Mapua University

Senior High School

Science, Technology, Engineering
and Mathematics

CHEM01/IS110
EXPERIMENT #4
IONIC AND COVALENT BONDS

Villajin, Aaron Chastine V.

Lim, Jude Richards P.
Jacalne, Jed Matthew S.
Ocampo, Charmaine Jerrine
Gacayan, Sofronio Dex

Instructor: Mr. Jan Allen C. Almario

ABSTRACT
All materials are made up of atoms. Within a chemical compound, atoms are held together by chemical
bonds. The bond is either established by an electrostatic force of attraction between single atoms of
opposite charges or by sharing electrons. The change in electron distribution that underlies the chemical
bond most often affects the valence electrons of an atom. In this virtual simulation, the students will
learn how atoms hook up and help a friend analyze two mysterious substances he got from an alchemist
to cure his migraine. This experiment aims to inform the students about the difference between the three
major types of chemical bonds: covalent, ionic, and metal bonds. This experiment consists of different
tests to determine the physical and chemical properties of the substances. With the assistance of Dr.
One, the students will be able to visualize how electron transfer between elements occurs. This
simulation will familiarize students with chemical bonding and mainly building the Lewis electron dot
structure of compounds. Using the capillary system and melting point apparatus, the students will be
able to determine the melting point of the two unknown substances. After this, the students will compare
and find similarities with the melting points of the unknown substances and Dr. One's list of melting
points of household products and medical drugs that also appear as solid white powders. In the end, the
two unknown substances turned out to be just table salt and grape sugar. Therefore, we can conclude
that the alchemist is not a healer but rather a clever salesman.

Keywords: Electrostatic force, Capillary system, Lewis Dot Structure, Chemical Bonding

Introduction There are three main ways for two atoms to

unite to shed energy and become stable. One
The complete transfer of one or more electrons option is to complete their octet configuration
from one atom to another, forms a chemical by giving or accepting electrons. An ionic bond,
bond between two atoms causing the atoms to also known as an electrovalent bond, is created
acquire their nearest inert gas configuration. by this type of combination. A bond is formed
when one atom receives electrons while the
other loses electrons from its outermost level or An ion is an atom or molecule that contains an
orbit. electrical charge. Ions are formed when the
number of protons in an atom does not equal the
The attraction between positive and negative number of electrons. Anions, which are
ions in a crystal is known as the ionic bond, and negatively charged, and cations, which are
compounds binds together by ionic bonds are positively charged, are the two types of ions.
known as ionic compounds. If the potential Ionization is the process of a neutral atom losing
ionization difference between the two atoms is or acquiring electrons, which results in the
more ionic, compounds are formed. Atoms with formation of ions. The outer-shell electrons are
a greater electronegativity difference cause the more closely attached to the positively charged
formation of an ionic bond. When two atoms nucleus and thus do not participate in this form
share one or more electron pairs, they form a of chemical interaction; the inner-shell electrons
covalent bond. Each atom contributes the same are more tightly bound to the positively charged
number of electrons to the formation of the nucleus and do not participate in this chemical
connection. Because atoms with a higher interaction. Irrespective of the type of chemical
ionization potential can't lose their valence bond between atoms, be it an ionic, covalent, or
electrons, they prefer to establish covalent metallic bond, changes in the atomic structure
bonds via sharing electrons. If the combining are limited to the electrons in the outermost
atoms' electronegativities are similar, their bond shell, i.e., valence electrons. The electrons in an
is likely to be covalent. atom's outer shell, or energy level, are known as
valence electrons. Two in the 2s subshell and
All physical and chemical properties of matter four in the 2p subshell, for example, make up
are either extensive or intensive. Extensive the valence electrons of oxygen. There are 18
qualities like mass and volume are proportional columns in all, properly known as groups, and
to the amount of matter being measured. rows, formally known as times, in the table. The
Density and color, for example, are not affected sub-table above has seven rows, with two rows
by the amount of matter present. Both extensive dividing the rarer elements below. The
and intensive qualities are physical attributes, transition elements serve as a link or a
which can be assessed without changing the continuation of the transition between Groups 2
substance's chemical identity. The freezing and 13. Although the number of shells grows as
point of a substance, for example, is a physical we go down a group, the number of valence
property: water (H2O) remains water (H2O) electrons remains constant. While the number of
when it freezes, but it is in a different physical valence electrons increases by one over time,
state. Any measurable property that isn't linked the number of shells remains unchanged. The
to a change in chemical composition is referred number of shells encircling an element's nucleus
to as a physical property. A physical property is represented by the period number (row
can be observable, such as density, hardness, number).
and color, or measured, such as melting point,
boiling point, electrical conductivity, and This observation has been used by an American
solubility, after a change in the physical state of scientist named Gilbert Lewis (1875-1946). He
the matter. Meanwhile, the chemical property is explain the types of ions and molecules formed
any of a material's properties that appear during by other elements. His explanation was called
a chemical reaction; that is, any quality that can the octet rule. According to the octet rule, atoms
be generated only by altering a substance's tend to form compounds with eight valence
chemical identity. Chemical properties cannot electrons, resulting in the electron configuration
be determined simply by looking or feeling a of a noble gas. The first noble gas, helium, is an
thing; the substance's internal structure must exception to the octet rule since it only
influence chemical properties. possesses two valence electrons. This mainly
affects the element hydrogen, which achieves predicting the behavior of atoms in molecules,
two valence electrons and so forms stable but they are imperfect representations of actual
compounds. The octet rule does not apply to electron activity. The following are the steps for
lithium, which is an alkali metal with three drawing Lewis dot structures of compounds:
electrons. Atoms can fulfill the octet rule in one Counting all valence (outer shell) electrons is
of the two ways. One method is to exchange the first step. Then, in the center, draw the least
valence electrons with other atoms. Transferring electronegative atom and arrange the other
valence electrons from one atom to another is atoms around it. Step 3 is to use a single bond to
the second method. Metal atoms frequently lose connect each atom to the center atom. The
all valence electrons, leaving an octet from the students must next complete octets at the
lowest primary energy level. Non-metal atoms terminal atoms using electrons as lone pairs. To
need to gain electrons to fill their outermost the central atom, add the remaining atoms. Step
main energy level with an octet. 5 is to make multiple bonds with the terminal
atoms to complete the octet of the central atom.
A positively charged nucleus and negatively Only some molecules are affected by the final
charged electrons make up an atom. Electrons step. Several resonance configurations can be
are bound to the nucleus by electrostatic determined depending on which electrons you
attraction and must stay within a certain moved in step 5.
distance of it. According to thorough research,
not all electrons in an atom have the same This virtual simulation aims to teach students to
average position or energy. The electrons reside determine if a substance is an ionic or covalent
at various principal energy levels, which exist at bond. In the first phase of the experiment, the
different radii from the nucleus and have students need to measure the samples' solubility
restrictions on how many electrons they can in the laboratory's analysis workbench. They
accommodate. To draw the Lewis symbol for an first need to mix the substances with distilled
atom, you must first figure out how many water in separate beakers. Then place each
valence electrons the element has. The periodic beaker onto the stirring plate then start stirring
table's layout might assist you in determining and observe its changes. The next phase is to
this information. The table lists the elements in measure the conductivity of the solution. The
order of valence electrons because we know that students will need to use the conductivity tester
the number of valence electrons determines an to test the electrical conductivity of chemicals in
element's chemical reactivity. A Lewis Structure aqueous solutions. If the red lights switch on, it
is a simplified representation of a molecule's indicates that the solution is conductive. The
valence shell electrons. It's used to show how students will start by putting the tester in each
electrons in a molecule are distributed around beaker and record their observations. In the third
particular atoms. Electrons are represented as phase of the experiment, the students will be
"dots" or as a line between two atoms when they answering multiple questions about the charge
are bonded. The goal is to find the ideal of an ion and the total number of electrons a
electron configuration, which satisfies the octet compound has. Dr. One will also teleport the
rule and formal charges. While Lewis structures students to a location wherein they can visualize
are helpful when learning about valence, the different models of atoms and how electron
oxidation states, and bonding, there are many transfer occurs. For the fourth phase of the
exceptions in the real world. Atoms strive to experiment, Dr. One will familiarize the
entirely or partially fill their valence electron students with chemical bonding and the lewis
shell. Atoms, on the other hand, can and do structure. Dr. One explained the step-by-step
create molecules that aren't entirely stable. The process of how to build a compound's lewis dot
central atom sometimes can develop more than structure. Later on, Dr. One will test the
the other atoms attached to it. Lewis structures students' abilities to construct a compound's
are a valuable tool for learning about and lewis structure. Dr. One will give a compound
then the student will be asked to build its lewis The students were asked to wear their lab coats
structure. Lastly, the students will be asked to and safety gloves for precautionary measures to
change the current state of matter of the start the experiment. Dr. One asked the students
samples. The students will use the capillaries what information could help them analyze the
and melting apparatus to measure the melting two mysterious substances in the medicine. For
point of the unknown substances. After the first phase of their experiment, the students
measuring, they will be asked to compare the proceeded to the analysis workbench of the
melting point of the unknown substances with laboratory, where they could test the different
Dr. One's list of several household chemicals physical properties of the substance. Dr. One
and medical drugs' melting point to identify if it prepared samples of both mysterious substances
matches each other. After forming their in the glass tubes. He added that there is a test
hypothesis and guessing the unknown elements, tube containing KCl (Potassium Chloride),
the students will be able to confirm it using the which they can use as a positive control when
mass spectrometry results. measuring solubility and conductivity since KCl
is highly conductive as well as soluble in water.
Materials and Methods The students were asked to determine the
solubility of the substances in water. They need
In this virtual laboratory simulation, the students to mix Substance 1, Substance 2, and KCl, with
will be handling an intriguing case today. Dr. distilled water in separate beakers. After this,
One explained to the students that there is an the students need to place each beaker onto the
alchemist who claims to have created a cure for stirring plate, then start stirring and observe the
any kind of headache. Dr. One asked the solubility of the substances. Dr. One asked the
students if they wanted to visit the old man who students which of the four choices are insoluble
has been producing a lot of suspicious in water. The students also need to identify what
substances to find out what his medicine is. does KCl stands for. 
Afterward, Dr. One teleported the students to
the alchemist's house. The alchemist greeted the After the first phase, Dr. One gave a short
students and predicted that they were looking introduction to compounds. Dr. One asked the
for his famous headache medicine, and he asked students which element classes Potassium and
them to come into his house. Dr. One replied Chlorine belongs to, looking at the periodic
that they are indeed interested in the alchemist's table. Dr. One further explained the different
medicine since his companions tend to suffer types of chemical bonds and ions. The students
from headaches from time to time. The were asked what happens when ionic
alchemist said that he may have made compounds dissolve in water. Since the students
something fresh for the students. He added that already know that both unknown substances are
he freshly made the medicine from some of his soluble in water, they can exclude one type of
very special ingredients during his last full- compound: metallic compounds. Dr. One gave
moon session. The alchemist told the students the students the liberty to choose what test they
that the ingredients were purified elephant tree should do to analyze the two substances in more
pollen and a white powder made from coconut detail. Since weight is not a very specific
minerals. The students need to dissolve a characteristic of a chemical, the students
tablespoon of the medicine into the water and proceeded with measuring the conductivity of
drink it. The students asked the alchemist about the solution. The students start by holding the
the medicine's effectiveness; the alchemist conductivity tester used to test the electrical
replied confidently that his cure would work. conductivity of chemicals in aqueous solutions.
Later on, the old man offered the students a free If the red lights switch on, it indicates that the
sample so they could try it. solution is conductive. Dr. One reminded the
students to rinse the tool after testing each
sample to prevent contamination. The students
started measuring the conductivity of the For the last phase of the virtual experiment, Dr.
substances by putting the tester in each beaker. One familiarized the students with chemical
After this, the students were asked why they bonding and mainly the lewis electron dot
could measure the electric conductivity of KCl structure. Dr. One provided images that may
(Potassium Chloride) and Substance 2. Dr. One help the students understand the lewis structure
then asked the students to identify what type of better. The first question the students were
compound Substance 2 is. The students asked was what does the connecting lines stand
formulated their hypothesis after knowing about for in the lewis structure. Dr. One then showed
the solubility and difference in conductivity of the students the step-by-step guide in drawing
the two unknown substances.  the lewis structure of a compound. The first step
is to count all of the valence electrons of the
Since the students will need to determine the compound. Next, draw the least electronegative
ions present in the substance, Dr. One recalled atom in the center and arrange the other atoms
and asked the students what the net charge of an around the central atom. The third step is to
anion is. The students will also need to identify connect each atom to the central atom with a
the charge of a Potassium ion with the help of single bond (one electron pair). Next, complete
the periodic table. They were also asked how octets with the electron as lone pairs at the
many electrons a Cl (Chlorine) atom has using terminal atoms first (except for hydrogen). Add
their prior knowledge about identifying the remaining atoms (if any) to the central atom.
electrons of an atom using the periodic table. The fifth step is to complete the central atom's
Dr. One helped the students refresh their basic octet by making multiple bonds with the
chemistry knowledge by discussing the octet terminal atoms. Lastly, this step applies to some
rule and valence electrons. Dr. One teleported molecules; various resonance structures can be
the students to a location where they could determined depending on which electron you
visualize the different models of an atom. The moved in step five. Afterward, the students were
students were shown a visual representation of a asked to click on the PC screen on the right side
single potassium atom and a single chlorine of the analysis workbench to watch how to draw
atom and how an electron transfer between the lewis dot structure of CO2 (Carbon
elements occurs. Dr. One then asked the Dioxide). Dr. One asked them how many
students how many valence electrons does an valence electrons does carbon has. After the
atom tries to acquire. Dr. One also showed the students identified carbon's valence electrons,
students atoms that form chemical bonds by Dr. One asked about the total number of valence
sharing electrons equally through a live model. electrons present in Carbon Dioxide. 
According to Dr. One, both Chlorine atoms
require one more electron to fill their valence  The students proceeded with clicking the
shells to a total of eight electrons computer screen again to link the atoms with a
— every atom's nirvana. Each chlorine atom single bond. The tutorial on drafting the lewis
contains eight electrons due to the sharing of dot structure of carbon dioxide ended after
two electrons, which is enough to fill the octet completing the central atom's octet. Dr. One
in their valence shell. Shared electrons move asked the students why the correct lewis
between both atoms' valence electron shells. structure of CO2 involves a double bond
Ionic bonds, such as those found in KCl, are between each oxygen atom and the carbon atom.
held together by electrostatic forces. Covalent The number of bonds can be as high as three.
bonds are formed when two atoms share Dr. One gave the students another example; they
electrons. Finally, Dr. One asks the will need to finish building the lewis structure
students about the number of electrons shared for N2—the most common gas in our
by two chlorine atoms in Cl2.  atmosphere. After the students complete this
part, they will be asked to draw the lewis
structure and check if the octet rule is fulfilled.
They started with building the lewis structure of just table salt and grape sugar. The atoms in
CH4 (Methane) only until step 4 since there glucose are held together by covalent
aren't any more valence electrons left to compounds, whereas sodium and chlorine are
distribute. After this, the students will now need joined together by an ionic bond to form
to draw the lewis structure of CO (Carbon Sodium Chloride (NaCl). The students can then
Monoxide). Next, they need to draw the lewis conclude that the medicine made by the
structure of CH2O (Formaldehyde); Dr. One alchemist is not that effective. The virtual
gave them a guide in the LabPad in case the experiment ended with a survey to assess if the
students get stuck. Lastly, the students need to students learned valuable information that they
draw the Lewis structure of HCN (Hydrogen could use in the future.
Cyanide). 
Results and Discussion
After that, the students will now figure out more
about the mysterious white substances from the In this section, the students will be discussing
alchemist. Since the students already know how the results of the virtual laboratory simulation
to draw Lewis structures, they were asked how per phase. This simulation is for students to
they could change the current state of matter of learn what is the difference and characteristics
the samples. Since covalent and ionic bonds of ionic and covalent bonds. The students will
differ in their melting point, the students will be learn step-by-step how to draw the lewis dot
using a capillary system to precisely determine structure of a given compound. This experiment
the melting point of both substances. Dr. One consists of a series of tests to understand how
gave the students some caffeine samples for atoms hook up to form covalent and ionic bonds
them to use as a control. The students need to and determine the alchemist's two suspicious
determine first what type of compound do they elements. Before starting the experiment, Dr.
think caffeine is. The students filled the One explained that they would be handling an
capillaries with the unknown substances and intriguing case in the simulation. There was an
inserted them into the melting apparatus; they alchemist who claimed to have created a cure
pressed the heat button to start the process. for any kind of headache. The old man was
After waiting for the device to reach its producing a lot of suspicious substances; Dr.
maximum temperature, the students discovered One asked the students if they would like to
the melting point of the unknown substances. visit the alchemist and find out what his
Dr. One collected several household chemicals medicine was. The students answered yes since
and medical drugs that appear as solid white they would like to meet the alchemist. Dr. One
powders, just like the mysterious substances. then teleported the students to the alchemist's
The students were asked to look at the list and house. The students knocked on the door, and
compare the melting points they had to obtain in the old man greeted them and asked them to
the experiment with the melting points shown in come in. Since one of their companions tends to
the table. After this, Dr. One asked the students suffer from headaches from time to time, the
about their guess based on the melting points of students are indeed interested in the alchemist's
both substances. The students observed that medicine. The old man said he had something
ionic compounds typically have a higher for the students; he made it fresh from his
melting point than covalent compounds. Dr. precious ingredients during his last full-moon
One asked the reason why the melting points of session. According to the alchemist, the
ionic and covalent compounds are different. The medicine is made from coconut minerals and
students then confirmed their hypothesis from purified elephant tree pollen. The students
the previous phase. Before the virtual simulation questioned the alchemist's medicine since it is
ended, the students got their mass spectrometry just a white substance, and there are no tests
results for the two substances. It turned out that conducted to see if it works. The alchemist
the two mysterious white substances are indeed confidently replied that it works. Then the old
man later gave the students a free sample to try metal atoms, such as copper. This means the
if it worked. students can already rule out this big class of
compounds from their investigation. Dr. One
After visiting the alchemist, Dr. One teleported then asked what does KCl stands for. The
the students back to the laboratory to conduct students used the periodic table as a reference,
further tests. Before the experiment started, the and then they answered Potassium Chloride.
students were asked to wear their lab coats and
safety gloves for safety precautions. Dr. One Figure 1. KCl in the Periodic table
asked the students what information would help
them to analyze the two mysterious substances KCl is an ionic compound formed between
chemically. The students answered that the potassium and chlorine. Dr. One added that the
substances are solid and white since both are word compound refers to a distinct group of
physical properties of a chemical. These atoms held together by chemical bonds. The
properties can usually be observed by our
senses and determined by performing numerical
measurements. The students' objectives in the
experiment are to analyze the different physical
properties of the two mysterious substances.
The students then proceeded to the analysis
workbench to test other physical properties such
as solubility in water, conductivity, weight, and
melting point. Dr. One discovered that the
medicine from the alchemist consists of two students were asked which element classes do
different substances. Dr. One prepared samples potassium and chlorine belong to. They then
of both mysterious substances in the glass tubes. answered metals and non-metals based on the
In addition, Dr. One prepared a test tube with periodic table. When a metal is combined with
KCl (Potassium Chloride), which the students one or more non-metals, the compound is
can use as a positive control when measuring usually ionic. At the same time, a combination
solubility and conductivity. KCl is highly of non-metals forms covalent compounds. In
conductive as well as soluble in water. The comparison, metallic compounds consist of
students started the analysis by adding distilled metal atoms. Positively charged ions are called
water to the beakers then mixing it with the cations. Cations lost one or more electrons,
three substances. Since the solutions looked which gave them a positive charge.
cloudy, Dr. One suggested stirring the solutions. Figure 2. Cation Electron Configuration
After the students stirred the three solutions, all
chemicals dissolved into a clear solution In contrast to cations, anions are negatively
meaning they were all soluble in water. charged. They gained one or more electrons,
which gave them a negative charge.
Dr. One asked the students which of the
following (Baking powder, Copper wire,
Sweetener, Table salt) is insoluble in water. The
students answered copper wire since it takes a
lot of energy to break the connections between

Figure 3. Anion Electron Configuration

 conductivity. Dr. One then asked what type of
compound is Substance 2 most likely to be. The
When a cation forms an ionic bond with an students answered Ionic since most covalent
anion, negative charges are typically equal to compounds don't dissociate into ions in water,
the number of positive charges; thus, every ionic so they don't conduct electricity in solution.
compound is electrically neutral overall. Dr. Figure 4. Physical Properties of the Substances
One asked what happens when ionic compounds
dissolve in water. The students answered that The exception was strong acids, but the lab
cations and anions are released into the solution. assistant tested the solution's pH, which was not
Ionic compounds like KCl, dissociate into their highly acidic. The students were asked about
ions when dissolved into water. Some covalent their hypotheses. The students responded that
compounds, especially those containing -OH Substance 1 is a covalent compound and
groups, attract water molecules and are soluble Substance 2 an ionic compound. The students
in water. Since the students now know that both were able to narrow down the substances into
unknown substances are soluble in water. This two chemical compound classes. Now they need
could be an indication that they are a covalent or to learn a bit more about those two classes
ionic compound. In addition, they can already before they can continue their analysis. Before
exclude one type of compound, namely metallic moving on to the next phase, Dr. One asked the
compounds. Dr. One asked what test would they students about an anion's net charge. The
like to do to analyze the two mystical substances students answered the negative charge. One can
in more detail. The students replied that they predict the charge of an ion by checking the
would like to see which of the solutions are atom's location in the periodic table.
conductive. Figure 5. Charges in the Periodic Table

In this test, the students used the conductivity

tester, which they can use to test the electrical
conductivity of chemicals in aqueous solutions.
Electrical conductivity describes the ability of a
given material or solution to transmit electrons.
After testing each sample, Dr. One will be
rinsing the tool to prevent contamination, so the
students don't need to worry. Dr. One then
asked which of the three chemicals were
conductive in water. Since the red light turned
on when the students dipped the tester in KCl
and Substance 2, they answered the 2nd Atoms of many main group metals and non-
substance and KCl. Dr. One asked why they metals are particularly happy if they lose or gain
could measure electric conductivity in their
experiment. The students responded that it is
because charged particles are present in the
solution. Once KCl is dissolved in water, the
students know it dissociates into charged
potassium cations (K+) and chlorine anions
(Cl-). These ions carry charge through the
solution that they can measure as electric

enough electrons to end up with the same

number of electrons as an atom of noble gasses. then teleported the students to a location where
For example, atoms in groups 1 and 2 tend to they could visualize the different models of the
lose electrons to achieve the same number of atom. Dr. One showed a single potassium atom
electrons as the preceding noble gas atom. In and a single chlorine atom. Potassium has 19
contrast, atoms in groups 4-7 tend to gain electrons, with one electron in the valence shell.
additional electrons to acquire the same electron In order to reach the same number of electrons
configuration as the next noble gas in the as the noble gas argon, potassium has to give up
period. Dr. One asked the students the charge of one electron. Chlorine has 17 electrons, of
potassium ions. The students responded +1 which seven are in the valence shell. Chlorine
since K is in group 1 and likes to give up one has to take up one additional electron to have
valence electron to have an equal number of the same stable status as argon. If both atoms
electrons as the noble gas argon. Losing one are close to each other, an electron transfer
valence electron gives the K ion a charge of +1. occurs.
Figure 6. Valence Electrons Table
The next question asked was how many Potassium, which readily gives up electrons,
electrons does Cl atom has. The students transfers the single electron in its outer shell to
answered 17 based on the charge and location of chlorine. Chlorine readily accepts the single
chlorine in the periodic table. electron coming from potassium. Based on the
visual representation of Dr. One, both atoms
Dr. One asked the students if they would like to now have eight electrons in their valence shell
refresh their basic chemistry knowledge. The and therefore have reached a noble gas-like
students responded that they wanted to know electron configuration. Since potassium lost one
what valence electrons are. The valence shell is electron, it becomes positively charged.
the outermost layer of an atom. Electrons in this Chlorine has gained one electron and becomes
shell are called valence electrons. The students' negatively charged. The ionic bond is formed
next question was determining the number of between potassium and chlorine by the
valence electrons for a specific atom. The electrostatic attraction between opposite
number of valence electrons of non-transition charges. Together, they are electrically neutral.
metals can be found based on their location in Dr. One asked the students how many valence
the periodic table. Lastly, the students asked electrons does an atom tries to acquire. The
where they could see the total number of students answered eight since that is an octet.
electrons for a specific element. The total Dr. One once again asked the students to
number of electrons is typically shown in the complete the sentence: When K+ and Cl- form
periodic table right next to the sign of the atom. an ionic bond... The students answered they are
It equals the number of protons and, therefore, held together by electrostatic forces since when
also the number of electrons considered the ions of opposite charges meet and form ionic
atom has in its neutral state. The periodic table bonds, they are held together by electrostatic
is a chemist's best friend when it comes to forces.
identifying the types of bonds in a compound. It
is also helpful to predict if an atom in an ionic Atoms can also form chemical bonds by sharing
bond forms an anion or cation. electrons equally with each other. This is the
case for covalent bonds, for example, between
To come close to an atom's nirvana or the state two chlorine atoms. Both chlorine atoms need to
of a noble gas, a total of 8 valence electrons acquire one additional electron to fill their
have to be acquired; this is also called an valence shell to eight electrons. By sharing two
electron octet. Besides gaining or losing electrons, each chlorine atom has eight electrons
electrons, atoms can also share their electrons. to fill the octet in its valence shell. Shared
Dr. One will be showing an animation to see electrons move in between the valence shells of
how atoms gain, lose or share electrons. Dr. One both atoms. The strong attraction of each shared
electro to both atomic nuclei stabilizes the again to click on the computer screen to link the
system and establishes a strong covalent bond atoms with a single bond. Another click on the
between both chlorine atoms. In summary, in screen to complete the octets with electrons as
ionic bonds, atoms of opposite charges are held lone pairs at the terminal atoms. For the last
together by electrostatic forces. Two atoms step, the students must complete the central
share electrons in covalent bonds. atom's octet by making multiple bonds with the
terminal atoms. The students were able to finish
Dr. One asked how many electrons are shared all of the steps in building the lewis structure of
between two chlorine atoms in Cl2. The CO2.
students answered 2. Chemical bonding is all Figure 7. Lewis Electron Structure of CO2
about the attractions formed from electrostatic
forces or by sharing electrons. Chemists use a Dr. One asked why the correct lewis structure of
straightforward method to visualize valence CO2 involves a double bond between each
shell electrons in a chemical bond, namely oxygen atom and the carbon atom. The students
Lewis dot structures. Gilbert N. Lewis answered to complete the octet for carbon
introduced this concept. In the lewis dot because it's the only configuration in which both
structure, every valence shell electron is carbon and each oxygen atom have 8 electrons.
illustrated as a single dot. Lone electron pairs
are shown as two dots around the element Dr. One gave another lewis structure to finish.
symbol. Dr. One asked what do the connecting The students only need to do step five in
lines stand for in the Lewis structure. The building the lewis structure for N2. After
students responded that it stands for an electron successfully building N2's lewis structure, the
pair. Two electrons can also be shown as a students will now need to create the lewis
connecting line. Drawing a lewis dot structure structure of CH4. In building methane's
for covalent compounds containing different structure, the students will only need to do steps
elements can be a bit more tricky. However, 1 to 4 because there aren't any more valence
there is a simple step-by-step process that you electrons left to distribute. The lewis structure of
can follow to draw the lewis structures. methane has four single bonds. Methane is a
potent greenhouse gas and the main component
Dr. One asked the students to click on the PC of natural gas.
screen to watch the steps for CO2. For the first Figure 8. Dinitrogren’s Lewis Structure
step in building the lewis structure of an atom,
the students need to count all valence electrons
of CO2. To start with carbon, Dr. One asked
how many valence electrons does C has. The
students answered 4. As carbon has six
electrons, the inner shell doesn't count towards
the valence electrons. Hence, we need to
subtract the two inner-shell electrons, which
results in four valence electrons for carbon. Dr.
One then asked what the total number of
valence electrons in CO2 is. The students
answered six since carbon has four valence
electrons and oxygen has six each. Hence, the
total number is 16. Dr. One asked the students
Next, the students need to build the lewis properties that distinguish covalent bonds from
structure of Carbon Monoxide (CO). Dr. One ionic bonds is a difference in their melting
gave the students some guidelines for them to point. The students will use a capillary system
use as a reference in building the structure of to determine the melting point of both
carbon monoxide. The students were able to substances precisely. Dr. One gave the students
construct the lewis structure of CO where a some caffeine samples to use as a control.
triple bond connects the C and O. Carbon
monoxide is a highly poisonous gas that occurs Dr. One asked the students what type of
due to incomplete burning of fuel, such as coal, compound do they think caffeine is. The
wood, oil, kerosene, and natural gas. students answered covalent since covalent
bonds connect the single atoms in caffeine. If
one of the mysterious substances is a covalent
compound, the students would expect to
determine a melting point in a similar range to
caffeine. Dr. One has already filled a capillary
with caffeine and inserted it into the melting
apparatus. The students will take a glass
Figure 9. Lewis Electron Structure of capillary and fill it with substance 1 or 2 by
Carbon Monoxide inserting the capillary into the test tube. Then
the students inserted the filled capillaries into
Next, the students drew the lewis structure of the melting point apparatus. After this, the
CH2O. Dr. One again gave the students another students clicked the heat button on the screen to
set of guidelines that can help in case they get start the heating process. The students will be
stuck. The students were able to construct the asked to observe and wait till the temperature
lewis structure of formaldehyde with one double reaches 900 degrees celcius. Based on the
results in the melting point apparatus software,
the students were able to determine the melting
point for the samples. The students discovered
that caffeine has a melting point of 237C,
substance one has a melting point of 146C, and
the melting point for substance two is extremely
and two single bonds. Formaldehyde is toxic to high with 801C. Dr. One collected several
all animals and a commonly used tissue fixative. household chemicals and medical drugs that
Lastly, the students built the lewis structure of appear as solid white powders, just like the two
HCN. The students were able to connect mysterious substances. Dr. One showed the
Hydrogen Cyanide with a single bond and a students a list of melting points to compare the
triple bond. HCN is also called prussic acid; it is results they obtained in the previous phase.
a highly poisonous liquid.
Figure 10. Hydrogen Cyanide’s Lewis Dr. One asked the students what their guess
Structure based on the melting points of the two
substances. The students guessed that the
The students will now continue to figure out substances were sodium chloride and glucose
more about the mysterious white substances that since they have similar melting points. Dr. One
they got from the alchemist. Dr. One suggested then asked which rule concerning melting
trying to induce a phase change in the behavior the students can formulate looking at
mysterious substances. Dr. One then asked the the table. The students responded that ionic
students how they could change the current state compounds typically have a higher melting
of matter of the samples. The students agreed to point than covalent compounds. It is indeed that
heat the samples since one of the physical ionic compounds are more difficult to melt than
covalent compounds. Dr. One asked the students typically equal to the number of positive
why the melting points of ionic compounds charges. Thus, every ionic compound is overall
were higher than covalent compounds. The electrically neutral. Non-metals form covalent
students answered that it is because ions in ionic bonds (molecular bonds) by sharing an electron
compounds are tightly packed as a crystal pair between them. For most atoms, sharing an
lattice. In an ionic solid such as NaCl, the ions electron pair in a covalent bond allows them to
are arranged as a repeating array called a crystal obtain a stable electron configuration, following
lattice. As every ion in the lattice has several the octet rule. If the two bonding atoms have
contact sites to neighboring ions, the overall different electronegativities, the electron pair is
lattice energy is high. not shared equally between the two atoms. If the
difference in electronegativity is greater than 0.4
In contrast, the attraction between covalent on the Pauling scale, the bond is said to be
compounds is relatively low. Thus, more energy polar. If the difference is greater than 1.7, the
is required to melt an ionic compound than a bond is considered to be mainly ionic. It is not a
covalent compound. Dr. One asked the students sharp divide, though, but a matter of the
if the previous information confirmed that predominantly ionic bond above 1.7.
substance one is covalent and substance two is
ionic. They answered yes; Dr. One commended Predicting the charge of an ion is vital in
the students for getting it right from the determining the physical and chemical
beginning. The students also got their mass properties of compounds. One can determine the
spectrometry results back for the two charge of an ion by checking the atom’s location
substances. The results indicate that the two in the periodic table. Most of the main group
mysterious white substances are indeed just metals and non-metals tend to lose or gain
table salt and grape sugar. The atoms in glucose enough electrons to get the same number of
are held together by covalent compounds, electrons as a noble gas atom. For example, to
whereas an ionic bond joins sodium and obtain the same amount of electrons as the
chlorine to form sodium chloride (NaCl). The preceding noble gas atom, atoms in groups 1
experiment ended with a survey to assess if they and 2 tend to lose electrons. In contrast, atoms
learned something throughout the experiment. in groups 14-17 tend to gain additional electrons
to acquire the same electron configuration as the
next noble gas in the period. There are two
Conclusion specialized types of ions. The first type is the
negatively charged ion is called an anion. The
To sum up the research, within a chemical negative charge is a result of gaining more
compound, atoms are held together by chemical electrons. In contrast, a positively charged ion is
bonds. The bond is either established by an called a cation. The positive charge is a result of
electrostatic force of attraction between single losing electrons. A superscript indicates the
atoms of opposite charges or by sharing charge.
electrons. The change in electron distribution
that underlies the chemical bond most often Physical property is any measurable property
affects the valence electrons of an atom. By that is not associated with a change in chemical
transferring electrons between non-metals and composition. A physical property can be
metals, ionic bonds are established. The observable, such as density, hardness, and color,
electrical attraction of opposite charges holds or measured, such as melting point, boiling
the resultant ions together, such as sodium point, electrical conductivity, and solubility,
chloride (NaCl) or potassium chloride (KCl). after a change in the physical state of the matter.
The formation of an ionic or crystal lattice is The ability of a chemical material, known as the
caused by ionic bonding. When a cation and an solute, to dissolve in another chemical
anion create an ionic bond, negative charges are substance, known as the solvent, is referred to as
solubility. The polarity of the solvent (e.g., arrange the other atoms around the central atom.
water) and the amount of energy required to Step 3 is to connect each atom to the central
break the intermolecular forces of the solute atom with a single bond (one electron pair).
determine a chemical’s solubility. Metal is Next, the students must first complete octets
insoluble in water because it takes a lot of with electrons as lone pairs at the terminal
energy to break metallic bonds. Salts (ionic atoms (except for hydrogen). Add remaining
chemicals) dissolved in water or certain acids atoms (if any) to the central atom. Step 5 is to
are examples of conductive solutions. Water is complete the central atom’s octet by making
not electrically conductive in and of itself. multiple bonds with the terminal atoms. The last
When an ionic substance is dissolved in water, it step only applies to some molecules. Depending
dissociates into cations and anions, allowing on which electrons you moved in step 5, a
electric charges to flow through the solution. variety of resonance structures can be
Heating a solid raises the energy levels of its determined.
atoms or ions to the point where the energy
levels are high enough to partially disrupt the To summarize, the majority of ionic chemicals
forces that hold the atoms or ions in place. At are water-soluble. Ionic compounds are soluble
this stage, the solid begins to melt into a liquid in water because polar water molecules have a
form, a process known as melting. The melting strong attraction for charged ions. As charged
point is the temperature at which the solid and ions dissolve into water, they become solvated,
liquid phases are in equilibrium. and ionic compounds become solvated as well.
Ionic bonds are significant because they allow
The octet rule describes the tendency of main specific chemical molecules to be synthesized.
group element atoms to form chemical bonds in Scientists can manipulate ionic characteristics
which each atom acquires eight valence and interactions to create desired results.
electrons. The valence shell with eight electrons Covalent bonds are essential since most carbon
is highly stable with the same electron molecules interact primarily through covalent
configuration as a noble gas. Hydrogen, lithium, bonding. The purpose of drawing a Lewis dot
and helium are some of the exceptions to the structure is to identify chemical bond formation
rule. To achieve a steady state with two accurately by identifying lone electron pairs in
electrons, hydrogen requires one more electron, molecules. The reason for this is that in a
but lithium requires one electron loss. Helium covalent bond, electrons are shared. The
possesses two valence electrons and is therefore information and tests included in the virtual
in its most stable form. The octet rule and the simulation are vital for the students to determine
valence electrons are also vital in building the unknown substances.
lewis dot structure of a compound. To form a
chemical connection (both ionic and covalent), References:
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dot formations are one approach to observe
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