SM Basic Concepts Gustavo Ardila

A Brief introduction to the SM
Gustavo Ardila
Escuela Uniandina de Fı́sica de Partı́culas
2022
Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 1 / 78

The SM
Figure: Particle content of the SM. Taken from [?]

Interactions: Electromagnetism, Strong Force and Weak Force. Arise
from the symmetries of the Lagrangian.
As the theory implies high energies → Lagrangian must be Lorentz
invariant.
Quarks and Leptons are fermions described by spinors → Dirac
Lagrangian
L = i ψ̄γ µ ∂µ ψ − mψ̄ψ (1)
How to study the symmetries of the system? Transforming the fields!

Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)
First we consider global transformations for charged fermions

(parameters do not depend on the position)
ψ → e −iqθ ψ & ψ̄ → e iqθ ψ̄ (2)
q is the electric charge.

By replacing these expressions into 1 one finds that the Lagrangian
remains invariant.
Noether’s Theorem: There is a conserved charge → Electric charge.
Noether current is
J µ = iqαψ̄γ µ ψ (3)

We need to check for local invariance → Transformation depends on
the position
ψ → e iqθ(x) ψ =(1 + iqθ(x))ψ

(4)
ψ̄ → e −iqθ(x) ψ̄ =(1 − iqθ(x))ψ̄
Lagrangian is not invariant as
∂µ ψ ′ =e iqθ(x) (iq∂µ θ)ψ + e iqθ ∂µ ψ (5)

̸=e iqθ ∂µ ψ (6)
To eliminate the extra term we introduce the covariant derivative
Dµ = ∂µ + iqAµ , (7)

Aµ is called a gauge field. I.e: Field that mediates a certain physical
process.
As our fields are electrically charges Aµ =photon!
In order for L to be invariant, the photon field must transform as
1
Aµ → Aµ − ∂µ θ(x) (8)
q
Including the covariant derivative, the invariant Lagrangian is
L =i ψ̄γ µ Dµ ψ − mψ̄ψ (9)

µ µ
=i ψ̄γ ∂µ ψ − mψ̄ψ + iq ψ̄γ ψAµ (10)

Note that we obtained the free Lagrangian plus an interaction term
which describes how charged fields interact via the EM field!
After field quantization, one observes that phenomena, like electric
repulsion and attraction, are just charged particles interchanging
photons!

Feynman Rules and Diagrams
According to the interaction picture of QM we can calculate all

contributions to the S Matrix as
∞
(−i)n
X Z Z
S(t) = 1 + d4 x1 · · · d4 xn T {Hi (t1 ) · · · Hi (tn )} (11)
n!
n=1
A new question arises: How do we calculate the T products? →

Wick’s theorem.
One can show that the time ordered product of two fields ϕ(x) and
ϕ(y ) depends on the normal ordered product and the propagator:
T [ϕ(x)ϕ(y )] =: ϕ(x)ϕ(y ) : +iDF (x, y ) (12)

As example let us consider one of the first terms of the S matrix
Z
(1) 4 (+) µ (+) (+)
S = exp − ie d xT (ψ̄ γ Aµ ψ ) (13)
In momentum space, the component that just includes annihilation

operators becomes
Z
(1)
Sfi = −iq d4 xe −i(p+q+k) v̄s (p)γµ ϵµr (k)ut (q) (14)
After performing the integral it reduces to

(1)
Sfi = −iq(2π)4 δ(p + q + k)v̄s (p)γµ ϵµr (k)ut (q) (15)

Delta function ensures momentum conservation!
One can rewrite the matrix element as:
Sfi = δ(p + q + k)Mfi (16)
Note that if M is known, the S matrix element can be easily obtained

after momentum conservation.
Feynman: There is no need to calculate the whole set of integrals to
obtain both matrices → Feynman rules

In addition to the rules, one can assign a diagram to each
contribution to M → Feynman diagrams
For each interaction there is a set of rules and diagrams!

Feynman rules of QED
For every incoming fermion assign a spinor us (p) and the following
diagram
For every incoming antifermion assign a spinor v̄s (p)
For every incoming boson assign a polarization vector ϵµr (p)
For every outgoing fermion assing a spinor ūs (p)

For every outgoing antifermion assign a spinor vs (p)
For every outgoing boson assign a polarization vector ϵ∗µr (p)
All particles connect into a vertex. This vertex has a momentum

space function given by −ieγ µ

According to these rules, the first order process that we were studying
can be diagrammatically established by
(+) µ (+) (+)

∼ ψ γ Aµ ψ ∝ v s (p)ϵµγ (k)γµ ut (q)
All matrix elements associated to first order processes vanish due to

momentum conservation.
Basic processes are second order in the S matrix expansion!

Some examples of second order processes are
; ;

There are internal fermion and boson lines! These also have a
Feynman rule
For each internal fermion line assign a propagator iSF (q)
For each internal photon line assign a propagator iDµν (q).

Another type of processes are those involving loops, which are similar
to the following diagram
p k +p p
Loops are considered to be corrections to certain physical parameters

such as the vertex function.
The Feynman rule for loops is: For each loop present Rin a diagram,
d4 k
integrate over the momenta of the additional particle (2π) 4.
Integrals arising from loop processes diverge → renormalization

One of the most fundamental results from QED arises from loop
processes! Namely, the correction to the magnetic moment of the
electron
The magnetic moment of the electron, g, obtains a correction given by

g −2
= 0.001159652411 (17)
2 theo

It matches remarkably with the experimental results up to twelve
significant figures

g −2
= 0.001159652209 (18)
2 exp
QED is a very precise theory!

The Strong Interaction: Quarks and QCD
QED was the first successful QFT. However it does not explain the
remaining 3 fundamental forces: Strong, Weak and Gravitation.
So far, there was no understanding of the physics that governs the
atomic nucleus.
1940 → Heisenberg, Jordan and others started to study the force that
binds the nucleus together, the Strong force.

1932: Neutron was first discovered by Chadwick.
1934: Planck, Weizsäcker and Bethe made progress in understanding,
empirically, how the nucleus behaves.
Fundamental result: The strong interaction does not distinguish
between protons and neutrons!
Heisenberg: One can say that a quantum state for a nucleon lives in a
2D complex Hilbert space
|N⟩ = a |p⟩ + b |n⟩ (19)

Strong Isospin
Symmetries of this Hilbert space are given by SU(2)→ Isospin

(strong).
We choose p and n to be eigenstates of T 2 and T3
1 1
T3 |p⟩ = |p⟩ ; T3 |n⟩ = − |n⟩ (20)
2 2
Hence, protons and neutrons form an isospin doublet.

For isospin, we have the same Lie group as in QM spin, so we look for
the Isospin operator
⃗ = T1 x̂ + T2 ŷ + T3 ẑ
T (21)
If we remember our basic quantum mechanics, our isospin operators

must obey the Lie Algebra
[Ti , Tj ] = iϵijk Tk (22)
Any choose of T’s following the SU(2) algebra, will then give us a
representation of it. The lowest dimensional irreps are proportional to
the Pauli matrices
1
Ti = τi (23)
2

The generators of the group elements are the Pauli matrices which
are given by

0 1 0 −i 1 0
τ1 = ; τ2 = ; τ3 = (24)
1 0 i 0 0 −1
In general, for any SU(N) group we have
#bosons = #generators = N 2 − 1 (25)

Experimental confirmation → η 0 , π ± and π 0 discovery.
Strong Isospin theory was quickly disregarded after the discovery of ∆
resonances → New quantum number ”Strangeness S”
Protons, neutrons and ∆ → Baryons while Pions → Mesons
To distinguish between them a new quantum number was introduced
→ Baryon Number (B)
Zweig: It is possible to unify S and B in a single number → Strong
Hypercharge
Y =B +S (26)

One then could classify particles in tables, or multiplets. For example,
we can arange all baryons in an octet
Part. T T3 B Y S
1 1
p 2 2 1 1 0
1 1
n 2 -2 1 1 0
Λ0 0 0 1 0 -1
Σ + 1 1 1 0 -1
Σ0 1 0 1 0 -1
1 1
Ξ0 2 2 1 -1 -2
Ξ − 1 1
− 2 1 -1 -2
2

The baryon octet could be then geometrically represented by

More particles were discovered that matched with the Isospin,
Hypercharge and Strangeness scheme. One example are those that
can be aranged in a decuplet

Gell-Man and Nishijima: We can recover the electric charge of strong
interacting particles via
1
Q = T3 + Y (27)
2
Gell-Man: The octets and decuplets take the form of the weight
diagrams for SU(3)
As SU(3) is the group of transformations of a 3D complex Hilbert
space, the canonical basis vectors must be
     
1 0 0
|u⟩ = 0 |d⟩ = 1 |s⟩ = 0 (28)
0 0 1
They called these vectors quarks.

Up, down and strange quarks (and their antiparticles) live in the
irreducible fundamental representation of SU(3)
All particles in multiplets could be formed from these quarks. Here, it
became possible to note
Baryons → |qqq⟩ Mesons → |q q̄⟩ (29)
SU(3) flavor symmetry predicts that resonances that ∆ and Ω violate

Pauli exclusion principle as
− ++
Ω = |sss⟩ ∆ = |uuu⟩ (30)

The SU(3) Color symmetry
Quark model predicts new hadrons that were later discovered.
However, it breaks Pauli exclusion principle.
1965 Yoshiro Nambu and Greenberg proposed that Isospin,
strangeness, hypercharge, charmness, beauty and topness are not
fundamental quantum numbers.
Introduced a new SU(3) fundamental symmetry, which carries a
charge exclusive to quarks: color charge.
In this sense, quarks can be described by
|ψ⟩ = Ci |ψ(p)⟩ (31)
where Ci is a color vector (or superposition of them), and |ψ(p)⟩ is a
Dirac spinor.
Color vectors have the form
     
1 0 0
C1 = r = 0   C2 = g = 1   C3 = b = 0 
 (32)
0 0 1
So existence of resonances can be explained such that each quark
carries a certain color, such that the final hadron is neutral.
We need to build a QFT with SU(3) invariant Lagrangians → QCD

SU(3)
SU(3) Lie Algebra takes a familiar form
[Ti , Tj ] = ifijk Tk (33)
Note that we have different structure constants than for SU(2).
The generators are not the same ones as for SU(2)

The 8 generators are given in terms of the Gell-Mann matrices
Hence, any element os SU(3) can be written as

g ∈ SU(3) = exp(iαa Ta )

We have that λ3 and λ8 are diagonal matrices. This means that we
can tag our states with their possible values. Namely, t3 and Y :
{|t3 , y ⟩}forms a basis. (34)
This allows us to define the hypercharge operator as

2 1
Y = √ T8 = √ λ8 (35)
3 3
Note that if there were no overlaping between the SU(2) subalgebras,
the flavor representation would made sense.
In other words, the Hypercharge-Isospin symmetry arises from SU(3)
Casimir operators! However, the algebra overlaping makes it non
exact.

How to construct our multiplets from a possible set of states?→
Young Tableaux
We will say that quark states transform in the fundamental
representation, call it 3, whereas out anti-quarks are in the
anti-fundamental one, call it 3̄.
Mesons → |q q̄⟩. So we need to find all possible representations given
by the product 3 ⊗ 3̄
Using Young Tableaux theory, one can find that
3 × 3̄ = 8 ⊕ 1 (36)
This means that mesons can live in an octet and a singlet. In terms
of flavour physics: Octet is the one we saw before, the singlet is
represented by the η meson

In color theory: Octet represents the set of forms on which colors in
gluons can be arranged, while the singlet has proven to be unphysical
as gauge boson while it explains the uncolored state of mesons
Color combinations are also given by
g1 = r ḡ ; g2 = g r¯; g3 = r b̄; g4 = b¯
r ; g5 = g b̄
1 1
g6 = bḡ ; g7 = √ (r r¯ − g g¯); g8 = √ (r r¯ + g ḡ − 2b b̄)
2 6
Now we need to build an SU(3) invariant QFT

QCD
Quarks are spin half particles → Dynamics must be governed by the

usual Lagrangian
L = i ψ̄γ µ ∂µ ψ − mψ̄ψ (37)
From our last seminar, we know that these spinors must carry color
indices to preserve SU(3)
Flavor indices are also introduced to reduce the number of terms in
the Lagrangian
L = i ψ̄cf γ µ ∂µ ψcf − mψ̄cf ψcf (38)
Redefine the spinors as
ψ̄ f = (ψ̄rf , ψ̄gf , ψ̄bf ) (39)

Thus
L = i ψ̄ f γ µ ∂µ ψ f − mψ̄ f ψ f (40)
Global SU(3) transformations (recall that Ta = 12 λa and a = 1, · · · , 8)
ψf → e iαa Ta ψf ψ̄f → ψ̄f e −iαa Ta (41)
As the αa are space-time independent, the Lagrangian is invariant

under these global transformation.
Noether current is then given by
Jaµ = ψ̄f γ µ Ta ψf (42)
note that there is one conserved charge for each color combination.

This gives us our first Feynman rule for the quark-gluon vertex
Now we introduce local transformations
ψf → e igs αa (x)Ta ψf ψ̄f → ψ̄f e −igs αa (x)Ta (43)
Hence
∂µ ψf → ∂µ ψf + igs (∂µ αa )Ta ψf (44)

Extra term is eliminated if we introduce the SU(3) covariant derivative
Dµ = ∂µ + igs Ta Gµa (45)
The gauge field Gµ must then transform as
Gµa → Gµa − ∂µ αa − gs fabc αb G c µ (46)
Then, we define the Field strength tensor in a similar way than for the
photon field
Faµν = ∂ µ Gaν − ∂ ν Gaµ + gs fabc Gbµ Gcν (47)
Gauge invariant Lagrangian reads as

1
L = i ψ̄f γ µ ∂µ ψf − mψ̄f ψf − gs Jaµ Gµa − Faµν Fµν
a
(48)
4

From this Lagrangian one can read the remaining tree level Feynman
rules

We can also introduce propagators for the quark fields, as they can be
quantized as any fermion field
However, we are not done! Usually, quantization of gauge fields

becomes problematic as irredundant degrees of freedom must be
taken out of the theory.
For Yang-Mills theories, this quantization becomes really messy and
requires the introduction of a new formalism: Path Integrals. In this
formalism, the irredundancies can be taken out by introducing Ghost
fields and the Faddeev-Popov determinant (out of the scope of this
talks).

In addition to quantization, path integrals become really useful when
studying renormalization and lattice theories. Here, Kenneth Wilson
discovered that any SU(3) gauge theory is confining.
Confinement implies that one can have a short-range interaction with
massless fields, such that they produce a potential
a
V (r ) = + br (49)
r
This means that quarks can not be observed as free particles at low
energies!

Experimental problems
Spectrum of emitted electrons

expected to be at just one value
(∆m).
Experiments had shown that
electron spectrum is continous,
it ranges from m0 to ∆m
Energy apparently is not being
conserved in this processes.

Solutions
Böhr: energy conservation is a

statitical phenomena such as
entropy.
Pauli: new neutral particle
called neutron(later neutrino) so
the missing energy is that of this
particle.
Solvay conference 1933:
neutrino should be a
fermion(more specifically a
lepton) so it can satisfy
conservation laws.

Fermi Theory
Beta decay is a weak interaction

as it’s spacial range is little
compared to the other.
Weak currents describe the
process, JµHad ,JµLep
Currents are connected to the
same spacial vertex.
Strenght of the interaction is
given by a constant GF

Problems of Fermi Theory
1956: Yang and Lee noted that there was no experimental evidence of
parity conservation in weak processes
1957: Wu discovered that the 60 Co decay violates parity!
Weak interaction distinguishes between Left Handed(LH) and Right
Handed chiralities !
Solution given by Feynman: Introduce V-A currents such that LH
components of the spinor participate in the interaction, whilst the RH
are singlets!
GF 1
J µ = √ ψ̄γ µ PL ψ; PL = (1 − γ5 ) (50)
2 2

Using these (V-A) currents, obligates us to use a new representation
of the gamma matrices, namely the Weyl (or chiral) representation,
where they are given by

0 0 1 i 0 σi −1 0
γ = γ = γ5 = (51)
1 0 −σi 0 0 1
Chirality → eigenstates of the γ5 matrix

As γ5 is diagonal, one can decompose a Dirac spinor
ψ = ψL + ψR (52)

In terms of the chiralities, Free Dirac Lagrangian becomes
L = i ψ̄L γ µ ∂µ ψL + i ψ̄R γ µ ∂µ ψR − mψ̄R ψL − mψ̄L ψR (53)
Note that an SU(2) transformation like
ψL → ψL′ ∝ exp(iαγ5 )ψL
will not leave the mass terms invariant, we say then that mass terms
break gauge invariance. Additionally, note that as neutrinos only
participate in weak processes, they can only posses left-handed
chirality which means that they are massless.
Short range interaction implies the existence of massive vector
mediators!

Weak Interactions and Isospin
In terms of quarks, the β decay can be understood as

d → u + e − + ν̄e
Let us analyze the properties of d and u
Quark Spin Mass(MeV) Charge
d 1/2 4.7 -1/3
u 1/2 3.3 2/3
If mass is set to zero (gauge invariance) and we turn off the electric
charge, these two particles are basically the same.
Pauli exclusion principle allows us to understand u and d as basis
vectors of a 2D complex Hilbert space (same as with spin up and
down):

1 0
|u⟩ = ; |d⟩ = (54)
0 1

Doublets and currents
As mentioned before, Wu’s experiment implies that the left handed

components of u and d form a doublet

u
QL = (55)
d L
Same happens with leptons

ν
ℓL = (56)
e L
in this case e=e − , µ− or τ − .

Take any of these doublets to be ψ. The dynamics of the doublet are
given by
L = i ψ̄γ µ ∂µ ψ (57)
Our duty is now to study the symmetries of this Lagrangian.

There are in fact two different symmetry transformations
1 ψ as a doublet has an SU(2) transformation.
2 Each individual component of ψ, together with their right-handed
components, acts as a Dirac spinor → U(1) transformation.
We focus on the SU(2) transf.
ψ → e −igw τa θa ψ (58)
igw τa θa
ψ̄ → ψ̄e (59)
Here we used Einstein’s index summation rule and take a=1,2,3.

If θa are space-time independent, we have a global symmetry and the
Lagrangian is invariant.
One Noether current for each value of a
∂L
Jaµ = = gw ψ̄γ µ τa ψ (60)
∂(∂µ ψ)
If we take ψ to be a lepton doublet, we have that the currents are
J1µ = gw (ν̄e γ µ e + ēγ µ νe ) (61)

J2µ µ
= −igw (ν̄e γ e − ēγ νe ) µ
(62)
J3µ µ
= gw (ν̄e γ νe − ēγ e) µ
(63)

Note that J3 resembles an electromagnetic current (first glimpse to
unification)
µ
JEM = Q ēγ µ e (64)
Now, we want our physics to be local
ψ → e −igw τa θa (x) ψ (65)

igw τa θa (x)
ψ̄ → ψ̄e (66)
Kinetic term is non invariant as
∂µ ψ ′ = −igw (τa ∂µ θa )e −igw τa θa ψ + e −igw τa θa ∂µ ψ (67)
Hence
L′ = i ψ̄γ µ ∂µ ψ + gw ψ̄γ µ (τa ∂µ θa )ψ (68)

Extra term breaks gauge invariance. We require to introduce the
SU(2) covariant derivative
Dµ = ∂µ + igw τa Wµa (69)
W1 , W2 and W3 are the vector bosons associated to the gauge

connection coefficients, and therefore will mediate the interaction.
With this introduction, the lagrangian becomes
L = i ψ̄ ′ γ µ Dµ ψ ′ (70)
µ iτa θa µ −iτc θc
= i ψ̄γ ∂µ ψ − gw ψ̄e γ τb (Wbµ + ∂µ θb )e ψ (71)
One can use the Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula to show

X
e iτa θa τb e −iτc θc = τb + i θa ϵabc τc (72)
b
From now on we replace indices to i, j, k.

The lagrangian becomes
X
L = i ψ̄γ µ Dµ ψ + 2i ψ̄γ µ θi Wµj τk ϵijk ψ (73)
ijk
To vanish the extra term we require the W’s to transform in the

adjoint representation. This means
X
Wiµ → Wiµ ∂µ θi − 2gw ϵijk Wjµ θk (74)
jk
With this transformation of the Lagrangian, it will remain invariant.

However, we still do not have a term for W boson kinematics, hence
we introduce
X
i
Fµν = ∂µ Wνi − ∂ν Wµi + 2gw ϵjkℓ Wµk Wνℓ (75)
jk
Kinetic Lagrangian is then

1
Lw = − Fµνi Fiµν (76)
4
This lagrangian induces 4 boson terms with the likes of
Wµa Wνb Wαc Wβd . In diagramatic form this looks like
3 boson terms are also possible via (∂µ Waµ )Wαb Wβc

Total lagrangian is now
1
L = i ψ̄γ µ ∂µ ψ − Jµa Waµ − Fµνa Faµν (77)
4
Problem: Experiment tells us that the W bosons are massive! They
will be introduced via Higgs mechanism.

The W ± bosons
Recall spin: Given a basis where S 2 and S3 are diagonal, it is possible
to introduce ladder operators
S± = S1 ± iS2 (78)
As we chose an spherical basis for Isospin, we can build ladder
operators:
T± = T1 ± T2 (79)
This allows us to build vector bosons for each of these operators,
while preserving the number of degrees of freedom:
1
Wµ± = √ (Wµ1 ± iWµ2 ) (80)
2
with Noether currents given by
µ 1
J± = (J1µ ± iJ2µ ) (81)
2
Replacing the expressions gives us two charged currents
µ
J+ = gw ν̄L γ µ eL (82)
µ µ
J− = gw ēL γ νL (83)
They also have their own strength tensor

± (1) (2)
Fµν = Fµν ∓ iFµν (84)

Neutral currents
Theory has an additional symmetry which arises from the Dirac

behavior of the spinors, just like they do in QED!
Extra U(1)Y symmetry transforms the fields via

i ′
ψL → exp − g YL θ ψL (85)
2

i ′
ψR → exp g YR θ ψR (86)
2
LH and RH spinors are not forced to have the same hypercharge

values, this is due to their doublet and singlet behavior under SU(2)L .

Following the same procedure than in QED, we obtain two new
neutral currents
g′
JµYL L/R = Y ψ̄ γ µ ψL/R , (87)
2 L/R L/R
Also the covariant derivative is
DµL/R = ∂µ + ig ′ YL/R Bµ , (88)
The presence of the new U(1)Y gauge symmetry, together with

SU(2)L , in the weak interaction means that the total gauge group is
SU(2)L × U(1)Y .

Unification
For left-handed leptons, the neutral part of the Lagrangian reads

−1 ′
L⊃ [(g YL B µ + gw W3µ )ν̄L γ µ νL + (g ′ YL B µ − gw W3µ )ēL γµ eL ]
2
(89)
Note that the terms between parenthesis add in a similar way as the
result of a matrix multiplication with a vector. In other words, it takes
the form

a11 a12 a a11 a + a12 b c
= =
a21 a22 b a21 a + a22 b d

Glashow, Weinberg, Salam: Structure of the interaction take a form
similar to that of QED, namely QAµ Jµ → Electromagnetism and
Weak interactions are manifestations of a single interaction!
Introduce a new gauge boson Zµ such that W3µ and Bµ transform to
µ µ
B cos θw sin θw A
µ = , (90)
W3 − sin θw cos θw Zµ
Z boson was discovered in the 1970’s

The total Lagrangian will now be
1 1 1 µ
L =iψγ µ ∂µ ψ − Fµν F µν − Zµν Z µν − Wµν W µν − J± Wµ±
4 4 4 (91)
gw
− Q ψ̄γ µ ψAµ − ψ̄γ µ (cv − ca γ5 )ψZµ
2 cos θw
We can obtain the Feynman rules of the Electroweak theory!

Feynman Rules of EW theory
Lepton-Neutrino coupling with W boson
Quark coupling with W boson

Fermion coupling with the Z boson
Vector boson propagator

W boson coupling with Z boson
W boson coupling with the photon

4 vector boson coupling
W boson-Photon 4 point interaction

The Higgs Mechanism
We know that mass terms explicitly break the SU(2) symmetry →

Needs to be recovered
Solution was found by Englert, Kibble, Brout and Higgs!
Introduce a scalar field doublet with non trivial interaction term
λ ∗ 2
L = (∂µ ϕ)∗ (∂ µ ϕ) − µ2 ϕ∗ ϕ + (ϕ ϕ) (92)
4

Spontaneously Symmetry Breaking
If µ2 > 0, the potential is symmetric and the symmetry is preserved

such that the minimum is at ϕ0 = 0

However, if µ2 < 0 the symmetry breaks such that the potential
changes its form

−2µ2
Multiple minima occurring at |ϕ0 |2 = λ
As the base of the potential is, topologically speaking, a circle no
extra energy is required for moving around it, introducing
redundancies known as Goldstone bosons.
As we are choosing a minimum, we can expand the doublet in terms
of angular and radial modes (Goldstone and Higgs fields respectively)
as
!
G±
ϕ = v +h+iG
√
0 (93)
2

To preserve the local SU(2) × U(1) gauge invariance of the doublet
Lagrangian, we must introduce the covariant derivative
g′
Dµ = ∂µ + igw Ta Wµa + i Bµ , (94)
2
Replacing derivatives induces quadratic terms for the vector bosons!
How to deal with the Goldstone bosons? → Unitary gauge → Vector
bosons ”eat” these modes and become massive!
In this gauge, the doublet becomes
!
0
ϕ= v√
+h (95)
2

To give mass to fermions we need to introduce an interaction term
with the scalar doublet → Yukawa
LYuk = Γuij q̄Li ϕ̃uRj + Γdij q̄Li ϕdRj + Γeij ēLi ϕeRj ; ϕ̃ = −iτ2 ϕ∗ (96)
Γ matrices are the couplings between fermions and the Higgs doublet
Without loss of generality, let us consider only one lepton family with
Yukawa Lagrangian given by
L ⊃ fe ēL ϕeR (97)

After SSB the Lagrangian becomes

v +h
L ⊃fe ēL √ eR (98)
2
fe v fe
= √ ēL eR + √ ēL heR (99)
2 2
By noticing that the first term is a constant coupling both chiral
fe v
states, we define the lepton mass as me = √ 2
, such that the
Lagiangian becomes
m
L ⊃ mēL eR + ēL heR (100)
v

We obtained fermion masses!
By considering leptons as singlets under SU(3), we can construct a
general gauge group for the theory is
SU(3)c × SU(2)L × U(1)Y (101)
This is known as the Standard Model of particle physics!

SM Basic Concepts Gustavo Ardila

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A Brief introduction to the SM

Escuela Uniandina de Fı́sica de Partı́culas

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 1 / 78

Figure: Particle content of the SM. Taken from [?]

L = i ψ̄γ µ ∂µ ψ − mψ̄ψ (1)

How to study the symmetries of the system? Transforming the fields!

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 3 / 78

First we consider global transformations for charged fermions

ψ → e −iqθ ψ & ψ̄ → e iqθ ψ̄ (2)

q is the electric charge.

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 4 / 78

ψ → e iqθ(x) ψ =(1 + iqθ(x))ψ

Lagrangian is not invariant as

∂µ ψ ′ =e iqθ(x) (iq∂µ θ)ψ + e iqθ ∂µ ψ (5)

To eliminate the extra term we introduce the covariant derivative

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 5 / 78

L =i ψ̄γ µ Dµ ψ − mψ̄ψ (9)

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 6 / 78

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 7 / 78

According to the interaction picture of QM we can calculate all

A new question arises: How do we calculate the T products? →

T [ϕ(x)ϕ(y )] =: ϕ(x)ϕ(y ) : +iDF (x, y ) (12)

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 8 / 78

In momentum space, the component that just includes annihilation

After performing the integral it reduces to

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 9 / 78

Sfi = δ(p + q + k)Mfi (16)

Note that if M is known, the S matrix element can be easily obtained

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 10 / 78

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 11 / 78

For every incoming antifermion assign a spinor v̄s (p)

For every incoming boson assign a polarization vector ϵµr (p)

For every outgoing fermion assing a spinor ūs (p)

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 12 / 78

For every outgoing boson assign a polarization vector ϵ∗µr (p)

All particles connect into a vertex. This vertex has a momentum

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 13 / 78

(+) µ (+) (+)

All matrix elements associated to first order processes vanish due to

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 14 / 78

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 15 / 78

For each internal photon line assign a propagator iDµν (q).

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 16 / 78

Loops are considered to be corrections to certain physical parameters

Integrals arising from loop processes diverge → renormalization

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 17 / 78

The magnetic moment of the electron, g, obtains a correction given by

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 18 / 78

QED is a very precise theory!

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 19 / 78

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 20 / 78

|N⟩ = a |p⟩ + b |n⟩ (19)

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 21 / 78

Symmetries of this Hilbert space are given by SU(2)→ Isospin

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 22 / 78

If we remember our basic quantum mechanics, our isospin operators

[Ti , Tj ] = iϵijk Tk (22)

Gustavo Ardila (Uniandes) A Brief introduction to the SM 2022 23 / 78

In general, for any SU(N) group we have

#bosons = #generators = N 2 − 1 (25)