Steam Turbines by Power

Noz.
zles use interna1 energy of pressurized steam to create working

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Steam jef
Steam j"
EXPANPltfO '" ."gine mav
pilton .. converts (nternal ."efff to work
NOZZLE &Xpand. steam, crecHes unbal-
anced readion force an opposite wall
DIVERGING NOZZLE is req1,lired if dis-
charg,e pressur;e IS under 1i3% of ioit101

..
1'2
Work varies with bucket speed
(8 team jet maxinmm on locked impulse
,bol no work done since bucket doesn t move. (b)
Whe.n hucket move with of sleam jet; fome. dimin-
j$hea. Steam lea es huoket at lower speed nut iirst does work
h,- moving the budcel (c) WhM, bucket speed e,quds %
speed of sleam jet, force drops to hall the looked condition.
J team leave bucket with zero peed, doa maximum work.
Grapti BhoW5 110w force ana woEk vary 'With the bucket speed.
HOW TURBINES USE STEAM'S ENERGY
In an engine, st an;! pres!!e' e'qu.ally on
cyliD:der walls ana. PiStODA Since piston mo es., the' steam
does using some. of its l.ntern-al ener-gy t d this,
The -steam cools as its pr $ure drQPs. Similarly ,
in nozzleboJC!, celltEf above, Qn all .
But it escape$ tltrough ooz;le foitn a highspeed jet.
Reactiop. pressure PIt on wall {It'ea the nOZ'l.le
.is net balanced by the escaping steam.. H h,oJ.( is fixed
steam at top speed and P1
Qn anything in path. If the hQx p u. does work
on it 1?y speeding it in a Qpposite to jet .Motion.
In-that case . absolute jet speed is correspondingly slower.
When steam dis_charge ptessure or more of bo
Bres8li1Ie .()uly a CQnve.tgiog cross section.
S- 2
When d:iS -barge; pre ur is 'mu h less than 53 , the e,Gn-
erging: tion snolllCl be f -llowe b a diverging
rea Qf exit ,cro , e 'tion d pe-nds on th pressure ratio.
uzzle organize the Steam s it Bows
in well-formed h-,gh-speed jets., Moving buckets, above-,
absorb kinetic energy (if the, jet, ceDvert it to mechanical
work in a r ta.tjng shaft. When the. bucket is the
jet enter and lea 6l with equal and maxi
mUlIl- force F. But lJO rirechaIJ)ca! work is done. As the
bucket is to up, the jet leaves more slowly
alld fotce F sh inks. GIa-ph above shows how both fOTce,
and wo.rifo done liT)' with blade speed. Steam jet does
maximum work when speed is just half steam
peed. In this the moving budc:et leaves behind
STEAM, TURBINES A SPECIAL REPORT
)-

Steam "ow thr,ough impulSe, readion and compounclecl turWne Ita_
""-
Fixed
I Mo,ing
Impulse stage
Readkm "oge
In mge aliove, nozzles airec steam into buckets
Otl rim of rotating disk. SteJm ftotv Chang 10 uial
direaion as it gGe'8 tbrou-gb lIlovinl .. pa. In the r . '
8t8:R, stationary bJ..des direct ,ateam je1t8 fIlto
between moving bl.des; preasure drops IWOB8 DOdl fisect
and moviD. bladee-. In impulJe -ae it mo." only
it a trail of inert steam, since all kinetic energy is con.
verted to work. Starting force or torque of this ideal
turbine is double the torque at its most efficient speed.
Nozzle and rotor layoub.For practical reasons mO'st
turbines mount their buokets on the rims of disks.
feed steam from one side 8S shown above. Pres-
surized from the nozzle box flows through parallel
nozzles formed by vanes or foils. Steam leaves
as a broad high-speed jet to flow through the slower
moving-bucket passages. These tUrn the steam flow to an
axial direction as they absorb its kinetic" energy. The
leaves with lower internal energy and speed.
Steam pressure and speed vary through the true im-
pulse stage, as graphs aDove show. . Wb.en impu;lse stages
are presBure-compounded: exhaust steam from one stage
{lqws t1irough f9llo-wing similar impulse stages where it ex-
pBJ;lds to a lower pressure. If velocity-compounded: steam
POWER JUNE 1962
Fixed
t
Filled
V./odfy-compoundecl IIGge and readion IIaget
. nozzle. Vel9cltY-cqmpollncled COBtroiaaap, abate, cliacharpe
steam into two mctioD aces. Vdocity etap Il8eII )up
dto.p to develop ateam jet. Part of..
eJlerg is. absorbed -m 6nt mcmng IM1cbt lOW. FiDel .......
tum partly slowed ..... 'hefor& it eateD ............
moving buckets -where most temaining eDeI'IJ fa ..........
velocity is absorbed in a series of steps.
In the reaction stage, above, steam enters fixed-blade
passages; it leaves as a steam jet which fi:Ib entire rotel
periphery. Steam ftows hetweenmQving blades that fonD.
Jnoving n020zies . Thel'e it drops in pressure, and
l
its speed
rises relative to lhe bkJdes. This creates the reactive
that does work. DesFite rising relative speed, eft-eat
reduces absolute steam speed through one stage. When
enthalpy drop is equal moving and stationary
blades, it's called a So.%-reactWn, $tGge.
contrel stage, above, U! -followed
by two reaction . stages. The jet giVQ8
up only part of its kinetic energy ii;L the fu.st row of'
moving buckets. Then come reversing blades -which re-
direct the slowe(l.up steam.jnto the-second r'OW of moving
buckets where most of its remaining kinetic energy JS
absot:hea. Ste'atn then entet:8 of reaction I_lages.
5-3
HOW TUR I ES
We've seen the basic methods used to convert internal
energy of pressurized steam into mechanical shaft work.
By allowing the steam to drop in pressure while it flows
through a nozzle, we can get it to form a high-speed jet.
We have a large amount of leeway as to where the pres-
sure drops take place in the turbine.
Impulse stages - single, pressure-compounded or
velocity-compounded-involve pressure drops mainly in
the stationary nozzles of actual turbines. Pressure level
across the moving buckets drops slightly.
Reaction stages are used to drop pressure in both
stationary and moving passages. Ratios of the two drops
fall in a wide range. One tl!at's often used is a 50%
reaction: pressure ratio nearly equal across stationary and
moving passages. The 50% reaction produces most effi-
cient energy conversion when speed of the moving blades
about equals speed of the steam jet as it leaves the sta-
tionary-blade passages.
Many of today's so-called impulse-stage turbines actu-
ally use about 5 to 10% reaction in their design. This
means there is a small steam-pressure drop through the
moving-blade passages. These buckets, instead of taking
the symmetrical shape of those shown on the previous
page, have a longer tail on the right to form a slightly
converging passage at the exits, see p 8, Fig. 7.
Multistage steam turbines have large cross-sectional
areas of steam flow, so choice of blade and bucket sections
becomes complicated. A stage may begin as pure impulse
at the root of the bucket and nozzle and then increase the
percentage of reaction along the length of bucket and
blade toward the outer tips-more about this p g.
Other parts must guide the steam flow and carry the
mechanical shaft work out of the unit, if nozzles and
buckets are to do their The buckets and
blades ride on rotating parts, either carried on a
shaft, or a rotating drum. left and
the rotating-drum of turhine construction.
percentages of are
used over a pressure range to limit
past blade tips and seals., Because of the
drum construction is more rll"""ti""
shaft carries the drum and
journal at each end. A thrust neatrmtg c,onlxo[s
the rotor's axial to hold clearances hetween
and elements of the
on shaft transmit the
from the buckets to the driven
tors, in the case of the turbines
Motor-driven turning .
drum when the turbine
and while the unit is
and the steam shut off. This n r l"vpnt", un,eql1al. eXlpaJilSlOn
or contraction which
carries
structure to
buckets. Steam enters
and steam chest. In units like the two
shown these elements are separate from the main
turbine structure. In smaller units shown on
the steam chest
either as an HU.'l..F,' a1
this by converting leaving kinetic energy of the last stage
into internal energy.
Rupture diaphragms in the exhaust hood prevent ex-
cessive pressure buildup, should the condenser lose its
vacuum. A governor geared to the shaft in the front
bearing pedestal operates the governor valves through a
hydraulic servomotor system. Main governor can be
Pressure
mechanical or hydraulic; it opens and closes the valves
in response to fall and rise of shaft rpm.
An overs peed governor is usually located in the shaft
at the front bearing pedestal. Its function : shut a main
stop valve ahead of the governing valves when shaft rpm
exceeds rating by about 10% (15% on small turbines ).
Disk-and-diaphragm type of turbine shown above
is used where impulse staging predominates with higher
pressure drops per stage, and percentage of reaction is
relatively low. This unit handles mechanical or generator
drive. It features two points of automatic extraction
where part of the steam may be withdrawn from the tur-
bine at constant pressure. Steam chest is integral with
the casing. Control and extraction valves respond to both
shaft speed and steam pressure at the extraction points.
In this turbine the moving buckets ride on wheels or
disks that are shrunk on and keyed to the shaft. The
nozzles are carried in diaphragms that have centered
holes through which the shaft passes. Seals at these open-
ings set a limit to steam leakage bypassing the nozzles;
construction of the diaphragm limits the cross-sectional
area available for leakage through the seal.
All turbines need a lubricating system for their bear -
ings. Usually it acts as the hydraulic system for actuating
valves and servomotors, as well. The oil reservoir is often
remote, at a lower level to facili tate drainage.
double-rotation reaction un it has only moving blades. Inter-
meshing "cylinders" of blades mount alternately on oppositely rotating plates.
This turbine has two shafts, usually drives alternators. It con handle high-
speed steam jets because there are no stationary blades; steam can be extracted
S 6
1
2
3
4
KEY ELEME
Nozzle block has three groups of converging nozzles
built up of vanes welded in two rings held in casing
Steam chest holds nozzle block. Block has converging-
diverging nozzles, plus a row of reversing blades
TS in turbine design
Every stage of a turbine has two basic elements: (1) sta-
tionary nozzle arid (2) moving bucket or blade. Design
of these parts depends on factors such as entering steam
conditions, exhaust steam pressure, shaft speed, rated ca-
pacity, steam flow, where part is located in the unit.
Nozzles may be either converging or converging-
diverging, as we saw on p 2. Selection depends on pres-
sure ratio of steam across the nozzle. Fig. 1 shows upper
half of nozzle block for the first stage of an intermediate-
size turbine. Nozzles are grouped so they can be con-
trolled by individual valves. These are typical converging
nozzles: in cross section, the steam passage is rectangular.
Some shapes of vanes making up this type nozzle are
shown on p 2. In the high-pressure end of the turbine,
nozzle vanes are usually welded into the nozzle diaphragm.
In the low-pressure end, nozzle vanes may be cast as an
integral part of a diaphragm.
Fig. 2 is a steam chest for a small-capacity turbine.
Converging-diverging nozzles are drilled into the block
and a set of stationary reversing buckets attached for
the 2-row control or velocity-compounded stage. Steam
passages through the nozzles have a circular cross section.
Single converging-diverging nozzle, Fig. 3, has attached
reversing blading. This nozzle fits a small turbine with a
2-row single wheel. Typical nozzle diaphragm for a lower
stage of a disk-and-diaphragm turbine is shown in top
drawing, Fig. 4. Its two halves dovetail to make it tight
against leakage. Lower drawing shows a nozzle row for a
drum type unit; no inner diaphragm.is needed because the
drum occupies this space. Fig. 5a shows nozzle, wheel,
stationary-blading layout for the 2-row single-wheel unit.
Steam may flow more than once through blade row
Reversing blading',J
attaches toa converging-
d i verging nozzle, I eft
Typical nozzle setups are
for disk-diaphragm unit,
above; drum type; below
5
(0) Velocity-compounded stage passes steam once through 6
moving ' blades (b) steam flows twice through bIQd,s '

Velocity compounding can be done with a single row
of moving buckets. Steam may pass just once through the
blades, as in Fig. Sa. In Sb, stationary reversing nozzle
at right guides high-speed steam into a second pass
through the moving buckets. In another method of
velocity compounding, Fig. 6, steam flowing from a con-
verging-diverging nozzle makes three passes through
buckets milled into the edge of a solid wheel. Stationary
reversing chambers return the high-speed steam to the
wheel buckets along a helical path. Control stage for
large turbine, Fig. 7, differs slightly from those on p 2
since vanes have a small percentage of reaction built in.
Blades or buckets take many forms. Fig. 8 shows
buckets of two succeeding stages in a disk-and-diaphragm
turbine, along with the intervening nozzle. Buckets re-
ceive the working force of the steam, transmit it as a
moving torque into the wheels or disks that carry them.
Height of buckets and diameter of stages increase in
succeeding stages to accommodate volume of the steam,
which expands as its pressure drops. Shroud bands cover
the bucket tips to keep steam from spilling out radially.
In high-efficiency turbines every effort is made to con-
fine steam flow to the working passages through nozzles
and buckets. Sealing strips between bucket shrouds and
casing diaphragms, Fig. 8, minimize steam leaking past
the bucket tip into the following nozzle.
Some turbines use pure impulse buckets without any
pressure drop across them. In other units, Fig. 7, stage
may have some low degree of or less-to
produce a small pressure drop across the bucket. This
small drop can be very useful-it keeps all buckets run-
type u"lt need .. allng strips,
whlc.hllmlt steam flow past .tationGl')', movlngbladlng
. '{ STEAM lUIIINB :A. SPECIAl. >REPOIT
ning full of steam, shaft thrust positive in one direction.
In Fig. 9, blades of five stages mount 'on their disks or
wheels. Side- or axial-entry roots attach them to the
wheel rims. Shrouds, usually riveted to the blade tips, are
used to fasten groups of blades together on a wheel. They
prevent steam from spilling, minimize bucket vibration.
Reaction blading for drum type turbines, Fig. 10, has
stationary blades fastened to the upper stationary-blade
ring, which is supported by the turbine casing. Moving
blades dovetail into mating slots on the drum rotor.
Since steam pressure drops across both moving and
stationary blading, radial seal strips opposite the shrouds
minimize steam leakage past the blades. Turbine of Fig.
lOa uses two seal strips per blade row; lOb uses three.
In many turbines that use velocity-compounded control
stages, steam flows over only a part of the total periphery
of the stage. In the "idle" section, buckets churn the
stagnant steam. This windage loss reduces turbine
efficiency. To minimize it, shields fit closely over the idle
part of the bucket travel. They limit amount of steam
whipped about by the nonworking buckets, Fig. 11.
When blade height becomes a significant part of the
total stage diameter, ratio of steam and bucket speed
changes over the length of the bucket. Then warped
buckets, Fig. 13, must be used. Fig. 12, an exploded view,
shows a nozzle diaphragm, steam vortex flow, a bladed
or bucketed wheel and the leaving exhaust steam. Ideally,
steam enters the nozzles in an axial direction and leaves
in a circumferential direction, forming a vortex flow or
eddy that is contained by the turbine casing before steam
enters the moving buckets. To avoid cross currents in the
seals and shields influence unit efficiency
11
Shields cut windage
loss on idle buckets
vortex flow, product of linear velocity of steam and radius
of circle it travels in must be constant: Vl rl = V2 r2. Steam
pressure must be higher at outer than inner radius.
Steam leaves nozzles at the inner radius with higher
linear speed than at outer radius. But buckets' linear speed
increases with radius. So we get a steadily growing ratio
of blade to steam speed as we move from root to tip.
Fig. 13 shows velocity diagrams at root and tip of a
blade that receives a steam jet moving in vortex flow. Root
of the blade has been designed for impulse flow, which is
equivalent to 0% reaction, no pressure drop.
Entrance angle of the blade is fixed by angle of ap-
proach of the steam's relative speed, so steam slides
smoothly over the blade. In the ideal situation, absolute
steam speed should just about double the blade speed. At
blade's exit edge, vector difference of relative steam and
blade speed shows that steam has a residual absolute speed
in an axial direction.
In our example, blade speed at its tip is about double
the absolute steam speed. Relatively, then, steam ap-
proaches the blade from a direction almost opposite to its
motion. Blade section must be twisted to receive the
steam smoothly all the way up the blade. But since enter-
ing steam pressure is higher at the tip than at the root,
there will be a pressure drop through the blade. This
means we must use a reaction-blade section, with relative
steam speed higher at the blade exit. A pure reaction
force acts at the blade tip, a pure impulse force at the root.
At the tip exit, vector difference of relative steam speed
and blade speed indicates that steam leaves with low
velocity in an axial direction, same as at the root.
Relative
steam speed

speed
Rel af/ve
steam
Sfeam speed
Bl ade speed
Blade

12
Steam flows axially in entering-stage nozzles, leaves
with vortex flow. Twisted blades return it to axial 13
Twisted blade works with im-
pulse flow at root, reaction at tip
POWER' JUNE 1962 S 9
Automatic throttle, stop, check and steam-chestgo-verni ... gvalves
free-expanding nozzle chest has nozzle. groups con-
trolled by cam-operotedpo.ppetv(:ilves in steam chest
Rotors for disk-and-diaphragm turbines may be ma-
chined from a single forging for smaller-capacity units, or
built up of separate disks shrunk and keyed on a forged
and machined shaft. Edges of the disk are milled to hold
the buckets. Sha.ft usually has integral journals for the
S 10
Reheat.unit .. on large
load change. (c) 16 VP", hy volve in series
16
Crossbar in steam chest, lifted by two
pet valves in sequence to control flow
bearings and also carries a thrust collar. Drum type tur-
bine rotors increase their diameter from front to rear end
of the unit. They're usually made as one forging, then
milled to receive the blade roots.
Casings hold the blade rings, bearings and other
STEAM TURBINES A SPECIAL REPORT
(
control flow anCi p .... ure Of steam through th
Pilton-moved grid vam controls
flow In ... un,t
11
Combined vatve' and steam chest for ht may b.
front Df the turbine or to 9ne Flexible pipei ' tie ' it to non.fegroups
stationary parts. A small unit's casing may split vertically,
but all large ones split horizontally at the shaft center line.
For high-pressure service, front ele-
ments have been built with two casings-steam flows be-
tween the inner and outer one. This design allows thinner
shells, so expansion and contraction aren't so much of a
problem. Casings may be cast or built up of welded plate.
Valves control the flow of steam through a turbine.
Combined stop-throttle valve, Fig. 14a, regulates steam
flow during warmup by opening the inner valve first.
When the unit is ready to take load, main valve is opened
wide and nozzle-chest valves pick up the control function.
In an emergency, the stop valve slams shut when oil pres-
sure is released from the operating cylinder below. This
oil pressure can be regulated manually during startups.
Fig. 17 is a throttle-stop valve on a steam chest.
Reheat turbines need both intercept and stop valves,
Fig. 14b and c, between boiler reheater and turbine-reheat
inlet. Steam in the reheater and its connecting lines can
seriously overspeed the unit during a large load drop or
loss. The intercept valve closes part way during rapid
load changes; both valves shut on overspeed.
Changes in steam flow to meet varying loads are
controlled by valves in a steam chest, Fig. 15, 16, 17.
These adrt'lit steam to groups of nozzle chests, an arrange-
ment giving high part-load efficiency. Valves in Fig. 15
are opened by cams on a governor-controlled shaft. In
Fig. 16 the bar in the steam chest is lifted by two rods
moved under governor control. Stems have varying
lengths to open the valves in sequence. Fig. 17 shows an
entirely separate steam chest; here the valves are lifted
by an external hinged lever.
Balanced governor.controlled single-admission valve
Fig. 19, handles small-stearn-turbine flow. It may feed
several paralleled nozzle chests on the unit; intervening
hand valves can cut them in and out as wanted.
In automatic-extraction turbines, three different types of
valves may control steam flow through the downstream
sections. On p 6, cam-operated poppet valves control the
first opening, with cam-operated spool valves for the sec-
ond. Piston-operated grid valve, Fig. 18, may be used for
POWER' JUNE 1962 S 11
21
(a) Ball bearing controls thrust in a very small tur-
Ch) R;nt'l.t'\jI'..... ;1'\....... ,..1 ;.. II."" Aft ....... -.11 ..
rotor in position;
shaft sealsJimit
steam leakage
22
In Kingsbury' type of thrust bear-
ing, tilting shoes form oil wedges 23
Ball-seat bearing has
lands for shaft thrust
packtnorl";s form simple
seot CJvainst .Ihaft . steam 'leakage
low pressure drop across the valve- about 50 psi or less.
Bearings range from pressure-lubricated journal types
for large units, Fig. 20, through ball bearings for very
small turbines, Fig. 21a, and ring-oiled journal bearings
for small units, Fig. 21b. Larger bearings are almost
universally designed with oil grooves in their top halves
to build an oil wedge that presses down on the journal.
Steam-pressure differential across most turbine stages
creates a net thrust along the shaft. This must be counter-
balanced to keep the rotor in proper position. Fig. 22
shows a Kingsbury thrust bearing. Individual movable
thrust shoes hear on leveling plates, left. Thrust collar,
fixed to the shaft, pushes on the shoes from the right, and
holds clearance hetween moving and fixed components.
Fig. 23 shows bearing surfaces, on the side of a jour-
nal-hearing housing, for a tapered-land thrust hearing.
A thrust collar fixed on the shaft pushes against the
surfaces to hold the shaft in place. Oil wedges build
up between collar and tapered lands.
Steam leakage can't be avoided entirely. Some steam
will leak out of turbine casings where the shaft must pass
through. In condensing turbines, air tries to leak along
the shaft into the low-pressure condensing space.
We've seen sealing arrangements used to limit leakage
around blades. Same idea comes in for shafts. In a slant-
top carbon packing-ring seal, Fig. 24, carbon packing
5 12
rides directly on the shaft. Springs anchored at the top
hold packing segments in place and against the sealing
surfaces at right. Steam that does manage to leak past the
seals may be led to a lower-pressure stage of the turbine,
to a heater, or vented to atmosphere. Condensed steam
usually accumulates in the last section of the seal, then
drains to waste.
Step.type labyrinth gland, Fig. 25, also controls shaft
leakage. Intermediate leakoffs direct the steam to lower
turbine stages or heaters. The large intermediate chamber
may connect to the suction of a blower which holds a
vacuum lower than the turbine's last stage. This would
draw in l.p steam from the right and air from the left.
Blower discharges the mixture to a condenser where the
steam is recovered. Lp steam might be fed into the outer
left chamber to block air flow into the seal.
Seal strips have tapered edges so any accidental rubbing
will wear them down quickly without overheating the
shaft. Steps milled in the shaft match longer seal strips,
forming a long, tortuous path with high flow resistance.
Enough axial distance is needed between strip and step
to avoid contact when shaft and casing expand or contract
at different rates. Where movement is relatively large, the
shaft may be smooth with the seal strips all of equal
depth. Some turbines use labyrinth seals in series, then
add a set of carbon-ring seals at the shaft ends.
MATEIALS newer alloys
The many parts of a steam turbine work under
varying service conditions. Effective design selects,
from appropriate materials. for each part, comhina-
tion promising long life at low cost. Critical parts
of a modern t urbine are those handling the enter-
ing steam. It's at high pressure and temperature,
because higher entering conditions mean more
energy' can be converted to shaft work. But using
too costly materials can wipe out fuel savings.
Casings .
as wen as steam . and nozzle chests are usually cast
of steeL A sample composition for 825F service may
be 0.3 C, 1.0 Mn,. 0.6 Si, 0.06 S, .0.05 P. At the
other extreme, 10501100 F may use austenitic steel
with 0.08 C, 16.00 Cr, 13.00 Ni, 2.00 Mo and 0.8 Cb.
Wrought parts: .0.08 C, 18.00 Cr, 9.00 Ni, 0.8 Ch.
Rotors . o
are made up of shafts, disks or drums and blades or
buckets; each element offers a choice of materials.
Shafts for lower temperatures vary from hot.rolled
heat-treated carbon-steel bar stock to alloy-steel
forgings. Up to 1050 F the shaft may be a forging:
0.37 C, 1.00 Mn, 0.35 Si, 0.035 S, 0.035 P, 1.25 Cr,
1.50 Mo, 0.50 Ni and 0.30 V.
At 1050 F, drum would be a ferritic-alloy forg-
ing: 0,30 C, 0.50 Ni, 1.00 Cr, 1.25 Mo and 0.25 V.
Wheels for 650-F service may be 0.45 C, 0.90
Mn, 0.15 Si, 0.035 S, 0.035 P. H-t wheels are usually
of the same composition ash-t drums.
Buckets ..
made of cold-rolled drawn stock may be stainless
steel: 0.06 C, 0.25 Mil, 0.50 Si, 0.03 S, 0.03 P, n.5
Cr, 0.40 Mo, 0.5 Ni. Milled blades for h-tservice
would be ahout the same as the drawn blades. hut
made from hot-rolled bars. Shroud bands would be
annealed stainless strips, perhaps with the Mo left
out. Stellite shields may be brazed on leading edges
of lop buckets running in the wet-steam region.
No%%terings and diaphragms
for SOO-F service are often castiron or Meehanite;
as temperatures go higher, materials range through
steel plate, cast steel, steel and stainless-steel forg-
ings. Some diaphragm nozzles for 950 F are rolled,
some cast aluminum-chromium steel.
Seal and gland packing . .
around the shaft varies from carbon to stainless
steel, leaded bronze, leaded nickel-brass, non
hardened stainless iron and corrosion-resistant
chrome-molybdenum materials. Springs to hold
packing in place vary: Inconel, monel, stainless steeL
POWER' JUNE 1962
Bearings ..
use high-tin babbitt as the inner lining, cast on
hronze, steel or cast-iron hacks. Their shells are
often cold rolled steel. Journals and thrust collars
are usually an integral part of the sha.ft, and of the
same material, though some journals are built up of
sprayed metal to make a long-wearing hard surface.
Oil rings, like smaller bearings, are usually brass-
a softer material than the journal.
Bolting 0
of high-pressure casings running at high tempera-
ture raises special problems because of creep. Grad-
ual elongation or growth of materials under stress
relaxes bolt's hold on the casing joints. One builder
uses a I3chrome tungsten-moly-vanadium alloy steel
for 925 F and above .. This material resists temper
embrittlement and oxidation, has higher notched-bar
rupture strength.
As bolts creep they must be tightened periodically;
when they're strained to their rated level they must
be replaced. If holt material has a lower coefficient of
thermal expansion than the flange, less initial tight-
ening stress is required.
Piping .
materials range from carbon steel for temperatures
below 900 F and mt;dium pressures to Type 316
stainless steel for service up to 1150 F. AU ma-
terials lose rupture strength as temperature rises. For
example, at 800 F, Type 316 has a lOO,OOOhr rup-
ture strength around 47,000 psi; at 1150 F it drops
to 14,000 psi. H-p piping must have heavy walls.
Inlet pipe seals . .
for turbines in the 1000-1050-F range may be stel-
lite. These sealing rings let pipe connections between
separate steam chest and nozzle chests move axially
and transversely during startups and shutdowns.
Piping oxidation at joints must be prevented. It
freezes the seal rings; resulting rigid connection
transmits piping expansion and contract!ng forces
to the turbine casing-perhaps causing serious mis-
alignment. In one design, stellite rings bear against
a terminal ferritic-stainless-steel section welded on
the pipe leads.
Governing valves
at the front end of a turbine are usually made,
like the steam chest, of a carbon-chrome aHoy, one
of the alloy steels. Stems must resist oxidation to
prevent freezing in the packing. One manufacturer
plates them with 13-chrome tungsten-moly-vanadium
to be sure of good service above 950 F.
S 13
TU liNE DESIGNS span broad system needs
In industry, steam turbines handle an almost endless
variety of jobs. Top steam conditions are 4500 psig and
1200 F, lows are subatmospheric pressure and 100 F.
Capacities begin at less than 1 hp for mechanical drives,
run up to 1,000,000 kw for generator drives-with larger
sizes in sight. In the U.S.A., turbine-generators usually
run at 1800 and 3600 rpm; other countries often use
1500 and 3000 rpm. Industrial turbines run up to 20,000
rpm for lower capabilities with smaller diameter rotors.
Basic types of turbines, opposite page, divide into
two main classes: condensing units exhausting steam at
less than atmospheric pressure; noncondensing units
exhausting at higher than atmospheric.
These classes may be further sorted according to steam
flow in the turbine: (1) straight-flow (2) reheat (3)
automatic-extraction (4) nonautomatic-extraction.
Straight-flow uses full-throttle steam from nozzles to
exhaust. In reheat, main steam flow exhausts from the
unit at an intermediate stage. It's resuperheated, usually
in the boiler furnace, then returns at the next lower stage
for further expansion to exhaust. Some units have two
stages of reheating.
Automatic-extraction unit bleeds off part of the main
stearn flow at one, two or three points. Valved partitions
between selected turbine stages control extracted-stearn
pressure at the desired level. Proportion of main steam
flow extracted for process at various points may be con-
trolled in any manner within design limitations. When
extracted steam flow through the unit does not produce
enough shaft power to meet the demand, more steam
flows through to exhaust. These turbines are put be-
tween steam-supply and process-steam headers, diagram
below. Automatic governing systems correlate steam flows,
pressures, shaft speed and shaft output for anyone unit.
Nonautomatic-extraction turbines bleed steam at as
many as nine different stages. Pressure of extracted steam
at each stage varies with the turbine shaft load. But pres-
sure variations like this can seldom be tolerated for pro-
cess work. So these units usually work as generator drives;
extracted steam is used for feedwater heating.
Generator-drive turbines often combine condensing, re-
heating and nonautomatic-extraction. Mechanical-drive
turbines are designed to meet varied' needs of industry for
prime movers to drive fans, pumps, compressors and
other machines. This service generally calls for small
noncondensing units with exhaust steam used for heating.
Special types of turbines include the double-flow-ex-
haust, sometimes used for mechanical-drive units. This
design permits high shaft speeds and low backpressures
where steam volume grows enormously and calls for very
large passages between last-stage buckets.
Mixed-pressure turbines take steam from hop or lop
sources or both to generate shaft power. Automatic-ex-
traction units may also act as mixed-pressure turbines.
Straight-noncondensing turbines work over a wide
range of throttle and exhaust conditions. When extra
shaft power and steam are needed, an additional hop tur-
bine can be added. Supplied with steam by a new hop
boiler, superposed unit in diagram below exhausts at
high backpressure into existing main steam-supply lines.
Typical turbines of each class and construction are illus-
trated on the following pages.
H-p bOIler supply
Heat-balance arrangements are almost endless
S 1"
Superposed
Turbines fit most any heat balance as long as there is sufficient steam-
pressure drop. Most efficient hookup occurs when process-steam flow and
shaft.power demands coincide. Shaft-power needs in excess of that gen
erated by process steam call for condensing units. Throttling valves
meet any steam needs over and above what's required for shaft power
Main supply line
Stroight
condensing
process
I-p
process
L-p
process
Triple oufo-
extroction
condensing
Condenser Ileode!
Oouble 0,,10-
ex/raclion
condellsing
Single oulo-
exf/ocf;of}
condensing
Uixed-
pressure
condensing
Straight
non-
condensing
Single oufo-
extraclion
noncondensing
Low-pressure
condensing
STEAM TURBINES' A SPECIAL REPORT
t
1
Fifteen basic turbine types: condensing and noncondensing
Condensing turbines exhaust
at back pressures less
than atmospheric
Double-flow-exhau!iit
Mixed-pressure
Triple-automatic-
extraction
Straight-flow
Single-reheat
Single-automatic-
extraction
Single-automatic-extraction
mixed-pressure
Noncondensing-turbine backpressures cover a wide range
Straight-flow
POWER' JUNE 1962
Single-nonautomatic-
extraction
Si ng I e-automatic-
extraction
Low-pressure
Dou ble-reheat
Double-automatic-
extraction
Single-nonautomatic-

Double-automatic-
extraction
S 15
Casing and shaft arrangements depend on capacity, steam conditions
Tandem-compound designs work on a single shaft

Sing'e-casing
single-flow Single-casing opposed-flow
Three-casing triple-flow-reheat
Cross-compound turbines
usually have two shafts,
sometimes three
Two-casing
double-flow
quadruple-flow-reheat
Six-casing sextuple-Aow-double-reheat
S 16
Two-casing double-flow
Four-casing quadruple-flaw-reheat
Two-casing Four-casing quCidruple-flow-reheat
double-flow-reheat
Five-casing sextuple4low.-reheat
. .
STEJ.MTURIHNES A !;pj.t" I AI Di:onDT
. j
.,
Large compound turbine units may have three main elements
First element receives
h-p h-t steam from boiler
High-pressure high-temperature casing
for a tandem- or cross-compound tur-
bine features separate steam chests with
integral stop-throttle valves. Flexible
inlet piping connects chests to separate
nozzle chambers in turbine casing.
Double-casing construction allows steam
cooling for high-temperature parts; it
also means the inner and outer casings
can have thinner shell sections, reduc-
ing thermal stresses in shells and
flanges. Exhaust from 3600-rpm element
of this type usually goes to reheater in
boiler furnace. Shaft gland leakage is
normally piped to a lower stage of the
turbine where it does useful work.
Intermediate-pressure casing
takes steam from reheater
Intermediate-pressure casing is shown
here along with one-third of the exhaust-
flow turbine of a triple-flow unit. Steam
from the boiler reheater flows through
intercept and stop valves before enter-
ing initial stage of this casing (to
right of center). After passing through
three reaction stages, one-third of total
flow goes through three more stages at
right and then through crossover to
enter last six stages before exhausting
to condenser below. Two-thirds of flow
leaves intermediate stages through cross-
under , then enters double-flow low-pres-
sure element, not shown.
Low-pressure casing
extracts remaining energy
Double-flow low-pressure casing receives
steam at center through crossover from
an i-p casing. Steam divides, flows
through paralleled lop stages in oppo-
site directions. Last stages are followed
by diffusers, which recover some energy
from steam velocity before the steam
flows downward in exhaust hoods to
condenser below. Buckets are warped
in the latter stages because they make
up a large part of total stage diameter.
POWER' JUNE 1962 c: '7
Although some of these steam turbines drive electric generators,
H-p steam enters center of hop casing,
leaves at right end_ Reheated steam
enters at center and flows to left end,
then through crossunder to double-flow
I-p turbine exhausting to condenser.
Si ngle-casi ng
multistage condensing
Integral steam chest has cam-operated
governing valves; velocity-compounded
first stage has full arc admission. Two
nonautomatic extraction points in this
disk-and-diaphragm design withdraw
steam for feedwater heating. Last five
stages use twisted blading, varying re-
action along the blade length; other
stages have impulse blading. Ball-seated
front journal bearing carries thrust-
bearing surface on each of its sides for
two thrust collars shrunk on main shaft.
Diaphragms fit directly in single casin-g.
Single-casing
double-flow-exhaust condensing
Steam expands from 600 psig, 750 F to
3.5-in.-Hg abs. Double-flow arrangement
of last stage permits shorter blades so
unit can run at higher speed-up to
6500 rpm-at good engine efficiency for
mechanical-drive service. This unit has
its exhaust opening at top. It can de-
velop 13,100 shaft hp at rated speed.
Disk-and-diaphragm design uses im-
pulse blading in all its stages, has one
point of nonautomatic extraction for
boiler-feed water heating.
Oi
+
other genera -purpose units offer a wider shaft-speed range
Single-casing
condensing
Velocity-com pounded first stage pre-
cedes all reaction stages in this drum
type design. Dummy piston at left of
first stage helps the thrust bearing
counterbalance unbalanced force of re-
action stages. This European design fea-
tures a drum made up of forged sections
welded together. A fter heat treating,
drum is slotted to receive reaction blad-
ing. Steam is removed for feedwater
heating at four nonautomatic-extraction
points. Turning gear mounts on shaft
between two journal bearings, at right.
Single-casing
condensing
Velocity-compounded first stage is fol-
lowed by ten impulse stages. Ball-thrust
bearing keeps shaft aligned axially. On
left end of shaft, a centrifugal governor
controls steam-flow valve through link-
ages. Hand valves, as on upper-left cas-
ing, control nozzle groups for more effi-
cient part-load operation. This unit can
be fitted with nonautomatic-extraction
openings, to withdraw steam for feed-
water heating. Carbon-ring seals are
used at diaphragms and casing glands;
brass oil rings, dipping into reservoirs
to pick up the oil, lubricate this steam
turbine's two journal bearings.
Four-stage
condensing
Steam chest is equipped with bar-lift
control valves; lift rods move bar from
below. This disk-and-diaphragm design
uses impulse staging only and exhausts
through an upward-directed hood. All
shaft seals are of the stepped-diaphragm
type. Since inlet-steam conditions are
moderate the unit does not need a
velocity-compounded first stage. Gover-
nor and speed changer mount on right
end of shaft. Thin web beam under
front end of turbine allows axial ex-
pansion during startups with minimum
strain on casing and keeps the turbine's
shaft properly aligned.
.. meeting the needs of both electric-generator and mechanical drives
S 20
Radial-flow
double-rotation
This unit drives two alternating-current generators, one on
each shaft. Generators are tied together electrically, to keep
the oppositely rotating shafts in synchronism for best blade-
steam-speed ratio of the reaction stages. Multidisk turbine
is arranged so hop steam from supply line. and throttle
valve enters from below. It flows first into the annular steam
chest, then through holes in the oVrerhung blade disk to
the center area at the shaft.
Oppositely rotating shaft and blade assemblies are shown
in light gray and light color. Oppositely moving blades have
seals to minimize steam leakage past their tips.
Steam flows outward radially through first concentric set
of blades. Then it turns 180 deg to flow inward radially
through a second set of concentric blades. It again makes
a 180-deg turn to flow radially outward through the third
set of blades. From here steam flows into annular space
leading to exhaust pipe at bottom of turbine. Bypass valve
to right of disk in annular steam chest lets hop steam skip
first set of blades to enter the second set, providing overload
operation at reduced efficiency.
Backpressure turbine develops 7500 kw. It can be designed
for automatic or nonautomatic extraction of partly expanded
steam. Strip type labyrinth seals on the moving blade rings
minimize steam leakage past the blades, while concentric
labyrinth seals between overhung disks and inner casings
cut down leakage short-circuiting the blading. Labyrinth-
gland seals at the two shafts control steam flow through
these clearances. This unit handles generator drives only.
Noncondensing
nonautomatic-extraction
In addition to generator service, in-
dustry uses turbines as prime movers to
drive pumps, compressors and other
types of machinery. Their prime advan-
tage is heat-balance flexibility: throttle
steam can be used at boiler or process
pressure; exhaust steam can be used
for heating and process, or condensed.
Extraction and high.backpressure or
topping service are possibilities, too. If
extraction or exhaust steam can be
used, a steam drive has definite eco
nomic advantage.
The central-station boilerfeedpump.
drive turbine at left takes steam at high
pressure from main line or at lower
pressure from reheat line. Sketch .shows
alternate-nozzle-box design for hop, be-
low, and I-p, above. Control valves are
double-lift poppet type. Unit has seven
impulse stages with two nonautomatic
extraction points for feed water heating.
It exhausts noncondensing to main cycle.
t
Noncondensing
single-automatic-extraction
First stages are in
hop and lop sections. H-p section has
two impulse stages and lop section has
three. Secondary-stearn-chest poppet
valves control steam flow into the sec-
ond section, maintain constant extrac-
tion-steam pressure for process flow.
Unit is fitted with step-labyrinth in-
terstage and shaft seals, Kingsbury
thrust bearing, multiple valves in each
steam chest. Disks of this unit are
shrunk onto the main turbine shaft.
Low-pressure
condensing
This turbine takes low-pressure steam,
at 100 psig or less, available from proc-
ess exhaust lines. Its four stages use
twisted blading for high stage efficiency.
For high shaft speed, unit has rotor
milled out of a solid forging; for low
speeds, steel disks would be shrunk
on a solid shaft. Journal bearings and
Kingsbury thrust bearing position shaft.
Noncondensing
or backpressure
Seven impulse stages are controlled by
a multi valved steam chest. Since back.
pressure is high, this unit needs only
a small exhaust hood. Turbine is used
where lower-pressure process steam and
electric generation are needed simul-
taneously by an industrial plant.
The exhaust-pressure governor holds
whatever exhaust-steam pressure the
process requires. But as a result, steam
flow through the turbine and its shaft
output vary. The turbine must run in
parallel with other generators that can
meet variations in electric load; it
cannot follow them when under exhaust-
pressu:r;e governing.
This turbine may also "top" lower.
pressure turbine-generators, taking
steam from a new hop boiler and ex
hausting at lower pressure into the ex
isting steam main of existing turbines.
POWER JUNE 1962 S 21
Many mechanical-drive units are single stage, velocity compounded
Single-wheel velocity-compounded turbine may be
designed for a range of capacities-from less than 1 hp up
to 250 h p and more. Design uses one of two standardized
blading types for all conditions: 450-psig 750-F and down
at inlet; 0- to 80-psig exhaust. Unit may exhaust to process.
Velocity-compounded turbine has close-fitting casing at
top, reduces windage loss on wheel and blading. Converging-
diverging nozzles are used because steam's pressure ratio
runs less than 53%. Overspeed-emergency-governor trip is
in shaft at left of constant-speed-governor flyweight assembly.
Variable-speed turbine handles drive, with
speeds ranging from 3500 to 6000 rpm. Turbine uses 250-psig
500-F steam exhausting at 2- to 6-in.-Hg abs. There are two
velocity-compounded stages; upper half of first-stage wheel
is shielded, which helps avoid excessive windage losses.
S 22
Mechanical-drive design for up to 100-hp capacity takes
steam at 600 psig, 750 F, exhausts at 75 psig. Shaft speed
of 3500 rpm drives load at up to 300 rpm through integral
reduction gear. Flyball governor on shaft end controls
balanced valves through linkage. Carbon rings seal shaft.
Velocity-compounded turbine with single wheel and
high back pressure features extensive spring-loaded shaft
sealing. Steam sealing and gland leakoffs must be used to
control steam leakage along shaft. A shaft-driven oil pump
provides governing. Hand valves up part-load efficiency.
Noncondensing high-backpressure turbine is built to
run up to 10,000 rpm and above. For high speeds, rotor would
be a machined solid forging. Unit has four impulse stages.
Flyball governor, left, positions pilot valve of hydraulic-
governor system controlling bar-lifted valves in steam chest.
,,-.
II:
Single-stage re-entry turbine uses solid rotor with cir-
cular blades milled out of periphery. Wheel is pressed on
and keyed to shaft. This unit develops up to 650 hp with
650-psig saturated steam exhausting at atmospheric. Hand-
valve nozzle control helps realize better part-load efficiency.
Multistage turbine's velocity-compounded first stage uses
two separate wheels. This type may be condensing or non
condensing, runs at shaft speeds up to 10,000 rpm. It has
carbon-ring seals, ring-oiled journal bearings and a double-
thrust ball bearing to control position of the shaft.
High-speed turbine is built for inlet steam of 1450
and 1000 F to exhaust at up to 75 psig. Upper half of VelOClty-
compounded wheel is closely shielded against windage losses.
The 12,500-rpm shaft is designed to run well above first-
critical speed but well below the second-critical speed.
Single-stage impulse turbine has 100-hp maximum
rating with 275-psig 525F steam and 50-psig hack pressure,
runs at shaft speeds up to 4000 rpm. One of its two groups of
nozzles is fitted with hand-controlled valve for part-load
efficiency. Stuffing boxes use ' semimetallic packing at glands.
Velocity-compounded 2-wheel turbine is built for
165-psig back pressure. Each shaft gland has ten carbon-
ring seals. Gland leakoffs dispose of a little condensed-
steam leakage. Hand speed changer attached to governor
linkage varies speed range by 20% ; maximum: 4500 rpm.
Condensing turbine has velocity-compounded first stage
followed by two impulse stages. Combined labyrinth and
carbon seals are used at hop end; lop end has carbon rings
only. Shaft drives gear type oil pump and flyball governor at
right end; thrust bearing is included to position the shaft.
Flyweight governor opposes centrifugal force ofpJyotin'g
weight with mechanical force of spring
Governor trollel
F=MR(rpm)2
-
+-
c::
98
if.
9
o 25 50 15
rated power out put
1
Flyweight governor balanc:es theforce
of spring and weights# moves speeder rod
. must
tha n .the weight force os speed rises
GOVERNING controls shaft speed
A turbine's governing system functions to control steam
flow through the unit. It usually does this to keep some
factor constant. Often we want to hold steady at all loads:
(l ) turbine shaft speed (2) exhaust-steam pressure (3)
automatic-extraction pressure (4-) inlet-steam pressure (5)
driven-equipment discharge pressure (6) driven-equip-
ment differential pressure or (7) any combination of
these factors. Since shaft speed is most frequently con-
trolled, let's study it to see how turbines are governed.
Turbine speed will stay constant even without govern-
ing, just as long as shaft load and throttle-valve opening
are unchanged and steam conditions remain steady. But
when shaft load decreases with constant throttle-valve
opening, the turbine speeds up because it's getting too
much steam. To bring shaft speed to normal the valve
must throttle steam flow to match the new load. When
shaft load rises and valve opening is constant, the turbine
slows down; to return shaft speed to normal, the valve
must open wider, admit more steam. A shaft-speed gover-
nor can make these changes automatically.
A flyweight assembly measures shaft speed. Fig. 1 shows
one form of it: two flyweights mount on a plate which
turns about a vertical axis driven by the turbine shaft
through a worm and gear. Weights are pivoted so as cen-
trifugal force tilts them outward, they compress the
stationary speeder spring and lift up the speeder rod.
Speeder-rod movement can be hooked up to open and
close the turbine throttle valve, Fig. 4.
How does a governor behave? As a first step to
understanding, we can remove the speeder spring in Fig.
5 24
1 and find out how flyweights act by themselves. First let's
hold the weights in their innermost position-weights in-
with the speeder rod, and turn the assembly at its rated
lOO% speed. We'll exert a downward resisting force F
on rod while weights turn through circle with radius R.
If weights move through a circle with larger radius, we
find that force on speeder rod is larger, though speed is
still lOO%. Force F = MR (rpmp where M is the fly-
weights' mass, R is radius of their motion and rpm the
number of turns per minute.
Plotting force F against governor travel or speeder-rod
position for various speeds from 98 to lO2%, we get the
family of straight-line curves in Fig. 2, which ideally
converge at a common point off to the lower left of
the chart. Slope of each speed curve has a scale reading
in Ib force per inch of governor travel.
A speeder with a scale to match the 100% curve
develops the same resisting force F for a given Ib per
inch of compression or governor travel. Spring scales set
at the middle of governor travel at lOO% speed would be
fine as long as all factors stayed constant. But as soon as
load on the unit decreased, the shaft would speed up.
Then weights would develop more force than the spring
over the range of governor travel. Weights would fiy to
their weights-out limit, shutting the steam valve.
As steam flow stopped, unit would slow down. Slightly
below lOO% speed the springs' mechanical force would
overbalance the weights' centrifugal force and slam them
to weights-in, completely opening the steam valve. So if
weight and spring scales are equal they're continually
1
I
f
I
I
I
Basic turbine governor adds refinements to boost its force
Flyweight
speed
governor
SpQQder
rod
SpQed
changer
,ContrOl
valve '
FlyWe i ght
speed
governor
Servo-
motor
Flyweight
speed
governor
. Pilot valve

Drain
H-p .

oil
Drain

H-p 011
Pilof
volve
Servomofor
Control
valve
4
Speed-changer spdn.g alters ' force etcf
ingon the steam-c<>ntrol-valve lever
5
servomotor lets
weak governor force move steam valve
6
Double-relaying system helps governor
handle the very large steam valves
fighting, producing wild hunting from fully shut to wide-
open throttle valve, without hope of reaching a balance.
Obviously, this js no way to govern a turbine.
Speed droop. To get out of this dilemma, spring force
must grow faster than weight force as speed rises. Spring
scale should be steeper (larger) than the flyweight scale,
solid black line in Fig. 2.
Suppose the turbine is running at 100% speed, where
the speeder-spring curve crosses the red lOO%-speed
curve. When shaft load drops, shaft speed rises. Then
increased force of the flyweights momentarily overbalances
the spring force, raising the speeder rod to decrease
throttle-valve opening. Decreased steam flow limits shaft
speed rise, so spring force again balances the higher fly-
weight force at the new higher speed. Governor can' t travel
to its weights-out limit because the spring exerts greater
force than the weights beyond the new point of balance.
If the turbine is running at 100% speed and load rises,
the shaft slows down. Then flyweights' lesser force lets
the overbalancing spring force lower the speeder rod to
open the throttle valve wider. Increased steam limits the
speed drop so diminishing spring force matches weight
force at the lower speed. Governor won't travel to its
weights-in limit because the weights exert more force than
the spring below the new balance point.
At each point in governor travel the turbine runs at a
definite speed, slower at full load and faster at no, load.
For the spring scale in Fig. 2 speed varies by 4 % from
full to no load. This is the governor's regulation or speed
droop. Fig. 4 shows speeder-rod and control-valve hookup.
Frictional effects, ignored in the ideal model , playa
big part in design of a working governor. Suppose the
unit is running at 98% speed in Fig. 2 at the weights-in
position, and then speeds up. Weights' force rises, but
POWER JUNE 1962
because of friction in the linkage and glands the governor
doesn't move immediately. By the time the turbine reaches
99% speed, force is large enough to overcome friction
and the governor travels along the upper dotted curve.
Now let's bring speed up to' lOl % at A by reducing
turbine load. Next, we'll start to load it again; the tur-
bine slows down to 99.4% speed at B before the gov-
ernor responds by moving toward its weights-in limit
along the lower dotted line. Vertical distance between
upper and lower dotted lines measures the governor's
dead band, which in turn defines sensitivity: speed change
needed to produce a corrective movement in governor
travel.
Speed-output curve, Fig. 3, shows how a governor
varies shaft speed with load. A given spring scale A
produces lOO% speed at full load. As turbine is unloaded
the shaft speed rises until it reaches 104% speed at no
load. But usually we want to keep shaft speed constant at
all loads. So a speed changer, Fig. 4, is added. It puts
additional spring force on the lever controlling the steam
valve, is regulated by hand or remote-controlled motor.
Suppose we have a 100% load at lOO% speed and
bring load down to 75% in Fig. 3. Speed rises to lOl %.
We would reduce this to 100% by loosening the speed-
changer spring, allowing the steam valve to close a little
more. Fig. 3 shows characteristics for speeder spring ad-
justed to hold lOO% speed at 25, 50, 75 and 100% loads.
Relayed governor, Fig. 5, is used where speeder rod
doesn't develop enough force to move the steam valve. A
floating lever links speeder rod to a pilot valve and the
servomotor that actually moves the control valve. Initial
speeder-rod movement pivots the lever on the servomotor
stem and moves the pilot-valve stem. This admits hop oil
to the spring-loaded servomotor cylinder or drains oil
S 25
Generator load division depends on governor droop
Flyweight
speed
governor
Receiving
piston
Drain Buffer piston
Servomotor
valve
Control
valve
Servo-
motor
~
Q)
t:
Q)
a.
-0
Q)
Q)
a.
(/)
102
101
99
98
0 20 40 60 80
Load, percent
7
Isochronous governor uses transient
speed changes to move to new setting 8
Hydraulic governor has an oil pump as
its speed-sensitive measuring element 9
Governor-droop characteristics deter-
mine load division between turbines
Designs vary with size of unit, shaft
speed, needed accuracy
13
Direct-octing mechanical governor has weights mounted on
leaf springs, tied to steam-valve stem. It holds steady speed
from it, moving the control valve to its new pOSItIon.
Motion also moves the pilot valve to neutral so it won't
overshoot the new position of the control valve.
Turbines with large steam valves need a relayed gover-
nor plus amplification, Fig. 6. A cup type pilot valve
bleeds h.p oil from the line to control the first-step ampli-
fier piston. This piston controls the pilot valve of the main
servomotor. Servomotor is not spring-loaded; to move it,
h.p oil is admitted on one side, drained from the other.
Isochronous governor, Fig. 7, holds the same steady
state speed on a turbine at all loads without a speed
changer. When load first varies it produces a transient
change in shaft speed, but that's gradually eliminated as
load stays CfH'istant at its new level. On a change in load
the speeder rod moves the receiving piston, and pilot valve
in turn unbalances the spring. balanced buffer piston while
moving the servomotor to its new position. After the initial
S 26
14
Hydraulic-orifice governor's shaft-driven gear pump supplies
oil for governing and lubrication; its speed ratio is 3: 1
correction, buffer piston moves back into balance. It
equalizes pressure across the receiving piston, reposition-
ing governor flyweights at rated 100% speed with the new
shaft load.
Hydraulic governor, Fig. 8, has a special centrifugal
pump instead of flyweights as its speed-sensing element.
Oil pressure varies as the square of the shaft speed.
Governor pump controls throttled pressure developed by
the main oil pump; this acts on the bellows in the speed
changer. Bellows controls the cup type valve which is
part of the pilot valve, regulating pressure in another
bellows which positions the servomotor pilot valve.
Generator load division, F'ig. 9, depends directly on
the governor droops of the turbines that drive the genera-
tors. Paralleled synchronous generators run at the same
speed, just as if they were connected mechanically.
When load rises, speed fans until total output of all
100
I
~
I
I
I
I
j
I
(
I I I I ~ ~ C .
Ie
10
Direct-acting flyweight governor for
small-size turbine: weight pivots roll 11
Direct-acting hydraulic governor: oil
pump moves valve through bellows 12
Isochronous governor's flyweights
control rotating piston of pilot valve
15
Overspeed trip: spring-loaded weight on shaft-trip lower
lever opens pilot valve, left, which then closes main valve
units meets the new demand. In Fig. 9, two machines A
and B have the droops shown by the black curves. At
100% speed A carries 43% load and B 40% load. If load
rises until speed falls to 99%, A carries 72% load and B
80% load. To restore speed to 100% with this same
division, speed changers on both units are adjusted to
lift both curves the same amount.
Returning to 100% speed in Fig. 9, suppose we want
to drop load from the total 40 + 43% to 63%. 1 B is
to take all the reduction, its droop must be lowered to the
red curve. In general, unit with least droop will always
take largest share of the total load.
Governor-system designs vary with size of turbine,
speed of shaft, degree of accuracy-and with the manu-
facturer. Direct-acting mechanical governor in Fig. 10
links directly to the steam-control valve. To minimize
needed force, steam valve is a balanced double-seated cle-
POWER JUNE 1962
16
Mechanical-,hydraulic constant-speed governor head posi
tions rotating pilot. Pilot controls double relay oil system
sign. Both governor weights pivot on rolling surfaces
with circular sections. To the left of the governor head a
spring-loaded unbalanced pin acts as the overspeed trip ..
When shaft speed exceeds the safe limit, centrifugal force
snaps the pin to an outer position so it trips a lever that
closes the turbine stop valve. A speed-changer knob on
upper end of governor lever tightens spring (not shown)
to shift the unit's droop curve.
Hydraulic governor in Fig. 11 has a 3:1 speed-adjust-
ment ratio. Its gear type positive-displacement oil pump
develops a pressure that varies with shaft speed. Pressure
acts on the bellows, and this directly positions the bal-
anced double-ported steam-control valve. Needle valve
above the bellows bypasses oil back to tank to vary the
bellows pressure and hold any desired speed. Turbine
stop valve is at left of main governing valve. Fig. 14
shows a hydraulic governing system for a mod turbine.
s 27
Hand Irip
17
Power
cyl/nder
Turbine front pedestal houses the mechanical governor, oil
pump, relay valves and servomotors for regulating unit
ir supply
Oiaphrogm
o/r heod
18
0/1 lank for governor
Variable-speed oil-relay governor's air motor also acts on
floating lever to control the main steam flow into turbine
Reloy
piston
Reloy
piston
Reloy
Higher -extroction governing pressure pis ton
Secondary
govern/ng
pressure
India I
To
open
Extroct/on-
steam
connect/on
~
21
Double-automatic-extraction turbine uses combination of three signals on three relay pistons to
hold constant pressure at each of its extraction openings and maintain a constant shaft speed
Isochronous governor, shown schematically in Fig. 12,
mounts flyweights on a rotating head at upper ends in
tMsion bushings. Weights work through strap springs to
rotate the pilot valve above. Pilot controls oil pressure to
servomotor. Speed changer, upper left, acts on governor
through the pilot-valve stem.
I n one direct-acting mechanical governor for small
turbines, Fig. 13, flyweights mount on flexihle springs and
directl y move the nonrotating steam-control-valve stem
S 28
which projects through the rotating governor shaft. Fig.
15 shows the same unit's overspeed.trip governor. Spring-
loaded weight on the shaft swings out on overspeed to
trip the lower lever and open the pilot valve, lower left.
This relieves steam pressure in hack of the steam stop
valve ahove, slamming it shut.
Mechanical-hydraulic governing system for a multi-
valved turhine, schematic, Fig. 16, uses rolling-contact
flyweights to position the pilot valve above. Speed-changer
19
Exhaust-pressure regulator controls oil
pressure to turbine's main servomotor
assembly stands at upper left. Pilot
valve controls pressure to the pri-
mary servornotor; it controls the sec-
o n d ~ r y pilot valve, lower right. This
positions the secondary servomotor or
power piston, which opens and closes
main steam-control valves.
Fig. 17 diagrams a governing ped-
estal for a medium-size turbine. Fig.
18 is a sehematie for a variable-speed
oil-relay governor with an air-motor
control on the floating lever. Fig. 19
shows the pressure regulator that con-
20
trols steam valves on a backpressure 22
unit. Fig. 20 has some details of a
hydraulic type governor.
A double-auto-extraction unit's
governing system, Fig. 21, combines
three signals on three relay pistons to
hold constant pressure at each ex-
traction opening and constant shaft
speed. Speed changer after governor
impeller bleeds relaying-oil pressure,
to shift droop characteristics as
needed. Pressure regulators modify
relaying-oil pressure to control ex-
traction pressures.
Governing system for a single-
automatic-extraction turbine needs
fewer elements, Fig. 22; it controls
main inlet and extraction valves. Fig.
23 takes a section through front
standard of a reheat unit showing the
flyweight governor, oil pump, relay
valves, servomotors and other ele-
ments needed to automatically control
this type of a steam turhine.
Governor trip
To stop throttle valve
Completely hydraulic governing system for large unit needs only mechanical links
between servomotor piston, relay and main steam valves; oil serves elsewhere
tWain inlet
p//ot volve
Governing system for a single-automatic-extraction turbine must control main
inlet and extraction valves. links move pilot valves to control servomotors
POWER' JUNE 1962
')'J Governing system for reheat turbine also controls intercept valves, portly closing
Automatic load control uses these basic elements
Main
steam
BO - Gland blowdown valve
CV - Turbine control valves
OS - Oesuperheating spray valve
MS- Main steam stop valve
NR - Extraction non return valve
RO Relief diaphragm
RI Reheat intercept valves
RS Reheat stop valves
1 Speed governor
2 Overspeed governor
3 Pre-emergency governor
4 Load-limiting meter
5 Initial-pressure regulator
6 Low-vacuum trip
7 Control-valve position meter
8 Solenoid tripi hand or relay
9 Low bearing-oil-pressure trip
Reneater
10 Thrust-position trip
CONTROLS AND INSTRUMENTATION
S haft speed is one of the most important variables in run-
ning a turbine. We have seen how some of the many
available governing systems control speed in turbines
large and small. For safety, the operator must always
have on hand certain minimum information about his
unit. As turbines grow larger, automatic aids or con-
trollers are required.
Small-turbine needs in controls and instruments
represent a minimum: speed governor, overspeed trip,
throttle-pressure gage, throttle thermometer, exhaust-pres-
sure gage, tachometer. Where the turbine controls or
affects exhaust-header pressure, its speed governor in-
cludes an exhaust-pressure regulator to adjust the gov-
ernor control.
Gland-steam pressures should be known to hold ade-
quate shaft sealing. Turbines that use circulating-oil
lubricating systems have pressure gages at pumps, bear-
ing inlets and filters; thermometers are needed at oil-
cooler inlets and outlets and at bearing outlets.
List of requisite equipment grows with turbine capacity
and rising steam conditions. As an example, let's look at
the gear needed by some reheat turbines for automatic
control, above left, and instrumentation, right.
To control load automatically we depend on:
Speed governors to measure shaft speed and adjust gov-
ernor-valve openings to pass the needed steam flow.
Valves, in turn, keep speed within governor's regulation
range. To hold exact speed, speed-changer spring or bel-
lows tension must be adjusted manually or by an auto-
matic frequency-measuring device. When generators work
in parallel, the speed changers are used to divide total
load between the turbines on the line.
Load-limiting meter overrides the speed governor to
hold maximum load at any point the operator wants. The
S 30
limiter controls steam flow during startup by setting
governor valves as needed.
Pre-emergency speed governor contro}s governor valves
or reheat-intercept valve or both during sudden drops in
load. When turbine speed exceeds about 101 % the gov-
ernor starts closing the intercept valve; at 105% it shuts
the valve completely. At about 104% speed, steam trapped
in the reheater is bled down until spent. Speed governor
takes control when speed drops below about 101 %.
Initial pressure regulator keeps boiler and turbine from
running with fast-dropping steam pressure and tempera-
ture. When pressure drops to about 90% of rating, regu-
lator closes the control valves to hold the pressure. At
about 80% pressure the control valves are in no-load
position. As pressure rebuilds, speed control is returned
to the governor.
Overspeed trip backs up the normal speed-governing
system, including main and pre-emergency speed gov-
ernors. At about 110% speed the trip goes into action,
closing the main stop valve ahead of the control valves
to shut off all main steam supply. Simultaneously it:
(l) closes the reheat stop valve ahead of the reheat inter-
cept valve to bottle up steam in the reheater (2) closes all
check valves in extraction-steam lines, so bleed condensate
can't evaporate and flow into the turbine (3) opens the
gland-blow down valve so steam flowing through the gland
from hop to i-p casing can blow down directly to the
condenser instead of flowing through i-p and lop turbines
to cause overspeeding.
Low-vacuum trip shuts down every steam valve in the
turbine the moment exhaust vacuum falls below about
20-in. Hg. This prevents overheating the exhaust hood
and overstressing the last turbine stage. An associated
alarm at the hood warns when its temperature exceeds
t
I
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( \,
Instruments give data on steam flow, turbine's condition
1 Spindle-eccentricity meter
2 Shaft-vibration meter
3 Spindle-position meter
4 Casing-expansion meter
5 Differential-expansion meter
6 Speed and governor-valve-
position recorder
7 Bearing-oil pressure, temperature,
sight-flow glass, temperature alarm
8 Tachometer
9 Steam pressure, temperature, flow
10 Nozzle-group pressures
17 Extraction-steam pressure,
temperature
12 Exhaust-hood pressure,
temperature
13 Gland-steam pressure, temperature
Re/Jeofer
provide for safe; efficient operation
safe limits. This may happen when all steam is shut off
and the generator motors: last-stage blading churning the
lop steam trapped at exhaust may overheat both exhaust
hood and shaft.
Exhaust-pressure relief must be provided when steam
pressure in the exhaust hood rises above atmospheric.
Rupture diaphragms in the hood burst ,at about 5 psig.
They pass full steaql flow so exhaust pressure doesn't ex-
ceed about 8 psig.
Desuperheating sprays are needed by some reheat units
when their loads drop to less than 5 %. A meter on the
main-steam control ~ a l v e s or exhaust-hood thermostat
operates the desuperheating-spray valve automatically to
cool lop end of the turbine during low-load operation.
Solenoid trip shuts down the turbine by closing all
valves. It may be operated by hand or hooked up to con-
trol circuits of its boiler and generator.
Low bearing-oil-pressure trip guards against wiping
main bearings when lubricating-oil supply fails. This trip
activates the emergency shutdown systems, promptly clos-
ing all the steam valves.
Thrust trip measures position of the rotor relative to
the thrust-bearing cage. If its position deviates from safe
limits, trip operates the emergency shutdowns, closing all
steam valves.
Other types of controls tie in with various special ap-
plications of the turbine. Their use depends on prob-
abi lities of emergencies arising, and on an economic
balance: cost of guarding against the condition vs cost
of possible damage.
Instrumentation on a turbine and its piping tells op-
erator condition of the steam flowing through all parts of
the unit and condition of the turbine structure. Available
instruments range widely. Some are indicators, others
POWER JUNE 1962
recorders; some may be vital parts of the automatic-con-
trol system we just talked about.
Spindle-eccentricit y meter checks on rotor's straight-
ness. After an extended shutdown, shaft will bow if it's
heated unevenly. Then it would vibrate excessively when
brought up to operating speed. This meter tells operator
amount of shaft bowing that may be present, before he
runs up his rotor speed.
Shaft-vi bration meter measures vibration amplitude at
several of the turbine bearings. Out-of-balance rotor is
quickly detected, as well as any buildup of boiler-steam
deposits on the blading. A record of vibration readings
taken at regular intervals shows up internal changes.
Spindle-position meter indicates axial position of the
turbine spindle relative to stationary parts of the thrust
bearing. It's needed because high thrust loads or wear of
the bearing shoes may cause excessive movement.
Cylinder-expansion meter measures total elongation of
the turbine casings. Instrument usually stands at the gov-
ernor pedestal, since unit is anchored at its exhaust end.
Speed and governor-vaLve-position recorder helps oper-
ator run the turbine during startups and emergencies. It
gives him better basis for judgment when pressure and
temperature are off normal.
Bearing-oil condition throughout the lube system must
be known to assure continuous smooth operation.
Steam conditions-pressure, temperature, flow-at all
major openings in the turbine are informative_ They tell
the operator a lot about his machine, help him analyze
cause of misoperation in an emergency.
Gland-steam conditions must be properly supervised by
the operator at all times, if he's to run the turbine at
maximum efficiency. Leakage steam that bypasses the
turbine stages does no useful work.
S 31
LUBRICA TIONI
AND HYDRAULIC
SYSTEMS
Lubrication is needed to minimize turning friction in
main bearings, thrust bearing and reduction gears, cool
the journal and other bearing surfaces. Friction heats
journals and bearings, and the shaft conducts some heat
from hot parts of the turbine to the bearings. Lube oil
carries the heat away, keeps bearing temperature at a
safe level, prolonging life of bearing and oil.
Smaller steam turbines usually get along with the sim-
plest type of oil system to lubricate their bearings., From
this minimum, systems range upward to the complex hy-
draulic set ups of the larger central-station steam turbines.
In these units, oil serves as a power-transmitting fluid for
speed- and load-control, high-pressure, overspeed and
protective systems as well as a main-bearing lube.
Bearings carry full weight of turbine rotors, let
them spin free with minimum friction. Metal-to-metal
contact would ruin bearing lining and journal in short
order, so an oil film is forced between the two surfaces to
separate them. Frictional effects take place between sur-
face and oil, but mainly in the film.
Lube oil must wet the metal surfaces it separates, yet
stay cohesive enough to resist being squeezed from area of
maximum pressure. Low unit bearing pressures and high
shaft speeds help form the needed oil wedge between sur-
faces. A good lubricating system is designed to prolong
life of the oil.
Small hearings need a relatively small amount of
oil. In the ring-oiled bearing, Fig. 1, a ring rides loosely
on the journal. Lower arc of the ring dips into the oil
reservoir below. As the shaft turns the ring revolves; oil
from the reservoir clings to the ring and is carried with
it to the top of the journal. Here the oil transfers to the
journal. Grooves in the bearing surface let the oil flow in
an axial direction to fill the space between journal and
bearing. The continuously flowing oil drains back to the
reservoir after passing through the bearing.
For smaller turbines, the reservoir has enough outer
surface area to ' adiate heat picked up by oil to the room
air. Larger turbines using ring-oiled bearings may need
cooling coils in their reservoirs.
Larger bearings would not get enough lubrication or
good cooling from a simple ring-oiling arrangement. They
need forced-circulation oil systems. Since forced circula-
tion requires pumps to produce pressure, economics usu-
ally combines the lube ( system with the fluid-power
hydraulic system that actt1ftes turbine controls.
5 32
1
Designs span range
Ring-oiled journal bearing: brass
ring runs through oil reservoir below '
Basic independent oil system, Fig. 2, combines reser-
voir, pumps, coolers, pressure controls, accumulator, fil-
ters and piping. Two pumps are used for service c o n ~
tirruity: if one fails in service the other starts fast so oil-
pressure won't decay to the point where it trips any of
the shutdown controls. Pump capacity, boosted by the
accumulator, must supply the high transient oil flow the
contr()l system needs during large changes in shaft load.
Positive-displacement rotary pumps in Fig. 2 have a
flooded suction protected by strainers. The motor-driven
pump normally runs with the oil-turbine-driven unit as
standby. Bypass relief valves protect pumps and drivers
against accidental shutoff of discharge valves. A snap-
acting valve automatically brings the turbine-driven
standby pump into operation on drop in oil pressure.
Backpressure regulator and reducing valves hold oil-
system pressure at operating level. Twin oil coolers and
filters in front of the lube-pressure regulator remove heat
and clean the oil before it flows to the bearings. At cool-
ers and filters, 4-way valves let one of the elements come
out of service so it can be cleaned without shutting down
the main turbine.
Oil filters usually are sized to remove dirt particles
larger than 3 to 5 mils diameter with a pressure drop of
3 to 5 psi at design temperature and flow. In addition,
there's usually auxiliary cleaning and conditioning equip-
ment-either continuous or batch operation.
Various purifying methods may be used. Centrifuging,
filtering or settling mechanically separate the contami-
nants from the oil, but do not cause chemical changes.
Adsorbent purifiers using fuller's earth or similar mate-
rials and chemical treatments tend to restore neutraliza-
tion number, but care is needed when using them on oils
o
from simple. oil rings to complex turbine hydraulic., arrangements
r:win oil coolers Twin oil
fillers
2
Independent hydraulit system for turbine and its load
supplies lube oil and governlng-$ystem fluid power. Two
containing inhibitors. Heating oil to about 200 F assists
in breaking any emulsion. When emulsion persists, oil
should be discarded and replaced with fresh lubricant.
Piping that passes near hot lines or machine parts may
be totally enclosed in an outer sheath. If any leak de-
velops in the oil lines, sheath piping drains the leakage
back to the oil reservoir. This for safety's sake-most
lube oils ignite when sprayed on surfaces at temperatures
of 675 F and above.
An alternate solution involves fire-resistant lubricants
in the main bearings of large central-station units. Much
study has centered on F-R lubes. High cost is one factor,
but main deterrent to their adoption by industry has been
effect on generator insulation.
Large-turbine hydraulic systems, Fig. 3, have un-
dergone an evolution in the past decade. Their oil reser-
voirs, usually located in the plant basement, house pumps,
regulators, oil coolers and booster pumps or ejectors.
Leakage from any of these drains right into the reservoir.
A centrifugal oil pump, directly mounted on the main
turbine shaft, is primed by an oil-driven booster pump.
Booster mounts below oil level in the reservoir and feeds
the shaft-pump suction with oil at 10 to 20 psig. Oil from
the shaft pump goes to the small oil-turbine wheel at 200
psig, and that drives the direct-connected booster pump.
After discharging from the oil turbine at 30 to 40 psig,
oil flows through the coolers on its way to the bearings
through a pressure-reducing valve.
This oiling system takes advantage of centrifugal-pump
characteristics. Normally it pumps only the bearing's lube
needs. Servo mechanism, which needs momentarily large
oil flows, goes next to the shaft-mounted pump to reduce
size of oil piping between reservoir and turbine.
POWER JUNE 1962
Lube-oil presStJre- "
Low-oll-
pressure
trip
oil pumpswith different driversossure continuous oil sUpply
in emergencies. Oil clrculotescontinuously through beari.
3
Hydraulic system for large turbine: shaft-driven centrif-
ugal is backed up by motor-driven and booster pumps
S 33
These turbin ... oil recommendotions are typical
Forced c-ircula'tion Ring
Oil properties
Viscosity, . 55U, at: tOO F
130 F
210 F
flash point, F
Neutratlzation N-o.
Oxidqtionh!st, hr
Operating condition
Min oi l before start
Beoring inlette_mperoture, F
Bearing temperature", F
Direct
connected
140170
76-92
40-45
330
0.20 max
l OGO
50
11 0-120
140- r6Q
A motor- or steam-driven auxiliary backup pump starts
automatically when oil pressure falls below operating level.
System in Fig. 3 includes further backup pressure: small
ac and dc motor-driven pumps. Ac pump also works as
the turning-gear oil pump when the unit coasts down.
Meter orifices in the oil-feed pipe to each bearing di.
vide flow so each bearing gets its adequate share. A basket
strainer ahead of each orifice guards against plugging.
As oil drains from bearings and the thrust bearing,
some of it flows through an illuminated sight box and over
a thermometer. Abnormal operation on any individual
bearing can be caught immediately.
Oil should be high quality refined petroleum. It
should hold no water, acid, alkali, soap, grit, resin or any.
thing else that might damage it or the turbine parts it
contacts. But in case a little water does entrain, -the oil
should protect ferrous parts of the turbine from rusting.
A good turbine oil separates freely from water, has no
tendency to emulsify permanently.
Turbine manufacturers usually recommend that the oil
vendor undertake responsibility for its conformance to
specs, table above. Each manufacturer specifies limits that
will satisfy his unit's needs.
Using oils near the upper viscosity limits raises fric.
tion losses in the bearings, hence bearing outlet tempera.
tures. Extremely high temperatures speed oil's oxidation
rate, abbreviate its useful life. Most satisfactory operation
uses the lower-viscosity oils, running with moderate tem-
peratures for longer oil life.
Maintenance of turbine oils means keeping them
free of foreign materials that wander into the system. An
oilpurification system can be added as accessory to the
lube system-it shQuld be checked out with the turbine.
oil vendor and turbine manufacturer.
Turbine oil needs a regular analysis to guard against
serious lube failure. Analysis reveals progressive changes
in oil's properties aJld possibly system malfunctions.
5 34
GeGr Water No
drive
coo'ed c.ooling
250-350 250--350 375
p
525
-120-165 120- T 55 180--230
40-45 50-7.0
350 330 350
Q.20 max o.ze max
1000 1000
7'0 50
11 0- 120 '140- 160 140-1 an
140-160 140 1''60
Water is the frequent oil contaminant; it comes from:
(1) steam leakage from shaft glands (2) condensation of
moisture in entrained air (3) leaky oilcooler tubes.
Whenever a turbine is idle, its operators should take the
opportunity to drain water accumulated in the bottom of
the reservoir and other low points of the' lube system. Ex-
cessive water accumulation should be checked and reme
died when found.
Oil foams when it's whipped and mixed with air. Foam-
ing may cause: (l) loss of pressure, which interferes with
the control system (2) poor lubrication (3) increased oil
oxidation (1.) oil overflow and loss. Sometimes just a
slight reduction in circulating pressure, or running the oil
at a slightly higher temperature, eliminates foaming. Or
there may be too much or too little oil in the system.
Additives improve lube performance by inhibiting
deteriorating factors. Benefits: longer oil life, cleaner sys-
tems, rust prevention and lower wear rates. On the other
hand, additives must not affect the oil's base properties.
Grease may be the main bearing lube on a small unit.
It's used on many turbine auxiliaries: needle and roller
bearings on valve" gear, racks and sleeve bearings on con
trolvalve the synchronizing-device gearbox, gov-
ernor linkage pins and bearings, front pedestal expansion
slides and exhaust-hood side feet.
Greases must be high.temperature lubricants, applied
by hand, with a pressure gun or by hand.compression
cups. They must not separate on standing or when heated
below their dropping temperature, must remain solid at
operating temperatures, hold together under centrifugal
force without separation of soap and oil components. For
good operation, grease must resist oxidation, be free of
dirt, fillers, abrasives, excess moisture, free acid or lime.
Schedule of oil changes or greasings depends on
turbine service and the working environment. Constant
vigilance over condition and supply of lube is the price
of reliable, continuous steam-turbine operation.
ERFO MA CE varies with turbine cycle
we've said, turbines convert internal energy of steam
into mechanical shaft work, Fig. 1. Amount of energy
that steam has available for conversion depends on its
initial temperature and pressure and on the way it ex
pands to the lower pressure in the turbine.
A Mollier chart, Fig. 2, tells how much energy steam
has at each state in terms of enthalpy and how much en
ergy is available for a given expansion. First, the point
where the curves for initial pressure and temperature
cross tells us enthalpy of the steam hl in Btu per lb. Drop-
ping straight down from this point to the curve for the
exhaust pressure, we find ideal enthalpy at the exhaust
h
2s
' Then:
Available energy = hI - h
2s
An ideal turbine would convert all this energy to work
at 100% engine efficiency. Actual turbines can't achieve
this high performance. Fig. 2 charts condition lines for
100, 75, 50, 25 and 0% engine efficiencies. Energy ini-
tially in the steam stays in the steam if it isn't converted
to work. We find this by:
POWER JUNE' 1967
h2 = h} - (avail energy) X ( engine efficiency) /100
Turbine design generally aims for highest engine
efficiency compatible with the cost of energy. Engine effi
ciency also varies for a given turbine with the load it's
carrying. Fig. 3 shows the condition line for a single
valve turbine at different loads. As the control valve throt
tles steam flow with dropping load, steam pressure in the
nozzle chest drops. This reduces the available energy and
the exhaust enthalpy rises with dropping load.
Noncondensing turbines. Fig. 4 shows the varia
tion in available energy in steam used by these units.
To find actual work developed, multiply available energy
from this graph by engine efficiency. Exhaust moisture
will be less than the ideal of Fig. 4.
Fig. 5 shows typical engine efficiencies at rated ca
pacity for single-stage turbines ranging from 30 to 500
shaft hp. Efficiencies rise with both capacity and shaft
speed. To find engine efficiencies at half capacity, multi-
ply by the halfload factors.
Condensing turbines. Fig. 6 shows the available en-
. '.' '-.< ::':-'. ,--:.,."
.... .
ergy in steam used by these units with lin. and 3-in.
Hg.abs backpressure. The energy generally rises with
initial steam temperature and pressure, with some ex-
ceptions beyond 5000-psia pressure and around the criti
cal point at 3206 psia and 705 F.
Set of red curves shows that higher backpressure re-
duces available energy at all inlet-steam levels. In Fig. 6
we see the reason for intensive development of high-pres-
sure high. temperature turbines in the past decade: higher
available energy makes better use of expensive materials.
Theoretical heat rates of condensing turbines are
charted in Fig. 7, which corres!>onds to Fig. 6. Theoreti
cal heat rate drops with increasing inlet-steam temperature
and pressure. Again, exceptions to this general trend
come around the critical-point area. The red curves show
that rising backpressure raises the heat rates.
Heat rate relates directly to the overall thermal effi-
ciency of the turbine:
Thermal efficiency = 3413/ (heat rate)
where heat rate is in Btu per kwhr.
Actual heat rates of condensing turbines can be esti-
mated roughly from Fig. 7: divide theoretical heat rates by
the unit's engine efficiency, example on facing page.
Reheat turbines, Fig. 8, have seen wide acceptance
in large central stations during the last decade. Here the
steam expands in the front end of the turbine. At an in-
termediate stage, the entire flow passes through a resuper-
heater in the boiler furnace. Reheated steam then goes
back to the turbine at the lower pressure and expands
through its remaining stages to the condenser.
F.ig. 9 shows effect on ideal-cycle thermal efficiency of
S 36
-
Q)
c:
i 'lo,ooo
.....

.c; I
0
acoo

'1D
a
Q)
7000
s:;

? ' SOO. ls'
":., i '. ) <IRlel steomtemperoture, P"
7
,: h.a'rate of cOndensingturbinesgenerally hn-
.. pro.v.s . .onc.lt.emperature
reheating at different initial throttle pressures. Throttle
and reheated temperatures remain constant at 1000 F at
the different pressures. Straight-condensing theoretical
efficiency is given at the 1.0 ratio of reheat to throttle
pressure (marked Rankine cycle).
As reheat pressure drops the thermal efficiency rises
until pressure ratio is about 0.3 at 5000 . psia, 0.1 at 200
psia. Any further reheat-pressure drop rapidly depresses
thermal efficiency. In general, reheating gains about 2%
in thermal efficiency. When actual engine efficiencies are
considered, relative gain can be larger, about 4 to 5%.
Regenerative cycles, Fig. 10, extract steam from sev-
eral stages in the turbine to heat feedwater being returned
to the boiler. Raising feed water temperature to highest
possible level at hr means less fuel is needed to evaporate
each lb to the throttle-steam state. Amount of heating
that the extracted steam can do depends on throttle pres-
sure of the cycle, Fig. 11.
Boiler has to add (hl - h
f
) Btu to each lb of steam.
In the straight-condensing cycle, h
f
is saturated-liquid en-
thalpy at the condenser pressure. In the regenerative
cycle h
f
ideally can be raised to the saturation enthalpy
of the throttle pressure (if it's less than the critical pres-
sure of steam, 3206.2 psia).
Fig. 12 shows reduction in straight-condensing-cycle
heat rates for a range of thr<?ttle pressures and tempera-
tures when feedwater is heated regeneratively to the maxi-
mum possible. But these curves assume that heating is
done reversibly in an infinite number of heaters. Actual
regenerative cycles must be limited to relatively few heat-
. ers, so we can't achieve ideal performance. Fig. 13 shows
Estimating turbine performance
Given: 5000kw turbine, inlet steam at
800 F, 1000 psia; exhaust at 1-in.Hg
abs; engine efficiency of 74%.
Solution: From Fig. 7:
Theoretical heat rate = 8400 Btu
per kwhr
Actual heat rate = 8400/ 0.74
= 11,350 Btu per kwhr
Thermal efficiency:::: 3413/11,350
= 0.301 or 30.1 %
From Fig. 6:
A vailable energy = 545 Btu per lb
Energy released = 545 X 0.74
= 403 Btu per lb
Full-load output = 5000 X 3413
= 17,060,000 Btu per hr
Reheater

36
34
0
Throflle pressure, psia
5000
Throttle temperature = (000 F
RelJeaf temperature:: 1000 F
0.2 0.4 0.6 0,8 1.0
Steam flow = 17,060,000/ 403
= 42,300 lb per hr
Full-load steam rat e of turbine
= 42,300/ 5000 =8.46 Ib per kwhr
8
Reheat turbine has all its steam re-
heated at an intermediate pressure
9
Ratio of reheat pressure to throttle pressure
Maximum gain in thermal efficiency is
made with reheats at low pressures
effect of the number of heaters and percentage of possible
feedwater enthalpy rise on the actual Iegenerative-cycle
heat rate.
For example, let' s assume the 5-mw turbine we were
studying, above, has three feedwater heat,ers. Let 's esti-
mate actual heat rat e with 1-in.Hg-abs backpressure in
the condenser, feed water heated to 707<" of maximum
possible rise.
Straight-condensing heat rate was 11,350 Btu per kwhr.
From Fig. 11, maximum possible rise = 495 Btu per lb.
Actual enthalpy rise = 495 X 0.7 = 346 Btu per lb. From
Fig. 12, theoretical reduction in straight-condensing heat
rate = 14.8%. From Fig. 13, reduction for number of
heaters and actual enthal!>y rise = 0.71. Correction factor
for actual regenerative cycle = 1 - 0.148 X 0.71 = 0.895.
Then full-load regenerative-cycle heat rate = 11,350 X
0.895 = 10,160 Btu per kwhr.
For any given number of heaters there's a certain en
thalpy rise at which economy gain becomes a maximum,
as Fig. 13 shows. For higher or lower enthalpy rises the
gain will be less. F or example, if one heater takes steam
from the throttle to produce 100% feedwater enthalpy
rise, using main steam gives no economy gain because
the heating steam has done no work in the turbine. At the
other extreme, a heater tied to the exhaust stage can't
do any heating because steam and condensate have the
same temperature.
Let's extend our study a little more by finding the heat
rate of our 5-mw turbine when it uses ten heaters for
feedwater heating to 90% of maximum possible rise.
From Fig. 13, heat rate reduction for number of heaters
POWER' JUNE 1962
and actual enthalpy rise = 0.89. Then correction factor
for the actual regenerative cycle becomes 1- 0.148 X
0.89 = 0.868. Full-load IO-heater regenerative-cycle heat
rate becomes 11,350 X 0.868 = 9850 Btu per kwhr. Add-
ing (10 - 3) = 7 heaters reduces the heat rate by (10,160
- (850) = 310 Btu per kwhr.
To decide on number of heaters, we would have to com-
pare carrying charges on the extra heaters and piping to
the reduction in annual fuel costs. If saving is greater
than carrying charges, the larger number of heaters would
probably be justified.
Reheat-regenerative cycles combine steam-reheating
and regenerative-feed water-heating principles to achieve
high overall thermal efficiencies. Coupling high efficien-
cies with high throttle pressures and temperatures, these
modern turbine cycles appear to be trending to the ulti-
mate in overall thermal performance.
Fig. 14 shows full-load heat rates that can be achieved
by turbines ranging in capacity from 100 to 500 mw, with
throttle pressures from 1000 to 6000 psig. Initial and
reheat temperatures are kept at 1000 F for all units and
backpressure is constant at 1.5-in.Hg abs. All units use
six sLlges of regenerative feedwater heating. Their gross
heat rates are figured on generator-terminal outputs. De-
ducting feedwater-pump energy input from generator out-
put gives net heat rates.
Difference in these curve families shows large work
input the feed water pump needs at high throttle pressures.
Taking this into account, we find that optimum net heat
rate for the 100-mw unit comes at about 3400-psjg throt-
tle pressure. Best pressure for the 500-mw unit : about
S 37
r-
4400 psig. Spread of the curves shows performance gain
that can be made by going to larger-ca'pacity units at
higher throttle-steam pressures. Capacities, steam condi-
tions, cycles, investment and fuel costs-all must be
carefully coordinated to arrive at best choice for a central-
station generating unit.
Typical large condensing turbines vary in their heat-
rate performance with changing load and different back-
pressures, Fig. 15 to 18. As units become larger and
steam conditions higher, heat rates over the range of out-
puts become lower and lower. This is partly because of
larger size, partly because higher steam conditions can be
justified for the larger units, Fig. 14. This gives them an
inherent thermodynamic advantage.
. In Fig. 15 to 18, heat rates are usually minimum near
maximum capacity. This follows because throttling isn't
needed to control steam flow at fu1110ao, Fig. 3. As drawn,
these curves are the mean of valve loops. The true
shows a series of concave downward loops that reach a
minimum where valves of a nozzle chest are fully open.
In contrast, at loads where the valve is just starting tt>
crack there's a large throttling lo'ss; curve takes a
sudden jump upward. Our curves show the overall trend,
but true heat rates may be about 2% different from the
trend at the valve-opening and mid-valve points.
Mechanical-drive turbines often run at variable
5 38
21
.- -20
l
19
Ji
e

1$
CI

17
i
"0
C.
0
16 (,)
I
:c
CI
15. 'e
in
14

.=
c
13
Q

J
t2
12
' Risi ng stlilCJm presslJreimproves gain inregenerativKycie
heat rate, bot that's ofJs-et by
speed, in contrast to the central-station units running at
constant speed. The mod turbine's shaft output largely de-
pends on shaft speed. Fig. 5 shows engine . efficiencies
usually achieved by single-stage mod turbines.
Fig. 19 charts throttle-steam flows for a multistage and
a single-stage mod turbine. Upper scale shows correspond-
ing shaft speed for the shaft output plotted below. Plot
of steam flow vs output is called a W illans line. For a
constant-speed single-valve turbine this line is almost
straight. But as we see here, the Willans line becomes
curved for variable-speed turbines.
This comparison shows that for the given steam condi-
tions with both turbines exhausting at 150 psig, the single-
stage turbine is more efficient at low loads and less
efficient at high loads than the multistage unit. Choice be-
tween turbines for a given application can only be made
after a close study of operating conditions.
Automatic-extraction turbines can be used when
both electric power and process steam are needed at the
same time. If process steam is needed at two different
pressures and electric-energy needs are equal to, or less
than, energy available from process-steam flow through
a turbine, a noncondensing single-automatic-extraction
turbine can be used. However, if electric-energy needs
are higher than ' process-steam flows can generate, a con-
densing double-automatic-extraction unit should be used.
0 '
c
' .".
i'
lt

..'-, ,
'varres

OA'
20 60

13
More .. po{.,ts,
regenerotin cyc1e;imprQvif the, heOf ,fat*:

.t:

...:
8.
J
CD

e
2

GO
z
17
Exhaust press., in. Hq obs
10 20 30 . 40 50 60
Generotor output, 1000 kw
hecit rates of 66-mw fOl)dem-c.Ol1lpo&Jnd double>'-
fl ow 3600-rpm unit vary with load a nd
ao
1.5
t OO 1:50
2400 psig
tOSOllOOO F
7 nealers
Exhausl press., i n. Hg obs
200 250
9utPUt, '000 kw
300
A 3OO-n1w .four..flow tv. with itill
htoher steam shGws mo,. heakate Improvement
18
Ex/Joust press., in. Hg ODS
50 15 roo '25
Generotor outputl t 000 kw
Ex/Jousl press" in. Hg obs
A 6QO.mw crOi1<Olftpound four-ftow
.. best ,..-fcM __
Performance of automatic-extraction tarbines jg given
in terms of steam flow, both throttle and extraction, versus
shaft output in hp or kw. Heat rate of the energy pro-
duced by noncondensing automatic-extraction turbines
does not vary greatly. Energy chargeable to the turbine
is only the relatively small amount "skimmed off" the
steam before it flows out through extraction and exhaust
openings to the process lines.
Condensed-steam energy of condensing automatic-ex-
traction units is charged to the turhine. So most efficient
generating condition comes at maximum-extraetion flows
( the same as minimum exhaust-section flow) . For a given
kw output, throttle flow is maximum when is
maximum and heat rate minimum; conversely, throttle flow
is minimum and heat rate maximum at zero extraction.
In sample performance curve of a condensing single-
automatic-extraction turbine, Fig. 20, the family of paral-
lel curves defines required throttle-steam flow at given kw
output and extraction flow. Each parallel line is the tur-
bine's Willans line at a constant value of extraction flow.
Lower ranges of kw output limit amount of steam that
may be extracted.
When output is all produced by extracted steam, ex-
haust section of the turbine is idle. Then the blades churn
steam trapped in these stages and rapidly raise its tem-
perature to a point where the blades may fai1. To prevent
this, a small "cooling" steam is sent through the ex-
haust section to keep blading temperature at a safe level.
Cooling steam carries off windage loss of the idle blades.
In Fig. 20, the minimum flow to exhaust curve shows
relation between kw output produced on extracted steam
alone and corresponding throttle-steam flow. This curve
intersects each of the constant-extraetionflow curves at
the throttle flow that equals sum Qf the cooling steam and
extraction steam. In expanding through the first section
of the turbine from throttle to extraction stage, the cooling
steam does its share of work. But in passing through the
exhaust section from extraction stage to exhaust flange it
doesn't do any work-only cools last-stage blading.
Exhaust sections often pass just as much exhaust flow
as needed to produce rated output at zero extraction. Ad-
ditional output in the overload range can be generated by
admitting more steam at throttle and extracting it. This
is the maximum flow to exhaust curve. Other limits are
maximum throttle flow and maximum generator output.
Fig. 21 shows performance curves for a condensing
double-automatic-extraction tOT' ine. The second extrac-
tion opening needs an additional family of curves on the
chart. Two more limits must he considered: minimum
and maximum flow to intermediate section. These depend
respectively on cooling-steam-flow I).eed and maximum
steamflow 'capacity of the intermediate section ahead of
the turbine exhaust section.
POWER gratefully acknowledges the willing assistance of
engineers of the many steam-turbine manufacturers, who
patiently assembled basic data for this report.
Reprints available
Reprints of this 40-p speciotteport are available. Write to
Reader Service Dept, POWER, 330 West 42nd Sf, New York
36, N. Y. Price: $1 for single copies; discount or, quantities,

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