and Di by using Gentry’s graphs.
Solution
Step 1. Calculate the ratios qi/q and Gp/(t qi):
qi/q = 10/3.36 = 2.98
Gp/(t qi) = 8440/[(4 × 365)(10)] = 0.58
Step 2. Enter Figure 10 with the values of 2.98 and 0.5 to give Di t = 1.5
Solving for Di gives Di = 1.5/4 = 0.38 year−1

 In many cases gas wells are not produced at their full capacity during their early life for various reasons,
such as limited capacity of flow lines, transportation, low demands, or other types of restrictions.
 Figure 11 illustrates a model for estimating the time pattern of production where the rate is restricted.
Figure 11 shows that the well produces at a restricted flow rate of qr for a total time of tr with a cumulative
production of Gpr.
 The proposed methodology of estimating the restricted time, tr, is to set the total cumulative production,
Gp(tr), that would have occurred under normal decline from the initial well capacity, q i, down to qr equal to
Gpr.
 Eventually, the well will reach the time tr where it begins to decline with a behavior similar to that of other
wells in the area. The proposed method for predicting the decline-rate behavior for a well under restricted
flow is based on the assumption that the following data are available and applicable to the well:
• Coefficients of Arps’ equation, that is, Di and b, by analogy with other wells.
• Abandonment (economic) gas flow rate, qa
• Ultimate recoverable reserves, Gpa
• Allowable (restricted) flow rate, qr

Figure 11: Estimation of the effect of restricting maximum production rate.

The methodology is summarized in the following steps:

Step 1. Calculate the initial well flow capacity, qi, that would have occurred with no
restrictions, as follows:

 For Exponential: q i  G pa Di  qa (19)

 D i G pa q 
 For Harmonic: q i  q r 1   ln  r  (21)
 qr  qa 
1b
 D i bG pa b q r 
b
  q 1b  
For Hyperbolic: q i  q r    1   a   
b
 (21)
 
1b
 q 1b   q r   
 r

83
Step 2. Calculate the cumulative gas production during the restricted flow- rate period:

qi  q r
 For Exponential: G pr  (22)
Di
 q  q 
 For Harmonic: G pr   i  ln  i  (23)
 Di   q r 
   qr  
1b
 qi
 For Hyperbolic: G pr    1     (24)
 D i 1  b     q i  
Step 3. Regardless of the type of decline, calculate the total time of the restricted flow
G pr
rate from tr 
qr

Step 4. Generate the well-production performance as a function of time by applying the

appropriate decline relationships, as given by Equations 3 through 5.

Example:
The volumetric calculations on a gas well show that the ultimate recoverable reserves, Gpa, are 25 MMMscf of
gas. By analogy with other wells in the area, the following data are assigned to the well.
• Exponential decline
• Allowable (restricted) production rate qr = 425 MMscf/month
• Economic limit qa = 30 MMscf/month
• Nominal decline rate = 0.044 month−1
Calculate the yearly production performance of the well.
Solution
Step 1. Estimate the initial flow rate, qi:
q i  G pa Di  qa  25000  0.044  30  1,130 MMscf / month
Step 2. Calculate the cumulative gas production during the restricted flow period:
q i  q r 1130  425
G pr    16.023 MMMscf
Di 0.044
Step 3. Calculate the total time of the restricted flow:
G pr 16, 023
tr    37.7 months  3.14 years
qr 425

Step 4. The yearly production during the first 3 years is

q = (425) (12) = 5100MMscf/year
The fourth year is divided into 1.68 months, that is, 0.14 years (of constant production) plus 10.32 months of
declining production; therefore,
cumulative gas production during the first 1.68 months:
GP during 1.68 months = (1.68) (425) = 714 MMscf
At the end of the fourth year:
qt  q i exp  Di t   425exp  0.044 10.32  270 MMscf / month
and cumulative gas production for the last 10.32 months:
q i  qt 425  270
G p t     3523 MMscf
Di 0.044
Total production for the fourth year = 714 + 3523 = 4237 MMscf

84
 year Production,
MMSCF/year
1 5100
2 5100
3 5100
4 4237

The flow rate at the end of the fourth year, 270 MMscf/month, is set equal to the initial flow rate at the
beginning of the fifth year. The flow rate at the end of the fifth year, qend, is calculated from the following
equation:
qend  q i exp  Di 12   270exp  0.044 12  159 MMscf / month
with a cumulative gas production of
q i  qend 270  159
Gp    2523 MMscf
Di 0.044
For the sixth year,

qend  159exp  0.044 12  94 MMscf / month

159  94
Gp   1482 MMscf
0.044
Results of this procedure are then tabulated:

t qi qend Yearly Cumulative

years MMscf/month MMscf/month production production
MMscf/year MMMscf
1 1130 425 5100 5.100
2 1130 425 5100 10.200
3 1130 425 5100 15.300
4 425 270 4237 19.537
5 270 159 2523 22.060
6 159 94 1482 23.542
7 94 55 886 24.428
8 55 33 500 24.928

85