POLITEKNIK

SULTAN SALAHUDDIN ABDUL AZIZ SHAH

ELECTRICAL ENGENEERING DEPARTMENT

ASSIGNMENT / PRACTICAL / CASE STUDY /

PRESENTATION / REFLECTIVE JOURNAL / PROJECT

COURSE DIPLOMA ELECTRONIC ENGENEERING (MEDICAL)

COURSE CODE DUE30023 CLASS DEU3A

NAME MATRIX NO
DAYANG NURNAFISA
08DEU21F1092
SYAZIERA BINTI JULLY
KU ALIYA ASIAH BINTI KU
08DEU21F1115
MUHAMMAD
GROUP MEMBERS TIMOTHY LEE 08DEU21F2051

TITLE
DATE SUBMITTED 17 OCTOBER 2022

LECTURER NAME PUAN SOO LEE WEE

LECTURER COMMENT
MARKS
 ISI KANDUNGAN

TOPIC PAGE

1 INTRODUCTION .

2 FUNCTION OF THE INTEGUMENTARY AND ROLE .

IN HOMEOSTASIS

3 GENERAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF .

SKELETAL SYSTEM

4 DISORDER, DISEAS AND INJURIES OF THE .

INTEGUMENTARY

5 RESTING POTENTIAL AND HOW AN ACTION .

POTENTIAL IS GENERATED

6 HOW A NERVE IMPULSE IS TRANSMITTED FROM .

ONE NEURON TO ANOTHER

7 WITHDRAWAL REFLEX

8 FUNCTIONS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM .

9 COMMON DISORDERS, DISEASES AND INJURIES

RELATED TO THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Anatomy is the study of the structures associated with the human body.Such as the body , organs and organ
systems.Next the major types of anatomy are gross anatomy , microscopic anatomy, human anatomy and
comparative anatomy.In addition , anatomy also to indentification and description if the body structures of
living things.Next , anatomy is important to us because we know how the heart did and how the red blood cells
carry oxygen around the body.

Meanwhile , physiology is the study of how the human body works from how the molecules behave in cells to
how the systems organs work together.The types of physiology are medical physiology,cell physiology and
plant physiology.For example . a branch of biology that deals with the function and activities of life or living
matter (such as organs , tissues and cell that have inside the body) and of the chemical phenomena
involved.Beside that , physiology is important because it is the foundation which we buld our knowledge of life
is , how to treat disease and how to cope with stresses imposed upon our bodies by different environment.

Last but not least , anatomy and physiology are impotant things to human because both of them are related with
our life.Next, it helps in clearing the fundamentaks concepts as to how our body function and also not only
learn the theoretical concepts but practical the functionalities of the human body too.
 1.0 INTEGUMENTARY, SKELETAL, JOINTS AND MUSCULAR SYSTEM
1.1 FUNCTION OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM.

The Integumetary System is the body’s outmost layer.Next, integumentary system composed of skin, hair,
nails,glands and nerves.It is main job to protect your insides from elements in environments like pollution and
bacteria. It also helps retain bodily fluids, eliminate waste products like urea and regulate body temperature,

The function of Integumentary System is to guards the body, providing barrier to infection and shielding the
body against temperatures changes and the adverse effects of potentially harmful substances such as UV light.

The integumentary system has many specific roles in its involvements in helping to protect and regulate the
body’s internal functions such as helps to protect the body tissues and organs , protects against infections and
foreign invaders , helps to maintain a stable body temperature and stores fat for a source of energy.

1.1.1 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM ROLE IN HOMEOSTASIS

SKIN’S ROLE IN HOMEOSTASIS

Our skin is the largest organ of the body.The skin helps to prevent dehydration and to maintain normal body
temperature.The skin are protects internal tissues and organs from invasion by pathogens , release some metabolic
waste products and protects against UV radiation with melanin pigments produced by melanocytes.In fact , UV
light stimulation of the skin results in the production of vitamin D that becomes active through a second
hydroxylation step in the kidney.Next ,the skin provide shape to the body but serves as storage site for water ,
fat ,and glucose.Beside that , the minor injuries of the epidermis can be quickly repaired by keratinocytes in the
bottom layes of the epidermis.

The epidermis provides direct protection against damage.This layer includes several layers of keratinocytes and
keratin that confer a protective barrier against damage and water loss.Next,melanocytes produce melanin granules
that are taken up by some of the keratinocytes amd provide direct protection against UV radiation from the
sun.Such melanin pigmentation provide color of the skin, which can vary in different individuals and in response to
sunlight.

Beside that , the dermis is the primarily composed of connective tissues that provides support and blood vessel
for the skin.The adnexa is located in this region that helps to warmth and protection.Such as hair , fur and
feather.Glands in this region help to keep the hair follicles and skin moist including sebaceous glands and sweat
glands.Next , some fluid and metabolites may also be released through such secretions.In addition , melanocytes
with melanin pigment may be present in the dermis.

Finally , the hyperdemis consists primarily of white adipose tissues and collagen bundles.It is this layers that
provides most of the insulation warmth ,otherwise called thermogulation to prevent hypothermia during cold
weather.Next, the adipose tissues stored in this region can also acts as an energy reverse.The collagen fibers anchor
the dermis to the hypodermis and allow the skin to move freely over the underlying tissues.
HAIR ROLE IN HOMESOSTASIS

Hair is one of defining characteristics of mammals.Next , the main components of hair is keratin.A hair shaft
consists of dead, keratin-filled cells that overlap each other like the shingles on a roof.Beside that , hair helps to
insulate and protect the body.Head hair is important because preventing heat loss from the body.Next, eyelashes
and eyebrows are to protect the eyes from water, dirt, and othee irriants.Hair in nose trap dust particles and
microorganisms in the air and prevent them from reaching the lungs.Hair also provide sensory input when object
brush against it or it sways in moving air.

NAIL ROLE IN HOMEOSTASIS

Fingernail and toenails are consists of the specialized epidermal cells that are filled with keratin.The kerantin
makes nail tough and hard , which is important for the functions they serve.Next , fingernails prevent injury by
forming protective plates over the end of the fingers.They also enchance sensation by acting as a counterforce to
the fingertips when objects are handled.Beside that , they cover the tips of fingers and toes.Fingernails and toenails
both grow from nail bed.Older cells get pushed away from the nail bed and the nail grow from nail bed and there
are no nerve endings in the nail.
FIGURE 1.2 GENERAL STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
1.2.1 FUNCTION OF SKELETAL SYSTEMS

The skeletal system is the body system composed of bones,cartilages, ligaments and other tissues that perform
essential function from the human body.Bone tissues or osseous tissues is hard , dense connective that forms most
of the adult , the support structure of the body.

Function of skeletal systems is allow movement because skeleton support your body weight to help us stand and
move.Joints , connective tissues and muscle work together make our body parts mobile.Next , skeletal system also
produces blood cells because in bones contain bone marrow.Red and white blood cells are produces in the bone
marrow.

Beside that, can protects and support organs because skull shields our brain , rib protect our heart and lungs and
backbone protect our spine.Last but not least , skeletal system can stores mineral because bones hold our body’s
supply of minerals like calcium and vitamin D.
1.3 COMMON DISORDERS , DISEASE AND INJURIES OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

1.3.1 COMMON DISORDERS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Common disorders of integumentary system is skin disorder which is enzema and acne.Eczema is an
inflammatory condition and occurs in individuals of all ages.Next, acne involve the clogging of pores, which can
lead to infection and inflammation and is often seen in adolescents.

ECZEMA

Eczema is an allergic reaction that manifests asa dry, itchy patches of skin that resemble rashes.It may be
accompanied by swelling of the skin , flaking and in severe cases , bleeding.This symptoms are usually managed
with moisturizers, corticostreroid creams and immunosuppressants.

FIGURE 1.3.1 ECZEMA

ACNE

Acne is a skin disturbance that typically occurs on areas of the skin that are rich in sebaceous gland called oil
glands , such as the face and back .It is most common along with onset of puberty due to associated hormone
changes but can also occur in infants and continue into adulthood.Next , hormones such as androgens,stimulate the
release of sebum.Hair follicles become blocked due to an overproduction and accumulation of sebum and
keratin.This plug is initially white ,known as a whitehead.The sebum , when oxidized by exposure to air, turns
black, known as a blackhead.In addition , acne results results from infection by acne-causing bacteria , which can
lead to redness in light skinned individuals and hyperpigmentation in darker skinned individuals.

FIGURE 1.3.1 ACNE

SKIN DISORDERS

Two common skin disorders are eczema and acne. Eczema is an inflammatory condition and occurs in individuals
of all ages. Acne involves the clogging of pores, which can lead to infection and inflammation, and is often seen in
adolescents. Other disorders, not discussed here, include seborrheic dermatitis (on the scalp), psoriasis, cold sores,
impetigo, scabies, hives, and warts.
 1.3.2 COMMON DISEASE OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Common disease of integumentary system is skin cancer,Cancer is a broad term that describes diseases caused by
abnormal cells in the body dividing uncontrollably.Most cancers are identified by the organ or tissues in which the
cancer originates.Next , the fact that cancers can also occur on areas of the body that are normally not exposed to
UV radiation suggest that there are additional factors that can lead to cancerous lesions.

In general ,cancers results from an accumulation of DNA mutations.These mutations can results in cell
populations that do not die when they should and uncontrolled cell proliferation that leads to tumors.Many tumors
are begin which is harmless, some produces cell that can mobilize and establish tumors in other organs of the
body.Cancers are characterized by their ability to metastasize.

BASAL CELL CARCINOMA

Basal cell carcinoma is a form of cancer that affects the mitotically active stem cells in the stratum basale of the
epidermis,It is the most common of all cancers that occur in the United States and is frequently found on the heada ,
neck and back , which are areas that are most susceptible to long-term sun exposure.Although UV rays are the
main culprit , exposures to other agents such as radiation and arsenic can also lead to this type of cancer.Basal cell
carcinomas start in the stratum basale and usuallt spread along this boundary.At some point, they begin to grow
toward the surface and become an uneven patch,bump,growth or scar on rhe skin surface.The treatments options
include surgery, freezing (cryosurgery) and topical ointments.

FIGURE 1.3 BASAL CELL CARCINOMA

SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA

Squamous cell carcinoma is cancer that affects the keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum and presents as lesuns
commonly found on the scalp, ears and hands.If not removed, these carcinomas metastasize.Surgery and radiation
are used to cure squamous cell carcinoma.

FIGURE 1.3 SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA

MELANOMA

A melanoma is a cancer charactized by the uncontrolled growth of melanocytes , the pigments producing cells in
the epidermis,Typically , a melanoma develops from a mole.It is the most fatal of all skin cancers , as it is highly
metastatic and can be difficult to detect and black patches with uneven borders and raised surface.The treatments
typically involve surgical excision and immunotherapy.
 FIGURE 1.3 MELANOMA

1.3.3 COMMON INJURIES OF THE INTEGUMENTARY

INJURIES

Because the skin is the part of our bodies that meets the world most directly, it is especially vulnerable to injury.
Injuries include burns and wounds, as well as scars and calluses. They can be caused by sharp objects, heat, or
excessive pressure or friction to the skin.

Skin injuries set off a healing process that occurs in several overlapping stages. The first step to repairing damaged
skin is the formation of a blood clot that helps stop the flow of blood and scabs over with time. Many different
types of cells are involved in wound repair, especially if the surface area that needs repair is extensive. Before the
basal stem cells of the stratum basale can recreate the epidermis, fibroblasts mobilize and divide rapidly to repair
the damaged tissue by collagen deposition, forming granulation tissue. Blood capillaries follow the fibroblasts and
help increase blood circulation and oxygen supply to the area. Immune cells, such as macrophages, roam the area
and engulf any foreign matter to reduce the chance of infection.
BURNS

A burn results when the skin is damaged by intense heat, radiation, electricity, or chemicals. The damage results in
the death of skin cells, which can lead to a massive loss of fluid. Dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, and renal and
circulatory failure follow, which can be fatal. Burn patients are treated with intravenous fluids to offset
dehydration, as well as intravenous nutrients that enable the body to repair tissues and replace lost proteins.
Another serious threat to the lives of burn patients is infection. Burned skin is extremely susceptible to bacteria and
other pathogens, due to the loss of protection by intact layers of skin.

Burns are sometimes measured in terms of the size of the total surface area affected. This is referred to as the “rule
of nines,” which associates specific anatomical areas with a percentage that is a factor of nine ([link]). Burns are
also classified by the degree of their severity. A first-degree burn is a superficial burn that affects only the
epidermis. Although the skin may be painful and swollen, these burns typically heal on their own within a few
days. Mild sunburn fits into the category of a first-degree burn. A second-degree burn goes deeper and affects
both the epidermis and a portion of the dermis. These burns result in swelling and a painful blistering of the skin. It
is important to keep the burn site clean and sterile to prevent infection. If this is done, the burn will heal within
several weeks. A third-degree burn fully extends into the epidermis and dermis, destroying the tissue and
affecting the nerve endings and sensory function. These are serious burns that may appear white, red, or black; they
require medical attention and will heal slowly without it. A fourth-degree burn is even more severe, affecting the
underlying muscle and bone. Oddly, third and fourth-degree burns are usually not as painful because the nerve
endings themselves are damaged. Full-thickness burns cannot be repaired by the body, because the local tissues
used for repair are damaged and require excision (debridement), or amputation in severe cases, followed by grafting
of the skin from an unaffected part of the body, or from skin grown in tissue culture for grafting purposes.

CALCULATING THE SIZE BURN

FIGURE 1.3
SCARS AND KELOIDS

Most cuts or wounds, with the exception of ones that only scratch the surface (the epidermis), lead to scar
formation. A scar is collagen-rich skin formed after the process of wound healing that differs from normal skin.
Scarring occurs in cases in which there is repair of skin damage, but the skin fails to regenerate the original skin
structure. Fibroblasts generate scar tissue in the form of collagen, and the bulk of repair is due to the basket-weave
pattern generated by collagen fibers and does not result in regeneration of the typical cellular structure of skin.
Instead, the tissue is fibrous in nature and does not allow for the regeneration of accessory structures, such as hair
follicles, sweat glands, or sebaceous glands.

Sometimes, there is an overproduction of scar tissue, because the process of collagen formation does not stop when
the wound is healed; this results in the formation of a raised or hypertrophic scar called a keloid. In contrast, scars
that result from acne and chickenpox have a sunken appearance and are called atrophic scars.

Scarring of skin after wound healing is a natural process and does not need to be treated further. Application of
mineral oil and lotions may reduce the formation of scar tissue. However, modern cosmetic procedures, such as
dermabrasion, laser treatments, and filler injections have been invented as remedies for severe scarring. All of these
procedures try to reorganize the structure of the epidermis and underlying collagen tissue to make it look more
natural.

BEDSORES AND STRETCH MARKS

Skin and its underlying tissue can be affected by excessive pressure. One example of this is called a bedsore.
Bedsores, also called decubitis ulcers, are caused by constant, long-term, unrelieved pressure on certain body parts
that are bony, reducing blood flow to the area and leading to necrosis (tissue death). Bedsores are most common in
elderly patients who have debilitating conditions that cause them to be immobile. Most hospitals and long-term care
facilities have the practice of turning the patients every few hours to prevent the incidence of bedsores. If left
untreated by removal of necrotized tissue, bedsores can be fatal if they become infected.

The skin can also be affected by pressure associated with rapid growth. A stretch mark results when the dermis is
stretched beyond its limits of elasticity, as the skin stretches to accommodate the excess pressure. Stretch marks
usually accompany rapid weight gain during puberty and pregnancy. They initially have a reddish hue, but lighten
over time. Other than for cosmetic reasons, treatment of stretch marks is not required. They occur most commonly
over the hips and abdomen.

CELLUSES

When you wear shoes that do not fit well and are a constant source of abrasion on your toes, you tend to form
a callus at the point of contact. This occurs because the basal stem cells in the stratum basale are triggered to divide
more often to increase the thickness of the skin at the point of abrasion to protect the rest of the body from further
damage. This is an example of a minor or local injury, and the skin manages to react and treat the problem
independent of the rest of the body. Calluses can also form on your fingers if they are subject to constant
mechanical stress, such as long periods of writing, playing string instruments, or video games. A corn is a
specialized form of callus. Corns form from abrasions on the skin that result from an elliptical-type motion.
2.1 NERVOUS AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

2.1.1 RESTING POTENTIAL

Neurones communicate with each other via brief electrical signals known as action potentials.  They are brief
changes in the voltage across the membrane due to the flow of certain ions into and out of the neurone. In this
article, we will discuss how an action potential (AP) is generated and how the conduction of an action potential
occurs.

The resting membrane potential of cells varies depending on the cell type. For neurones, it typically sits between -
50 and -75mV. This value depends on the types of ion channels that are open and the concentrations of different
ions in the intracellular and extracellular fluids during the resting state. In neurones, K+ and organic anions are
typically found at a higher concentration within the cell than outside, whereas Na+ and Cl- are typically found in
higher concentrations outside the cell.

This difference in concentrations provides a concentration gradient for ions to flow down when their respective
channels are open. Hence, K+ ions would be moving out of the cells, while  Na+ and Cl- ions would be moving
into the cell. At the resting state, the cell is mostly permeable to K+, as such this exerts the greatest influence on the
resting membrane potential out of the three ions. Further information on the resting potential generation can be
found here.

These concentration gradients are maintained by the action of the Na+/K+ ATPase via active transport, which in
turn allows the membrane potential to be maintained.

DIAGRAM 2.1

DEMONSTRATING THE IONS INVOLVED IN SETTING THE RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL, AS

WELL AS THE DIRECTION OF THE ION CONCENTRATION GRADIENTS.
2.1.2 GENERATION OF ACTION POTENTIALS

During the resting state, the membrane potential arises because the membrane is predominantly permeable to K+.
An action potential begins at the axon hillock as a result of depolarization. During depolarization voltage-gated
sodium ion channels open due to an electrical stimulus. As the sodium ions rush back into the cell, their positive
charge changes potential inside the cell from negative to more positive.

If a threshold potential is reached, then an action potential is produced. Action potentials will only occur if a
threshold is reached. Additionally, if the threshold is reached, then the response of the same magnitude is always
elicited, irrespective of the strength of the stimulus. Hence, action potentials are described as “all-or-nothing“.

Once the cell has been depolarised the voltage-gated sodium ion channels begin to close. The positive potential
inside the cell causes voltage-gated potassium channels to open and K+ ions now move down their electrochemical
gradient out of the cell. As the K+ moves out of the cell, the membrane potential becomes more negative and starts
to approach the resting potential.

Typically, repolarisation overshoots the resting membrane potential, making the membrane potential more
negative. This is known as hyperpolarisation. It is important to note that the Na+/K+ ATPase is not involved in the
repolarisation process following an action potential.

Every action potential is followed by a refractory period. This period can be further divided into:

 the absolute refractory period which occurs once the sodium channels close after an AP. Sodium channels
then enter an inactive state during which they cannot be reopened, regardless of the membrane potential.

 the relative refractory period which occurs when sodium channels slowly come out of the inactivation.
During this period the neurone can be excited with stimuli stronger than the one normally needed to initiate
an AP. Early on in the relative refractory period, the strength of the stimulus required is very high.
Gradually, it becomes smaller throughout the relative refractory period as more sodium channels recover
from the inactivation stage.

DIAGRAM 2.1

THE PHASES OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL IN RELATION TO THE MEMBRANE VOLTAGE OVER TIME
2.1.3 HOW A NERVE IMPULSE IS TRANSMITTED FROM ONE NEURON TO ANOTHER

NERVE IMPULSE

1. Nerve impulses are electrical signals that travel along dendrites to generate action potentials or nerve impulses.

2. An action potential is caused by the movement of ions in and out of the cell.

3. This specifically includes sodium and potassium ions.

DIAGRAM 2.1

THE NERVE IMPULSES

TRANSMISSION OF NERVE IMPULSES:

1. Neurons are the functional unit of the nervous system.

2. They have this amazing ability to detect, receive and transmit a variety of stimuli.

3. These neurons communicate with each other through nerve impulses, which can be understood scientifically.

4. They are usually electrical signals that travel along the axon of the neuron.

5. Neurons communicate with each other at specific points or junctions called synapses.

6. These synapses can be chemical, communicating via chemical messengers or electricity, where ions flow
between cells.

7. Hence, the transmission of nerve impulses occurs through synapses.

DIAGRAM 2.1.1

NERVE IMPULSES TRANSMISSION ACROSS SYNAPSE

2.1.4 WITHDRAWAL REFLEX

The withdrawal reflex (nociceptive flexion reflex or flexor withdrawal reflex) is a spinal reflex intended to

protect the body from damaging stimuli.[1]The reflex rapidly coordinates the contractions of all the flexor muscles
and the relaxations of the extensors in that limb causing sudden withdrawal from the potentially damaging stimulus.
[2]
 Spinal reflexes are often monosynaptic and are mediated by a simple reflex arc. A withdrawal reflex is mediated
by a polysynaptic reflex resulting in the stimulation of many motor neurons in order to give a quick response.

2.1.5 FUNCTIONS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

WHAT IS ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is made up of glands that make hormones. Hormones are the body's chemical messengers.
They carry information and instructions from one set of cells to another.

The endocrine (pronounced: EN-duh-krin) system influences almost every cell, organ, and function of our bodies.

WHAT DOES THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM DO

1. Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream. This lets the hormones travel to cells in other parts of
the body.

2. The endocrine hormones help control mood, growth and development, the way our organs work, metabolism ,
and reproduction.

3. The endocrine system regulates how much of each hormone is released. This can depend on levels of hormones
already in the blood, or on levels of other substances in the blood, like calcium. Many things affect hormone levels,
such as stress, infection, and changes in the balance of fluid and minerals in blood.

Too much or too little of any hormone can harm the body. Medicines can treat many of these problems.

PARTS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

While many parts of the body make hormones, the major glands that make up the endocrine system are the:

 hypothalamus
 pituitary
 thyroid
 parathyroids
 adrenals
 pineal body
 the ovaries
 the testes

The pancreas is part of the endocrine system and the digestive system. That's because it secretes hormones into the
bloodstream, and makes and secretes enzymes into the digestive tract.
HYPOTHALAMUS

The hypothalamus (pronounced: hi-po-THAL-uh-mus) is in the lower central part of the brain. It links the
endocrine system and nervous system. Nerve cells in the hypothalamus make chemicals that control the release of
hormones secreted from the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus gathers information sensed by the brain (such as the
surrounding temperature, light exposure, and feelings) and sends it to the pituitary. This information influences the
hormones that the pituitary makes and releases.

PITUITARY

The pituitary (pronounced: puh-TOO-uh-ter-ee) gland is at the base of the brain, and is no bigger than a pea.
Despite its small size, the pituitary is often called the "master gland." The hormones it makes control many other
endocrine glands.

The pituitary gland makes many hormones, such as:

 growth hormone, which stimulates the growth of bone and other body tissues and plays a role in the body's
handling of nutrients and minerals
 prolactin (pronounced: pro-LAK-tin), which activates milk production in women who are breastfeeding
 thyrotropin (pronounced: thy-ruh-TRO-pin), which stimulates the thyroid gland to make thyroid hormones
 corticotropin (pronounced: kor-tih-ko-TRO-pin), which stimulates the adrenal gland to make certain
hormones
 antidiuretic (pronounced: an-ty-dy-uh-REH-tik) hormone, which helps control body water balance through
its effect on the kidneys
 oxytocin (pronounced: ahk-see-TOE-sin), which triggers the contractions of the uterus that happen during
labor

The pituitary also secretes endorphins (pronounced: en-DOR-fins), chemicals that act on the nervous system and
reduce feelings of pain. The pituitary also secretes hormones that signal the reproductive organs to make sex
hormones. The pituitary gland also controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle in women.

THYROID

The thyroid (pronounced: THY-royd) is in the front part of the lower neck. It's shaped like a bow tie or butterfly. It
makes the thyroid hormones thyroxine (pronounced: thy-RAHK-sin) and triiodothyronine (pronounced: try-eye-oh-
doe-THY-ruh-neen). These hormones control the rate at which cells burn fuels from food to make energy. The
more thyroid hormone there is in the bloodstream, the faster chemical reactions happen in the body.

Thyroid hormones are important because they help kids' and teens' bones grow and develop, and they also play a
role in the development of the brain and nervous system.
PARATHYROIDS

Attached to the thyroid are four tiny glands that work together called the parathyroids (pronounced: par-uh-THY-
roydz). They release parathyroid hormone, which controls the level of calcium in the blood with the help of
calcitonin (pronounced: kal-suh-TOE-nin), which the thyroid makes.

ADRENAL GLANDS

These two triangular adrenal (pronounced: uh-DREE-nul) glands sit on top of each kidney. The adrenal glands have
two parts, each of which makes a set of hormones and has a different function:

1. The outer part is the adrenal cortex. It makes hormones called corticosteroids (pronounced: kor-tih-ko-
STER-oydz) that help control salt and water balance in the body, the body's response to stress, metabolism,
the immune system, and sexual development and function.
2. The inner part is the adrenal medulla (pronounced: muh-DUH-luh). It makes catecholamines (pronounced:
kah-tuh-KO-luh-meenz), such as epinephrine (pronounced: eh-puh-NEH-frun). Also called adrenaline,
epinephrine increases blood pressure and heart rate when the body is under stress.

PINEAL

The pineal (pronounced: pih-NEE-ul) body, also called the pineal gland, is in the middle of the brain. It secretes
melatonin (pronounced: meh-luh-TOE-nin), a hormone that may help regulate when you sleep at night and when
you wake in the morning.

REPRODUCTIVE GLANDS

The gonads are the main source of sex hormones. Most people don't realize it, but both guys and girls have
gonads. In guys the male gonads, or testes (pronounced: TES-teez), are in the scrotum. They secrete hormones
called androgens (pronounced: AN-druh-junz), the most important of which is testosterone (pronounced: tess-
TOSS-tuh-rone). These hormones tell a guy's body when it's time to make the changes associated with puberty, like
penis and height growth, deepening voice, and growth in facial and pubic hair. Working with hormones from the
pituitary gland, testosterone also tells a guy's body when it's time to make sperm in the testes.

A girl's gonads, the ovaries (pronounced: OH-vuh-reez), are in her pelvis. They make eggs and secrete the female
hormones estrogen (pronounced: ESS-truh-jen) and progesterone (pronounced: pro-JESS-tuh-rone). Estrogen is
involved when a girl starts puberty. During puberty, a girl will have breast growth, start to accumulate body fat
around the hips and thighs, and have a growth spurt. Estrogen and progesterone are also involved in the regulation
of a girl's menstrual cycle. These hormones also play a role in pregnancy.

PANCREAS

The pancreas (pronounced: PAN-kree-us) makes insulin (pronounced: IN-suh-lin) and glucagon (pronounced:

GLOO-kuh-gawn), which are hormones that control the level of glucose, or sugar, in the blood. Insulin helps keep
the body supplied with stores of energy. The body uses this stored energy for exercise and activity, and it also helps
organs work as they should.
 DIAGRAM 2.1.1

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM FUNCTIONS

DIAGRAM 2.1.2

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM GLANDS AND FUNCTIONS

2.1.6 DISCUSSION OF COMMON DISORDERS, DISEASES AND INJURIES RELATED TO THE
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine disorders affect the endocrine system. This system uses glands throughout the body to produce and
release hormones, which can affect a number of bodily processes. If hormone levels are too high or too low, or if
the body does not respond to hormones correctly, a person may have an endocrine disorder.

Endocrine disorders have several potential causes, such as tumors, genetic factors, or hormonal imbalances.
Because these conditions affect hormones, they can cause a wide range of symptoms and influence growth and
development, metabolism, sexual function, and mood.

Primary parts of the endocrine system include the:

 hypothalamus
 pineal body
 pituitary gland
 thyroid and parathyroid
 thymus
 adrenal gland
 ovaries
 testicles
 pancreas

DIAGRAM 2.1.6

PRIMARY PART OF ENDCORINE SYSTEM

COMMON ENDOCRINE DISORDERS

There are many different types of endocrine disorders. Some examples include the following:

Diabetes is a condition that causes high blood glucose levels due to the body being unable to either produce or
use insulin sufficiently to regulate glucose. Two of the most common types of diabetes are type 1 and 2.

Hyperthyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland produces too many hormones. The condition has several possible
causes, including inflammation of the thyroid gland or Graves’ disease.

Cushing’s syndrome occurs when there is an excess of the hormone cortisol. Cortisol helps the body respond to
stress, regulate metabolic processes, and maintain blood pressure.

Acromegaly occurs when the body makes too much growth hormone. It can result in the unusual growth of bones,
organs, and other tissues around the body.

PCOS occurs when an imbalance of reproductive hormones may cause problems in the ovaries.
REFERENCES

1) INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM (n.d) Retrieved from

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/integumentary- system#what-it-is

2) SKELETAL SYSTEM STRUCTURE (n.d) Retrieved from

https://www.google.com.my/search?q=Outline+general+structure+an
d+functions+of+skeletal+system&client=safari&hl=enmy&prmd=ivb
n&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiaqKDhxN36Ah
WqjgGHc_BDYIQ_AUoAXoECAEQAQ&biw=414&bih=715&dpr= 2

3) FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM (n.d) Retrieved from

https://www.google.com.my/search?q=Outline+general+structure+an
d+functions+of+skeletal+system&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&hl=en- my&client=safari

4) ENDOCRINE DISORDERS (n.d) Retrieved from

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/endocrine-
disorders#diagnosis

5) RESTING POTENTIAL (n.d) Retrieved from

https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/The-neuronal-
membrane#ref606372

6) NERVE IMPULSE (n.d) Retrieved from https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-

middle-school-life-science- 2.0/section/11.41/primary/lesson/nerve-cells-and-nerve-
impulses-ms- ls/

7) ACTION POTENTIAL (n.d) Retrieved from

https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/ap.html#:~:text=The%20restin g%20potential
%20tells%20about,impulse%22%20for%20the%20acti on%20potential

8) FUNCTION OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (n.d) Retrieved from

https://kidshealth.org/en/teens/endocrine.html#:~:text=What%20Does
%20the%20Endocrine%20System,work%2C%20metabolism%20%2 C%20and
%20reproduction