Physical Geography by PMF IAS® © Manjunath Thamminidi, PMF IAS®

Author / Copyright Owner: Manjunath Thamminidi

Publisher: PMF IAS®

Copyright is reserved with the owner of this publication

Publisher’s Address: PMF IAS, Manjunath Thamminidi, #160 Butaldinni Depo, Sindhnur, Raichur – 584128, Karnataka
First Edition, September 2022
ISBN: 978-93-5593-095-8

All rights reserved. This publication/book/Ebook/Kindle Ebook is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of
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Acknowledgements
Team PMF IAS sincerely thanks all our contributors and supporters for helping us sustain the PMF IAS Initiative. You
remain our cornerstone, and we are very much obliged and grateful to you.
I wholeheartedly thank my family, especially my wife Shravani Thamminidi, for their constant support and forbearance.

Dedicated to
All PMF IAS Contributors and Supporters

My Eternal Strength – My Family and My Wife, Shravani Thamminidi (Co-founder, PMF IAS)
Manjunath Thamminidi,

Founder, PMF IAS®

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 UPSC CSE Syllabus Relevant to Geography

1. UPSC Prelims: Indian & World Geography: Physical, Social, Economic Geography of India & the World.
2. UPSC Civil Services Mains GS I:
 Distribution of key natural resources across the world including South Asia and the Indian sub-continent; factors
responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector industries in various parts of the world
including India. [Will be covered in the upcoming PMF IAS Indian and Economic Geography Book]
 Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc. [Covered in this
book]
 Geographical features and their location, changes in critical geographical features (including water-bodies and
polar ice caps) and, in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes. [Covered in this book + PMF IAS
Environment]
 Critical geographical features  Major Geographic Features that have a significant bearing on the re-
gional/global climate/ecosystems. Examples: The Himalayas, The Polar Ice Caps, The Great Barrier Reef, etc.
 Salient features of world’s physical geography [Covered in this book].

Importance of Physical Geography for UPSC CSE

Physical Geography forms the basis for Indian & Economic Geography. Having a thorough understanding of the concepts
of Physical Geography will greatly help you in solving the questions related to all the major topics of geography.

Study Guide
 Analyse the past 5-6 years’ UPSC CSE Prelims and Mains question papers to understand the pattern and nature of
questions asked from Physical Geography. (We have included Previous Year UPSC CSE Mains and Prelims questions
under relevant headings to make it easier for you to understand the nature of questions asked by the UPSC)
 First Reading: Cover only the first few paragraphs (mostly the introduction part) of each topic to get a broader under-
standing of the scheme of things. Reanalyse the past 5-6 years’ UPSC CSE Prelims and Mains question papers.
 Second Reading: Cover the entire book thoroughly.
 Take a good test series for both Prelims and Mains to identify your strengths and weakness.
 Revise, rerevise, practise test series and chart your own plan based on your strengths and weaknesses.

Colour Codes
We have used colour coding extensively to make it easier for you to understand what the key concepts
and focus-areas are. The colour codes are as follows:

1. Important for Prelims + Mains

2. Important for Prelims (Colour 1 | Colour 2 | Colour 3 | Colour 4)

Upcoming: PMF IAS Indian and Economic Geography | World Geography Mapping
Join PMF IAS Telegram Channel for Updates: https://t.me/pmfias_channel
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 Contents

Unit 1: The Origin and Evolution of The Universe, Solar System and Earth
1. The Universe, The Big Bang Theory, Galaxies & Stellar Evolution .................................................................... 1

1.2. The Big Bang of Theory .................................................................................................................................. 1

The Evolution of The Universe Since the Big Bang .............................................................................................................. 2
Accelerating Expansion of The Universe & Dark Energy ................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Evidence for Big Bang Theory ........................................................................................................................ 3
Doppler-Shift or Redshift and Blueshift ................................................................................................................................... 3
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMD) .................................................................................................................................... 3
Gravitational Waves .......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4. Galaxy ............................................................................................................................................................... 7
Regular Galaxies ................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Our Galaxy (The Milky Way) ..........................................................................................................................................................8
1.5. Star Formation (Stellar Evolution or Life Cycle of a Star) ........................................................................... 9
Protostar ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Main sequence stars...................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Red Giant ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Planetary Nebula ............................................................................................................................................................................ 11
White Dwarf ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Black dwarf ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 12
Supernova ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Neutron stars ................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Black holes......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
1.6. Constellations................................................................................................................................................. 15
2. The Solar system.................................................................................................................................................... 17

The Formation of the Solar System: Nuclear Disc Model (Neo-Laplacian model)............................................ 17
Earlier Theories ................................................................................................................................................................................ 17
The Formation of the Sun ........................................................................................................................................................... 17
The Formation of the Planets .................................................................................................................................................... 17
Iron Catastrophe and Planetary Differentiation ................................................................................................................. 18
2.2. Components of the Solar System ................................................................................................................ 19
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion .......................................................................................................................................... 21
2.3. The Sun ........................................................................................................................................................... 22
The Sun’s Internal Structure and Atmosphere .................................................................................................................... 23
2.4. Planets............................................................................................................................................................. 25
Inner Planets ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Outer Planets.................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
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2.5. Other Solar System Objects .......................................................................................................................... 32

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Asteroid Belt ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 32

 Kuiper Belt, Pluto, and Charon .................................................................................................................................................. 33
Comets................................................................................................................................................................................................ 33
Meteoroid, Meteor and Meteorite .......................................................................................................................................... 36
2.6. What’s the Closest Star to the Sun? ............................................................................................................ 37
2.7. Heliopause — The Boundary? ...................................................................................................................... 38
2.8. Distant Artificial Objects Exploring the Solar System ............................................................................... 39
3. Geological Time Scale – The Evolution of The Earth’s Surface ........................................................................ 41

3.1. Hadean Eon (4,540 mya to 4,000 mya) ....................................................................................................... 41

3.2. Archean Eon (4,000 mya to 2,500 mya) ...................................................................................................... 43
3.3. Proterozoic Eon (2,500 mya to 550 mya) ................................................................................................... 44
3.4. Phanerozoic Eon (550 mya to present) ....................................................................................................... 44
Paleozoic Era (550 mya to 250 mya) ....................................................................................................................................... 44
Mesozoic Era (250 mya to 66 mya) ......................................................................................................................................... 47
Cenozoic Era (65 mya to present) ............................................................................................................................................ 48

Unit 2: Geomorphology
4. Earth’s Interior ....................................................................................................................................................... 51

4.1. The Internal Structure of The Earth ............................................................................................................. 51

The Crust ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 51
The Mantle ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 53
The Core ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 54
Seismic Discontinuities ................................................................................................................................................................. 55
4.2. Understanding the Earth’s Interior .............................................................................................................. 55
Importance of Understanding the Earth’s Interior ............................................................................................................ 55
4.3. Direct Sources of Information...................................................................................................................... 56
4.4. Indirect Sources of Information................................................................................................................... 56
Seismic Waves ................................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Meteorites ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Gravitation ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Magnetic field .................................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Sources of Earth’s Internal Heat ............................................................................................................................................... 57
4.5. Seismic Waves (Earthquake Waves) ............................................................................................................ 58
Body Waves ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Surface waves (L-Waves) ............................................................................................................................................................. 61
How Do Seismic Waves Help In Understanding The Earth’s Interior? ...................................................................... 62
5. Earth’s Magnetic Field (Geomagnetic Field) ...................................................................................................... 64

5.1. Magnetosphere .............................................................................................................................................. 64

Magnetopause................................................................................................................................................................................. 65
Plasmasphere ................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Auroras ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
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5.2. Magnetosphere and Solar Wind .................................................................................................................. 65

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Geomagnetic Storms .................................................................................................................................................................... 67

 A Planet’s Magnetic Field Protects its Atmosphere .......................................................................................................... 67
Van Allen Radiation Belt .............................................................................................................................................................. 68
5.3. Magnetic Field of Solar System Objects ..................................................................................................... 68
5.4. Dynamo Theory: Generation of Earth’s Magnetic Field and Sustaining it ............................................. 69
5.5. Magnetic Poles............................................................................................................................................... 70
Antipodal: situated on the opposite side of the earth. An antipodal line drawn between two surface points
passes through the centre. E.g., Earth’s Rotational AxisPoles of Earth’s Magnetic Field ................................... 71
Geomagnetic Poles ........................................................................................................................................................................ 71
Geomagnetic Reversal .................................................................................................................................................................. 73
Normal and Reversed Magnetic Field .................................................................................................................................... 74
The Current Location of the Magnetic Poles ....................................................................................................................... 74
5.6. Compass .......................................................................................................................................................... 75
Magnetic Declination .................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Magnetic Inclination or Magnetic Dip or Dip Angle ........................................................................................................ 76
6. Geomorphic Movements ...................................................................................................................................... 78

6.1. Endogenic Geomorphic Movements ........................................................................................................... 78

The Force Behind Endogenic Movements ............................................................................................................................ 79
Classification of Endogenic Movements ............................................................................................................................... 79
Diastrophism .................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Sudden Movements ...................................................................................................................................................................... 81
6.2. Exogenic Geomorphic Movements.............................................................................................................. 82
Denudation ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Weathering ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Physical Weathering Processes ................................................................................................................................................. 83
Chemical Weathering ................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Biological Activity and Weathering ......................................................................................................................................... 91
7. Tectonics................................................................................................................................................................. 93

7.1. Major Concepts That Tried to Explain the Tectonic Processes ................................................................ 93
7.2. Continental Drift Theory............................................................................................................................... 93
Forces Behind The Drifting Of Continents (According to Wegener) ......................................................................... 95
Evidence in Support of Continental Drift .............................................................................................................................. 95
Drawbacks of Continental Drift Theory ................................................................................................................................. 98
7.3. Seafloor Spreading ........................................................................................................................................ 98
Convection Current Theory (CCT) ............................................................................................................................................ 98
Palaeomagnetism ........................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Evidence in Support of Seafloor Spreading ....................................................................................................................... 101
7.4. Plate Tectonics .............................................................................................................................................101
Major Tectonic Plates.................................................................................................................................................................. 102
Minor Tectonic Plates ................................................................................................................................................................. 105
Interaction of Tectonic Plates .................................................................................................................................................. 106
Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics ............................................................................................................................... 107
The Significance of Plate Tectonics ....................................................................................................................................... 108
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7.5. Comparison: Continental Drift – Seafloor Spreading – Plate Tectonics................................................109

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8. Convergent Boundary .........................................................................................................................................110

 8.1. Ocean-Ocean Convergence (O-O Convergence) or The Island-Arc Convergence ...............................110
Formation of Island Arcs............................................................................................................................................................111
Formation of The Philippine Island Arc System ............................................................................................................... 112
Formation of The Indonesian Archipelago......................................................................................................................... 112
Formation of The Caribbean Islands ..................................................................................................................................... 113
Formation of The Isthmus of Panama .................................................................................................................................. 113
Formation of The Japanese Island Arc ................................................................................................................................. 114
8.2. Continent-Ocean (C-O) Convergence or The Cordilleran Convergence................................................115
Formation of Continental Arcs ................................................................................................................................................ 116
Formation of Fold Mountains (Orogeny) ............................................................................................................................ 116
Formation of The Andes ............................................................................................................................................................118
Formation of The Rockies ......................................................................................................................................................... 119
8.3. Continent-Continent Convergence or The Himalayan Convergence ....................................................119
Formation of The Himalayans and The Tibetan Plateau ............................................................................................... 120
Formation of Alps, Urals, Appalachians and the Atlas Mountains ............................................................................ 123
Volcanism and Earthquakes in Continent-Continent Convergence ......................................................................... 123
8.4. Continent-Arc Convergence or New Guinea Convergence ....................................................................124
9. Divergent Boundary ............................................................................................................................................126

9.1. Formation and Evolution of Rift Valleys, Rift Lakes, Seas, and Oceans ................................................126
Stage 1: Upwarping and Fault Zones ................................................................................................................................... 126
Stage 2: Rift Valley Formation ................................................................................................................................................. 126
Stage 3: Formation of Linear Sea or Rift Lakes ................................................................................................................. 128
Stage 4: Linear Sea Transforms Into Ocean ....................................................................................................................... 129
9.2. The Great Rift Valley ...................................................................................................................................129
Africa is Splitting ........................................................................................................................................................................... 129
Volcanism & Seismicity Along East African Rift Valley................................................................................................. 130
10. Types of Mountains.............................................................................................................................................132

10.1. Classification of Mountains ........................................................................................................................132

Classification of Mountains based on The Period Of Origin ....................................................................................... 132
Classification of Mountains based on Mode Of Origin ................................................................................................. 132
Classification of Mountains Based on Location................................................................................................................ 133
10.2. Fold Mountains ............................................................................................................................................134
‘Fold’ In Geology ........................................................................................................................................................................... 134
Classification of Fold Mountains ............................................................................................................................................ 134
Characteristics of Fold Mountains ......................................................................................................................................... 136
10.3. Block Mountains or Fault-Block Mountains .............................................................................................136
‘Fault’ in Geology .......................................................................................................................................................................... 136
Types of Faults ............................................................................................................................................................................... 137
11. Volcanism .............................................................................................................................................................139

11.1. What Causes Volcanism? ............................................................................................................................139

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11.2. Lava Types ....................................................................................................................................................139

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Andesitic Or Acidic Or Composite Or Stratovolcanic Lava .......................................................................................... 139

 Basic Or Basaltic Or Shield Lava.............................................................................................................................................. 140
11.3. Types of Volcanoes ......................................................................................................................................140
Composite Type Volcano (Stratovolcano) .......................................................................................................................... 140
Shield Type Volcano .................................................................................................................................................................... 141
Fissure Type or Flood Basalt Volcanoe (Lava Plateaus) ................................................................................................. 141
11.4. Types of Volcanoes Based on Frequency of Eruption .............................................................................141
Active Volcanoes........................................................................................................................................................................... 141
Dormant Volcanoes ..................................................................................................................................................................... 142
Extinct or Ancient Volcanoes ................................................................................................................................................... 142
11.5. Volcanism Types ..........................................................................................................................................142
1) Exhalative (Vapour Or Fumes) ....................................................................................................................................... 142
2) Effusive (Lava Outpouring) ............................................................................................................................................. 142
3) Explosive (Violent Ejection Of Solid Material) ......................................................................................................... 142
4) Subaqueous Volcanism ................................................................................................................................................... 143
11.6. Eruptive Volcanism Types ...........................................................................................................................144
1) Hawaiian Eruption..............................................................................................................................................................145
2) Icelandic Eruption ..............................................................................................................................................................145
3) Strombolian Eruption ....................................................................................................................................................... 145
4) Vulcanian Eruption ............................................................................................................................................................ 146
5) Plinian Eruption................................................................................................................................................................... 146
6) Pelean Eruption ................................................................................................................................................................... 148
11.7. Volcanic Landforms .....................................................................................................................................148
Extrusive Volcanic Landforms .................................................................................................................................................. 149
Intrusive (Plutonic) Volcanic Landforms .............................................................................................................................. 154
11.8. Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes across the World...............................................................154
Pacific Ring of Fire........................................................................................................................................................................ 155
Other regions ................................................................................................................................................................................. 156
Mediterranean Volcanism ......................................................................................................................................................... 156
Volcanos in India .......................................................................................................................................................................... 156
11.9. Geysers and Hot Springs .............................................................................................................................157
11.10. Destructive Effects of Volcanoes ...............................................................................................................159
Volcanism – Acid Rain, Ozone Destruction ........................................................................................................................ 160
11.11. Positive Effects of Volcanoes .....................................................................................................................160
12. Hotspot Volcanism ..............................................................................................................................................161

12.1. Mantle Plumes .............................................................................................................................................162

12.2. Mantle Plumes and Flood Basalt Volcanism (Large Igneous Provinces)...............................................162
Flood Basalt Events and Extinctions ...................................................................................................................................... 162
12.3. Mantle Plumes and Volcanic Hotspots .....................................................................................................162
Hotspot Volcano Chain ..............................................................................................................................................................162
Reunion Hotspot .......................................................................................................................................................................... 164
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12.4. Mantle Plumes and Uplifted Landforms (Epeirogenic Movements) .....................................................166

12.5. Mantle Plumes and Thinning of The Continental Crust ..........................................................................166
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12.6. Mantle Plumes and Supervolcanoes .........................................................................................................167

 Supervolcano Eruptions .............................................................................................................................................................167
Disaster Potential.......................................................................................................................................................................... 168
13. Types of Rocks & Rock Cycle .............................................................................................................................169

13.1. Igneous Rocks or Primary rocks.................................................................................................................169

Intrusive Igneous Rocks (Plutonic Rocks) ........................................................................................................................... 169
Extrusive Igneous Rocks (Lava Or Volcanic Rocks) ......................................................................................................... 170
Hypabyssal or Dyke Rocks or Intermediate rocks ........................................................................................................... 170
Acid Rocks ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 170
Basic Rocks ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 170
Economic Significance of Igneous Rocks ............................................................................................................................ 170
13.2. Sedimentary Rocks or Detrital Rocks ........................................................................................................171
Mechanically Formed Sedimentary Rocks .......................................................................................................................... 171
Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks .............................................................................................................................. 171
Organically Formed Sedimentary Rocks ............................................................................................................................. 172
Chief Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks....................................................................................................................... 172
The Spread of Sedimentary Rocks in India ........................................................................................................................ 172
Economic Significance of Sedimentary Rocks .................................................................................................................. 172
13.3. Metamorphic Rocks.....................................................................................................................................173
Causes of Metamorphism ......................................................................................................................................................... 173
Some Examples of Metamorphosis ....................................................................................................................................... 174
Metamorphic Rocks in India .................................................................................................................................................... 174
13.4. Rock Cycle.....................................................................................................................................................174
13.5. Some Rock-Forming Minerals ....................................................................................................................175
14. Earthquakes ..........................................................................................................................................................177

14.1. Terms.............................................................................................................................................................177
Focus and Epicentre .................................................................................................................................................................... 177
Foreshocks, Aftershocks & Swarms ...................................................................................................................................... 177
14.2. Causes of Earthquakes ................................................................................................................................178
Fault Zones...................................................................................................................................................................................... 178
Plate Tectonics ............................................................................................................................................................................... 178
Volcanic Activity ............................................................................................................................................................................ 179
Human-Induced Earthquakes .................................................................................................................................................. 179
14.3. Earthquakes Based on The Depth of Focus ..............................................................................................179
Shallow-Focus Earthquakes ...................................................................................................................................................... 180
Deep-Focus Earthquakes ...........................................................................................................................................................180
Wadati–Benioff Zone: Earthquakes Along the Convergent Boundary .................................................................... 180
14.4. Distribution of Earthquakes .......................................................................................................................181
14.5. Richter Magnitude Scale .............................................................................................................................182
14.6. Most Powerful Earthquakes Ever Recorded .............................................................................................183
14.7. Notable Earthquakes ...................................................................................................................................184
14.8. Earthquake Zones of India..........................................................................................................................187
Earthquakes in Delhi NCR Region ......................................................................................................................................... 188
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Earthquakes in the North East................................................................................................................................................. 188

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14.9. Effects of Earthquakes ................................................................................................................................189

15. Tsunami ................................................................................................................................................................190

15.1. Mechanism of Tsunami Waves...................................................................................................................191

Disturbance ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 191
Propagation of The Waves ....................................................................................................................................................... 191
15.2. Properties of Tsunami Waves ....................................................................................................................191
Basics ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 191
Normal Waves ............................................................................................................................................................................... 192
Normal Waves vs Tsunami Waves ......................................................................................................................................... 192
15.3. 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami .......................................................................................................................193
Plate Tectonics ............................................................................................................................................................................... 193
Tsunami Waves.............................................................................................................................................................................. 193
Shifts in Geography ..................................................................................................................................................................... 194
15.4. Tsunami Warning Systems .........................................................................................................................194
India’s Preparedness ................................................................................................................................................................... 195
16. Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ............................................................................................................197

16.1. Fluvial Erosional Landforms .......................................................................................................................197

River Valley...................................................................................................................................................................................... 197
River Course.................................................................................................................................................................................... 198
Meanders ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 199
Oxbow Lake .................................................................................................................................................................................... 200
Waterfalls ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 200
Potholes ...........................................................................................................................................................................................201
Terraces ............................................................................................................................................................................................201
Gulleys/Rills..................................................................................................................................................................................... 202
Peneplane (Peneplain) ................................................................................................................................................................202
16.2. Fluvial Depositional Landforms .................................................................................................................203
Alluvial Fans and Cones .............................................................................................................................................................203
Floodplains ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 203
Natural Levees ............................................................................................................................................................................... 204
Delta .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 205
Estuaries ...........................................................................................................................................................................................206
Cuspate Delta ................................................................................................................................................................................. 207
High-Constructive Deltas – Elongate and Lobate Delta ............................................................................................... 207
High-Destructive Deltas .............................................................................................................................................................208
16.3. Drainage Basin or River Basin ....................................................................................................................208
Drainage Divide............................................................................................................................................................................. 209
Difference between a River Basin, Watershed and Catchment Area ....................................................................... 209
Some Important Drainage Basins Across The World ..................................................................................................... 209
16.4. Drainage Systems (Drainage Patterns) .....................................................................................................209
Concordant Drainage.................................................................................................................................................................. 209
Discordant or Insequent Drainage Patterns ...................................................................................................................... 211
Other Drainage Patterns ............................................................................................................................................................213
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17. Major Landforms and Cycle of Erosion .............................................................................................................216

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 17.1. Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ...................................................................................................216
Marine Erosional Landforms .................................................................................................................................................... 216
Marine Depositional Landforms ............................................................................................................................................. 218
Coral Reefs ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 219
Coastlines ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 223
17.2. Karst Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ......................................................................................................226
Chemistry Behind Karst Landforms ....................................................................................................................................... 227
Conditions for The Formation of Karst Topography ...................................................................................................... 227
Karst Landforms ............................................................................................................................................................................ 227
The Karst Cycle of Erosion ........................................................................................................................................................ 230
17.3. Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ....................................................................................................230
Glacial Erosional Landforms ..................................................................................................................................................... 231
Glacial Depositional Landforms .............................................................................................................................................. 232
Glacial Cycle of Erosion ..............................................................................................................................................................233
17.4. Arid Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ........................................................................................................234
Water Eroded Arid Landforms................................................................................................................................................. 234
Wind Eroded Arid Landforms .................................................................................................................................................. 235
Arid Depositional Landforms ................................................................................................................................................... 237

Unit 3: Climatology and Climatic Regions

18. Latitudes and Longitudes ...................................................................................................................................240

18.1. Latitude or Parallel ......................................................................................................................................240

Important Parallels of Latitudes .............................................................................................................................................. 240
The Shape of The Earth and Latitudinal Heat Zones ...................................................................................................... 241
18.2. Longitude or Meridian ................................................................................................................................242
Longitude and Time .................................................................................................................................................................... 243
Standard Time and Time Zones .............................................................................................................................................. 243
Indian Standard Time.................................................................................................................................................................. 245
The International Date Line (IDL) ........................................................................................................................................... 246
18.3. Comparison: Latitude vs. Longitude..........................................................................................................250
19. The Motions of The Earth and Their Effects .....................................................................................................251

19.1. Rotation of Earth .........................................................................................................................................251

19.2. Revolution of Earth .....................................................................................................................................252
Solstice.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 252
Equinox .............................................................................................................................................................................................254
Perihelion and Aphelion ............................................................................................................................................................255
19.3. Eclipse ...........................................................................................................................................................257
Phases of The Moon.................................................................................................................................................................... 257
Solar Eclipse .................................................................................................................................................................................... 261
Lunar Eclipse ................................................................................................................................................................................... 264
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20. Earth’s Atmosphere .............................................................................................................................................269

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20.1. Composition of The Earth’s Atmosphere ..................................................................................................269

 Evolution of The Earth’s atmosphere.................................................................................................................................... 270
Permanent Gases of The Atmosphere ................................................................................................................................. 271
Important Constituents of The Atmosphere ..................................................................................................................... 272
20.2. Structure of The Earth’s Atmosphere ........................................................................................................274
Troposphere (0 to 12 km) ......................................................................................................................................................... 274
Stratosphere (12 to 50 km) ....................................................................................................................................................... 275
Mesosphere (50 to 80 km) ........................................................................................................................................................ 277
Thermosphere (80 to 700 km) ................................................................................................................................................. 277
Exosphere (700 to 1,000 km) ................................................................................................................................................... 279
20.3. Importance of Earth’s Atmosphere ...........................................................................................................280
21. Horizontal Distribution of Temperature ..........................................................................................................282

21.1. Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy ...............................................................................................................282

Radiation .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 282
Conduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 282
Convection ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 282
21.2. Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution ............................................................................................282
The Angle of Incidence (Inclination) of The Sun’s Rays ................................................................................................ 282
Duration of Sunshine .................................................................................................................................................................. 283
Transparency of Atmosphere .................................................................................................................................................. 283
Albedo .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 283
Land-Sea Differential .................................................................................................................................................................. 286
Prevailing Winds ........................................................................................................................................................................... 287
Aspects of Slope ........................................................................................................................................................................... 287
Ocean Currents.............................................................................................................................................................................. 287
Altitude .............................................................................................................................................................................................287
21.3. The Mean Annual Temperature Distribution ...........................................................................................288
General Characteristics of Isotherms .................................................................................................................................... 288
General Temperature Distribution ......................................................................................................................................... 288
Seasonal Temperature Distribution ...................................................................................................................................... 289
21.4. Latitudinal Heat Balance .............................................................................................................................292
21.5. Heat Budget .................................................................................................................................................293
22. Vertical Distribution of Temperature................................................................................................................294

22.1. Latent Heat of Condensation .....................................................................................................................294

Latent Heat...................................................................................................................................................................................... 294
22.2. Lapse Rate.....................................................................................................................................................295
22.3. Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR) ........................................................................................................................296
Relation Between Pressure, Temperature and Volume ................................................................................................. 296
Adiabatic Process: Temperature Changes In A Parcel of Rising or Falling Air ..................................................... 296
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) ........................................................................................................................................... 298
Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR) ......................................................................................................................................... 299
Significance In Meteorology (Weather Forecasting) ...................................................................................................... 299
22.4. Temperature Inversion................................................................................................................................300
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Types of Temperature Inversion ............................................................................................................................................. 300

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23. Pressure Systems and Wind System..................................................................................................................304

23.1. Atmospheric Pressure .................................................................................................................................304

Atmospheric Pressure Cells ...................................................................................................................................................... 304
Isobars............................................................................................................................................................................................... 304
Vertical Variation of Atmospheric Pressure ....................................................................................................................... 305
23.2. Factors Affecting Wind Movement ...........................................................................................................306
Pressure Gradient Force .............................................................................................................................................................306
Buoyant Force ................................................................................................................................................................................ 306
Frictional Force .............................................................................................................................................................................. 307
Coriolis Force.................................................................................................................................................................................. 307
Centripetal Acceleration ............................................................................................................................................................309
23.3. Horizontal Distribution of Pressure ..........................................................................................................311
Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’ ...................................................................................................................... 311
Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes...................................................................................................... 312
Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belt.................................................................................................................................................... 313
Polar High-Pressure Belt ............................................................................................................................................................313
Factors Controlling Pressure Systems .................................................................................................................................. 314
Pressure Belts In July ................................................................................................................................................................... 314
Pressure Belts In January ...........................................................................................................................................................314
23.4. Pressure systems and General Circulation ................................................................................................315
Hadley Cell ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 316
Ferrel Cell ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 317
Polar Cell .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 317
23.5. Classification of Winds................................................................................................................................318
Primary winds or Prevailing Winds or Planetary Winds ................................................................................................ 318
Secondary or Periodic Winds................................................................................................................................................... 320
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze .................................................................................................................................................... 321
Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze ..................................................................................................................................... 322
Tertiary or Local Winds ..............................................................................................................................................................322
24. Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle) ......................................................................................................................325

24.1. Humidity .......................................................................................................................................................325

Water Vapour In Atmosphere ................................................................................................................................................. 325
Absolute Humidity ....................................................................................................................................................................... 326
Relative Humidity ......................................................................................................................................................................... 326
Specific Humidity .......................................................................................................................................................................... 327
24.2. Evaporation ..................................................................................................................................................328
Factors Affecting Rate of Evaporation ................................................................................................................................. 328
24.3. Condensation ...............................................................................................................................................329
Processes of Cooling For Producing Condensation ....................................................................................................... 330
24.4. Forms of Condensation ...............................................................................................................................330
Dew .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 331
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White Frost ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 331

Fog ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 332
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 Mist .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 333
Clouds ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 333
Precipitation.................................................................................................................................................................................... 337
24.5. Types of Rainfall ..........................................................................................................................................338
Convectional Rainfall................................................................................................................................................................... 338
Orographic Rainfall ...................................................................................................................................................................... 339
Cyclonic Rainfal ............................................................................................................................................................................. 339
World Distribution of Rainfall .................................................................................................................................................. 340
25. Thunderstorm ......................................................................................................................................................342

25.1. Formation of A (Thermal) Thunderstorm .................................................................................................342

Stage 1: Cumulus Stage .............................................................................................................................................................342
Stage 2: Mature stage................................................................................................................................................................. 342
Stage 3: Dissipating stage ......................................................................................................................................................... 344
25.2. Types of Thunderstorms .............................................................................................................................344
Single-Cell Thunderstorm (Isolated Thermal Thunderstorm) ..................................................................................... 344
A Multi-Cell Thunderstorm ....................................................................................................................................................... 345
A Supercell Thunderstorm ........................................................................................................................................................ 345
25.3. Tornado.........................................................................................................................................................346
Tornadogenesis (Formation of A Tornado)........................................................................................................................ 347
Waterspout ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 347
Distribution of Tornadoes ......................................................................................................................................................... 348
25.4. Lightning And Thunder...............................................................................................................................348
Thunder ............................................................................................................................................................................................349
Lightning From Cloud To Earth............................................................................................................................................... 349
Lightning Deaths .......................................................................................................................................................................... 350
25.5. Hailstorm ......................................................................................................................................................351
Favourable Conditions For Hail Formation ........................................................................................................................ 351
Formation of Hail.......................................................................................................................................................................... 351
25.6. Hazards Posed by Thunderstorms .............................................................................................................352
Pyrocumulonimbus Clouds And Forest Fires .................................................................................................................... 353
26. Tropical Cyclones.................................................................................................................................................354

26.1. Conditions Necessary for The Formation of A Tropical Cyclone ...........................................................355

Good Source of Latent Heat .................................................................................................................................................... 355
Coriolis Force.................................................................................................................................................................................. 356
Low-level Disturbances ..............................................................................................................................................................357
Why Fewer Cyclones Form Over The Arabian Sea As Compared To The Bay Of Bengal? .............................. 357
Temperature Contrast Between Air Masses ....................................................................................................................... 359
Wind Shear...................................................................................................................................................................................... 359
Upper Air Disturbance ................................................................................................................................................................360
26.2. Convective Cyclogenesis (Development of Tropical Cyclones)..............................................................361
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Stage 1: Tropical Disturbance .................................................................................................................................................. 361

Stage 2: Tropical Depression (Maximum Sustained Wind Speed < 63 Kmph) .................................................... 362
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Stage 3: Tropical Storm (63 Kmph < Maximum Sustained Wind Speed < 119 Kmph) .................................... 363
 Stage 4: Tropical Cyclone (Maximum Sustained Wind Speed > 119 Kmph) ........................................................ 363
Convective Cyclogenesis Mechanism – Early stage ........................................................................................................ 364
Convective Cyclogenesis Mechanism – Mature stage ................................................................................................... 366
26.3. Breeding Grounds for Tropical Cyclones ..................................................................................................367
Regional Names For Tropical Cyclones ............................................................................................................................... 370
26.4. Path of Tropical Cyclones ...........................................................................................................................370
Which Sector Of The Cyclone Experiences The Strongest Winds? ........................................................................... 371
26.5. Tropical Cyclone Scale.................................................................................................................................371
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale .................................................................................................................................. 371
Tropical Cyclone Scale by Indian Meteorological Department .................................................................................. 372
26.6. Damage Associated with Tropical Cyclones .............................................................................................372
Floods ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 373
Wind .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 373
Storm Surge .................................................................................................................................................................................... 373
States Vulnerable to Cyclones ................................................................................................................................................. 374
26.7. Positive Effects of Tropical Cyclones .........................................................................................................376
Heat Balance................................................................................................................................................................................... 376
Tropical Cyclones Bring Rainfall To The Rain Shadow And Other Parched Regions ......................................... 376
Break Up Red Tide........................................................................................................................................................................ 376
Replenish Barrier Islands............................................................................................................................................................376
Speed Dispersal To Faraway Locations ................................................................................................................................ 376
26.8. Naming of Tropical Cyclones .....................................................................................................................376
Northern Indian Ocean Region ............................................................................................................................................... 377
26.9. Changing Cyclone Patterns in The Indian Ocean .....................................................................................377
Cyclone Patterns in The Arabian Sea .................................................................................................................................... 378
26.10. Twin Cyclones...............................................................................................................................................379
Fujiwhara Effect ............................................................................................................................................................................. 379
Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) ........................................................................................................................................... 380
Madden-Julian Oscillation’s Impact on Weather ............................................................................................................. 381
How Does MJO Help The Formation of Twin Cyclones? .............................................................................................. 381
26.11. Warning of Tropical Cyclones ....................................................................................................................382
4-Stage IMD Warning System For Tropical Cyclones .................................................................................................... 382
27. Jet streams ...........................................................................................................................................................383

27.1. Explanation of Jet Streams .........................................................................................................................384

Geostrophic Wind ........................................................................................................................................................................ 384
Upper Tropospheric Westerlies .............................................................................................................................................. 385
High Velocity .................................................................................................................................................................................. 385
Meandering (Rossby Waves) ................................................................................................................................................... 386
27.2. Permanent Jet Streams ...............................................................................................................................387
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Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ) ..................................................................................................................................................... 387

Polar Front Jet (PFJ) ..................................................................................................................................................................... 388
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27.3. Temporary Jet Streams ...............................................................................................................................388

 The Somali Jet ................................................................................................................................................................................ 389
The Tropical Easterly (TEJ) Jet or African Easterly Jet ..................................................................................................... 389
27.4. Influence of Jet Streams on Weather ........................................................................................................389
Jet Streams And Weather In Temperate Regions ............................................................................................................ 389
Polar Vortex .................................................................................................................................................................................... 391
Heat Domes .................................................................................................................................................................................... 392
27.5. Jet Streams And Aviation ...........................................................................................................................393
28. Temperate Cyclones ............................................................................................................................................395

28.1. Air Masses.....................................................................................................................................................395

Source Regions.............................................................................................................................................................................. 395
Air Masses Based On Source Regions .................................................................................................................................. 396
Influence of Air Masses on World Weather ....................................................................................................................... 397
28.2. Fronts ............................................................................................................................................................398
Front Formation ............................................................................................................................................................................ 398
28.3. Classification of Fronts................................................................................................................................398
Stationary Front............................................................................................................................................................................. 399
Cold Front ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 400
Warm Front ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 401
Occluded Front .............................................................................................................................................................................. 402
28.4. Origin and Development of Temperate Cyclones ...................................................................................404
Polar Front Theory ....................................................................................................................................................................... 405
Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones ................................................................................................................................ 406
28.5. Tropical Cyclones vs. Temperate Cyclones ...............................................................................................408
29. El Nino, La Nina & El Nino Modoki ...................................................................................................................411

29.1. Normal Conditions ......................................................................................................................................412

Walker Circulation (Normal Years) ........................................................................................................................................ 412
29.2. El Nino ...........................................................................................................................................................413
El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) .................................................................................................................................... 413
El Nino Modoki.............................................................................................................................................................................. 413
Effects of El Nino & ENSO......................................................................................................................................................... 414
29.3. Impact of El Nino on Indian Monsoons ....................................................................................................415
Southern Oscillation Index and Indian Monsoons .......................................................................................................... 415
Indian Ocean Dipole Effect (Not Every El Nino Year Is The Same In India) ........................................................... 415
29.4. La Nina ..........................................................................................................................................................417
Effects of La Nina .......................................................................................................................................................................... 417
30. Climatic Regions ..................................................................................................................................................420

30.1. Koppen’s Scheme of Classification of Climate .........................................................................................420

Climatic Groups According to Koppen ................................................................................................................................ 420
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Major Climatic Types According to Koppen ...................................................................................................................... 421

Köppen–Geiger Climate Classification ................................................................................................................................. 421
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 30.2. A – Tropical Humid Climates ......................................................................................................................423
Tropical Wet Climate (Af: A – Tropical, f – no dry season) ........................................................................................... 423
Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am: A – Tropical, m – monsoon) .................................................................................... 429
Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw: A – Tropical, w – dry winter) ...................................................... 435
30.3. B – Dry Climate ............................................................................................................................................439
Hot Desert Climate (BWh: B – Dry, W – Desert, h – low latitude) ............................................................................. 440
Mid-Latitude Desert Climate (BWk: B – Dry, W – Desert, k – high latitude) ......................................................... 441
Desert Climate ............................................................................................................................................................................... 441
Desert Vegetation ........................................................................................................................................................................ 443
Life In The Deserts ........................................................................................................................................................................ 444
Steppe Or Temperate Grassland (Continental) Climate (BSk: B – Dry, S – Steppe, k – High Latitude)....... 444
30.4. C – Warm Temperate (Mid-latitude) Climates .........................................................................................447
Mediterranean Climate (Cs: C – Warm Temperate, s – Dry summer) ...................................................................... 447
Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate (Cfa: C – warm temperate, f – no dry season, a – hot summer)451
Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate (Cf: C – Warm temperate, f – no dry season) ................................ 455
30.5. D – Cold Snow-Forest Climates ..................................................................................................................460
Cool Temperate Eastern Marine Climate (Dfb: D – cool temperate, f – no dry season, b – warm summer)460
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate (Dfc: D – cool temperate, f – no dry season, c – cold summer) ................ 466
30.6. E – Cold Climates..........................................................................................................................................471
Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic Climate (ET) ................................................................................................ 471
Polar Ice Cap Climate (EF) ......................................................................................................................................................... 472
30.7. Previous Year UPSC Prelims Questions .....................................................................................................472

Unit 4: Oceanography
31. Ocean Relief .........................................................................................................................................................479

31.1. Major Ocean Relief Features ......................................................................................................................479

Continental Shelf .......................................................................................................................................................................... 479
Continental Slope ......................................................................................................................................................................... 481
Continental Rise ............................................................................................................................................................................ 481
Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain ............................................................................................................................................. 481
31.2. Minor Ocean Relief Features ......................................................................................................................481
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches ...................................................................................................................................................... 481
Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges ........................................................................................................................ 482
Abyssal Hills (Seamounts And Guyots) ................................................................................................................................ 482
Submarine Canyons..................................................................................................................................................................... 483
Atoll.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 483
Bank, Shoal and Reef .................................................................................................................................................................. 484
32. Ocean Movements – Ocean Currents And Tides ..............................................................................................486

32.1. Ocean Currents.............................................................................................................................................486

Forces That Influence Ocean Currents ................................................................................................................................. 486
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Types of Ocean Currents ...........................................................................................................................................................488

Pacific Ocean Currents ...............................................................................................................................................................488
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Atlantic Ocean Currents .............................................................................................................................................................491

 Indian Ocean Currents ................................................................................................................................................................494
Effects of Ocean Currents.......................................................................................................................................................... 496
32.2. Tides ..............................................................................................................................................................500
Tidal Bulge: Why There Are Two Tidal Bulges?................................................................................................................. 501
Types of Tides Based On Frequency ..................................................................................................................................... 501
Types of Tides Based On The Sun, Moon And The Earth’s Positions ...................................................................... 503
Magnitude Of Tides ..................................................................................................................................................................... 506
Importance of Tides .................................................................................................................................................................... 506
Characteristics of Tides ..............................................................................................................................................................508
Tidal Bore ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 509
33. Ocean Temperature And Salinity.......................................................................................................................511

33.1. Ocean Temperature .....................................................................................................................................511

Source Of Heat In Oceans ......................................................................................................................................................... 511
Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution of Oceans ................................................................................................ 511
Vertical Temperature Distribution of Oceans.................................................................................................................... 512
Horizontal Temperature Distribution ................................................................................................................................... 516
Range of Ocean Temperature ................................................................................................................................................. 517
33.2. Ocean Salinity ..............................................................................................................................................518
Share of Dissolved Minerals and Salts in Sea Water ...................................................................................................... 518
Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity............................................................................................................................................. 518
Horizontal Distribution Of Salinity......................................................................................................................................... 518
Vertical Distribution of Salinity ............................................................................................................................................... 520
33.3. Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) ............................................................................520
Importance of AMOC.................................................................................................................................................................. 520

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 Geography
• The variations in earth’s physical features (like hills, rivers, plains, etc.) have resulted in variations in social
(races, religions, etc.), cultural (languages, dietary habits, etc.), and economic (agriculture, industrial loca-
tions, mining, etc.) features. Geography is the description of these features and variations.
• The term geography was first coined by Eratosthenes, a Greek scholar (276-194 BC.). The word has been
derived from two roots in the Greek language geo (earth) and graphos (description).
• Geography is closely related to other natural sciences such as geology, pedology (study of soils), ocean-
ography, botany, zoology and meteorology and several sister disciplines in social sciences such as eco-
nomics, history, sociology, political science, anthropology, etc. Geography derives its database from all the
natural and social sciences and attempts their synthesis.

• In simple terms, geography is the study of the physical features of the earth and its atmosphere and
human activity that affects and is affected by the physical features of the earth and its atmosphere. Hu-
man activity which affects and is affected by the physical features includes the distribution of populations,
distribution of resources and economic activities, and changes in the environment.

Branches of Geography
• Geography is an interdisciplinary subject of study. Earlier geographers emphasised only physical geogra-
phy. But since human beings have contributed significantly through their cultural development, human
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geography, with an emphasis on human activities, was later developed. This dualism is one of the main
characteristics of geography. Thus, geography, the natural science, is divided into two main branches:
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 1. Physical geography: deals with studying processes and patterns in the natural environment like the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere.
2. Human geography: deals with the environment shaped by human activity.

Physical Geography
• Physical geography includes the study of the lithosphere (landforms, drainage, relief and physiography),
atmosphere (its composition, structure, elements and controls of weather and climate; temperature, pres-
sure, winds, precipitation, climatic types, etc.), hydrosphere (oceans, seas, lakes and associated features
with water realm) and biosphere (life forms including human being and macro-organism and their sus-
taining mechanism, viz. food chain, ecological parameters and ecological balance). Soils are formed
through pedogenesis and depend upon the parent rocks, climate, biological activity and time. Time pro-
vides maturity to soils and helps in the development of soil profiles.
 Geology (geoscience or Earth science) studies the earth's physical structure, evolution, and sub-
stance (like natural mineral and energy resources).
 Geomorphology (‘geo’ meaning earth, ‘morphe’ meaning form and ‘logos’ meaning discourse) is the field
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concerned with understanding the surface of the Earth. It is devoted to studying landforms, their evolution,
and related processes.
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 Climatology encompasses the study of the structure of the atmosphere and elements of weather and
climates (weather conditions averaged over a long period) and climatic types and regions.
 Meteorology focuses on weather processes and short-term forecasting (in contrast with climatology).
 Oceanography is the branch of physical geography that studies the Earth's oceans and seas.
 Hydrology is concerned with the amounts and quality of water moving and accumulating on the land
surface and in the soils and rocks near the surface and is typified by the hydrological cycle.
 Soil Geography is devoted to studying the processes of soil formation, soil types, fertility status, distribu-
tion and use.
 Biogeography deals with geographic patterns of species distribution and the processes that determine
these patterns.
 Environmental geography analyses the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural
environment. The branch bridges the divide between human and physical geography.
 Geomatics is the field of gathering, storing, processing, and delivering geographic information.

Human Geography
 Social/Cultural Geography encompasses the study of society and its spatial dynamics as well as the cul-
tural elements contributed by the society.
 Population and Settlement Geography studies population growth, distribution, density, sex ratio, mi-
gration and occupational structure etc. Settlement geography studies the characteristics of rural and urban
settlements.
 Economic Geography studies the economic activities of the people including agriculture, industry, tour-
ism, trade, transport, infrastructure, services, etc.
 Historical Geography studies the historical processes through which the space gets organised. Every re-
gion has undergone some historical experiences before attaining its present-day status. The geographical
features also experience temporal changes, which form the concerns of historical geography.
 Political Geography looks at the space from the angle of political events and studies boundaries, space
relations between neighbouring political units, delimitation of constituencies, and election scenarios and
develops a theoretical framework to understand the political behaviour of the population.

Biogeography
• The interface between physical geography and human geography has led to the development of Bioge-
ography which includes:
 Plant Geography studies the spatial pattern of natural vegetation in their habitats.
 Zoo Geography studies the spatial patterns and geographic characteristics of animals and their habitats.
 Ecology /Ecosystem deals with the scientific study of the habitat characteristic of species.
 Environmental Geography concerns the world over leading to the realisation of environmental problems
such as land gradation, pollution and concerns for conservation has resulted in introducing this new branch
in geograph
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 1. The Universe, The Big Bang Theory, Galaxies & Stellar Evolution

Basic Terms
 Cosmos: another word for universe.
 Cosmic: relating to the universe or cosmos.
 Cosmic rays: highly energetic atomic nucleus or other particle travelling through space at a speed ap-
proaching that of light. Direct exposure to cosmic rays can cause gene mutations resulting in cancer.
 Cosmology: the scientific study of the large-scale properties of the universe.
 Cosmological: relating to the origin and development of the universe.
 Astronomy: the scientific study of celestial objects (stars, planets, comets, etc.) and phenomena that orig-
inate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the solar wind, gravitational waves, etc.).

• The Universe is all existing matter & space. It is incomprehensively large (beyond mental grasp). It consists
of both physical (subatomic particles like electrons, protons to galactic super-clusters) and non-physical
(light, gravitation, space etc.) components.
• The universe, at present, is said to possess about 100 billion galaxies, each comprising an average of 100
billion stars. In comparison, Milky Way Galaxy is believed to possess 100 billion to 400 billion stars.
(1,000,000 = 1 Million = 10 Lakhs; 1,000,000,000 = 1 Billion = 100 Crore; 1,000,000,000,000 = 1 Trillion

1.2. The Big Bang of Theory

The Expanding Universe

• The Big Bang Theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe’s birth. It states that, 13.8
billion years ago, all of space was contained in a single point of very high-density and high-tempera-
1

ture state from which the universe has been expanding in all directions ever since.
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The Evolution of The Universe Since the Big Bang
T in °C Event
Time
10-43 Sec 1032 The cosmos goes through a superfast “inflation,” expanding from the
size of an atom to that of a grapefruit in a tiny fraction of a second.
10-32 Sec 1027 Post-inflation, the universe is a seething, hot soup of electrons,
quarks, and other particles.
10-6 Sec 1013 A cooling cosmos permits quarks to clump into protons & neutrons.
3 min 108 Still too hot to form into atoms, charged electrons and protons pre-
vent light from shining.
3,00,000 years 103 Electrons combine with protons & neutrons to form atoms, mostly hy-
drogen & helium. Lithium & beryllium were formed in trace
amounts. Light can finally shine.
1 billion years -200 Gravity makes hydrogen and helium (primordial elements) coalesce
to form the giant clouds that will become galaxies; smaller clumps of
gas collapse to form the first stars.
15 billion years -270 As galaxies cluster together under the influence of gravity, the first
stars die and spew heavy elements into space: those will eventually
turn into new stars and planets.
2

Big Crunch (The Death of The Universe)

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• At some point, the universe would reach a maximum size & begin collapsing. The universe would become
denser & hotter again, ending in a state like that in which it started — a single point of very high density.

Accelerating Expansion of The Universe & Dark Energy

• It is the observation that the expansion of the universe is such that the velocity at which a galaxy is moving
away from the observer is continuously increasing with time (Hubble’s law). It implies that the universe
will get increasingly colder as matter spreads across space.
• The accelerated expansion of the universe is thought to have begun since the universe entered its dark-
energy-dominated era — roughly 5 billion years ago.
 Dark energy is an unknown form of energy that is hypothesised to permeate (spread throughout) all of
space, tending to accelerate the universe’s expansion.

1.3. Evidence for Big Bang Theory

• Physical phenomena such as cosmological redshift, and the discovery of cosmic microwave back-
ground radiation and gravitational waves, have added weight to the Big Bang Theory.

Doppler-Shift or Redshift and Blueshift

• Redshift and Blueshift describe how light changes as objects in space (such as stars or galaxies) move
closer or farther away from us. American astronomer Edwin Hubble was the first to describe the redshift
phenomenon (galactic redshift) and tie it to an expanding universe (galaxies are drifting apart).
 Hubble's law: the farther away galaxies are, the faster they are moving away from Earth ― also known as
accelerating the expansion of the universe.

Cosmic Microwave Background (CMD)

3
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• With a traditional optical telescope, the space between stars and galaxies is completely dark. However, a
sensitive radio telescope shows a faint background glow. This glow is strongest in the microwave region
of the radio spectrum, and hence it is called a Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB).
• CMD, also known as relic radiation (thermal radiation left over from the “Big Bang”), is fundamental
to observational cosmology because it is the oldest light in the Universe and can be found in all direc-
tions. Its discovery is considered a landmark proof for the concept of “accelerating expansion of the
universe” and the Big Bang Theory.

Gravitational Waves
• Albert Einstein predicted the existence of gravitational waves in 1916 in his general theory of relativity.
Gravitational waves are 'ripples' in the fabric of spacetime caused by some of the most violent and ener-
getic processes in the Universe. (Spacetime: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sryrZwYguRQ)
• Massive accelerating objects (such as neutron stars or black holes orbiting each other) would disrupt
spacetime in such a way that 'waves' of distorted space would radiate from the source (like the movement
of waves away from a stone thrown into a pond). These ripples travel at the speed of light through the
Universe, carrying with them information about their origins.

Spacetime (NASA) & Gravitational Waves (NASA)

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• While the processes that generate gravitational waves can be extremely violent and destructive, by the
time the waves reach Earth, they are billions of times smaller. In 2015, The Laser Interferometer Gravita-
tional-Wave Observatory (LIGO), USA, physically sensed the distortions in spacetime caused by passing
gravitational waves generated by two colliding black holes nearly 1.3 billion light-years away!

Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity

• In 1905, Albert Einstein determined that the laws of physics are the same for all non-accelerating
observers and that the speed of light in a vacuum was independent of the motion of all observers.
As a result, he found that space and time were interwoven into a single continuum known as spacetime.
• Events that occur at the same time for one observer could occur at different times for another. This was
the theory of special relativity. In 1915, Einstein published his theory of general relativity. In it, he deter-
mined that massive objects distort spacetime, which is felt as gravity. Gravitational lensing and
gravitational waves are strong evidence for Einstein’s theory of general relativity.

Gravitational Lensing
• Light around a massive object, such as a black hole, is bent, causing it to act as a lens for the things that
lie behind it.

Importance of Gravitational Waves

• The gravitational waves can work as sirens to measure the expansion rate of the universe and to un-
derstand the origin and the future of the universe.
 The Hubble constant is a unit of measurement that describes the rate at which the universe is ex-
5

panding. Two parameters that are essential to estimating the Hubble constant are the distance of the
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 stars from Earth and how fast they are moving away from us (their velocity). But to date, the most precise
efforts have landed on very different values of the Hubble constant.
 Scientists have proposed a more accurate and independent way to measure the Hubble constant, using
gravitational waves. A flash of light would give an estimate of the system’s velocity (system: neutron
stars or black holes orbiting each other), or how fast it is moving away from the Earth. The emitted gravi-
tational waves, if detected on Earth, should provide a precise measurement of the system’s distance. By
knowing the system’s velocity and distance, a precise calculation of the Hubble constant is possible (which
will describe the rate at which the universe is expanding).

[UPSC Prelims 2012] Which of the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence(s) for
the continued expansion of the universe?
1. Detection of microwaves in space
2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in space
3. Movement of asteroids in space
4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in space

Select the correct answer using the codes:

a) 1 and 2
b) 2 only
c) 1, 3 and 4 only
d) None of the above

Explanation:
• Supernova explosions can also cause gravitational waves. So, points 1, 2 and 4 are correct. So, the answer
is d) None of the above.

[UPSC Prelims 2019] Recently, scientists observed the merger of giant ‘blackholes’ billions
of light-years away from the earth. What is the significance of this observation?
a) ‘Higgs boson particles’ were detected.
b) ‘Gravitational waves’ were detected.
c) Possibility of intergalactic space travel through ‘wormhole’ was confirmed.
d) It enabled the scientists to understand ‘singularity’.

Explanation:
• Merger of giant blackholes causes gravitational waves. Answer: b) ‘Gravitational waves’ were detected.

 A wormhole can act as a bridge or a shortcut between two points in curved spacetime which are well
separated in practical terms to the inhabitants of the universe. The existence of wormholes has been pre-
6

dicted by Ludwig Flamm, in 1916, soon after Einstein proposed his General Theory of Relativity.
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  A singularity (gravitational singularity or (spacetime singularity) is a condition in which gravity is so
intense that spacetime ceases to exist and our laws of physics become invalid. Singularities were first
predicated as a result of Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity, which resulted in the theoretical existence
of black holes.
 In essence, the theory also predicted that any star reaching beyond a certain point in its mass (aka. the
Schwarzschild Radius) would exert a gravitational force so intense that it would collapse. At this point,
nothing would be capable of escaping its surface, including light. This phenomenon is known as the
Chandrasekhar Limit, named after the Indian astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who pro-
posed it in 1930.

1.4. Galaxy

• Galaxy is a system of millions or billions of stars, together with gas and dust, held together by gravitational
attraction. They are the major building blocks of the universe. The smallest galaxies contain about
100,000 stars, while the largest contains up to 3000 billion stars.

• From the billions of galaxies, two basic types have been identified: 1) Regular galaxies, & Irregular galaxies
(1/10th of all galaxies. The stars are very old).

Regular Galaxies
Spiral Galaxies Elliptical Galaxies
• Star distribution is nonuniform.
• The Milky Way is an example of a disc-shaped
spiral galaxy which has a greater concentration
7

of stars near its centre. They consist of

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 populations of old stars in the centre, and the
youngest stars located in the arms.
• Most of their member stars are very old, and
• Spiral galaxies are well supplied with the inter-
there is no new star formation in them.
stellar gas in which new bright, young stars
form.
• The brightest galaxies in the universe.
• Smaller and less bright

Dark matter
• The rotation velocity for spiral galaxies depends on the amount of mass contained in them. But the outer
arms of the Milky Way are rotating much too fast to be consistent with the amount of matter that we know
exists in them. Such fast rotation is possible only when there is more mass, and that extra mass is believed
to come from dark matter.
• Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter that accounts for approximately 85% of the matter in the
universe. Most of the dark matter is composed of some as-yet-undiscovered subatomic particles.
• Dark energy plus dark matter constitutes 95.1% of the total content of the universe (the rest in the
normal matter). In short, we are unsure about what’s there in 95% of the universe!

Why is it Called Dark Matter?

• The name dark matter refers to the fact that it does not interact with electromagnetic radiation, such
as light. It is thus invisible (or 'dark') to the entire electromagnetic spectrum, making it extremely
difficult to detect. It interacts with the rest of the universe only through gravity (that’s how we know it
exists).

Our Galaxy (The Milky Way)

• The Milky Way galaxy hosts our solar system.
• It is shaped like a flat disc with a central bulge. Its diameter is between 1,50,000 and 2,00,000 light-years.
In the nucleus, the thickness reaches 10,000 light years, whereas in the disc it is 500-2,000 light-years
thick.
 A light year is a measure of distance and not of time. Light travels at a speed of 300,000 km/second. Consid-
ering this, the distances the light will travel in one year is taken to be one light year. The mean distance
between the sun and the earth is 149,598,000 km. In terms of light years, it is 8.311 minutes.
• The Milky Way is estimated to contain 100-400 billion stars. The inner stars travel faster than those
further out. A supermassive black hole called Sagittarius A* is at the centre. The Solar System is located
in the Orion Arm, 26,000 light years from the centre (about one-third from the centre) of the Milky Way.
• Stars like Sun are rare in the Milky Way galaxy, whereas substantially dimmer and cooler stars, known
8

as red dwarfs, are common.

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• The Sun completes one lap of the galaxy about every 220 million years. It revolves around the centre of
the Milky Way with a speed of 285 km per second.
• Andromeda is the closest big galaxy to the Milky Way — being 2 million light years away.

1.5. Star Formation (Stellar Evolution or Life Cycle of a Star)

• Outlined below are the steps involved in a star’s evolution, from its formation in a nebula, to its death as
a white dwarf or a neutron star.
1. Nebula: a cloud of gas (mostly hydrogen and helium) and dust in space. Nebulae are the birthplaces of
stars.
2. Protostar: an early stage of a star formation where nuclear fusion is yet to begin.
3. T Tauri Star: a young star still undergoing gravitational contraction; it represents an intermediate stage
between a Protostar & a low-mass main sequence star.
4. Main Sequence Star: E.g., Sun – full of life (nuclear fusion at the core is in full swing).
5. Red Giant (in case of a small star) and Red Supergiant (in case of a large star).
6. Planetary Nebula (in case of a small star) and Supernova (in case of a large star).
7. White dwarf (in case of a small star) and Neutron Star or Black Hole (in case of a large star).

Protostar
• A Protostar looks like a star, but its core is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion. The luminosity comes
exclusively from the heating of the Protostar as it contracts (because of gravity). Protostars are usually
surrounded by dust, which blocks the light that they emit, so they are difficult to observe in the visible
spectrum.
 Nuclear fusion: the fusion of 2 hydrogen atoms into a helium atom with the liberation of a huge
amount of energy. It occurs only when the initial temperatures are very high — a few million degrees
9

Celsius. That is why nuclear fusion is hard to achieve and control).

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Main sequence stars
• Main sequence stars fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium in their cores. Most of the stars in the universe,
about 90 per cent of them including the sun, are main sequence stars.
• Towards the end of its life, stars like the sun swells up into a red giant, before losing their outer layers as
a planetary nebula and finally shrinking to become a white dwarf.

Red Dwarf
• The faintest (less than 1/1000th the brightness of the Sun) main sequence stars are called the red dwarfs.
• Because of their low luminosity, they are not visible to the naked eye. They are quite small compared to
the sun & have a surface temperature of about 4000 °C.
• According to some estimates, red dwarfs make up three-quarters of the stars in the Milky Way.
• Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to the Sun, is a red dwarf.

Red Giant
• Red giants have diameters between 10 and 100 times that of the Sun. They are very bright, although
their surface temperature is lower than the Sun’s.
• A red giant is formed during the later stages of the evolution as it runs out of hydrogen fuel at its centre.
It still fuses hydrogen into helium in a shell surrounding a hot, dense degenerate helium core.
• As the layer surrounding the core contains a bigger volume the fusion of hydrogen to helium around
the core releases far more energy and pushes much harder against gravity and expands the volume of
the star.

• Red giants are hot enough to turn the helium at their core into heavy elements like carbon (this is
how elements were formed one after the other). But most stars are not massive enough to create the
pressures and heat necessary to burn heavy elements, so fusion and heat production stops.
10

Degenerate Matter
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 • Fusion in a star's core produces heat and outward pressure, but this pressure is kept in balance by the
inward push of gravity generated by a star's mass (gravity is a product of mass). When the hydrogen used
as fuel vanishes, and fusion slows, gravity causes the star to collapse. This creates a degenerate star.
• Great densities (like in a degenerate star) are only possible when electrons are displaced from their
regular shells and pushed closer to the nucleus, allowing atoms to take up less space. The matter in this
state is called degenerate matter.

Red Supergiant
• As the red giant star condenses, it heats up even further, burning the last of its hydrogen and causing the
star's outer layers to expand outward. At this stage, the star becomes a large red giant. An enormous red
giant is often called Red Supergiant.

Planetary Nebula
• Planetary nebula is an outer layer of gas and dust (no planets involved!) that are lost when the star
changes from a red giant to a white dwarf.
• At the end of its lifetime, the sun will swell up into a red giant, expanding beyond the orbit of Venus. As
it burns through its fuel, it will eventually collapse under gravity. The outer layers will be ejected in a shell
of gas (planetary nebula) that will last a few tens of thousands of years before spreading into the vastness
of space.

White Dwarf
• A white dwarf is a very small, hot star, whose nuclear energy supplies have been used up. It consists of
degenerate matter with a very high density due to gravitational effects, i.e., one spoonful has a mass of
several tonnes. It is the last stage in the life cycle of a star like the Sun.

Nova
• Novae occur on the surface of a white dwarf in a binary system. If the two stars of the system are
11

sufficiently near to one another, material (hydrogen) can be pulled from the companion star's surface
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 onto the white dwarf. When enough material builds up on the surface of the white dwarf, it triggers a
nuclear fusion (on the white dwarf) which causes a sudden brightening of the star.

Black dwarf
• The last stage of stellar evolution is a black dwarf. A black dwarf is a white dwarf that has sufficiently
cooled and no longer emits significant heat or light. Because the time required for a white dwarf to reach
this state is calculated to be longer than the current age of the universe (13.8 billion years), no black
dwarfs are expected to exist in the universe yet.

Similar Term: Brown Dwarfs

• Brown dwarfs are objects which are too large to be called planets & too small to be stars. They are
thought to form in the same way that stars do – from a collapsing cloud of gas & dust. However, as the
cloud collapses, the core is not dense enough to trigger nuclear fusion.

Supernova
• A supernova is the explosive death of a star and often results in the star obtaining the brightness of 100
million suns for a short time. A great proportion of primary cosmic rays comes from supernovae.
• The extremely bright burst of radiation expels much of the star's material at a great velocity, driving a
shock wave into the surrounding interstellar medium. These shock waves trigger condensation in a
nebula paving the way for the birth of a new star ― if a star must be born, a star has to die!
• Supernovae can be triggered in one of two ways:
1. Type I supernova or Type Ia supernova (read as one-a) and
2. Type II supernova.

Type I supernova or Type Ia supernova (read as one-a)

• Type I supernova occurs when there is a sudden re-ignition of nuclear fusion on the surface of a de-
generate white dwarf in a binary system. A degenerate white dwarf may accumulate sufficient material
12

from a companion star to raise its core temperature, ignite carbon fusion, and trigger runaway nuclear
fusion, completely disrupting the star.
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The Importance of Type Ia Supernovae
• All Type Ia supernovae are thought to have nearly the same maximum brightness when they explode. Such
consistency allows them to be used as beacons to measure the rate of expansion of the universe. The
weaker the light, the farther away the star is (cosmological redshift).

The Difference Between Nova and Type I Supernova

Type I supernova
Nova
In a nova, the system can shine up to a million times A supernova is a violent stellar explosion that
brighter than normal. can shine as brightly as an entire galaxy of billions
of normal stars.
As long as it continues to take gas from its compan- If enough gas piles up on the surface of the white
ion star, the white dwarf can produce nova out- dwarf, a runaway thermonuclear explosion
bursts at regular intervals. blasts the star to bits.
13

Type II supernova
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• Type II supernova is a supernova that occurs by the gravitational collapse of the core of a massive star
(mostly made of iron). E.g., Supernova of a red supergiant.

Importance of Supernova: Creating and Dispersing New Elements

• When a star’s core runs out of hydrogen, the star begins to die out. The dying star expands into a red giant,
and this now begins to manufacture carbon by fusing helium atoms.
• More massive stars begin a further series of nuclear burning. The elements formed in these stages range
from oxygen to iron.
• During a supernova, the star releases huge amounts of energy as well as neutrons, which allows elements
heavier than iron, such as uranium and gold, to be produced.
• In the supernova explosion, all these elements are expelled into space, and new stars are born out of this
matter (recycling of matter in the universe!).

Neutron stars
• Neutron stars are composed mainly of neutrons and are produced after a supernova, forcing the pro-
tons and electrons to combine to produce a neutron star.
• A neutron star is very dense (a mass of three times the Sun can be fit in a sphere of just 20km in diameter).
If its mass is any greater, its gravity will be so strong that it will shrink further to become a black hole.
 Chandrasekhar Limit: it is the maximum mass at which a star near the end of its life cycle can become a
white dwarf and above which the star will collapse to form a neutron star or black hole.

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Black holes
• Black holes are believed to form from massive stars at the end of their lifetimes. The density of matter in
a black hole cannot be measured (infinite!). The gravitational pull is so great that nothing can escape
from it, not even light.
• Black holes distort the space around them and can suck neighbouring matter into them including stars.

1.6. Constellations

• The stars forming a group that has a recognisable shape is called a constellation.
• A few famous constellations are Great Bear (the Big Dipper or Saptarshi or Ursa Major), Orion (hunter),
Cassiopeia & Leo Major.
• Ursa Major moves around the Pole Star. In fact, all the stars appear to revolve around the Pole Star.
• The northern constellations like Ursa Major may also not be visible from some points in the southern
hemisphere.
• Orion can be seen during winter in the late evenings. The star Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, is
located close to Orion.
• To locate Sirius, imagine a straight line passing through the three middle stars of Orion. Look along this
line towards the east. This line will lead you to Sirius.
• Cassiopeia is another prominent constellation in the northern sky. It is visible during winter in the early
part of the night. It looks like a distorted letter W/M.

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Pole Star

• A pole star is a star or a star system situated in the direction of the earth’s axis. At present, Polaris or
North Star (a system of 3 stars) is the earth’s pole star. It is visible only from the northern hemisphere,
and when looked at from earth, it does not appear to move.

[UPSC Prelims 2001] If the stars are seen to rise perpendicular to the horizon by an ob-
server, he is located on the:
a) Equator
b) Tropic of Cancer
c) South Pole
d) North Pole

Explanation:
• The celestial equator is an abstract projection of the terrestrial equator into outer space. All the stars
seem to revolve around the earth in a path that is parallel to the celestial equator (or perpendicular to
the horizon).

16
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 2. The Solar system

The Formation of the Solar System: Nuclear Disc Model (Neo-Laplacian model)

Earlier Theories
• German philosopher Immanuel Kant’s Nebular Hypothesis (Theory) of Laplace (1796) tried to explain
the formation of the solar system. But it had many drawbacks as the theory was based on scientifically
erroneous assumptions. But one assumption it got right was that the solar system was born from a giant
interstellar cloud called nebula (a vast, swirling cloud of gas and dust).
• In 1900, Chamberlain and Moulton considered that a wandering star approached the sun. As a result, a
cigar-shaped extension of material was separated from the solar surface. As the passing star moved away,
the material separated from the solar surface continued to revolve around the sun and slowly condensed
into planets. Sir James Jeans and later Sir Harold Jeffrey supported this argument.
• In 1950, Otto Schmidt in Russia and Carl Weizascar in Germany somewhat revised the Nebular Hypothesis.
They considered that the sun was surrounded by solar nebula containing mostly hydrogen and helium
along with what may be termed as dust. The friction and collision of particles led to the formation of a
disk-shaped cloud and the planets were formed through the process of accretion.
• The most popular argument is the Big Bang Theory (expanding universe hypothesis (Edwin Hubble,
in 1920, provided evidence that the universe is expanding)). It was followed up by the Nuclear Disc Model
(Neo-Laplacian model) which dealt primarily with the formation of the solar system.

• According to the Nuclear Disc Model (Neo-Laplacian model), the nebula started its collapse and core
formation some 5-5.6 billion years ago, and the Sun and the planets were formed about 4.6 billion
years ago (the age of the earth is 4.543 billion years).

The Formation of the Sun

• The nebula began to collapse (gravitational collapse) in on itself after becoming gravitationally unstable.
This was possibly because of a nearby supernova sending shock waves rippling through space.
• Gravity then caused dust and gas to coalesce to the centre of the nebular cloud. As more matter got pulled
in, the centre got denser and hotter, increasing the gravity and pulling even more dust inwards causing a
snowball effect.
• About 99.9% of the material fell into the centre and became the protosun (no sunlight yet). Once the
centre of the cloud became hot enough it triggered nuclear fusion, and the Sun was born. The 0.1% of
matter that remained orbited around the Sun, causing the randomly shaped gas cloud to form a flat disc
shape. This flat disc, called the protoplanetary disc, was where the planets formed.
17

The Formation of the Planets

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• Within the solar nebula, the dust particles in the gas occasionally collided and clumped together. Through
this accretion process, the microscopic particles formed larger bodies that eventually became planetesi-
mals (infant stage of a planet) with sizes up to a few kilometres across.
• As the disc continued to cool, the planetesimals grew through accretion to form protoplanets. Gradually
they got larger and larger, sweeping up all the leftover dust, other protoplanets, and planetesimals until
they grew into the planets.

• In the inner, hotter part of the solar nebula, planetesimals were composed mostly of silicates and metals.
This hot, rocky material near the centre of the solar system gave rise to terrestrial planets with metal
cores (mostly composed of iron and nickel): Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
• In the outer, cooler portion of the nebula, water ice was the dominant component. This gave rise to the
gas and ice giants: Saturn, Jupiter, Neptune, and Uranus.
• Rocks that escaped the pull of planets were left as asteroids, scattered through the solar system. Many of
these rocks orbit the Sun in an area between Mars and Jupiter known as the asteroid belt.

Iron Catastrophe and Planetary Differentiation

• When Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago, it was a uniform ball of hot rock. Radioactive decay and
leftover heat (primordial heat) from planetary formation caused the ball to get even hotter. Eventually,
after about 500 million years, our young planet’s temperature heated to the melting point of iron — about
1,538° Celsius. This pivotal moment in Earth’s history is called the iron catastrophe.
• The iron catastrophe allowed the greater, more rapid movement of Earth’s molten, rocky material. Rela-
18

tively buoyant materials, such as silicates, water, and even air, stayed close to the planet’s exterior. Droplets
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 of iron, nickel and other heavy metals gravitated to Earth’s centre, becoming the early core. This im-
portant process is called planetary differentiation.

[UPSC Prelims 2009] In the structure of planet Earth, below the mantle, the core is mainly
made up of which one of the following?
a) Aluminium
b) Chromium
c) Iron
d) Silicon

2.2. Components of the Solar System

• Our solar system consists of the sun, eight planets, dwarf planets (Pluto, Ceres, Eris), satellites & count-
less minor planets, asteroids, meteors, comets, etc.

19
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• Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to develop a mathematically predictive heliocentric solar system —
an astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun.

[UPSC Prelims 2001] Who amongst the following was the first to state that the earth was
spherical?
a) Aristotle
b) Copernicus
c) Ptolemy
d) Strabo
20

Explanation:
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 • The idea of a spherical Earth was floated by Pythagoras around 500 BC & later validated by Aristotle in
340 BC.
• Ptolemy placed the Earth at the centre of his geocentric model of the solar system. Nicolaus Coper-
nicus refuted the geocentric model with his heliocentric model.
• Strabo is best known for his work Geographica ("Geography"), which presented a descriptive history of
people and places from different regions of the world know during his lifetime.

• Most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earth's orbit, known as the ecliptic. The
planets are very close to the ecliptic, whereas comets and Kuiper belt objects (like Pluto) are frequently
at greater angles to it.
• The orbits of the planets around the sun are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids, and Kuiper
belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits.

Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

1. The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.
2. A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.
3. The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of
its orbit.

Planet Surface Period of Period of Dis- Diameter (km) Size Moons Density Specific
Temp in Rotation Revolution tance in Rank (gm/cm3) gravity
֯C AU (m/s2)

58 days 87 days 0.4 4,878 0.38 8 0 3.7 0.38

1. Mercury +427 5.4

243 days 224 days 0.7 12,104 0.95 6 0 8.9 0.9

21

2. Venus +480 5.2

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 23:56 hrs 365 days 1 12,756 1.00 5 1 9.8 1
3. Earth +22 5.5

1.025 687 days 1.5 6,787 0.53 7 2 3.7 0.38

4. Mars -23 3.9
days
9.9 hrs 11.9 years 5.2 11.19 1 79 24.9 2.53
5. Jupiter -150 1.3
1,40,000
10.7 hrs 29 years 9.6 1,16,000 9.46 2 82 10.4 1.06
6. Saturn -180 0.7

17 hrs 84 years 19.2 51,000 4.11 3 27 8.8 0.9

7. Uranus -214 1.3

16 hrs 164 years 30.0 48,000 3.88 4 14 11.1 1.13

8. Nep- -220
1.6
tune

Pluto -223 6.39 days 248 years 39.5 2,377 0.18 9 5 1.9 0.6 0.06
(dwarf)
Some of the values given in the table are rounded off.

2.3. The Sun

22
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• Age: 4.6 billion years; Diameter: 1.39 million km
• Temperature: 6000 °C on the surface and 16 million °C in the core
• Density: 1.41 times that of water (density of water = 999.97 kg/m³; earth’s overall density is 5.5 times that
of water)
• The surface gravity of the Sun is 274 m/s2 (28 times the gravity of the Earth). Comparatively, the surface
gravity of the earth and moon are 9.8 m/s2 and 1.62 m/s2 respectively.
• Speed of rotation: 7179.73 km/hrs. Comparatively, earth’s rotational velocity is 1675Km/hrs.
• Period of rotation: 25 days 9 hrs.
• Rotation: counter clockwise (when viewed from a long way above Earth's north pole).
• Mass: equivalent to 3,32,900 Earth masses.
• Composition: 98% of the sun is hydrogen & helium.
• Most of the solar system's mass is in the Sun (~99.8%), with most of the remaining mass contained in
Jupiter and Saturn. Although the Sun dominates the system by mass, it accounts for only about 2% of
the angular momentum due to the differential rotation within the gaseous Sun.

The Sun’s Internal Structure and Atmosphere

• The solar interior, from the inside out, is made up of the core, radiative zone and convective zone. The
solar atmosphere above that consists of the photosphere, chromosphere, and the corona (solar wind is
an outflow of gas from the corona).

Photosphere
• The photosphere is an extremely uneven bright outer layer of the Sun that emits most of the radiation.
The effective temperature on the outer side of the photosphere is 6000°C.

Chromosphere
• Above the photosphere is the chromosphere. It is a thin layer of burning gases. It is a bit cooler — 4,320
֯C.

Sunspot
• Sunspots are temporary phenomena on the photosphere of the Sun that appear visibly as dark spots
compared to surrounding regions. They appear as dark areas because they are about 500-1500 °C cooler
than the surrounding chromosphere. They correspond to concentrations of the magnetic field that in-
hibit convection & result in reduced surface temperature compared to the surrounding photosphere.
• Sunspot activity cycles about every eleven years. The point of highest sunspot activity during this cycle
is known as Solar Maximum, and the point of the lowest activity is Solar Minimum.
• The individual sunspot has a lifetime ranging from a few days to a few months. Each spot has a black
centre or umbra, and a lighter region or penumbra, surrounding it. It has been suggested that the Sun is
23
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 1% cooler when it has no sunspot and that this variation in solar radiation might affect the climates of
the Earth.

Solar Wind
• The solar wind is made of plasma (ionised atoms), a stream of energised, charged particles, primarily
electrons and protons, flowing outward from the Sun at speeds as high as 900 km/s and at a temperature
of 1 million °C.

Plasma
• Plasma is one of the four fundamental states of matter, the others being solid, liquid, and gas. It is ionised
gas (atoms and molecules are converted into ions typically by removing one or more electrons from the
outer shell).
• Lightning and electric sparks are everyday examples of phenomena made from plasma.
• Neon lights could more accurately be called ‘plasma lights’ because the light comes from the plasma
inside of them.

Aurora

• An aurora is a natural light display in the sky, predominantly seen in the high latitude (Arctic and Antarctic)
regions (due to magnetic field lines of earth and solar wind).
• Auroras are caused by charged particles, mainly electrons and protons, entering the atmosphere from
24

above causing ionisation and excitation of atmospheric constituents, and consequent optical emissions.
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Solar Flares
• Solar are magnetic storms which appear to be very bright spots with a gaseous surface eruption. As
solar flares are pushed through the corona, they heat its gas to anywhere from 10 to 20 million °C.

Solar Prominence
• An arc of gas that erupts from the surface of the Sun is called solar prominence. Prominences can loop
hundreds of thousands of miles into space. They are held above the Sun's surface by strong magnetic
fields and can last for many months.

Corona
• A corona is a distinctive atmosphere of plasma that surrounds the Sun and other celestial bodies. The
Sun's corona extends millions of kilometres into space and is most easily seen during a total solar eclipse.

2.4. Planets

• A celestial body moving in an elliptical orbit around a star is known as a planet. The planets of our solar
system are divisible in two groups:
1. the planets of the inner circle (as they lie between the sun and the belt of asteroids) or the inner
planets or the ‘terrestrial planets’ (meaning earth-like as they are made up of rock and metals, and
have relatively high densities) and
2. the planets of the outer circle or outer planets or the ‘gas giant planets’ or the Jovian planets –
meaning Jupiter-like or more like the sun.
• The inner circle consists of four planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars) having smaller and denser bod-
ies. The outer circle comprises four planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) having a larger size and
less dense materials and a thick atmosphere, mostly of helium and hydrogen.
• All eight planets in the Solar System orbit (revolve) the Sun in the direction of the Sun's rotation, which is
counter-clockwise when viewed from above the Sun's north pole.
• Six of the eight planets also rotate about their axis in this same direction (counter-clockwise). Venus and
25

Uranus have a strange retrograde rotation (clockwise), i.e., opposite of the sun’s rotation.
Page

An Astronomical Unit (AU) is the average distance between Earth and the Sun, which is about 150 million km.
[UPSC Prelims 1998] Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer by using the
codes given below the lists:
List-II
List-I
(Planet)
(Special characteristic)
1. Earth
A. Smallest planet
2. Venus
B. Largest planet in the solar system
3. Jupiter
C. Planet second from the sun in the solar system
4. Mercury
D. Planet nearest to the Sun in the solar system

Codes:
a) A-2; B-3; C-5; D-1
b) A-3; B-5; C-1; D-2
c) A-4; B-1; C-2; D-3
d) A-4; B-3; C-2; D-1

[UPSC Prelims 2002] Which one of the following statements is correct with reference to our
solar system?
a) The earth is the densest of all the planets in our solar system
b) The predominant element in the composition of earth is silicon
c) The sun contains 75 percent of the mass of the solar system
d) The diameter of the sun is 190 times that of the earth

[UPSC Prelims 2003] Among the following which planet takes maximum time for one revo-
lution around the Sun?
a) Earth
b) Jupiter
c) Mars
d) Venus

[UPSC Prelims 2008] In order of their distances from the Sun, which of the following plan-
ets lie between Mars and Uranus?
a) Earth and Jupiter
b) Jupiter and Saturn
c) Saturn and Earth
d) Saturn and Neptune

[UPSC Prelims 2009] Which one of the following planets has largest number of natural sat-
26

ellites or moons?
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 a) Jupiter
b) Mars
c) Saturn
d) Venus

Inner Planets
• The four inner or terrestrial planets are composed largely of refractory minerals, such as the silicates,
which form their crusts and mantles, and metals, such as iron and nickel, which form their cores.
• Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth, and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to gener-
ate weather; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features, such as rift valleys and volcanoes.

The term inner planet should not be confused with the inferior planet, which designates those planets that are
closer to the Sun than Earth (i.e., Mercury & Venus).

Mercury
• Mercury's surface appears heavily cratered and is similar in appearance to the Moon's, indicating that it
has been geologically inactive for billions of years (because there is no atmosphere on Mercury).
• When viewed from Earth, the planet can only be seen near the western or eastern horizon during the early
evening or early morning. It may appear as a bright star-like object but is less bright than Venus.
• Having almost no atmosphere to retain heat, it has surface temperatures that vary diurnally more than
on any other planet in the Solar System (−173 °C at night to 427 °C during the day).
• Mercury is smaller than the largest natural satellites in the Solar System, Ganymede (largest moon of
Jupiter) & Titan (largest moon of Saturn). However, Mercury is massive (has more mass) than Ganymede
& Titan.
• Images obtained by MESSENGER spacecraft in 2004 have revealed evidence for pyroclastic flows (vulcanic-
ity) and water ice at Mercury’s poles.

Venus
• Venus is the brightest planet in the solar system and is the third brightest object visible from the earth
after the sun and the moon. In ancient literature, Venus was often referred to as the morning & evening
star.
• It is the brightest among planets because it has the highest albedo due to the highly reflective sulfuric
acid that covers its atmosphere. It is sometimes visible to the naked eye in broad daylight.
• Venus is sometimes called Earth's sister planet or Earth's twin because of their similar size, mass, prox-
imity to the Sun, bulk composition and presence of similar physical features such as high plateaus, folded
mountain belts, and numerous volcanoes, etc.
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• It is radically different from Earth in other respects. The surface of Venus is totally obscured by a thick
atmosphere composed of about 96% carbon dioxide, covered with clouds of highly reflective sulfuric
acid.
• It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets. The atmospheric pressure at the planet's
surface is 92 times that of Earth, or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth.
• Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System, even though Mercury is closer to the Sun. This is
because of the greenhouse effect arising from high concentrations of CO2 and a thick atmosphere.
• A day on Venus is equivalent to 243 earth days and lasts longer than its year (224 days). It rotates in the
opposite direction (clockwise) to most other planets.

[UPSC Prelims 2005] Assertion & Reasoning

 Assertion (A): Existence of human life on Venus is highly improbable.
 Reason (R): Venus has extremely high level of carbon dioxide in its atmosphere.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT a correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true

Moon
• The diameter of the moon is only one-quarter that of the earth and it is about 3,84,400 km away.
• The moon is tidally locked (the object's orbital period matches its rotational period) to the earth,
meaning that the moon revolves around the earth in about 27 days which is the same time it takes to
complete one spin. As a result of tidal locking, only one side of the moon is visible to us on the earth.
• The moon is a significant stabiliser of Earth's orbital axis. Without it, Earth's tilt could vary as much as
85° (at present the Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted at an angle of 23.5° relative to the orbital plane).

Formation of the Moon

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• It is now generally believed that the formation of the moon, as a satellite of the earth, is an outcome of a
‘giant impact’ or what is described as ‘the big splat’.
• A body of the size of one to three times that of mars collided with the earth sometime shortly after the
earth was formed. It blasted a large part of the earth into space. This portion of blasted material then
continued to orbit the earth and eventually formed into the present moon about 4.44 billion years ago.
• Scientists estimate that a day in the life of early Earth was only about 6 hours long and the Moon formed
much closer to Earth than it is today.

Effects on Earth
• As Earth rotates, the Moon's gravity causes the oceans to seem to rise and fall. There is a little bit of friction
between the tides & the turning Earth, causing the earth’s rotation to slow down just a little (1.4 milli-
seconds in 100 years). As Earth slows, it lets the Moon move away by a little (four cm per year).

Colonizing the Moon

• Exploration of the lunar surface by spacecraft began in 1959 with the Soviet Union's Luna program.
• Luna 2 made a hard landing (impact) on its surface and became the first artificial object on the moon.
• Crewed exploration of the lunar surface began in 1968 when the Apollo 8 spacecraft orbited the Moon.
• Neil Armstrong was the first, and Buzz Aldrin was the second to step on the surface of the moon on 29
July 1969 (Apollo 11 mission). To date, only Twelve astronauts walked on the Moon's surface.
• Discovery of lunar water at the lunar poles by Chandrayaan-1 in 2009 has renewed interest in the
Moon. The Chandrayaan probe discovered that the lunar soil contains 0.1% water by weight.

Advantages of Colonising the Moon

• A lunar base could be a site for launching rockets with locally manufactured fuel to distant planets.

There are Several Disadvantages to the Moon as a Colony Site

• The long lunar nights (350+ hours) would impede reliance on solar power. However, the lunar poles avoid
the problem of long lunar nights.
• The Moon is highly depleted in carbon and volatile elements, such as nitrogen and hydrogen.
• The low gravity on the Moon will have adverse effects on human health in the long term.
• The lack of a substantial atmosphere results in temperature extremes, harmful radiation reaching the
surface and increased chances of the colony's being hit by meteors.
• Growing crops on the Moon is difficult due to the long lunar night, extreme variation in surface tem-
perature, exposure to solar flares, nitrogen-poor soil, and lack of insects for pollination.

Mars
• Mars is often referred to as the "Red Planet" because of the reddish iron oxide prevalent on its surface.
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It can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye.

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• Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, possibly because of numerous asteroid strikes, so the
solar wind interacts directly with the Martian ionosphere, lowering the atmospheric density.
• The atmosphere of Mars consists of about 96% carbon dioxide, 1.93% argon and 1.89% nitrogen along
with traces of oxygen, methane, and water.
• Methane can exist in the Martian atmosphere for only a limited period before it is destroyed by the solar
wind. Its presence despite its short lifetime indicates that an active gas source must be present. Geological
means such as serpentinization (reactions in rocks), volcanic activity, cometary impacts, and the pres-
ence of methanogenic microbial life forms are among possible sources.
• Of all the planets in the Solar System, the seasons of Mars are the most Earth-like, due to the similar tilts
of the two planets' rotational axes.
• The lack of a magnetosphere and the extremely thin atmosphere of Mars is a challenge: the planet has
little heat transfer across its surface and poor insulation against the bombardment of the solar wind.
• Landforms visible on Mars strongly suggest that the atmosphere was once thick and dense and liquid
water existed on the planet's surface. However, now, liquid water can no longer exist on the surface of
Mars due to low atmospheric pressure (less than 1% of the Earth's). Whatever water is left is locked in
the two polar ice caps.
• Mars has surface features like impact craters, valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps. It is the site of Olympus
Mons (shield volcano), the largest volcano and the highest known mountain (24 km) in the Solar
System, and of Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in the Solar System.
• Mars is nearly geologically dead; the end of volcanic activity has stopped the recycling of chemicals and
minerals between the surface and interior of the planet.
• Mars has two irregularly shaped moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are thought to be captured asteroids.

Mars Compared to Earth

• 53% of the diameter of Earth
• 10% of the mass of Earth
• Surface gravity on Mars is only 38% of Earth’s gravity.
• A day on Mars lasts 1.03 Earth days.
• Axial tilt on Mars is 25.19° (close to Earth’s 23.5° tilt).
• A year on Mars lasts about twice as long as an Earth year; the seasons are twice as long.
• The atmosphere of Mars (95% carbon dioxide) is less than 1% the thickness of Earth’s atmosphere.

[UPSC Prelims 1997] Which one of the following conditions is most relevant for the pres-
ence of life on Mars?
a) Atmospheric composition
b) Thermal conditions
30

c) Occurrence of ice caps and frozen water

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 d) Occurrence of ozone
• Hint: on earth, prokaryotes (their cells lack a nucleus) were the earliest life forms. They fed on carbon
compounds that were accumulating in Earth's early oceans.

[UPSC Prelims 2006] Assertion & Reasoning

 Assertion (A): To orbit around the Sun the planet Mars takes lesser time than the time
taken by the earth.
 Reason (R): The diameter of the planet Mars is less than that of earth.
a) Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are individually true and ‘R’ is the correct explanation of ‘A’.
b) Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are individually true but ‘R’ is not the correct explanation of ‘A’.
c) ‘A’ is true but ‘R’ is false.
d) ‘A’ is false but ‘R’ is true.

Outer Planets
• Outer Planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and the dwarf planet – Pluto. The four outer planets,
called the gas giants, collectively make up 99% of the mass known to orbit the Sun. They are composed
mainly of hydrogen & helium & lack a solid surface. Their moons are, however, solid.
• The two outermost planets, Uranus, and Neptune are composed of substances called ices, such as water,
ammonia and methane, and are often referred to separately as ice giants.
• All four gas giants have rings, although only Saturn's ring system is easily observed from Earth. The gas
giants have a magnetosphere, numerous moons, and significant atmospheric activity.
• Neptune has the strongest wind speed (2,100 km/h) followed by Saturn (1,800 km/h).

Why are the Inner Planets Rocky while the Outer Planets are Mostly in Gaseous Form?
• The terrestrial planets were formed in the close vicinity of the parent star where it was too warm for
gases on the surface to condense to solid particles.
• The solar wind was most intense nearer the sun; so, it blew off lots of gas and dust from the surface of the
terrestrial planets. The terrestrial planets are smaller, and their lower gravity could not hold the escaping
gases. The solar winds were not all that intense to cause similar removal of gases from the Jovian planets.

Jupiter
• It is composed mostly of gas & liquid swirling in complex patterns with no solid surface. Because of its
rapid rotation (once every 10 hours), the planet's shape resembles an oblate spheroid (slight bulge at the
equator).
• Jupiter’s four large moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) are called the Galilean satellites because
Galileo discovered them. Ganymede is the largest natural satellite (5,268 km in diameter) in this solar
31

system. It is larger than Mercury, and three times larger than the earth’s Moon (3,474 km in diameter,
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the fifth largest moon). The latest probe to visit Jupiter is Juno.
Saturn
• Saturn’s density is even lesser than water. Its rings are probably made up of billions of ice particles and
ice-covered rocks.
• Titan is the second-largest moon in the Solar System, and it is the only satellite in the Solar System with a
substantial atmosphere (nitrogen-rich).

Uranus
• In contrast to all other planets, it is tipped and spins on its sides. Its axis of rotation lies in nearly the
plane of its orbit (the poles of Uranus lie in a plane where equators of other planets lie).

Neptune
• Uranus and Neptune (the ice giants) are called the twins of the outer solar system. They are surrounded
by a thick atmosphere of hydrogen and helium and contain a higher proportion of "ices" such as water,
ammonia, and methane ice giants" to emphasise this distinction.

2.5. Other Solar System Objects

Asteroid Belt
• Asteroids are remnants of planetary formation that failed to coalesce because of the gravitational in-
terference of Jupiter. They circle the Sun in a zone lying between Mars and Jupiter. The circular chain of
asteroids is called the asteroid belt. It lies between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun.
• Asteroids (planetoids ― another term for an asteroid) are composed mainly of refractory rocky and me-
tallic minerals, with some ice. They range in size from hundreds of kilometres across to microscopic.

Ceres
• Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest asteroid (946 km in diameter), a protoplanet, and a dwarf planet. It has a
mass large enough for its own gravity to pull it into a spherical shape. All asteroids, except Ceres, are
classified as small Solar System bodies.

[UPSC Prelims 1997] The group of small pieces of rock revolving round the sun between
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter are called:
a) Meteors
b) comets
c) meteorites
d) asteroids

[UPSC Prelims 1998] Consider the following statements regarding asteroids:

32

1. Asteroids are rocky debris of varying size orbiting the sun

2. Most of the asteroids are small, but some have diameters as large and 1000 km
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 3. The orbit of asteroids lies between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn

Of these statements:
a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
b) 2 and 3 are correct
c) 1 and 2 are correct
d) 1 and 3 are correct

Explanation:
• Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest asteroid with a diameter of 946 km. Vesta (525 km) is the second largest.
So, only statement (1) is correct. Since this question was asked in 1998, the answer was (c) 1 & 2 only.

Kuiper Belt, Pluto, and Charon

• The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris like the asteroid belt but consists mainly of objects composed
primarily of ice. It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun.
• Pluto (39 AU) is the largest known object in the Kuiper belt. Charon is Pluto's largest moon. When dis-
covered in 1930, Pluto was considered to be the ninth planet; this changed in 2006 with the adoption of a
formal definition of a planet.
• International Astronomical Union’s definition of a planet: a Planet is an object that:
1. orbits the sun;
2. has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium ― a nearly round shape;
3. is not a satellite (moon) of another object, and
4. has removed debris and small objects from the area around its orbit
• IAU’s definition of Dwarf planet: Dwarf planet is an object that meets planetary criteria except that it
has not cleared debris from its orbital neighbourhood.
• Pluto is a part of the Kuiper belt that contains millions of rocky and icy objects. Also, there are numerous
other objects in the Kuiper belt which are of similar size to Pluto. E.g., Eris (diameter: 2,326 km).
• So, if Pluto is considered a plant, then many other objects like Eris will also have to be considered planets.
Hence, Pluto (diameter: 2,377 km) (Kuiper belt) was voted by IAU as a dwarf planet just like Ceres
(asteroid belt) and Eris (diameter: 2,326 km) (Kuiper belt).

Comets

• Comets are icy frozen gases (water, ammonia, methane and carbon dioxide) which hold together small
pieces of rocky and metallic minerals. They have highly elliptical orbits, unlike the planets which have
near-circular orbits.
33

• Short-period comets, with an orbital period of a few hundred years, originate in the Kuiper belt. Longer
period comets, with orbits of thousands of years, come from the more distant Oort Cloud.
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 Oort cloud is a giant shell of icy bodies that encircle the solar system occupying space at a distance between
5,000 and 100,000 AU.
• When passing close to the Sun, comets heat up due to the effects of the solar wind upon the nucleus and
begins to outgas, displaying a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail.
• One of the larger comets is Halley's Comet. The orbit of Halley's Comet brings it close to the Earth every
76 years. It last visited in 1986.

[UPSC Prelims 2011] What is difference between asteroids and comets?

35

1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held together by rocky
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and metallic material.

 2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly
between Venus and Mercury.
3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 1 and 3 only
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Meteoroid, Meteor and Meteorite

• A meteoroid is any solid debris originating from asteroids, comets or other celestial objects and floats
through interplanetary space.
• A meteor, popularly termed a shooting star or falling star, is the streak of light that appears in the sky
when a meteoroid enters the atmosphere (mesosphere) at about 200 km at high speed and burns up
because of the friction.
• In some cases, the meteoroid does not burn up completely and makes its way to the Earth’s surface.
The surviving chunk is called a meteorite.
• The circular depression created on the earth’s surface after the meteorite’s impact is called a meteorite
crater. Meteorite impacts are common on all planets and moons in the solar system.
• The most conspicuous meteorite craters can be found on the surfaces of the Moon and Mercury (because
they are geologically inactive due to negligible atmosphere).
• Largest Meteor Crater: A meteor crater in Arizona (USA) is 1,300 m deep and is the largest meteor crater
in the world. It was formed over 10,000 years ago.

Chicxulub Crater

• Chicxulub crater (Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula) was caused by a meteor impact that is believed to
36

have wiped out the dinosaurs (mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous 65 million years ago).
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 Meteorite Craters in India
 Lonar Lake (a Ramsar Site) (1.8 km in diameter) in Buldhana District of Maharashtra
 Dhala crater (14 km in diameter) in Shivpuri district, Madhya Pradesh and
 Ramgarh crater (3.5 km in diameter) is a potential meteorite crater in the Kota plateau in Rajasthan.

[UPSC Prelims 1995] A meteor is:

a) a rapidly moving star
b) a piece of mater which has entered the earth's atmosphere from outer space
c) part of a constellation
d) a comet without a tail

2.6. What’s the Closest Star to the Sun?

• Proxima Centauri (4.2 light-years away), a red dwarf, is the closest star to the sun. It is a part of Alpha
Centauri (4.37 lya), a system of three stars — Alpha Centauri A, Alpha Centauri B & Proxima Centauri.
• Proxima Centauri has been the nearest star for about 32,000 years, and it will hold this record for another
33,000 years. After 33,000 years from now, the nearest star will be Ross 248.
• Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B are a binary pair, orbiting a common centre of gravity. Alpha Cen-
tauri A is just a little more massive and brighter than the Sun, and Alpha Centauri B is slightly less massive
than the Sun.
• Alpha Centauri is only visible in the Southern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere, the closest
visible star is Barnard’s Star (second closest), a red dwarf which is too dim just like Proxima Centauri to
see with the unaided eye.
• The closest star that one can see with the naked eye in the Northern Hemisphere is Sirius (Dog Star). Sirius
is the second brightest star when viewed from the earth, the brightest being the sun.

[UPSC Prelims 1997] Which one of the following stars is nearest to the Earth?
a) Polaris
b) Alpha Centauri
c) Sun
d) Sirius

How do Astronomers Measure the Distance to Stars?

• Astronomers use a technique called parallax. They measure the angle to a star when the Earth is on one
side of its orbit. Then wait for six months until the Earth has moved to the opposite side of its orbit, and
then measure the angle to the star compared to some distant reference object.
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 Parallax Method

2.7. Heliopause — The Boundary?

• What defines the boundary of the solar system? Sun's light? The influence of the Sun's gravity? Or the
influence of the Sun's magnetic field & the solar wind? There is no definite boundary where the light or
gravity stops or where they suddenly get weaker. The solar wind is however different from light or gravity.
As it streams away from the Sun, it races out against the interstellar medium ― space between the stars
permeated by hydrogen and helium gas).
• Even though the interstellar medium has a low density, it still has a pressure (similar to air pressure). The
solar wind also has pressure. It blows against the interstellar medium and creates a bubble-like region.
This bubble that surrounds the solar system is called the heliosphere (not a sphere in the true sense).
• Since the Sun is moving relative to the interstellar medium around it, the heliosphere forms a wave or
shock in the interstellar medium like a boat in the ocean. This is called the bow shock or wave.
• The region where the solar wind begins to interact with the interstellar medium and begins to slow
down is called the heliosheath.
38

• The heliosheath has a few parts: the termination shock (the innermost part of the boundary), the helio-
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pause (the outermost part of the boundary) and the part in between the inner and outer boundary.
• The termination shock is the boundary where the solar wind particles slow down so that the particles are
travelling slower than the speed of sound.
• At the heliopause ― the boundary of the heliosphere, the pressure from the interstellar medium is strong
enough to slow down and eventually stop the flow of solar wind.
• Voyager 1 crossed the termination shock at 94 astronomical units (AU) and Voyager 2 crossed at 84 AU.

2.8. Distant Artificial Objects Exploring the Solar System

• Here are the major artificial objects that have achieved escape velocity that will allow them to leave the
Solar System. Voyagers continue communicating with the Deep Space Network to receive routine com-
mands & return data.
 The NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) is a worldwide network of U.S. spacecraft communication facilities,
located in the California, Madrid, and Canberra, that supports NASA's interplanetary spacecraft missions.

Launch Significant event Objective Current sta- Distance

Space probe
year tus from the Sun
in AU
Pioneer 10 1972 Flew past Saturn in 1979 Study the asteroid belt, the Contact lost ~ 120 AU
environment around Jupiter in 2003
Pioneer 11 1973 Flew past Saturn in 1979 and Saturn, solar wind and ~ 90 AU
Contact lost
cosmic rays.
in 1995
Voyager 2 Aug 1977 Passed the heliopause in Explore all Jovian planets. Active ~ 129 AU
December 2018 to enter in- Extended mission of both (as of Jan
39

terstellar space (second the Voyagers is to study the 2022)

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 artificial object to leave the outer reaches of the Solar
solar system). System.
Voyager 1 Sep 1977 Passed the heliopause in Explore Jupiter, Saturn, and Active ~ 155 AU (as
2012 to enter interstellar Saturn's largest moon, Titan. of Jan 2022)
space (first artificial object
to leave the solar system).
New Horizons 2006 Flew past Pluto in 2015. It is To perform a study of Pluto, Active ~ 53 AU (as
currently travelling through and more other Kuiper of Jan 2022)
Kuiper belt. belt objects.
Juno 2011 Entered a polar orbit of Study Jupiter's composition, Active —
Jupiter in 2016 gravitational field, magnetic
field, etc.

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 3. Geological Time Scale – The Evolution of The Earth’s Surface

• The geological time scale (GTS) divides and chronicles the earth’s evolutionary history into various periods
based on definite events that marked a major change in the earth’s physical, chemical, and biological
features.
• Major changes in earth’s physical and biological history stretch over several millions of years and hence in
GTS all the divisions are expressed in ‘million years (mya – million years ago).’
• The primarily defined divisions of time are eons, the Hadean, the Archean, the Proterozoic and the Phan-
erozoic. The first three of these can be referred to collectively as the Precambrian supereon. Each eon is
subsequently divided into eras, which in turn are divided into periods, which are further divided into
epochs.

SuperEon  Eon  Era  Period  Epoch

3.1. Hadean Eon (4,540 mya to 4,000 mya)

• The Hadean eon represents the time before a reliable (fossil) record of life. Temperatures are extremely
hot, and much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies, extreme vol-
canism, and the abundance of short-lived radioactive elements.
• A giant impact collision with a planet-sized body named Theia (approximately 4.5 billion years ago) is
thought to have formed the Moon. The moon was subjected to Late Heavy Bombardment (lunar cata-
clysm – 4 billion years ago).
• During the LHB phase, a disproportionately large number of asteroids are theorised to have collided with
the early terrestrial planets in the inner Solar System, including Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
• Volcanic outgassing probably created the primordial atmosphere and then the ocean. The early atmos-
phere contained almost no oxygen. Over time, the Earth cooled, causing the formation of a solid crust,
41

leaving behind hot volatiles which probably resulted in a heavy CO2 atmosphere with hydrogen & water
vapour.
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• Liquid water oceans existed despite the surface temperature of 230° C because, at atmospheric pressure
of above 27 atmospheres, caused by the heavy CO2 atmosphere, water is still liquid. As the cooling
continued, dissolving in ocean water removed most CO2 from the atmosphere.

Is it possible to boil water (change the state of water from liquid to gas) at room
temperature?
• Yes, it is possible, by decreasing the ambient pressure. Because the boiling point of liquids can be
reduced by reducing the ambient pressure and vice versa. As ambient pressure decreases, molecules
evaporating from a boiling liquid meet less resistance from air molecules and enter the air more easily.
Hence, it is possible to convert water to steam at room temperature and keep water in the liquid state even
when the temperature is above 100� C, just by altering the ambient pressure.

3.2. Archean Eon (4,000 mya to 2,500 mya)

• The beginning of life on Earth and evidence of cyanobacteria date to 3500 mya. Life was limited to sim-
ple single-celled organisms lacking nuclei, called Prokaryotes.
• The atmosphere was without oxygen, and the atmospheric pressure was around 10 to 100 atmospheres.
The oceans were more acidic due to dissolved carbon dioxide than during the Proterozoic.
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• The Earth's crust had cooled enough to allow the formation of continents. The oldest rock formations
exposed now on the surface of the Earth are from Archean Eon. By the end of the Archaean, plate tectonics
may have been similar to that of the modern Earth.

3.3. Proterozoic Eon (2,500 mya to 550 mya)

• It is the last eon of the Precambrian supereon. Bacteria begin producing oxygen. Eukaryotes (have a
nucleus), emerge, including some forms of soft-bodied multicellular organisms such as corals.
• It was a very tectonically active period in the Earth’s history. It featured the first definitive supercontinent
cycles and modern orogeny (mountain building). Most of the of modern continental crust was formed in
the Proterozoic. The dominant supercontinent was Rodinia (~1000–750 Ma).
• The early and late phases of this eon may have undergone Snowball Earth periods (the planet suffered
below-zero temperatures, extensive glaciation and as a result drop in sea levels).
 Snowball Earth: The Snowball Earth hypothesis proposes that Earth's surface became entirely or nearly
entirely frozen at least once, sometime earlier than 650 Mya (million years ago).

3.4. Phanerozoic Eon (550 mya to present)

• The first fossils of animals appeared. Life remained mostly microscopic until the Cambrian Explosion —
about 541 million years ago.
• Pangaea forms and later dissolves into Laurasia and Gondwana.
• The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras. The three eras are further subdivided into 12 periods.
1. the Palaeozoic, an era of arthropods, amphibians, fishes, and the first life on land;
2. the Mesozoic, which spanned the rise, reign of reptiles, climactic extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs,
the evolution of mammals and birds; and
3. the Cenozoic, which saw the rise of mammals.

Paleozoic Era (550 mya to 250 mya)

44

Cambrian Period (550 mya to 485 mya)

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• It is marked by the Cambrian Explosion during which the greatest number of creatures evolved in a single
period in the history of Earth. Plants like algae evolved, and arthropods dominated the fauna. Almost all
marine phyla evolved in this period.

Ordovician Period (485 mya to 440 mya)

• Many species still prevalent today evolved, such as primitive fish, corals, etc. The most common forms of
life, however, were trilobites, snails and shellfish. More importantly, the first arthropods crept ashore (the
beginning of terrestrial lifeforms).
• By the end of the Ordovician, Gondwana had moved from the equator to the South Pole. The glaciation
of Gondwana resulted in a major drop in sea level, killing off all life along its coast. Glaciation caused a
snowball Earth, leading to the Ordovician-Silurian extinction (First Mass Extinction).

Ordovician–Silurian extinction (First Mass Extinction)

• This is considered the second deadliest in the history of Earth. This event greatly affected marine commu-
nities.
• A combination of lowering of sea level and glacially driven cooling were likely driving agents.
• A fall in atmospheric carbon dioxide preceded the late Ordovician glaciation event. The dip is correlated
with a burst of volcanic activity that deposited new silicate rocks, which draw CO2 out of the air as they
erode.

Silurian Period (440 mya to 415 mya)

• During this time, there were four continents: Gondwana (Africa, South America, Australia, Antarctica, In-
dia), Laurentia (North America with parts of Europe), Baltica (the rest of Europe), and Siberia (Northern
Asia).

Devonian Period (415 mya to 360 mya)

• It is also known as the age of the fishes as it sees a huge diversification in fish. On land, plant groups
diversified; the first trees and seeds evolved. The first amphibians also evolved, and the fish were now
at the top of the food chain.

Late Devonian extinction (Second Mass Extinction)

• Near the end of the Devonian, 70% of all species became extinct. Possible causes include changes in sea
level and ocean anoxia (lack of oxygen), possibly triggered by global cooling or oceanic volcanism.

Carboniferous Period (360 mya to 300 mya)

• Tropical swamps dominated the Earth, and the large amounts of trees created much of the carbon
that became coal deposits (hence the name Carboniferous).
• The evolution of amniotic eggs allowed amphibians to move farther inland. (Amniotic fluid is a clear,
45

slightly yellowish liquid surrounding the foetus).

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• Throughout the Carboniferous, there was a cooling pattern, which eventually led to the glaciation of
Gondwana as much of it was situated around the south pole.

Permian Period (300 mya to 250 mya)

• At its beginning, all continents came together to form the supercontinent Pangaea, surrounded by one
ocean called Panthalassa. The Earth was very dry during this time, with harsh seasons, as large bodies of
water didn't regulate the climate of the interior of Pangaea.
• The first conifers evolved, and then dominated the terrestrial landscape. Reptiles flourished in the new
dry climate. Scutosaurus and gorgonopsids filled the arid landmass.

Supercontinent Pangea

• Eventually, they disappeared, along with 95% of all life on Earth in an event simply known as "the Great
Dying", the world's third mass extinction event and the largest in its history.
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Permian–Triassic extinction (Third Mass Extinction)

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• The Permian–Triassic (P-T) extinction is the Earth's most severe known extinction event, with up to 96%
of all marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species becoming extinct. It is the only known mass
extinction of insects.
• Suggested causes include large meteor impact events, massive volcanism such as that of the Siberian
Traps, and runaway greenhouse effect triggered by the sudden release of methane from the sea floor
due to methane-producing microbes known as methanogens.

Mesozoic Era (250 mya to 66 mya)

• Mesozoic era is known as "the Age of the dinosaurs", the Mesozoic features the rise of reptiles.

Triassic Period (250 mya to 200 mya)

• It is a transitional time between the Permian Extinction and the lush Jurassic Period. It has three major
epochs: Early Triassic, Middle Triassic and Late Triassic.

Early Triassic (250 mya to 247 mya)

• Deserts dominated Pangaea (not yet broken up; thus the interior was arid).

Middle Triassic (247 mya to 237 mya)

• The Middle Triassic featured the beginnings of the breakup of Pangaea and the beginning of the Te-
thys Sea.

Late Triassic (237 mya to 200 mya)

• The first true dinosaurs evolved.

Dinosaurs and Pterosaurs)

Triassic–Jurassic extinction event (Fourth Mass Extinction)

• The climactic change resulted in a large die-out in which all large amphibians became extinct. Gradual
climate change, sea-level fluctuations, and oceanic acidification reached a tipping point. Massive volcanic
eruptions might have caused intense global warming (release of carbon dioxide or sulphur dioxide) or
intense global cooling (release of aerosols).
47

Jurassic Period (200 mya to 145 mya)

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• It features three major epochs: Early Jurassic, Middle Jurassic, and Late Jurassic.

Early Jurassic (200 mya to 175 mya)

• The first true crocodiles evolved, pushing the large amphibians to near extinction. The first true mam-
mals evolved, but never exceeded the height of a shrew.

Middle Jurassic (175 mya to 163 mya)

• This epoch was the peak of the reptiles.

Late Jurassic (163 mya to 145 mya)

• The Late Jurassic featured the separation of Pangaea into Laurasia and Gondwana in an extinction
known as the Jurassic-Cretaceous extinction.

Cretaceous Period (145 to 66 mya)

• It is divided into two epochs: Early Cretaceous, and Late Cretaceous.

Early Cretaceous (145 mya to 100 mya)

• The first true birds evolved, possibly sparking competition between them and the pterosaurs.

Late Cretaceous (100 mya to 65 mya)

• Tropical ecology was restricted to the equator because of global cooling. Marsupials and the first flow-
ering plants evolved.

Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (Fifth Extinction – 66 mya)

• At the end of the Cretaceous, the Deccan Traps and other volcanic eruptions were poisoning the at-
mosphere, and a large meteor smashed into Earth, creating the Chicxulub Crater (Yucatan Peninsula,
Mexico) creating the event known as the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) or Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) ex-
tinction.
• Every living thing with a body mass over 10 kilograms became extinct, and the age of the dinosaurs came
to an end. In its wake, many groups underwent remarkable adaptive radiation—sudden and prolific di-
vergence into new forms and species. Mammals diversified in the Paleogene, evolving new forms such
as horses, whales, bats, and primates. Birds, fish, and perhaps lizards also radiated.

Cenozoic Era (65 mya to present)

• The Cenozoic featured the rise of mammals as the dominant class of animals. There are three divisions of
the Cenozoic: Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary.

Paleogene Period (66 mya to 23 mya)

• It features three epochs: Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene.
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Paleocene (66 mya to 56 mya)

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• The continents began to take their modern shape, but all continents were separated from each other. The
Tethys Sea separated Afro-Eurasia, and the Americas were separated by the strait of Panama, as the
Isthmus of Panama had not yet formed.
• This epoch featured a general warming trend, and jungles eventually reached the poles. Sharks
dominated the oceans as the large reptiles that had once ruled became extinct. Mammals were still quite
small; meanwhile enormous crocodiles and snakes were top predators.

Eocene (56 mya to 33 mya)

• The existing conditions allowed mammals to grow; some such as whales to mammoth proportions.

Oligocene (33 mya to 23 mya)

• This period featured a global expansion of grass which had led to many new species to take advantage,
including the first elephants, cats, dogs, marsupials and many other species still prevalent today. Paracera-
therium, the largest land mammal to ever live evolved during this epoch.

Paraceratherium

Neogene Period (23.03 mya to 2.58 mya)

• It features 2 epochs: the Miocene, and the Pliocene.

Miocene (23.03 mya to 5.33 mya)

• The Tethys Sea finally closed with the creation of the Arabian Peninsula and in its wake left the Black,
Red, Mediterranean and Caspian Seas. This only increased aridity.

Pliocene (5.33 mya to 2.58 mya)

• Climatic changes brought savannas that are continuing to spread across the world, Indian monsoons,
deserts in East Asia, and the beginnings of the Sahara Desert. The Isthmus of Panama formed, and
animals migrated between North and South America.
• The Earth's continents and seas moved into their present shapes. The world map has not changed much
49

since except for changes brought about by the glaciations of the Quaternary, such as the Great Lakes.
Australopithecus evolved in Africa, beginning the human branch.
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•
 Australopithecus (Left) & Neanderthals (Right)

Quaternary Period (2.58 mya to present)

• It is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene.

Pleistocene (2.58 mya to 11,700 years ago)

• Ice ages marked this epoch as a result of the cooling trend that started in the Mid-Eocene. Africa experi-
enced a trend of desiccation which resulted in the creation of the Sahara, Namib, and Kalahari deserts.
• Many animals evolved including mammoths, dire wolves, and most famously Homo sapiens. As the Pleis-
tocene drew to a close, a major extinction wiped out much of the world's megafauna, including some of
the hominid species, such as Neanderthals.

[UPSC Prelims 2014] Which of the following phenomena might have influenced the evolu-
tion of organisms?
1. Continental drift
2. Glacial cycles

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Holocene (11,700 years ago to present)

• All recorded history and "the history of the world" lies within the boundaries of the Holocene epoch.
Human activity is blamed for a mass extinction that began roughly 10,000 years ago, though the species
becoming extinct have only been recorded since the Industrial Revolution. This is sometimes referred to
as the "Sixth Extinction".
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 4. Earth’s Interior

4.1. The Internal Structure of The Earth

• The earth’s interior is made up of several concentric layers of which the crust, mantle, outer core & inner
core are significant because of their unique physical and chemical properties. The crust is a silicate solid,
the mantle is a viscous molten rock, the outer core is a viscous liquid, & the inner core is a dense
solid.

• Mechanically, the earth’s layers can be divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere (upper viscous part of
the mantle), mesospheric mantle (part of the mantle below the asthenosphere), outer core, & inner
core. Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer & inner core.

The Crust
• The crust is the outermost layer of the earth making up 0.5-1.0 per cent of the earth’s volume and less
than 1 per cent of Earth’s mass.
• Density increases with depth, and the average density is about 2.7 g/cm3 (the average density of the
earth is 5.51 g/cm³).
• The thickness of the crust varies in the range of 5-30 km in the case of the oceanic crust and 50-70 km
in the case of the continental crust.
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• The continental crust can be thicker than 70 km in the areas of major mountain systems. It is as much as
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70-100 km thick in the Himalayan region.

• The temperature of the crust increases with depth, reaching values typically in the range from about 200
°C to 400 °C at the boundary with the underlying mantle. The temperature increases by as much as 30 °C
for every kilometre in the upper part of the crust.
• The outer covering of the crust is of sedimentary material and below that lie crystalline, igneous, and
metamorphic rocks which are acidic in nature. The lower layer of the crust consists of basaltic and ultra-
basic rocks.
• The continental crust is composed of lighter (felsic) sodium potassium aluminium silicate rocks, like
granite. The oceanic crust, on the other hand, is composed of dense (mafic) iron magnesium silicate
igneous rocks, like basalt.
 In geology, felsic refers to igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements that form feldspar and quartz.
They are enriched with lighter elements such as silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, and potassium. It
is contrasted with mafic rocks, which are relatively richer in magnesium and iron.
 The continents are composed of lighter silicates — silica + aluminium (also called sial) while the oceans
have heavier silicates — silica + magnesium (also called sima) [this classification is now obsolete].

Most Abundant Elements

Most Abundant Elements of
of the Earth
the Earth's Crust
Element % by Element % by
weight weight

1. Oxygen (O) 46.6 1. Iron (Fe) 34.6

2. Silicon (Si) 27.7 2. Oxygen (O) 29.5

3. Aluminium (Al) 8.1 3. Silicon (Si) 15.2

4. Iron (Fe) 5.0 4. Magnesium 12.7

Nickel (Ni), Sulphur (S), Ti-

5. Calcium (Ca) 3.6
tanium, etc.

6. Sodium (Na) 2.8  Most Abundant Elements

of the Earth's Crust  OS
7. Potassium (K) 2.6 AIC
 Most Abundant Elements
8. Magnesium (Mg) 1.5 of the Earth  iOS

The Mohorovicic (Moho) Discontinuity

• Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity forms the boundary between the crust and the asthenosphere (up-
per reaches of the mantle) where there is a discontinuity in the seismic velocity. It occurs at an aver-
age depth of about 8 kilometres beneath the oceans and 30 kilometres beneath continents. The cause of
the Moho is thought to be a change in rock composition from rocks containing feldspar (above) to rocks
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that contain no feldspars (below).

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Lithosphere
• The lithosphere is the rigid outer part of the earth with thickness varying between 10-200 km. It includes
the crust and the upper part of the mantle. It is broken into tectonic plates (lithospheric plates), and
the movement of these tectonic plates causes large-scale changes in the earth’s geological structure (fold-
ing, faulting).
• The source of heat that drives plate tectonics is the primordial heat left over from the planet’s formation
as well as the radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium in Earth’s crust and mantle.

The Mantle
• The Mantle forms about 83 per cent of the earth's volume & holds 67% of the earth’s mass. It extends
from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
• The density of the upper mantle varies between 2.9-3.3 g/cm3. The lower mantle extends beyond the
asthenosphere. It is in a solid state. The density ranges from 3.3-5.7 g/cm3 in the lower mantle.
• Mantle comprises 45% oxygen, 23% magnesium and 21% silicon. The silicate rocks in the mantle are
rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust.
• In the mantle, temperatures range from approximately 200 °C at the upper boundary with the crust to
approximately 4,000 °C at the core-mantle boundary. Because of the temperature difference, there is a
convective material circulation in the mantle (although solid, the high temperatures within the mantle
cause the silicate material to be sufficiently ductile). Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface
through the motions of tectonic plates.
• High-pressure conditions ought to inhibit seismicity in the mantle. However, in subduction zones, earth-
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quakes are observed down to 670 km.

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Asthenosphere
• The upper portion of the mantle is called as asthenosphere (astheno means weak). It lies just below
the lithosphere extending up to 80-200 km. It is highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile and its
density is higher than that of the crust.
• The properties of the asthenosphere aid in plate tectonic movement and isostatic adjustments (the
elevated part at one part of the crust area is counterbalanced by a depressed part at another). It is the
main source of magma that finds its way to the surface during volcanic eruptions.

The Core
• The core (inner core and the outer core) accounts for just about 16 per cent of the earth's volume but
33% of the earth’s mass.

The Outer Core

• The outer core, surrounding the inner core, lies between 2900 km and 5100 km below the earth's surface.
It is composed of iron mixed with nickel (nife) and trace amounts of lighter elements.
• The density ranges from 9.9 g/cm3 to 12.2 g/cm3. The temperature of the outer core ranges from 4400
°C in the outer regions to 6000 °C near the inner core. Heat sources include energy released by the com-
pression of the core, energy released at the inner core boundary as it grows (the latent heat of
crystallisation), and radioactivity of potassium, uranium, and thorium.
• The outer core is not under enough pressure to be solid, so it is liquid (fluid) even though it has a
composition similar to the inner core. Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, com-
bined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth's magnetic field.

The Inner Core

• The inner core is solid and extends from the centre of the earth to 5100 km below the earth's surface. It
is generally believed to be composed primarily of iron (80%) and some nickel (nife). It rotates slightly
faster relative to the rotation of the surface and is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field. The density
ranges from 12.6 g/cm3 to 13 g/cm3.

[UPSC Prelims 2009] In the structure of planet Earth, below the mantle, the core is mainly
made up of which one of the following?
a) Aluminium
b) Chromium
c) Iron
d) Silicon
54
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• Scientists have determined the temperature near the Earth's centre to be 6000° C, 1000° C hotter than
previously thought. At 6000° C, this iron core is as hot as the Sun’s surface, but the crushing pressure
caused by gravity prevents it from becoming liquid.
 Remember: when the ambient pressure increases, the melting point of solids increases and vice versa. One
exception is Ice. In the case of ice, an increase in ambient pressure will lower its melting point.

Seismic Discontinuities
• Seismic discontinuities are the regions in the earth where seismic waves behave a lot different compared
to the surrounding regions due to a marked change in physical or chemical properties.
1. Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho): separates the crust from the mantle.
2. Asthenosphere: highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile part of the mantle.
3. Gutenberg Discontinuity: lies between the mantle and the outer core.
4. Lehmann Discontinuity: lies between the outer core and inner core.

4.2. Understanding the Earth’s Interior

• Understanding the structure of the earth’s interior (crust, mantle, core) and various forces (heat, seismic
waves, magnetic field) emanating from it are essential to understanding the different geological
processes (plate tectonics, volcanism, mountain building, erosion, weathering) that shape the Earth's
surface, its evolution, current shape, and its future.
• The forces that power various geological processes come from both above & beneath the Earth's surface.
• Processes that are caused by forces from within the Earth are endogenous processes (Endo meaning "in").
Exogenous processes (Exo meaning "out") come from forces on or above the Earth's surface.
• The major geological features of the earth’s surface like mountains, plateaus, and lakes are mostly a result
of endogenous processes like folding and faulting that are driven by forces from inside the earth.

Importance of Understanding the Earth’s Interior

The study of the earth’s interior is essential to understand the:

 structure of the earth’s interior (crust, mantle, core) and its surface,
 various forces (heat, seismic waves, magnetic field) emanating from the earth’s interior,
 various geological processes and geophysical phenomena (plate tectonics, volcanism, mountain
building, erosion, weathering) that shape the Earth's surface, its evolution, current shape, and its future
geophysical phenomenon like volcanism, earthquakes, etc.,
 understand the earth’s magnetic field,
 understand the internal structure of various solar system objects,
 understand the evolution and present composition of the atmosphere,
 understand the distribution of minerals and for mineral exploration, etc.
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Geophysical Phenomena Like Volcanism, Earthquakes

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• The forces that cause catastrophic events like earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions come from deep below
the earth’s surface. For example, earthquakes occur due to the movement of the tectonic plates and the
energy required for this movement is supplied by the conventional currents in the mantle. Similarly,
volcanism occurs through the vents and fissures created by tectonic movements.

Earth’s Magnetic Field

• Earth’s magnetic field is a result of convection currents in the outer core of the earth.
• Life on earth would not have been possible if not for the earth’s magnetic field which protects the earth’s
atmosphere from the harmful solar wind.

Internal Structure of Various Solar System Objects

• The entire solar system was formed from a single nebular cloud, and the formation process of every solar
system object is believed to be similar to that of the earth.

Evolution & Present Composition of The Atmosphere

• For life to flourish on the surface of the earth, the atmosphere needs to have essential components like
oxygen for respiration, CO2 and other greenhouse gases to maintain the temperature on the surface,
ozone to protect life from ultraviolet radiation and the right atmospheric pressure. All these compo-
nents of the earth’s atmosphere owe their existence to the volcanic eruptions that unlock them from the
earth’s interior.

Mineral Exploration
• Understanding volcanic activity and the nature of rocks is essential for mineral exploration. Most of the
minerals like diamonds that occur on the earth’s surface are formed deep below the earth’s surface (at a
depth of 150-800 km in the mantle). They are brought to the surface by volcanic activity.

4.3. Direct Sources of Information

• Deep earth mining and drilling reveal the nature of rocks deep down the surface. But as mining and drilling
are not practically possible beyond a certain depth, they don’t reveal much information about the earth’s
interior. Volcanic eruption forms another source of obtaining direct information.
• Mponeng (deepest mine in the world) and TauTona gold mines (second deepest mine) in South
Africa are the deepest mines reaching a depth of only 3.9 km. And the deepest drilling is only about a 12
km deep hole bored by the Soviet Union in the 1970s over the Kola Peninsula (between the White Sea &
Barents Sea).

4.4. Indirect Sources of Information

• Gravitation and the diameter of the earth help in estimating pressure deep inside. Volcanic eruptions and
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the existence of hot springs, geysers etc. point to a very hot interior.
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Seismic Waves
• Seismic waves (earthquake waves) are the most important source available to understand the layered
structure of the earth. The velocity of seismic waves changes as they travel through materials with different
elasticities and densities. The more elastic and denser the material is, the higher the velocity. They
also undergo reflection or refraction when they come across materials with different densities.
• Earth’s internal structure can be understood by analysing the patterns of reflection, refraction & change
in velocity of the seismic waves when they travel through it.

Meteorites
• Meteorites and Earth are born from the same nebular cloud. Thus, they are likely to have a similar internal
structure.
• When meteoroids fall to earth, their outer layer is burnt during their fall due to extreme friction and the
inner core is exposed. The heavy material composition of their cores confirms the similar composition
of the inner core of the earth.

Gravitation
• The gravitation force differs according to the mass of material. The uneven distribution of mass of mate-
rial within the earth influences this value. Such a difference is called a gravity anomaly. Gravity anomalies
give us information about the distribution of mass in the crust of the earth.

Magnetic field
• The geodynamo effect helps scientists understand what is happening inside the Earth's core. Shifts in the
magnetic field also provide clues to the inaccessible iron core.

Sources of Earth’s Internal Heat

Radioactive Decay
• The high temperature below the crust is attributed to the disintegration of the radioactive substances.
Nuclear decay happens primarily in the crust and the mantle.
• Scientists believe that uranium is sufficiently concentrated at the base of Earth’s mantle to ignite self-
57

sustained nuclear fission, as in a human-made reactor. The new measurements suggest radioactive de-
cay provides more than half of Earth's total heat.
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 Nuclear fusion doesn’t occur inside the earth. For nuclear fusion to occur there must be far more pressure
and temperature inside the earth. The earth is not massive enough to cause such conditions.

Primordial Heat
• The rest is the heat left over from Earth's formation known as the primordial heat. Primordial heat is the
kinetic energy transferred to Earth by external impacts of comets and meteorites & the subsequent
effects (friction caused by the sinking of heavy elements like iron, rising light elements like silicon) &
latent heat of crystallisation released as the core solidified (you will learn about latent heat in climatol-
ogy).

Tidal Friction
• The ocean tides are not the only effect of tidal forces (gravitational influence of the moon and the sun on
earth; tides are explained in oceanography). The solid body of the Earth also bulges slightly because of the
tidal forces.
• The daily flexing of the Earth (both solid body and the oceans) cause loss of energy of the Earth's rotation
due to friction. This energy goes into heat, leading to a minuscule increase in the Earth's internal temper-
ature.
• The loss of rotational energy means that the Earth is slowing down in its rotation rate, currently by
about 0.002 seconds per century.

4.5. Seismic Waves (Earthquake Waves)

 Seismic: relating to earthquakes or other vibrations of the earth and its crust.
• Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers and are a result of earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, magma movement, large landslides, and large human-made explosions.

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• The seismic waves or earthquake waves are basically of two types — body waves and surface waves. The
refraction or reflection of seismic waves is used for research into the structure of the Earth's interior.

Body Waves
• Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all directions travelling
through the interior of the earth. Hence, the name body waves. There are two types of body waves:
1) the P-waves or primary waves (longitudinal in nature ― wave propagation is similar to sound
waves), and
2) the S-waves or secondary waves (transverse in nature ― wave propagation is similar to ripples on
the surface of the water).

Primary Waves (P-Waves)

• Primary waves are called so because they are the fastest among the seismic waves and hence are recorded
first on the seismograph.
• P-waves are also called as the
 longitudinal waves because the displacement of the medium is in the same direction as, or the op-
posite direction to, (parallel to) the direction of propagation of the wave; or
 compressional waves because they produce compression and rarefaction when travelling through
a medium; or
 pressure waves because they produce a change in pressure in the medium.
• P-waves create density differences in the material leading to stretching (rarefaction) and squeezing
(compression) of the material.
• P-waves are of relatively high frequency and are the least destructive among the earthquake waves. The
trembling on the earth’s surface caused due to these waves is in the up-down direction (vertical).
• They can travel in all mediums, and their velocity depends on the shear strength (elasticity) of the
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medium. Hence, the velocity of the P-waves in Solids > Liquids > Gases. These waves take the form of
sound waves when they enter the atmosphere.
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• P-wave velocity in earthquakes is in the range of 5 to 8 km/s. The precise speed varies according to the
region of the Earth's interior, from less than 6 km/s in the Earth's crust to 13.5 km/s in the lower mantle,
and 11 km/s through the inner core.
 We usually say that the speed of sound waves depends on density. But there are few exceptions ― mercury
is denser than iron, but it is less elastic; hence the speed of sound in iron is greater than that in mercury.

Why Do P-Waves Travel Faster Than S-Waves?

• P-waves are about 1.7 times faster than the S-waves. P-waves are compression waves that apply a force
in the direction of propagation and hence transmit their energy quite easily through the medium and thus
travel quickly. On the other hand, S-waves are transverse waves or shear waves (the motion of the me-
dium is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave) and are hence less easily transmitted
through the medium.

P-Waves As An Earthquake Warning

• Advance earthquake warning is possible by detecting the non-destructive primary waves that travel
more quickly through the Earth's crust than do the destructive secondary and surface waves.
• Depending on the depth of focus of the earthquake, the delay between the arrival of the P-wave and
other destructive waves could be up to about 60 to 90 seconds (depending on the depth of the focus).
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Secondary Waves (S-Waves)

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• Secondary waves (secondary  they are recorded second on the seismograph) or S-waves are also called
transverse waves or shear waves or distortional waves. They are analogous to water ripples or light
waves. They arrive at the surface after the P-waves.
• Transverse waves or shear waves mean that the direction of vibrations of the particles in the medium is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the
material through which they pass (they distort the medium).
• These waves are of high frequency and possess slightly higher destructive power compared to P-
waves. The trembling on the earth’s surface caused due to these waves is from side to side (horizontal).
• S-waves cannot pass through fluids (liquids and gases) as fluids do not support shear stresses, unlike
solids. They travel at varying velocities (proportional to shear strength) through the solid part of the Earth.

Surface waves (L-Waves)

• The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate a new set of waves called surface waves
(long or L-waves). These waves move only along the surface. They are the slowest among the earth-
quake waves and are recorded last on the seismograph.
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• Surface Waves are also called long period waves because of their long wavelength. They are low-
frequency transverse waves (shear waves). They develop in the immediate neighbourhood of the
epicentre and affect only the surface of the earth and die out at smaller depths.
• They lose energy more slowly with distance than the body waves because they travel only across the
surface, unlike the body waves which travel in all directions.
• Particle motion of surface waves (amplitude) is larger than that of body waves, so surface waves are
the most destructive among the earthquake waves.

Love Waves
• Love waves are the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side to side.

Rayleigh Waves
• A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
• Because it rolls, Rayleigh Waves moves the ground up and down and side-to-side in the same direction
that the wave is moving.
• Most of the shaking and damage from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave.

How Do Seismic Waves Help In Understanding The Earth’s Interior?

• Seismic waves get recorded in seismographs located at far-off locations. Differences in arrival times,
waves taking different paths than expected (due to refraction) and the absence of seismic waves in
certain regions called shadow zones, allow mapping of the Earth's interior.
• Discontinuities in velocity as a function of depth are indicative of changes in composition and density.
That is, by observing the changes in velocity, the density and composition of the earth’s interior can be
estimated (change in densities greatly varies the wave velocity).
• Discontinuities in wave motion as a function of depth are indicative of changes in phase. That is, by
observing the changes in the direction of the waves, the emergence of shadow zone in different
layers can be identified.

Emergence of Shadow Zone of P-Waves & S-Waves

S Wave Shadow Zone
• S-waves do not travel through liquids (they are attenuated). The entire zone beyond 103° does not
receive S-waves, and hence this zone is identified as the shadow zone of S-waves. This observation led
to the discovery of the liquid outer core.

P Wave Shadow Zone

• The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band around the earth between 103° and 142° away from
the epicentre. This is because P-waves are refracted when they pass through the transition between the
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semisolid mantle and the liquid outer core.

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No Shadow Zone
• The seismographs located at any distance within 103° from the epicentre, recorded the arrival of both
P and S-waves. Since this layer (crust and mantle) can transmit shear waves (transverse seismic waves), it
is solid.

Shadow Zone For Both P Wave and S Wave

• The seismographs located beyond 142° from the epicentre, record the arrival of P-waves, but not that
of S-waves. This gives clues about the solid inner core. Thus, a zone between 103° and 142° from the
epicentre was identified as the shadow zone for both types of waves.

Why Do Sound Waves Travel Faster In A Denser Medium Whereas Light Travels Slower?
• The sound is a mechanical wave and travels by compression and rarefaction of the medium. A higher
density leads to more elasticity in the medium and hence the ease by which compression and rarefaction
can take place. This way the velocity of sound increases with an increase in density.
• Light, on the other hand, is a transverse electromagnetic wave. An increase in the density increases
effective path length, and hence it leads to a higher refractive index and lower velocity.
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 5. Earth’s Magnetic Field (Geomagnetic Field)

• Earth's magnetic field (geomagnetic field) is the magnetic field that extends from Earth's interior out
into space. In space, it interacts with the solar wind. This interaction shapes the earth’s magnetosphere.
• A 'field' is a region in which a body experiences a force owing to the presence of other bodies.
1. Gravitational fields determine how bodies with mass are attracted to each other.
2. In electric fields, objects that have an electric charge are attracted or repelled by each other.
3. Magnetic fields determine how electric currents that contain moving electric charges exert a force
on other electric currents. (Refer to PMF IAS NCERT Physics compilation to understand the concept of
“magnetic fields”)

 All magnets have two poles, a north pole and a south pole, and the north pole of one magnet is attracted
to the south pole of another magnet.

5.1. Magnetosphere

• The magnetosphere is the region above the ionosphere that is defined by the extent of the Earth's
magnetic field in space. It extends several tens of thousands of kilometres into space. It protects the
Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away the
upper atmosphere, including the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
• The solar wind is responsible for the overall shape of the magnetosphere. It is roughly shaped like a
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hemisphere on the side facing the Sun, then is drawn out in a long trail (magnetotail) on the opposite side.
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 The cosmic rays are kept out of the Solar system by the Sun's magnetosphere called the heliosphere.
Magnetopause
• The magnetopause is the boundary of the magnetosphere. It is the area where the pressures exerted
by the solar wind is balanced by the earth’s magnetic field. Despite its name, the magnetosphere is
asymmetric, with the sunward side being about 10 Earth radii out but the other side stretching out in a
magnetotail that extends beyond 200 Earth radii.

Bow Shock
• Sunward of the magnetopause is the bow shock, the area where the solar wind slows abruptly as a result
of its approach to the magnetopause.

Magnetosheath
• The turbulent magnetic region between the magnetopause and the bow shock is known as the mag-
netosheath.

Plasmasphere
• Plasmasphere is a region inside the magnetosphere that contains low-energy charged particles and
rotates with the Earth. It begins at the height of 60 km, extends up to 3 or 4 Earth radii, and includes the
ionosphere.

Auroras
• Aurora is the name given to the luminous glow in the upper atmosphere of the Earth which is produced
by charged particles (solar wind) descending from the planet's magnetosphere.
• Positive ions slowly drift westward, and negative ions drift eastward, giving rise to a ring current. This
current reduces the magnetic field at the Earth's surface.

5.2. Magnetosphere and Solar Wind

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• Some of these particles penetrate the ionosphere and collide with the atoms there. This results in an
excitation of the oxygen and nitrogen molecular electrons. The molecules get back to their original
state by emitting photons of light which are the aurorae.
• The charged particles follow magnetic field lines which are oriented in and out of our planet and its at-
mosphere near the magnetic poles. Therefore, aurorae mostly are seen to occur at high latitudes.

Geomagnetic Storms
• Solar activity drives the space weather (varying conditions in the magnetosphere). If the solar wind is
weak, the magnetosphere expands, if it is strong, it compresses the magnetosphere & more of it gets in.
• Periods of intense solar activity, called geomagnetic storms, occur when a coronal mass ejection erupts
above the Sun & sends a shock wave through the Solar System. It takes just two days for the shock wave
to reach the Earth. At the Earth's surface, a magnetic storm is seen as a rapid drop in the Earth's magnetic
field strength.
 Ring Current: Ring current is the name given to the large electric current that circles the Earth above its
equator during magnetic storms.

Effects of Geomagnetic Storms

• The ionosphere gets heated & distorted, which means that long-range radio communication that is
dependent upon sub-ionospheric reflection can be difficult.
• Ionospheric expansion can increase satellite drag, and it may become difficult to control their orbits.
• Geomagnetic storms disrupt satellite communication systems like GPS.
• Astronauts would face high radiation levels.
• Electric power grids would see a high increase in voltage that would cause blackouts.
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A Planet’s Magnetic Field Protects its Atmosphere

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• As the solar wind approaches a planet that has a well-developed magnetic field (such as Earth, Jupiter
and Saturn), the particles are deflected by the magnetosphere, which causes the particles to travel
around the planet rather than bombarding the atmosphere or surface. Whereas planets with a weak or
non-existent magnetosphere are subject to atmospheric stripping by the solar wind.
 Venus, the nearest and most similar planet to Earth in the Solar System, has an atmosphere 100 times
denser than our own, with little or no geomagnetic field. This is a strange exception.

Van Allen Radiation Belt

• A Van Allen radiation belt is a zone of charged particles, most of which originate from the solar wind,
that are captured by and held around a planet by that planet's magnetic field. There are two such
concentric tire-shaped regions. The inner belt is 1–2 Earth radii out while the outer belt is at 4–7 Earth radii.
By trapping the solar wind, these belts deflect the energetic particles and protect the atmosphere.
• The belts endanger satellites, which must have their sensitive components protected with adequate
shielding if they spend significant time near that zone. Spacecraft travelling beyond low Earth orbit
enter the zone of radiation of the Van Allen belts. Beyond the belts, they face additional hazards from
cosmic rays and solar particle events.

5.3. Magnetic Field of Solar System Objects

Moon
• The magnetic field of the Moon is very weak and doesn’t have a magnetic dipole. It is not strong enough
to prevent atmospheric stripping by the solar wind.

Mercury
• Mercury's magnetic field is approximately a magnetic dipole (meaning the field has two poles) and is just
1.1% that of Earth's magnetic field. Its proximity to the sun makes it next to impossible to sustain an
atmosphere.

Mars
• Mars does not have an intrinsic global magnetic field, but the solar wind directly interacts with the
atmosphere of Mars, leading to the formation of a weak magnetosphere.
• The lack of a significant magnetosphere is thought to be one reason for Mars's thin atmosphere.

Venus
• Venus lacks a magnetic field. Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar
wind.
• Despite the absence of a magnetic field, Venus’s atmosphere is one of the densest among the terrestrial
planets.
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Jupiter
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• Jupiter has the largest magnetic field and a thick atmosphere.

Saturn
• Saturn's magnetosphere is the second largest of any planet in the Solar System after Jupiter.
• Uranus and Neptune too have a significant and similar magnetic field.

5.4. Dynamo Theory: Generation of Earth’s Magnetic Field and Sustaining it

• Dynamo theory proposes a mechanism by which a celestial body such as Earth or a star generates a
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magnetic field and sustains it over astronomical time scales (millions of years). It suggests that convection
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 in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect (caused due to the rotation of the earth), gives
rise to the self-sustaining (geodynamo) Earth's magnetic field.
• Mechanism: The temperature of the outer core ranges from 4400 °C in the outer regions to 6000 °C near
the inner core. The differences in temperature, pressure, and composition cause convection currents in
the molten iron of the outer core as cool, dense matter sinks while warm, less dense matter rises.
• The convection currents (flow of liquid iron) generate electric currents, which in turn produce magnetic
fields. Charged metals passing through these fields go on to create electric currents of their own, and so
the cycle continues.
• This self-sustaining loop is known as the geodynamo. The spiral movement of the charged particles
caused by the Coriolis force means that separate magnetic fields created are roughly aligned in the same
direction, their combined effect adding up to produce one vast magnetic field of the planet.

5.5. Magnetic Poles

• The north magnetic pole is the point where the geomagnetic field lines are directed vertically down-
wards. The south magnetic pole is the point where the geomagnetic field lines are directed vertically
upwards.
• If a compass needle is allowed to rotate in three dimensions, it will point straight down at the north
magnetic pole (the only point where this occurs) and straight up at the south magnetic pole (the only
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point where this occurs).

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• The Earth's North and South Magnetic Poles are also known as Magnetic Dip Poles because of the ver-
tical dip of the magnetic field lines at those points.
• Since the Earth's magnetic field is not exactly symmetrical, the North & South magnetic poles are not
antipodal. However, the magnetic poles are usually close to the geographic poles, which is why a
compass works.

Antipodal: situated on the opposite side of the earth. An antipodal line drawn between two
surface points passes through the centre. E.g., Earth’s Rotational AxisPoles of Earth’s
Magnetic Field
• The north and south poles of a magnet are defined based on the Earth's magnetic field, not vice versa. A
magnet's North pole is defined as the pole that is attracted by the Earth's North Magnetic Pole when
the magnet is suspended so it can turn freely. Since opposite poles attract, the North magnetic pole of
the Earth is really the South pole of its magnetic field (the place where the field is directed downward
into the Earth).

Geomagnetic Poles

• As an approximation, the earth's magnetic field is represented by a field of a geomagnetic (magnetic)

dipole. The Geomagnetic poles (opposite ends of the geomagnetic dipole) are the intersections of
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the Earth's surface and the axis of a bar magnet hypothetically placed at the Earth’s centre. Approx-
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imately, the geomagnetic dipole is currently tilted at about 11 degrees to Earth's rotational axis.
• The North geomagnetic pole represents the South pole of Earth's magnetic field, and conversely, the
South geomagnetic pole corresponds to the north pole of Earth's magnetic field.
• The difference in the position of the magnetic poles (where the magnetic needle becomes vertical)
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and the geomagnetic poles (earth as a simple bar magnet) is due to the uneven and complex distribu-
tion of the earth’s magnetic field.
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Geomagnetic Reversal
 The terms magnetic north (N magnetic pole) and magnetic south (S magnetic pole) are not to be
confused with geographic north and geographic south (poles of the earth’s rotational axis), and geomagnetic
north and geomagnetic south, respectively.
• Earth's magnetic field is approximately a magnetic dipole (a pair of equal and opposite magnetic poles
of opposite signs separated by a distance), with the magnetic north near the geographic north pole
and the magnetic south near the geographic south pole. This makes the compass usable for naviga-
tion.

 A geomagnetic reversal or a reversal in earth’s magnetic dipole is a change in earth’s magnetic field such
that the positions of magnetic north and magnetic south are interchanged. Based on palaeomag-
netism, it is observed that over the last 20 million years, magnetic north and south have flipped (alternated
between periods of normal polarity and reverse polarity) roughly every 200,000 to 300,000 years.
 Palaeomagnetism: magnetism induced in rocks by the earth's magnetic field at the time of their formation.
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• The geomagnetic reversal is not 'periodic' as it is on the sun, whose magnetic field reverses every 11
years. The time between geomagnetic magnetic reversals may be as short as 10,000 years and as long as
25 million years. And the time it takes to reverse could be about a few hundred or a few thousand years.
The magnetic poles emerging at odd latitudes throughout the process of the reversal.

Normal and Reversed Magnetic Field

 In Normal Polarity, Earth’s North Magnetic Pole (the South Pole of earth’s Magnetic Field) lies close
to the Geographic North Pole (Ture North: point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of
rotation meets its surface).
 In Reverse Polarity, Earth’s North Magnetic Pole (the South Pole of earth’s Magnetic Field) lies close
to the Geographic South Pole (Ture South: point in the Southern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of
rotation meets its surface).

The Current Location of the Magnetic Poles

• The North and South Magnetic Poles wander (Polar Shift Theory) due to changes in Earth’s magnetic field.
• The North Magnetic Pole (86.50°N and 164.04°E) lies to the north of Ellesmere Island in northern Canada
and is rapidly drifting towards Siberia.
• The location of the South Magnetic Pole (64.07°S and 135.88°E) is currently off the coast of Antarctica and
even outside the Antarctic Circle.
• Scientists suggest that the north magnetic pole migrates about 10 km per year. Lately, the speed has
accelerated to about 40 km per year and could reach Siberia in a few decades.

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5.6. Compass

• A compass needle points towards the magnetic north because the earth, which acts like a giant magnet,
has the south pole of its magnetic field at the magnetic north.
• Earth’s magnetic dipole field (simple north-south field like that of a simple bar magnet) is usually aligned
fairly closely with the Earth's rotational axis, which is why a compass works. However, the compass
doesn't always point exactly north (geographic north). This is because the Earth's magnetic North Pole is
not the same as "True North (Earth's Geographic North Pole)." Although the magnetic declination (devi-
ation from true north) does shift with time, this wandering is slow enough that a simple compass remains
useful for navigation.
 Using magnetoreception various organisms, ranging from some types of bacteria, sea turtles, some migratory
birds, pigeons, etc. use the Earth's magnetic field for orientation and navigation.

Magnetic Declination
• Magnetic declination is the angle between magnetic north and true north. It is positive when the angle
derived is east of the true north, and it is considered negative when the angle measured is west of the true
north.
• Importance: To stay on the right course, ships and other long-distance means of transport that rely on
the compass for navigation should make necessary corrections to account for magnetic declination at
different latitudes & longitudes.

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 Similar but different: Magnetic deviation is the error of a compass needle due to the influence of nearby
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metallic objects.
In which direction would a compass needle point if you were standing at the true North Pole?
It would point towards the magnetic north pole.
Magnetic Inclination or Magnetic Dip or Dip Angle
• Magnetic inclination is the angle made with the horizontal by the Earth's magnetic field lines. In simple
terms, it is the angle made by a compass needle when the compass is held in a vertical orientation.
• Importance: In aviation, magnetic dip causes the aeroplane's compass to give erroneous readings during
banked turns & airspeed changes. Necessary corrections must be made to stay on the right course.
 The magnetic dip at the magnetic equator is 0°, and at the magnetic poles, it is 90°.
• The magnetic equator is the irregular imaginary line, passing around the earth near the equator, on which
a magnetic needle has no dip (because magnetic field lines are parallel to the horizontal at the equator).
Again, the magnetic equator, like the magnetic field and poles, is not fixed.

[UPSC Prelims 2005] Consider the following statements:

1. The Axis of the earth's magnetic field is inclined at 23 and half to the geographic axis of the earth.
2. The earth's magnetic pole in the Northern Hemisphere is located on a Peninsula in Northern Canada.
3. The earth's magnetic equator passes through Thumba in South India.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

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a) 1, 2 and 3
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 b) 2 and 3
c) 2 only
d) 3 only

Explanation:
• Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) near Thiruvananthapuram was built to launch
sounding rockets (two-stage solid propellant rockets used for space research) in the 1960s and 70s. The
presence of a strong equatorial electrojet (current flowing eastward in the equatorial region of the
Earth's ionosphere) current over Thumba, which was also very close to the geomagnetic equator,
made it an ideal site for the launch of sounding rockets.
• The Axis of the earth's magnetic field is inclined at 11° to the geographic axis of the earth. The
North Magnetic Pole (86.50°N and 164.04°E) lies to the north of Ellesmere Island in northern Canada
and is rapidly drifting towards Siberia. So (d) 3 only is the answer.

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 6. Geomorphic Movements

• Earth’s crust and its surface are constantly evolving (changing) due to various forces emanating from below
(endogenic forces) as well as above the surface of the earth (exogenic forces). These forces cause phys-
ical and chemical changes to the geomorphic structure (earth’s surface). Some of these changes are im-
perceptibly slow (e.g., weathering, folding), some others are gradual (e.g., erosion) while the remaining are
quite sudden (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions).
 Geomorphic: relating to the form of the landscape and other natural features of the earth's surface.
 Geomorphic agents: mobile medium (like running water, glaciers, wind, waves, currents etc.) which removes,
transports and deposits earth materials.
 Geomorphic processes: physical and chemical processes that take place on the earth’s surface (folding,
faulting, weathering, erosion, etc.) due to endogenic and exogenic forces.
 Geomorphic movements: large-scale physical and chemical changes that take place on the earth’s surface
due to geomorphic processes.

6.1. Endogenic Geomorphic Movements

• The large-scale movements on the earth’s crust or its surface brought down by the forces emanating
from deep below the earth’s surface are called endogenic geomorphic movements or simply endo-
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genic movements (endo: internal; genic: origin; geo: earth; morphic: form). The geomorphic processes that
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 are driven by the forces emanating from deep below the earth’s surface are called endogenic geomorphic
processes (folding, faulting, etc.).

The Force Behind Endogenic Movements

• The ultimate source of energy behind forces that drive endogenic movements is the earth’s internal heat
generated as a result of mainly radioactive decay (50% of the earth’s internal heat) and gravitation (causes
pressure gradients).
• Differences in temperature (geothermal gradients) and pressure (pressure gradients) among various layers
of the earth give rise to density differences and these density differences give rise to conventional cur-
rents.
• Convectional currents in the mantle drive the lithospheric plates (crust and upper mantle), and the
movement of the lithospheric plates (tectonics) is the cause behind endogenic movements.
• The Earth’s rotation (Coriolis effect) can influence where convection currents travel, and the destination
of convection currents determines the nature and location of the endogenic movements.

Classification of Endogenic Movements

• Endogenic movements are divided into diastrophic movements and sudden movements.
• Diastrophism refers to the deformation of the Earth's crust. Diastrophic movements are gradual and
might stretch for thousands of years. On the other hand, sudden movements like earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions occur in a very short period.
• Diastrophic movements are further classified into epeirogenic movements (continent forming ― sub-
sidence, upliftment) and orogenic movements (mountain building ― folding, faulting).

Diastrophism
• Diastrophism refers to the deformation of the Earth's crust due to diastrophic movements (deforming
movements) such as folding, faulting, warping (bending or twisting of a large area) and fracturing.
All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth’s crust come under diastrophism. They
include:
1. orogenic processes involving mountain building through severe folding (crust is severely deformed
into folds) and affecting long and narrow belts of the earth’s crust;
2. epeirogenic processes involving uplift or warping of large parts of the earth’s crust (simple defor-
mation);
3. earthquakes and volcanism involving local relatively minor movements;
4. plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates.
• The most obvious evidence of diastrophic movement can be seen where sedimentary rocks have been
bent, broken or tilted.
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Epeirogenic or Continent Forming Movements

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• Epeirogenic or continent-forming movements are radial movements (act along the radius of the earth).
Their direction may be towards (subsidence) or away (uplift) from the centre. They cause upheavals or
depressions of land exhibiting undulations (wavy surface) of long wavelengths and little folding. The
broad central parts of continents are called cratons and are subject to epeirogeny, hence the name con-
tinent forming movements.

Uplift
• Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea caves and fossiliferous beds above sea level are
evidence of upliftment. In India, raised beaches occur at several places along the Kathiawar, Nellore, and
Tirunelveli coasts.
• Several places which were on the sea some centuries ago are now a few miles inland due to upliftment.
For example, Coringa near the mouth of the Godavari, Kaveripattinam in the Kaveri delta and Korkai
on the coast of Tirunelveli, were all flourishing seaports about 1,000 to 2,000 years ago.

Subsidence
• Submerged forests and valleys, as well as buildings, are evidence of subsidence.
• In 1819, a part of the Rann of Kachchh was submerged as a result of an earthquake.
• Presence of peat and lignite beds below sea level in Tirunelveli and the Sundarbans is an example of
subsidence.
• The Andamans and Nicobars have been isolated from the Arakan Coast by submergence of the inter-
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vening land.
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• On the east side of Bombay Island, trees have been found embedded in the mud about 4 m below low
water mark. A similar submerged forest has also been noticed on the Tirunelveli coast in Tamil Nadu.
• A large part of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait is very shallow and has been submerged in geologically
recent times. A part of the former town of Mahabalipuram near Chennai is submerged in the sea.

Orogenic or Mountain-Forming Movements

• In contrast to epeirogenic movement, the orogenic movement is a more complicated deformation of the
Earth's crust, associated with crustal thickening (due to the convergence of tectonic plates).
• Orogenic movements act tangentially to the earth’s surface and form orogenic belts (mountain ranges)
that are characterised by the folding and faulting of layers of rock, the intrusion of magma, and by volcan-
ism.
• Tension produces fissures (since this type of force acts away from a point in opposite directions), and
compression produces folds (because this type of force acts towards a point from two or more directions).

Fissure and Fold

Sudden Movements
• Sudden geomorphic movements occur mostly at the lithospheric (tectonic) plate margins and cause
considerable deformation over a short period. The plate margins are highly unstable due to pressure cre-
ated by pushing and pulling of magma by convectional currents in the mantle.

Earthquakes
• Earthquakes occur when the surplus accumulated stress in rocks in the earth's interior due to folding,
faulting or other changes is relieved through the weak zones over the earth's surface in the form of kinetic
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energy (seismic waves). Such movements may result in uplift or subsidence in coastal areas.
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• An earthquake in New Zealand (1885) caused an uplift of up to 3 metres. An earthquake in Japan (1891)
caused subsidence of up to 6 metres. Earthquakes may cause a change in contours, change in river
courses, shoreline changes, glacial surges (as in Alaska), landslides, soil creeps, mass wasting etc.

Volcanoes
• A volcano is formed when the molten rock (magma) in the earth's interior escapes through the narrow
vents and fissures in the crust, accompanied by steam, gases (hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, hy-
drogen chloride, carbon dioxide etc.) and pyroclastic material (cloud of ash, lava fragments carried
through the air, and vapour).

6.2. Exogenic Geomorphic Movements

• The geomorphic processes on the earth’s crust or its surface brought down by the forces emanating from
above the earth’s surface (wind, water) are called exogenic geomorphic processes. The exogenic geo-
morphic process gives rise to exogenic geomorphic movements or simply exogenic movements such as
weathering and erosion.
• The effects of most of the exogenic geomorphic processes are small and slow but will, in the long run,
affect the rocks severely due to continued fatigue.
• Sun’s energy dictates the weather patterns like winds, precipitation, etc. Sun’s heat along with weather
patterns is responsible for stress-induced in earth materials giving rise to exogenic movements (weather-
ing and erosion).

Denudation
• All the exogenic processes (weathering and erosion) are covered under a general term, denudation. The
word ‘denude’ means to strip off or to uncover. Denudation depends on physical (folds, faults, orientation
and inclination of beds, presence or absence of joints, bedding planes, hardness or softness of constituent
minerals, permeability) and chemical (chemical susceptibility of mineral constituents to corrosion) proper-
ties of the rocks.

Weathering
• Weathering is the disintegration of rocks, soil, and minerals under the influence of physical (heat, pres-
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sure) and chemical (leaching, oxidation and reduction, hydration) agents. As very little or no motion of
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 materials takes place in weathering, it is an in-situ or on-site process. The weathered material is carried
farther away by erosion.
• There are three major groups of weathering processes: 1) chemical; 2) physical or mechanical; 3) bio-
logical weathering processes. All the types of weathering often go hand in hand.

Significance Of Weathering
• Weathering is the first step in the formation of soil from rocks.
• Weathering weakens soil and rocks and makes it easy to exploit natural resources.
• Weathering leads to natural soil enrichment.
• Weathering leads to mineral enrichment of certain ores by leaching unwanted minerals and leaving be-
hind the valuable ones.

Physical Weathering Processes

• Physical weathering involves mechanical disintegration of rocks due to molecular stresses induced by
temperature changes, shear stresses ― separating forces produced by pushing or pulling, freeze-thaw
cycles, wet-dry cycles, crystallisation of salts, animal and plant activity, etc.

Exfoliation Due to Pressure Release or Unloading

• Intrusive igneous rocks formed deep beneath the Earth's surface are under tremendous pressure due to
overlying load. Removal of the overlying load because of continued erosion causes vertical pressure re-
lease with the result that the upper layers of the rock expand and fracture parallel to the surface.
• Over time, sheets of rock break away from the exposed rocks along the fractures, a process known as
exfoliation. Exfoliation due to pressure release is also known as "sheeting".

Exfoliation Due to Thermal Stress Weathering

• Thermal stress weathering results from the subsequent expansion and contraction of rocks caused by
diurnal and seasonal variations in the temperatures. The surface layers of the rocks tend to expand more
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than the rock at depth, and this leads to peeling off of the surface layers (exfoliation).
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• Thermal stress weathering is most effective in dry climates and high elevations where diurnal temper-
ature changes are drastic. Although temperature changes are the principal driver, moisture can enhance
thermal expansion in rock.

Granular Disintegration

• Granular disintegration happens in rocks composed of different types of coarse-grained minerals. Dark-
coloured minerals absorb more heat than light-coloured minerals. This leads to differential expansion
and contraction of mineral grains resulting in grain-by-grain separation from the rock.

Frost Weathering
• Frost weathering is the collective name for several processes where ice is present. These processes include
frost shattering, frost-wedging and freeze-thaw weathering.
• During the cold season, the water present in the pore spaces or fractures in rocks freezes into ice, and its
volume expands. The repeated freeze-thaw cycles exert tremendous pressure on rock walls and tear apart
even where the rocks are massive.

Frost Wedging
• In frost wedging, cracks filled with water are forced further apart with subsequent freezing and thawing.

Block Separation (Freeze-Thaw Weathering)

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• Repeated freeze-thaw cycles weaken the rocks which, over time, break up along the joints into angular
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pieces. The splitting of rocks along the joints into blocks is called block disintegration.
Shattering
• Severe frost can disintegrate rocks along weak zones to produce highly angular pieces with sharp corners
and edges. Shattering piles up rock fragments called scree at the foot of mountain areas or along slopes.

Salt Weathering
• Salt weathering occurs when saline solutions seep into cracks and joints in the rocks and evaporate, leaving
salt crystals behind. Salt crystals expand during the crystallisation process and when they are subjected
to above-normal temperatures. The expansion in near-surface pores causes the splitting of individual
grains within rocks, eventually falling off (granular disintegration or granular foliation).
• Salt weathering is normally associated with arid climates where strong heating causes strong evaporation
and crystallisation.

Mass Wasting (Slope Failure) or Mass Movements

• Mass wasting is the mass movement of unconsolidated soil, sand, rocks, regolith (the layer of unconsoli-
dated solid material covering the bedrock of a planet), etc. along a slope under the influence of gravity.
The movements of mass may include creep, flow, slide and fall.
• Materials over the slopes (slope failure) have their own resistance to disturbing forces. They will yield only
when the acting gravitational force is greater than the shearing resistance of the materials. Timescales of
the mass wasting process may be a few seconds (debris flows and mudflows) or hundreds of years (mass
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wasting along the slopes of stable mountains leaving behind alluvial fan-like structures).
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Causes
• Weak unconsolidated materials, thinly bedded rocks, faults, steeply dipping beds, vertical cliffs or steep
slopes, abundant precipitation and torrential rains and scarcity of vegetation etc., favour mass movements.
Several activating causes precede mass movements. They are:
 removal of support from below to materials above through natural or artificial means;
 increase in gradient and height of slopes;
 overloading through the addition of materials naturally or by artificial filling (like in the case of hydro-
electricity projects in the Himalayas);
 overloading due to heavy rainfall, saturation and lubrication of slope materials — occurs in the
Western Ghats during the rainy season;
 removal of material or load from over the original slope surfaces;
 occurrence of earthquakes (like in the tectonically active Himalayas), explosions or machinery (like
in the mining activity in the Western Ghats);
 excessive natural seepage;
 heavy drawdown of water from lakes, reservoirs and rivers leading to slow outflow of water from under
the slopes or river banks;
 indiscriminate removal of natural vegetation — occurs in the Western Ghats due to plantation agri-
culture. The roots of the plantation crops don’t go as deep. The tree density is also very low com-
pared to the natural vegetation.

Slow Movements
• Creep is one type under this category which can occur on moderately steep, soil-covered slopes. The
movement of materials is extremely slow and imperceptible except through extended observation. Mate-
rials involved can be soil or rock debris. Fence posts and telephone poles lean downslope from their vertical
position due to the creep effect.
• Depending upon the type of material involved, several types of creep viz., soil creep, talus creep, rock
creep, rock-glacier creep etc., can be identified.
• Also included in this group is solifluction which involves slow downslope flowing soil mass or fine-
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grained rock debris saturated or lubricated with water. This process is quite common in moist
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 temperate areas where surface melting of deeply frozen ground and long-continued rain respectively,
occur frequently.

Rapid Movements
• These movements are most prevalent in humid climatic regions and occur over gentle to steep slopes.

Earthflow
• Movement of water-saturated clayey or silty earth materials down low-angle terraces or hillsides is known
as earthflow. Quite often, the materials slump making steplike terraces and leaving arcuate scarps at their
heads and an accumulation bulge at the toe. When slopes are steeper, even the bedrock especially of soft
sedimentary rocks like shale or deeply weathered igneous rock may slide downslope.

Mudflows
• In the absence of vegetation cover and heavy rainfall, thick layers of weathered materials get saturated
with water and either slowly or rapidly flow down along definite channels. It looks like a stream of mud
within a valley. When the mudflows emerge from channels onto the piedmont or plains, they can be very
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destructive engulfing roads, bridges, and houses.

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• Mudflows (lahars) occur frequently on the slopes of erupting or recently erupted volcanoes. Volcanic ash,
dust and other fragments turn into mud due to heavy rains and flow down as tongues or streams of mud
causing great destruction to human habitations.
• In the Andes mountains of South America and the Rockies mountains of North America, there are a few
volcanoes which erupted during the last decade, and very devastating mudflows occurred down their
slopes during an eruption as well as after eruption.

Debris Avalanche
• Debris avalanche is more characteristic of humid regions with or without vegetation cover and occurs in
narrow tracks on steep slopes. This debris avalanche is similar to a snow avalanche and can be much faster
than mudflow.

Landslides

• These are relatively rapid and perceptible movements. The materials involved are relatively dry. The size
and shape of the detached mass depend on the nature of discontinuities in the rock, the degree of weath-
ering and the steepness of the slope. Depending upon the type of movement of materials several types
are identified in this category.
 Slump is the slipping of one or several units of rock debris with a backward rotation with respect to
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the slope over which the movement takes place.

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  Rapid rolling or sliding of earth debris without backward rotation of mass is known as debris slide.
 Debris fall is nearly a free fall of earth debris from a vertical or overhanging face.
 Sliding of individual rock masses down bedding, joint or fault surfaces is rockslide. Over steep slopes,
rock sliding is very fast and destructive.

Weathering and Mass Movements

• Gravity exerts its force on all matter, both bedrock and the products of weathering. So, weathering is not
a pre-requisite for mass movement though it aids mass movements. Mass movements are very active over
weathered slopes rather than over un-weathered materials.

Difference Between Mass Movements and Erosion

• Mass movements are aided by gravity and no geomorphic agent like running water, glaciers, wind, waves,
and currents participate in the process of mass movements. That means mass movements do not come
under erosion though there is a shift (aided by gravity) of materials from one place to another.

Landslides in India
• In our country, debris avalanches and landslides occur very frequently in the Himalayas. There are many
reasons for this. One, the Himalayas are tectonically active. They are mostly made up of sedimentary
rocks and unconsolidated and semi-consolidated deposits. The slopes are very steep.
• Compared to the Himalayas, the Nilgiris bordering Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and the Western Ghats
along the west coast are relatively tectonically stable and are mostly made up of very hard rocks; but
still, debris avalanches and landslides occur though not as frequently as in the Himalayas, in these hills.
• Many slopes in the Western Ghats and Nilgiris are steeper with almost vertical cliffs and escarpments.
Mechanical weathering due to temperature changes and ranges is pronounced. They receive heavy
rainfall over short periods. So, there is almost direct rock fall quite frequently in these places along with
landslides and debris avalanches.

[UPSC Mains 2021] Differentiate the causes of landslides in the Himalayan region and the
Western Ghats.
Along with the above-mentioned points, one must also consider the impacts of anthropogenic activities
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•
like road construction, tourism, plantation agriculture, etc.
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Chemical Weathering
• Chemical weathering involves the chemical decomposition of rocks and soil due to the loosening of
bonds between grains. The processes include dissolution, solution, carbonation, hydration, oxidation,
and reduction. These weathering processes are interrelated and go hand in hand and hasten the weath-
ering process.
• Acids produced by microbial and plant-root metabolism, water and air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) along
with heat speed up all chemical reactions.

Natural Dissolution
 Dissolution: a process where a solute in a gaseous, liquid, or solid phase dissolves in a solvent to form a
solution.
• Some minerals, due to their natural solubility (like nitrates, sulphates, and potassium) and oxidation po-
tential (iron-rich minerals) will weather through dissolution naturally (due to rains). These minerals are
easily leached out without leaving any residue and accumulate in dry regions.

Solution Weathering
 A solution is a liquid mixture in which the minor component (the solute) is uniformly distributed within the
major component (the solvent).
• Solution weathering occurs when the solvent is an acidic solution rather than simple water. Acidic so-
lutions are any solution that has a higher concentration of hydrogen ions than water; solutions that have
a lower concentration of hydrogen ions than water is called basic or alkaline solutions.

Carbonation – Natural Solution Weathering

 Carbonation refers to reactions of carbon dioxide to give carbonates, bicarbonates, and carbonic acid.
• Carbonation weathering is a process in which atmospheric carbon dioxide leads to solution weathering.
As rain falls, it dissolves small amounts of carbon dioxide from the air, forming a weak acid that can dissolve
some minerals like limestone (calcium carbonate) (solution weathering).
• When carbonic acid reacts with limestone, it produces calcium bicarbonate, partially soluble in water (dis-
solution weathering).
• Caves are formed when underground water containing carbonic acid travels through blocks of limestone,
dissolves out the limestone, and leaves empty pockets (caves) behind (E.g. Karst topography).
• Carbonation process speeds up with a decrease in temperature because colder water holds more dis-
solved carbon dioxide gas. Carbonation is, therefore, a large feature of glacial weathering.

Anthropogenic Solution Weathering

• Acid rain occurs when gases such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are present in the atmosphere.
These oxides react in the rainwater to produce stronger acids and can lower the pH to less than 4. These
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acids can attack certain kinds of rocks in much the way carbonic acid does.
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 Rainfall is naturally acidic ― pH of ~5.6 (CO2 dissolves in the rainwater producing weak carbonic acid).
 Sulphur dioxide, SO2, comes from volcanic eruptions or fossil fuels. The conversion of metallic ores to pure
metals often results in the formation of sulphur dioxide.

Hydration
 Hydration is the chemical addition of water that involves the rigid attachment of H+ and OH- ions to the
atoms and molecules of a mineral.
• When rock minerals take up water, the increased volume creates physical stresses within the rock. For
example, iron oxides are converted to iron hydroxides which are larger in volume. Hydration is reversible,
and continued repetition of this process causes fatigue in the rocks and may disintegrate them. The volume
changes will also help in physical weathering through exfoliation & granular disintegration.

Hydrolysis
 Biological hydrolysis is a process in which a water molecule is consumed to affect the separation of a
larger molecule into parts.
• In biological hydrolysis pure water reacts with silicate or carbonate minerals resulting in the dissolution
of the original mineral (dissolution weathering).
• Biological hydrolysis is an important reaction in controlling the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere and
can affect climate.

Oxidation and Reduction

• In weathering, oxidation means a combination of a mineral with oxygen to form oxides (rusting in the
case of iron) or hydroxides. Red soils appear red due to the presence of iron oxides. Oxidation occurs
when there is ready access to the atmosphere and water. The minerals most involved in this process are
iron, manganese, sulphur etc.
• When oxidised minerals are placed in an environment where oxygen is absent, reduction occurs. Such
conditions usually exist below the water table, in stagnant water and on waterlogged ground. The red
colour of iron upon reduction turns to greenish or bluish grey.

Biological Activity and Weathering

• Biological weathering is the removal of minerals from the environment due to the growth or movement
of organisms.
• Living organisms contribute to both mechanical and chemical weathering.
• Lichens and mosses grow on essentially bare rock surfaces and create a more humid chemical microenvi-
ronment.
• On a larger scale, seedlings sprouting in a crevice and plant roots exert physical pressure and provide a
pathway for water and chemical infiltration.
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• Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms, rodents etc., help expose the new surfaces to
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chemical attack and assist in the penetration of moisture and air.

• Decaying plant and animal matter help produce humic, carbonic and other acids which enhance the
decay and solubility of some elements.
• Algae utilise mineral nutrients for growth and help in the concentration of iron and manganese oxides.

Soil Erosion, another exogenic movement, is covered in detail in PMF IAS Environment.

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 7. Tectonics

• The discovery of ridges, trenches, seamounts, and other oceanic relief features during WW II gave rise to
the field of tectonics and gave insights into natural boundaries between various tectonic (lithospheric)
plates.
• Tectonics is the scientific study of forces (convection currents in the mantle) and processes (collisions
of the lithospheric plates, folding, faulting, volcanism) that control the structure of the Earth's crust and its
evolution. It is basically about understanding the large-scale deformation of the lithosphere (crust and
upper mantle above asthenosphere) and the forces that produce such deformation.
• The field of tectonics deals mainly with the study of:
1. folding and faulting associated with mountain building (orogeny);
2. large-scale, gradual upward and downward movements of the crust (epeirogenic movements);
3. growth and behaviour of old cores of continents known as cratons; and
4. sudden horizontal displacements (that produce seismic waves) along faults.

7.1. Major Concepts That Tried to Explain the Tectonic Processes

 Continental Drift Theory (CDT): Continental drift refers to the movement of the continents relative to
each other.
 Polar wandering (similar to Continental Drift Theory): Polar wandering is the relative movement of the
earth's crust and upper mantle with respect to the rotational poles of the earth.
 Seafloor Spreading Theory (SST): It describes the movement of oceanic plates relative to one another.
 Plate Tectonics (PT): Plate tectonics is the movement of lithospheric plates relative to each other.
 Convection Current Theory (CCT): Convection current theory forms the basis for SST and PT. It explains
the force behind plate movements.

7.2. Continental Drift Theory

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Page 94
• A German geophysicist named Alfred Wegener suggested Continental Drift Theory (CDT) in 1912. Ac-
cording to CDT, there existed one big landmass called Pangaea which was covered by one big ocean
called Panthalassa. A sea called Tethys divided the Pangaea into two huge landmasses: Laurentia (Laur-
asia) to the north and Gondwanaland to the south of Tethys. Drift started around 200 million years ago
(Mesozoic Era  Triassic Period  Late Triassic Epoch), and the continents began to break up and drift
away from one another.

Forces Behind The Drifting Of Continents (According to Wegener)

• According to Wegener, the drift was in two directions:
1. equator wards due to the interaction of forces of gravity, pole-fleeing force (due to centrifugal
force caused by earth’s rotation) and buoyancy (e.g. a ship floats on water due to the buoyant force
offered by the water), and
2. westwards due to tidal currents because of the earth’s motion (earth rotates from west to east, so
tidal currents act from east to west, according to Wegener).
• Centrifugal force, caused by the rotation of the earth, increases as we move from the poles towards the
equator. This increase in centrifugal force has led to pole fleeing, according to Wegener.
 Earth is not a perfect sphere; it has a bulge at the equator. This bulge is due to the rotation of the earth
(greater centrifugal force at the equator).
• Wegener suggested that tidal force also played a major role. The tidal force is due to the attraction of the
moon and the sun that develops tides in oceanic waters (the concept of tides is explained in detail in
Oceanography).
• According to Wegener, these forces would become effective when applied over many million years, and
the drift is continuing.

Evidence in Support of Continental Drift

[UPSC Mains 2013] What do you understand by the theory of continental drift? Discuss the
prominent evidence in its support.

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Apparent Affinity of Physical Features
• The bulge of Brazil (South America) seems to fit into the Gulf of Guinea (Africa).
• Greenland seems to fit in well with the Ellesmere and Baffin islands of Canada.
• The west coast of India, Madagascar and Africa seem to have been joined.
• North and South America on one side and Africa and Europe on the other fit along the mid-Atlantic ridge.
• The very old fold mountain chains, the Caledonian and the Hercynian mountains of Europe and the Appa-
lachians of the USA seem to be one continuous series.

The Caledonians of Europe & The Appalachians of the USA

Continuous Very Old Fold Mountain Chain

Criticism
• Coastlines are a temporary feature and are liable to change over the years. The mountains do not always
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exhibit geological affinity.

• Several other combinations of fitting in of unrelated landforms could be easily attempted.
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Botanical Evidence

Fossils across the Gondwanaland (Source: USGS)

• Presence of glossopteris vegetation in Carboniferous rocks of India, Australia, South Africa, Falkland Is-
lands (Overseas territory of UK), Antarctica, etc. (all split from the same landmass called Gondwana) can
be explained from the fact that parts were linked in the past.
• Criticism: Similar vegetation is found in unrelated parts of the world like Afghanistan, Iran and Siberia.

Distribution of Fossils
• The observations that Lemurs occur in India, Madagascar and Africa led some to consider a contiguous
landmass “Lemuria” linking these three landmasses. Mesosaurus was a small reptile adapted to shallow
brackish water. The skeletons of these are found only in South Africa and Brazil. The two localities presently
are 4,800 km apart with an ocean in between them.
• Criticism: Similar fossils were identified in unrelated parts of the world.

Polar wandering (Shifting of Poles)

• The position of the poles constantly drifted (due to plate tectonics).
• Criticism: Poles may have shifted, not necessarily the continents.

Rocks of Same Age Across the Oceans

• The belt of ancient rocks of 2 billion years from Brazil’s coast matches with those from western Africa.
• Criticism: Rocks of the same age and similar characteristics are found in other parts of the world too.

Tillite deposits
• Tillite deposits are sedimentary rocks formed out of deposits of glaciers. The Gondwana system of
tillite sediments is found in India, Africa, Falkland Island, Madagascar, Antarctica and Australia (all were
previously part of Gondwana). Overall resemblance demonstrates that these landmasses had remarkably
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similar histories.
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Placer Deposits
• Rich placer deposits of gold are found on the Ghana coast (West Africa) but the source (gold-bearing
veins) are in Brazil, and it is obvious that the gold deposits of Ghana are derived from the Brazil plateau
when the two continents lay side by side.

Drawbacks of Continental Drift Theory

• Wegener failed to explain why the drift began only in the Mesozoic era and not before.
• The theory doesn’t consider oceans.
• Proofs heavily depend on assumptions that are generalistic.
• The gravity of the earth, the buoyancy of the seas and the tidal currents were given as the main factors
causing the drift. This is illogical because for these factors to be able to cause a drift of such a magnitude,
they will have to be millions of times stronger.
• Modern theories (Plate Tectonics) accept the existence of Pangaea and related landmasses but give a
very different explanation to the causes of drift.

Though scientifically unsound on various grounds, Wegener’s theory is a significant milestone in the study of
tectonics, and it laid a strong foundation for future the theories like seafloor spreading and plate tectonics.

7.3. Seafloor Spreading

• In the year 1960, an American geologist named Harry Hess proposed the idea of Seafloor Spreading.
Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics.
• When oceanic plates diverge, tensional stress causes fractures to occur in the lithosphere. Basaltic magma
rises from the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to form new seafloor. The newly formed seafloor
(oceanic crust) then gradually moves away from the ridge, and its place is taken by an even newer sea-
floor and the cycle repeats. With time, older rocks are spread farther away from the spreading zone
while younger rocks will be found nearer to the spreading zone.
• To better understand the concept of seafloor spreading, we must first understand Convectional Current
Theory and Paleomagnetism.

Convection Current Theory (CCT)

• In the 1930s, a British geologist named Arthur Holmes laid the foundation for Convection Current The-
ory (CCT).
• According to CCT, the convectional currents in the mantle are generated due to thermal differences in
the mantle caused by radioactive elements.
• The convectional currents in the mantle are the primary driving force behind the movement of the
lithospheric plates (Seafloor Spreading & Plate Tectonics).
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• The falling limbs of the convection currents in the mantle create a negative pressure on the lithosphere,
and this negative pressure (pulling force) is responsible for the convergence of the tectonic plates.
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• Trenches, volcanic arcs and/or fold mountains are the common landforms/features formed along a con-
vergent boundary.
• The rising limbs of the convection currents in the mantle create positive pressure on the lithosphere, and
this positive pressure (pushing force) is responsible for the divergence of the tectonic plates. Oceanic
ridges in seas and rift valleys and rift lakes on land are the common features found along a divergent
boundary.
 Some heat from within the earth’s interior is transferred to the surface through volcanoes, springs and gey-
sers. But this heat received at the surface is negligible compared to that received from the sun. However, the
heat received from the interior at the ocean bottom is key to the survival of deep ocean lifeforms that depend
on bacteria that grow near the volcanic vents. At ocean depths, as sunlight is non-existent, photosynthesis
is impossible. The bacteria rely on chemosynthesis, a process in which microbes use chemicals in the vent
fluid to produce energy.

Palaeomagnetism
• Paleomagnetism led to the revival of the continental drift hypothesis and its transformation into theories
of Seafloor Spreading and Plate Tectonics.
• Palaeomagnetism is the study of the record of the earth’s magnetic field with the help of magnetic
fields recorded in rocks, sediment, or archaeological materials.

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• Rocks formed from underwater volcanic activity are mainly basaltic (low silica, iron-rich) and make up
most of the ocean floor. Basalt contains magnetic minerals, and as the rock is solidifying, these minerals
align themselves in the direction of the magnetic field. This locks in a record of which way the magnetic
field was positioned at the time.
• Paleomagnetic studies of rocks have demonstrated that the orientation of the earth's magnetic field has
frequently alternated (geomagnetic reversal) over geologic time. The polarity of the Earth's magnetic
field and magnetic field reversals are thus detectable by studying the rocks of different ages.

Paleomagnetism: Strong evidence of Seafloor Spreading and Plate Tectonics

• The regions that hold the unique record of the earth’s magnetic field lie along the mid-ocean ridges
where the Seafloor is spreading. On studying the paleomagnetic rocks on either side of the oceanic
ridges, it is found that alternate magnetic rock stripes were flipped so that one stripe would be of
normal polarity and the next, reversed.
• The paleomagnetic rocks (paleo: denoting rocks) on either side of the mid-ocean or submarine ridges
provide the most important evidence for the concept of Seafloor Spreading. The magnetic field rec-
ords also provide information on the past location of the tectonic plates.

Magnetic Striping
• The oceanic ridges are boundaries where tectonic plates are diverging (moving apart). The fissure or vent
between the plates allowed the magma to rise and harden into a long narrow band of rock on either side
of the vent. Rising magma assumes the polarity of Earth’s geomagnetic field at the time before it
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solidifies on the oceanic crust.

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• As the conventional currents pull the oceanic plates apart, the solidified band of rock moves away from
the vent (or ridge), and a new band of rock takes its place a few million years later when the magnetic field
was reversed. This results in this magnetic striping where the adjacent rock bands have opposite po-
larities. This process repeats over and over giving rise to a series of narrow parallel rock bands on either
side of the ridge and alternating patterns of magnetic striping on the seafloor.

Evidence in Support of Seafloor Spreading

Nature of Oceanic Rocks Around Mid-Ocean Ridges

• Rocks (paleomagnetic rocks) on either side of the crest of oceanic ridges having equidistant locations from
the crest were found to have similarities both in terms of their constituents, their age and magnetic ori-
entation.
• Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges have normal polarity and are the youngest and the age of the
rocks increases as one moves away from the crest (ridge).
• The rocks of the oceanic crust near the oceanic ridges are much younger than the rocks of the continental
crust.

Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes Along the Mid-Ocean Ridges

• The normal temperature gradient on the seafloor is 9.4° C/300 m, but near the ridges it becomes higher,
indicating an upwelling of magmatic material from the mantle. Dots in the central parts of the Atlantic
Ocean and other oceans are almost parallel to the coastlines. This indicates that the seafloor has widened
with time.
• In general, the foci of the earthquake in the areas of mid-oceanic ridges are at shallow depths whereas,
along the Alpine-Himalayan belt as well as the rim of the Pacific, the earthquakes are deep-seated
ones (because of subduction).

7.4. Plate Tectonics

• The theory of Plate Tectonics was suggested by McKenzie and Parker in 1967. It was later outlined by
Morgan in 1968 based on the prevailing ideas of the continental drift theory, convection current theory
and the theory of seafloor spreading.
• According to the theory of plate tectonics, the earth’s lithosphere is broken into distinct plates which
are floating on a ductile layer called asthenosphere (upper part of the mantle). Plates move horizontally
over the asthenosphere as rigid units.
• The lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle with its thickness range varying between 5-100 km
in oceanic parts and about 200 km in the continental areas. The oceanic plates contain mainly the
Simatic crust (rich in silica and magnesium) and are relatively thinner and heavier, while the continental
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plates contain Sialic material (rich in silica and alumina) and are relatively thicker.
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• Lithospheric plates (tectonic plates) vary from minor plates to major plates, continental plates (e.g.,
Arabian plate) to oceanic plates (e.g., Pacific plate), and sometimes a combination of both continental and
oceanic plates (e.g., Indo-Australian plate).
• The movement of these crustal plates (due to convection currents in the mantle) causes the formation
of various landforms and is the principal cause of all earth movements.
 Force for plate movement: Convection currents in the mantle that are generated due to thermal gradients.
 Rates of Plate Movement: The Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5 cm/year), and the East Pacific
Rise in the South Pacific (about 3,400 km west of Chile), has the fastest rate (more than 15 cm/year).

Major Tectonic Plates

1. Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate
2. North American plate
3. South American plate
4. Pacific plate
5. India-Australia-New Zealand plate
6. Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
7. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate

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The Indo-Australian Plate
• The Indo-Australian Plate includes Peninsular India and the Australian continental portions.
• The subduction zone along the Himalayas forms the northern plate boundary in the form of continent-
continent convergence.
• In the east, it extends through the Rakinyoma Mountains (Arakan Yoma) of Myanmar towards the
island arc along the Java Trench.
• The eastern margin is a convergent boundary lying to the east of Australia. The southeastern margin is in
the form of an oceanic ridge in SW Pacific.
• The boundary between India and the Antarctic plate is also marked by an oceanic ridge (divergent bound-
ary) running in a roughly W-E direction and merging into the spreading site, a little south of New Zealand.
• The Western margin follows Kirthar Mountain of Pakistan. It further extends along the Makrana coast
(Pakistan and Iranian coasts) and joins the spreading site from the Red Sea rift (Red Sea rift is formed
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due to the divergence of Somali plate and Arabian plate) south-eastward along the Chagos Archipelago
(formed due to hotspot volcanism).
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Minor Tectonic Plates

1. Cocos plate: Between Central America and the Pacific plate

2. Nazca plate: Between South America and the Pacific plate
3. Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass
4. Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate
5. Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and Indian plates (North of New Guinea)
6. Fuji plate: North-east of Australia
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7. Turkish plate
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8. Aegean plate (Mediterranean region)

 9. Caribbean plate
10. Juan de Fuca plate (between Pacific and North American plates)
11. Iranian plate.
• There are many more minor plates other than the ones mentioned above. Most of these minor plates were
formed due to stress created by converging major plates. For example, the Mediterranean Sea is divided
into numerous minor plates due to the compressive force exerted by the Eurasian and African plates.
 In 2022, researchers from the University of Adelaide showed an updated map of the earth’s tectonic
plates. The map includes several new microplates, i.e., the Macquarie microplate (located south of Tas-
mania), The Capricorn microplate (which separates the Indian and Australian plates)

Interaction of Tectonic Plates

• Major geomorphological features such as fold and block mountains, mid-oceanic ridges, trenches, volcan-
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ism, earthquakes etc. are a direct consequence of the interaction between various lithospheric plates. There
are three ways in which the plates interact with each other:
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Divergence Forming the Divergent Edge (Constructive Edge)
• Along the divergent edges, the plates diverge (move away from each other). Shallow focus earthquakes
and volcanic earth forms are common along such edges.
• In the oceans, mid-ocean ridges (e.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge) are formed due to divergence. Here, the basal-
tic magma erupts and moves apart (seafloor spreading). They are sites of the earth’s crust formation
(hence the name constructive edge).
• On continents, rift valleys are formed. East African Rift Valley is the most important geomorphological
feature formed due to the divergence of African and Somali plates.

Convergence Forming the Convergent Edge (Destructive Edge)

• In convergence, two lithospheric plates collide against each other. The zone of collision may undergo
crumpling and folding, and folded mountains may emerge (orogenic collision). Himalayan Boundary
Fault is one such example.
• Near the convergent edge a part of the crust is destroyed, hence the name Destructive Edge (crust
destruction at the convergent edge is compensated by crust formation at the divergent edge).
• When one of the plates is an oceanic plate, it gets embedded in the softer asthenosphere of the conti-
nental plate, and as a result, trenches are formed at the zone of subduction. The subducted material gets
heated up and is thrown out forming volcanic island arc and continental arc systems and a dynamic
equilibrium is achieved.

Transcurrent Edge (Conservative Edge or Transform Edge)

• In this kind of interaction, two plates slide past against each other, and there is no creation or destruction
of landform but only deformation of the existing landform.
• In oceans, transform faults are the planes of separation generally perpendicular to the mid-oceanic
ridges. San Andreas Fault (Silicon Valley lies dangerously close to the faultline) along the western coast
of USA is the best example for a transcurrent edge on continents.

Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics

• Evidence for both Seafloor Spreading and Plate tectonics are complimentary (almost similar evidence).

Paleomagnetism
• Paleomagnetic rocks are the most important evidence. The orientation of iron grains on older rocks
shows an orientation that points to the existence of the South Pole, once upon a time, somewhere between
present-day Africa and Antarctica (polar wandering).

Older Rocks Form the Continents While Younger Rocks are Present on the Ocean Floor
• On continents, rocks up to 3.5 billion years old can be found while the oldest rock found on the ocean
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floor is not more than 75 million years old (western part of the Pacific floor).
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• As we move, towards ridges, still younger rocks appear. This points to an effective spread of seafloor
along oceanic ridges which are also the plate margins (seafloor spreading is almost similar to plate tec-
tonics except that it examines the interaction between oceanic plates only).

Gravitational Anomalies
• In trenches, where subduction has taken place (convergent edge), the value of gravitational constant ‘g’
is less (gravitational force is proportional to mass). This indicates a loss of material (mass). For instance,
gravity measurements around the Indonesian islands have indicated that large gravity anomalies are
associated with the oceanic trench bordering Indonesia.

Earthquakes and Volcanoes

• The fact that all plate boundary regions are areas of the earthquake and volcanic disturbances goes to
prove the theory of plate tectonics.

The Significance of Plate Tectonics

• Almost all major landforms formed are due to plate tectonics.
• New minerals are thrown up from the core with the magmatic eruptions. Economically valuable minerals
like copper and uranium are found near the plate boundaries.
• From present knowledge of crustal plate movement, the shape of landmasses in future can be predicted.
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For instance, if the present trends continue, North and South America will separate. A piece of land will
separate from the east coast of Africa. Australia will move closer to Asia.
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7.5. Comparison: Continental Drift – Seafloor Spreading – Plate Tectonics
Continental Drift Seafloor Spreading Plate Tectonics

Explained by Put forward by Alfred We- Arthur Holmes explained In 1967, McKenzie and Parker
gener in 1912 Convectional Current Theory suggested the theory of plate
in the 1930s. Based on tectonics. Morgan later outlined
convection current theory, the theory in 1968.
Harry Hess explained See
Floor Spreading in the 1940s.
Theory Explains the Movement of Explains the Movement of Explains the Movement of Litho-
Continents only Oceanic Plates only spheric plates that include both
continents and oceans.
Forces for Buoyancy, gravity, pole- Convection currents in the mantle drag the crustal plates.
movement fleeing force, tidal currents,
tides, etc.
Evidence The apparent affinity of physi- Ocean bottom relief, Ocean bottom relief,
cal features, botanical evi- Paleomagnetic rocks, Paleomagnetic Paleomagnetic
dence, fossil evidence, Tillite distribution of earthquakes rocks, distribution of earthquakes
deposits, placer deposits, and volcanoes, etc. and volcanoes, gravitational
rocks of the same age across anomalies at trenches, etc.
different continents etc.
Drawbacks Too general with superficial Doesn’t explain the movement
and sometimes illogical of continental plates. ---------------------
evidence.
Acceptance Discarded Not complete Most widely accepted
Usefulness Helped in the evolution of Helped in the evolution of Helped us understand various
convection current theory and plate tectonics theory. geomorphological features.
seafloor spreading theory.

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 8. Convergent Boundary

In convergence there are subtypes namely:

1. Collision of oceanic plates or ocean-ocean convergence (formation of volcanic island arcs).

2. Collision of continental and oceanic plates or ocean-continent convergence (formation of continen-
tal arcs and fold mountains).
3. Collision of continental plates or continent-continent convergence (formation of fold mountains)
4. Collision of continent and arc, or continent-arc convergence.

8.1. Ocean-Ocean Convergence (O-O Convergence) or The Island-Arc Convergence

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• The concept of Ocean-Ocean (O-O) Convergence helps us understand the formation of the Japanese
Island Arc, Indonesian Archipelago, Philippine Island Arc and Caribbean Islands.
 Archipelago: an extensive group of islands. E.g. The thousands of islands of Indonesia and Malaysia are a
part of the Malay Archipelago.
 Island arc: a narrow chain of islands that are volcanic in origin. Some of the islands in the island arc might
have active volcanoes. An island arc is usually curved. E.g., The Ryukyu Islands of Japan form an island arc.
• In all types of convergence, the denser plate subducts, and the less dense plate is either upthrust or
folded or both (upthrust and folded). In O-O convergence, a denser oceanic plate subducts below a less
dense oceanic plate forming a trench along the boundary.

Formation of Island Arcs

• As the ocean floor crust (oceanic plate) loaded with sediments subducts into the softer asthenosphere,
the rocks in the subduction zone become metamorphosed (alteration of the composition or structure
of a rock) under high pressure and temperature.
• After reaching a depth of about 100 km, the plates melt. Magma (metamorphosed sediments and the
melted part of the subducting plate) has a lower density and is at high pressure. It rises upwards due to
the buoyant force offered by the surrounding denser medium. The magma flows out to the surface.
• A continuous upward movement of magma creates constant volcanic eruptions at the ocean floor. Con-
stant volcanism above the subduction zone creates layers of rocks. As this process continues for millions
of years, a volcanic landform is created which in some cases rises above the ocean waters. Such volcanic
landforms all along the boundary form a chain of volcanic islands which are collectively called Island
Arcs (Indonesian Island Arc or Indonesian Archipelago, Philippine Island Arc, Japanese Island Arc,
etc.).
• Orogenesis (mountain building) sets in motion the process of building continental crust by replacing
the oceanic crust (this happens at a much later stage). For example, new islands are born around Japan
every few years. After a few million years, Japan will be a single landmass because continental crust for-
mation is constantly replacing the oceanic crust).
111

This explanation is common for all the island arc formations (O-O convergence). We only need to know the
tectonic plates involved with respect to each island formation.
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Formation of The Philippine Island Arc System
• Philippine Island Arc system is formed due to the subduction of the Philippine Sea plate under the Sunda
Plate (major continental shelf of the Eurasian plate). The trench formed here is called Philippine
Trench.
 Sunda Shelf: The south-eastern portion of the Eurasian plate (includes Java, Borneo and Sumatra and
their surrounding small islands, as well as the Malay Peninsula), which is a part of Southeast Asia, is a
continental shelf called the Sunda Shelf. Its landmass was exposed during periods when sea levels were
lower. The Sunda Shelf and its islands are known as the Sundaland.

Formation of The Indonesian Archipelago

• In the case of the Indonesian Archipelago, the Indo-Australian plate is subducting below Sunda Plate
(part of the Eurasian Plate). The trench formed here is called the Sunda Trench (Java Trench is a major
section of the Sunda trench).

[UPSC CSE Mains 2014] Explain the formation of thousands of islands in the Indonesian
and Philippines archipelagos (20 marks | 200 words)
• Indonesian archipelago and Philippine archipelago are located along the plate margins. Both the ar-
chipelagos were formed due to ocean-ocean convergence.
• Indonesian archipelago was formed due to convergence between the Sunda Oceanic Plate (part of
the Eurasian plate) and the Indo-Australian plate whereas the Philippine archipelago was formed due
112

to convergence between Sunda Oceanic Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate.
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 • In ocean-ocean convergence, two oceanic plates converge or collide. The denser plate subducts into
the asthenosphere below the convergence zone and forms a trench at the surface. This region below
the convergence zone is called the zone of subduction.
• In the zone of subduction, due to high temperature and pressure, the rocks undergo metamorphosis,
and the sediments in the oceanic plate (crust) melt, to form magma (andesitic). The magma being
lighter moves upwards due to the buoyant force offered by the surrounding denser medium.
• At the surface, magma at high pressure escapes in the form of volcanic eruptions. The magma solidifies
creating a volcanic layer. Subsequent volcanism builds layer over layer and a volcanic mountain
(stratovolcano) is formed. Such mountains (island arc) are formed all along the converging edge above
the less dense plate. Over time the mountains (island arc) merge, and the oceanic crust gets trans-
formed into continental crust. This is how the Indonesian archipelago and Philippine archipelago were
formed.

If asked for 10 marks = 100 words

• Indonesian and Philippine archipelagos are formed due to ocean-ocean convergence.
• In ocean-ocean convergence, the denser plate subducts into the asthenosphere. This region below the
convergence zone is called the zone of subduction.
• In the zone of subduction, the rocks undergo metamorphosis and the sediments in the oceanic plate
melt to form magma.
• At the surface magma escapes in the form of volcanic eruptions. Constant volcanism builds layer over
layer and a volcanic mountain is formed. Such mountains (island arc) are formed all along the converging
edge.
• Over time the mountains merge, and the oceanic crust gets transformed into continental crust. This is
how the Indonesian archipelago and Philippine archipelago were formed.

Formation of The Caribbean Islands

• The Caribbean Plate is a mostly oceanic tectonic plate. It is moving to the east while the North American
Plate is moving to the west, forming a transform or strike-slip boundary. The boundary has a small
component of subduction as the two plates in the past have been convergent. The Greater Antilles and
the Puerto Rico Trench are formed due to the complex interaction between the two plates.
• The Lesser Antilles subduction zone forms the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Plate where the oce-
anic crust of the South American Plate is being subducted under the Caribbean Plate. This subduction zone
explains the presence of active volcanoes like Mount Pelée (Martinique Island — French overseas
department) in the Lesser Antilles.
 Mount Pelée volcano is famous for its eruption in 1902. The eruption killed about 30,000 people. Most deaths
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were caused by pyroclastic flows which destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre.

Formation of The Isthmus of Panama

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• Formation of the Isthmus of Panama involved subduction of the Pacific-Farallon Plate beneath the Car-
ibbean and South American plates, forming a volcanic Panama arc on the edge of the Caribbean Plate.
The remains of the ancient Farallon Oceanic Plate are the Juan de Fuca Plate, parts of the North American
Plate and the South American Plate, the Cocos Plate and the Nazca Plate.
• The North and South American plates continued to move westward past the eastward-moving Carib-
bean Plate. In addition to their east-west (strike-slip or transform) motion, the plates also acquired a
north-south component of convergence, leading to the collision of the Panama Arc with South America.
This collision drove uplift in both the Northern Andes and the Panama Arc, forming the Isthmus of Pan-
ama.

Formation of The Japanese Island Arc

• Japan's volcanoes are part of three volcanic arcs. The arcs meet at a triple junction on the island of Honshu.
The northern arc is formed due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Eurasian Plate. The trench
formed is Japan Trench.
• Central arc is formed due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Philippine Plate (island for-
mation is not significant along this arc). The trench formed is Izu Trench. Southern Arc is formed due to
the subduction of the Philippine Plate under the Eurasian Plate. The trench formed is Ryukyu Trench.
• Japanese island arc was very close to the mainland. The force exerted by the Pacific Plate and the Philippine
Plate tilted the arc towards its east giving rise to the Sea of Japan.

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 The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench
 The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench, the deepest trench, is located in the western Pacific Ocean.
It is formed due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate below the Mariana Plate. The maximum known
depth is between 10,994 & 11,034 metres on its floor known as the Challenger Deep.
 The Mariana trench is not the part of the seafloor closest to the centre of the Earth. This is because the
Earth is not a perfect sphere (its Geoid); its radius is about 25 kilometres smaller at the poles than at
the equator. As a result, parts of the Arctic Ocean seabed are at least 13 kilometres closer to the Earth's
centre than the Challenger Deep seafloor.

8.2. Continent-Ocean (C-O) Convergence or The Cordilleran Convergence

• Continent-Ocean Convergence is also called Cordilleran Convergence because this kind of convergence
gives rise to extensive fold mountain systems close to the coastline like the Rockies, the Andes, etc.
 A cordillera is an extensive chain of mountains or mountain ranges. Some mountain chains in North America
and South America are called cordilleras.
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• Continent-Ocean Convergence is similar to ocean-ocean convergence with the major difference being that
in C-O convergence continental arcs and fold mountains are formed instead of islands.
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• When oceanic and continental plates collide or converge, the oceanic plate (denser plate) subducts or
plunges below the continental plate (less dense plate) forming a trench along the boundary. The trenches
formed here are not as deep as those formed in ocean-ocean convergence.
• As the ocean floor crust (oceanic plate) loaded with sediments subducts into the softer asthenosphere, the
rocks on the continental side in the subduction zone become metamorphosed under high pressure and
temperature (metamorphism: alteration of the composition or structure of rock by heat, pressure).

Formation of Continental Arcs

• After reaching a certain depth, plates melt into magma. Magma (metamorphosed sediments and the
melted part of the subducting plate) rises and flows out, sometimes violently to the surface. A continuous
upward movement of magma creates constant volcanic eruptions at the surface of the continental plate
along the margin. Such volcanic eruptions form a chain of volcanic mountains which are collectively called
a continental arc. E.g., the Cascade Range (parallel to the Rockies), and the Western Chile range
(parallel to the Andes).
 Arc: narrow chain of volcanic islands or mountains.
 Island arc: A narrow chain of volcanic islands (Japanese Islands).
 Continental arc: A narrow chain of volcanic mountains on continents (Cascade Range).
 Accretionary wedge: As the oceanic plate subducts, the sediments brought by it accumulate in the trench
region. These accumulated sediments are called accretionary wedges. The accretionary wedge is
compressed into the continental margin leading to crustal shortening.
 Convergence  Crustal Shortening
 Divergence  Crustal Widening
 Crustal Shortening in one place is compensated by Crustal Widening in some other place.
116

Formation of Fold Mountains (Orogeny)

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 Orogeny (Geology) is a process in which a section of the earth's crust is folded and deformed by lateral
compression (a force acting sideways) to form a mountain range. Orogenic movements are tectonic move-
ments of the earth that involve the folding of sediments, faulting and metamorphism.
• Continental margins are filled with thick sediments brought by the rivers. As a result of convergence, the
buoyant granite of the continental crust overrides (is placed above) the oceanic crust (continental crust
in upthrust by the oceanic crust). As a result, the edge of the deformed continental margin is thrust
above sea level.
• The advancing oceanic plate adds more compressive stress on the upthrust continental margin and leads
to its folding creating a fold mountain system (orogenic belt). In some cases, the advancing oceanic
plate compresses the orogenic belt leading to its folding (e.g., the Rockies and the Andes).
• With the formation of the orogenic belt (fold mountain belt), resistance builds up which effectively stops
convergence. Thus, the subduction zone progresses seaward.
• With the culmination of compression, erosion continues to denude mountains. This results in isostatic
adjustment (denser regions sink, and less dense regions rise) which causes the ultimate exposure of the
roots of mountains. Examples are found in the Rockies, which deformed in the late Mesozoic and early
Tertiary periods, and the Andes, where the deformation began in the Tertiary Period and is still going on.

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Formation of The Andes
• The Andes are formed due to convergence between the Nazca Plate (oceanic plate) and the South Amer-
ican Plate (continental plate). The Peru-Chile trench is formed due to the subduction of the Nazca plate.
• The Andes are a continental arc (narrow, continental volcanic chain) formed due to the volcanism above
the subduction zone.
• The pressure offered by the accretionary wedge folded the volcanic mountain, raising the mountains
significantly. The folding process is continuing, and the mountains are constantly rising. Volcanism is still
active.
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 Western Chile Range (Chilean Coast Range): The range was separated from the Andes during the Tertiary
rise of the Andes due to the subsidence of the Intermediate Depression.
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 Ojos del Salado active volcano on the Argentina-Chile border in the Andes is the highest active vol-
cano on earth at 6,893 m. (Olympus Mons (27 km) on Mars is the highest volcano in the solar system.
 Mount Aconcagua (6,960 m, Argentina) in the Andes is the highest peak outside the Himalayas and the
highest peak in the western hemisphere. It is an extinct volcano.

Formation of The Rockies

• The North American plate (continental plate) moved westwards while the Juan de Fuca plate (minor
oceanic plate) and the Pacific plate (major oceanic plate) moved eastwards. The convergence gave rise to
a series of parallel mountain ranges called the Rockies.
• Unlike the Andes, the Rockies are formed at a distance from the continental margin due to the less
steep subduction by the oceanic plates.
• Trenching is less conspicuous as the boundary is filled with accretionary wedge and there are a series of
fault zones (San Andreas Fault) that make the landform different from the Andes.

8.3. Continent-Continent Convergence or The Himalayan Convergence

• In ocean-ocean convergence and continent-ocean convergence, at least one of the plates is denser
and hence the subduction zone is quite deep (a few hundred kilometres).
• At continent-continent convergent margins, due to lower density, both continental crustal plates are
too light (buoyant) to be carried downward (subduct) into a trench.
119

• In most cases, neither plate subducts nor even if one of the plates subducts, the subduction zone will
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not go deeper than 40-50 km. The two plates converge, buckle up (suture zone), fold, and fault.
 Suture zone: The subduction of the continental crust is not possible beyond 40-50 km because of the normal
buoyancy of the continental crust. Thus, the fragments of oceanic crust are plastered against the plates caus-
ing welding of two plates known as the suture zone. Example: The Indus-Tsangpo suture zone.
• As the continental plates converge, the ocean basic or sedimentary basin (geoclinal or geosynclinal sed-
iments found along the continental margins) is squeezed between the two converging plates. Huge slivers
of rock, many kilometres wide are thrust on top of one another, forming a towering mountain range.
• With the building up of resistance, convergence comes to an end. The mountain belt erodes, and this is
followed by an isostatic adjustment. As two massive continents weld, a single large continental mass
joined by a fold mountain range is produced. Examples: The Himalayas, Alps, Urals, Appalachians and
the Atlas Mountains.

Formation of The Himalayans and The Tibetan Plateau

• The Himalayas are the youngest mountain chain in the world. They have come out of a large geosyncline
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(linear trough within which vast amounts of sediments accumulate) called the Tethys Sea and the uplift
has taken place in different phases.
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• During the Permian Period (250 million years ago), there was a supercontinent known as Pangaea. Its
northern part consisted of present-day North America and Eurasia (Europe and Asia) which is called
Laurasia or Angaraland or Laurentia. The southern part of Pangaea consisted of present-day South
America, Africa, South India, Australia and Antarctica. This landmass was called Gondwanaland.
• In between Laurasia and Gondwanaland, there was a long, narrow and shallow sea known as the Tethys
Sea (all this was explained earlier in the concept of Continental Drift Theory). It separated India from the
Eurasian plate till about 225 million years ago.
• India was a large island situated off the Australian coast. The Tibetan block was a part of the Asiatic land-
mass. There were many rivers that were flowing into the Tethys Sea from the Tibetan block (some of the
Himalayan rivers were older than the Himalayas themselves. We will study this in Antecedent and
Subsequent Drainage patterns).
• Sediments were brought by these rivers and were deposited on the floor of the Tethys Sea. These sedi-
ments were subjected to powerful compression due to the northward movement of the Indian Plate. This
resulted in the folding of sediments. An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit
of Mount Everest is made of marine limestone from this ancient ocean.
• India is supposed to have started her northward journey about 200 million years ago (after Pangaea
broke). About 140 million years ago, the subcontinent was located as south as 50◦ S latitude.
• Moving northwards at the rate of about five-six cm per year, India collided with Asia about 40-50 million
years ago causing further folding of the sediments and rapid uplift of the Himalayas (the Indian plate and
the Eurasian plate were close to the equator back then).
 During the movement of the Indian plate towards the Asiatic plate, a major event that occurred was the
outpouring of lava and the formation of the Deccan Traps (shield volcano). The shield volcanism started
somewhere around 60 million years ago and continued for a long period.
 Recent studies have shown that convergence of the Indian plate and the Asian plate has caused a crustal
shortening of about 500 km in the Himalayan region. This shortening has been compensated by seafloor
spreading along the oceanic ridge in the Indian Ocean.
• The northward movement of the Indian Plate at 5-6 cm per year and the uplift of the Himalayas are
continuing, and the height of the Himalayas is rising even to this date. This is evident in the frequent
earthquakes in the region.
• The folded sediments, after a lot of erosional activity, appear as the present-day Himalayas. The Indo-
Gangetic plain was formed due to the consolidation of alluvium brought down by the rivers flowing from
the Himalayas.
• Tibetan plateau was formed due to upthrusting of the southern block of the Eurasian Plate. It is thought
that India’s coastline was denser and more firmly attached to the seabed, which is why Asia’s softer soil
was pushed up rather than the other way around.
121

• The curved shape of the Himalayas convex to the south is attributed to the maximum push offered at
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two ends of the Indian Peninsula during its northward drift.

 Movement of the Indian Plate

Phases of Formation
• The Himalayas do not comprise a single range but a series of at least three ranges running more or less
parallel to one another. Therefore, the Himalayas are supposed to have emerged out of the Himalayan
Geosyncline, i.e. the Tethys Sea in three different phases following one after the other.
1. The first phase commenced about 50-40 million years ago when the Great Himalayas were formed.
The formation of the Great Himalayas was completed about 30 million years ago.
2. The second phase took place about 25 to 30 million years ago when the Middle Himalayas were
formed.
3. The Shiwaliks were formed in the last phase of the Himalayan orogeny — say about two million to
twenty million years ago.
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• Some of the fossil formations found in the Shiwalik hills are also available in the Tibet plateau. It indicates
that the past climate of the Tibet plateau was somewhat similar to the climate of the Shiwalik hills.
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Evidence for the Rising Himalayas
• Today’s satellites use high-precision atomic clocks that make it possible to measure accurately even a small
rise of one cm. The heights of various places as determined by satellites indicate that the Himalayas rise
by a few centimetres every year. The present rate of uplift of the Himalayas has been calculated at 5 to 10
cm per year.
• Due to uplifting, lakes in Tibet are desiccated (lose water) keeping the gravel terraces at much higher levels
above the present water level. This could be possible only in the event of uplift of the region.
• The Himalayan rivers are in their youthful stage and have been rejuvenated (make or cause to appear
younger) in recent times. This shows that the Himalayan Landmass is rising, keeping the rivers in the youth
stage for a long time.
• The frequent tectonic activity (occurrence of earthquakes) in the Himalayan region means that the Him-
alayas are still being raised due to compression and have not yet attained isostatic equilibrium.

Formation of Alps, Urals, Appalachians and the Atlas Mountains

• The formation of each of these mountains is similar to the formation of the Himalayas. The Alps and the
Atlas Mountains are young fold mountains that were formed due to the collision between African Plate
and the Eurasian Plate. The Atlas Mountains is still in the process of formation.
• The Urals and The Appalachians are very old fold mountains that were formed even before the
breakup of Pangaea. The Urals were formed due to the collision between Europe and Asia. The
Appalachians were formed due to the collision between North America and Europe.

Volcanism and Earthquakes in Continent-Continent Convergence

• Oceanic crust is only 5-30 km thick. But the continental crust is 50-70 km thick. Magma cannot penetrate
this thick crust, so there are no volcanoes after continent-continent convergence, although the
magma stays in the crust. Metamorphic rocks are common because of the stress the continental crust
experiences.
• With enormous slabs of crust smashing together, continent-continent collisions bring on numerous and
large earthquakes (Earthquakes in Himalayan and North Indian Region, Kachchh region).

[UPSC CSE Mains 2014] Why are the world’s fold mountain systems located along the mar-
gins of continents? Bring out the association between the global distribution of Fold
Mountains & the earthquakes & volcanoes. (20 marks)

Why are fold mountains at the continental margin?

• Fold mountains are formed due to convergence between
1. two continental (C-C) plates (The Himalayas, The Alps, The Atlas, The Urals, The Appalachians)
or
123

2. an oceanic and a continental (C-O) plate (The Rockies, The Andes).

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 • In C-C convergence, fold mountains are formed along the plate margins as oceanic sediments are
squeezed and upthrust between the plates.
• In C-O convergence, the continental volcanic arc is formed along the continental margin which is then
compressed and uplifted by the colliding oceanic plate giving rise to fold mountains along the conti-
nental plate margin.

Earthquakes
• In both C-C and C-O convergence, there is the formation of fold mountains and the frequent occur-
rence of earthquakes. This is because of the sudden release of friction between the subducting plate
and the upthrust plate.
• In C-C convergence, the denser plate pushes into the less dense plate creating a fault zone along the
margin. Further collision leads to the sudden release of energy along the fault zone generating disas-
trous shallow-focus earthquakes.
• In C-O regions the subducting oceanic plate grinds against the surrounding denser medium producing
mostly shallow-focus earthquakes, and deep in the subduction zone deep-focus earthquakes oc-
cur.

Volcanism
• Volcanism is observed only in C-O convergence and is almost absent in C-C convergence. This is
because of the thick continental crust in C-C convergence which prevents the outflow of magma.
Magma here lies stocked within the crust.
• In C-O convergence, metamorphosed sediments and melting of the subducting plate form magma
which escapes to the surface through the less thick continental crust.

8.4. Continent-Arc Convergence or New Guinea Convergence

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• New Guinea came into being about 20 million years ago as a result of the continent-arc (island arc)
collision.
• The Australian continental plate pushed the New Guinea island arc towards the oceanic crust, and as a
result, the Caroline oceanic plate plunged under the New Guinea island arc. New Guinea trench was
formed on the ocean side of the island arc and, ultimately, the continental margin is firmly welded against
the island arc.

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 9. Divergent Boundary

• Divergence (divergent boundary) is responsible for the evolution and creation of new seas and oceans
just like convergent boundaries are responsible for the formation of fold mountains, and volcanic arcs.

9.1. Formation and Evolution of Rift Valleys, Rift Lakes, Seas, and Oceans

• The process of formation of a new sea begins with the formation of a divergent boundary.
 Upwarp: a broad elevated area of the earth's surface.
 Plume: a column of magma rising by convection in the earth's mantle.
 Rift Valley: a linear-shaped lowland (graben) between several highlands (horst) or mountain ranges
created by the action of a geologic rift or fault.

Stage 1: Upwarping and Fault Zones

• Rising limbs of the convection currents create a plume that tries to escape to the surface by upwarping
the lithosphere (doming the lithosphere upwards). During upwarping, a series of faults are created. Both
normal & thrust (reverse) faults occur during upwarping. The divergence of plates begins.
126

Stage 2: Rift Valley Formation

Faulting due to divergence creates an extensive rift system (fault zones, rift valleys).
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•
• The lithosphere is subject to a horizontal extensional force, and it will stretch, becoming thinner (E.g.
The crust above Yellowstone hotspot is thinning because of the mantle plume). Eventually, it will
rupture, leading to the formation of a rift valley. This process is accompanied by surface manifestations
along the rift valley in the form of volcanism and seismic activity.

127
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• Rifts are the initial stage of a continental break-up and, if successful, can lead to the formation of a new
ocean basin. An example of a place on Earth where this has happened is the South Atlantic Ocean, which
resulted from the breakup of South America and Africa around 138m years ago.
• The East African Rift is described as an active type of rift. Beneath this rift, the rise of a large mantle
plume is doming the lithosphere upwards (Ethiopian Highlands), causing it to weaken. The rifting started
in the Afar Triple Junction region in northern Ethiopia around 30 mya and propagated southwards to-
wards Zimbabwe. (It’s unzipping Africa!)
• On the continents, rifting is followed by flood basalt volcanism in some places that spread around the
rift creating plateaus and highlands (Ethiopian Highlands, Kenya Dome).
 Narmada and Tapti Rift Valleys (fault zones) are formed from a mechanism different from the one ex-
plained above. They are formed due to the bending of the northern part of the Indian plate during the for-
mation of the Himalayas.

UPSC CSE Mains 2018: What is a mantle plume and what role does it play in plate tecton-
ics?
• Backdrop: In early 2018, a large crack made a sudden appearance in south-western Kenya adding fuel
to the debate on the breakup of Africa.

Stage 3: Formation of Linear Sea or Rift Lakes

• Rift valley deepens due to further divergence, oceanic crust starts to replace continental crust, and makes
way for ocean waters thereby giving rise to linear seas (e.g., the Red Sea). In the linear seas, rift valleys
evolve into volcanic vents and the block mountains on either side of the rift evolve into oceanic ridges.
Successive volcanism and seafloor spreading create spreading sites where new crust is formed (the
divergent boundary is also called a constructive edge).

Rift Valley Lakes

• If the rift valleys, which are a result of subsidence related to movement on faults within a rift zone, are
formed deeper within the continents, rainwaters accumulate forming rift lakes. Rift lakes are bound by
large steep cliffs along the fault margins. The largest and the deepest freshwater lakes on earth are
mostly rift lakes.
• Lake Baikal in Siberia lies in an active rift valley. It is the deepest lake in the world (the deepest point is
1642 meters below the surface). It is also the largest freshwater lake in the world by volume, containing
roughly 20% of the world's unfrozen surface freshwater.
• Lake Tanganyika, the second largest freshwater lake by volume, is in the Albertine Rift, the western-
most arm of the active East African Rift. It is also the world's longest freshwater lake and the second
deepest lake in the world (the deepest point is 1470 meters below the surface).
128

• Lake Superior in North America, the largest freshwater lake by surface area, lies in the ancient and
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dormant Midcontinent Rift. (Lake Victoria is the world's second-largest freshwater lake by surface area)
Stage 4: Linear Sea Transforms Into Ocean
• The intense outpouring of basaltic magma accentuates seafloor spreading and oceanic crust formation.
Oceanic crust replaces the continental crust, and a mighty ocean is formed. Crust formation along the
mid-oceanic ridge (divergent boundary) is compensated by crust destruction (crustal shortening)
along the convergent boundary (destructive Edge). This is how the continents and oceans get trans-
formed.

9.2. The Great Rift Valley

• The Great Rift Valley runs north to south for around 6,400 kilometres from northern Syria to central
Mozambique in East Africa.
• The northernmost part of the rift forms the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon. Farther south, the valley is the home
of the Jordan River which continues south through the Jordan Valley into the Dead Sea on the Israeli-
Jordanian border. From the Dead Sea southward, the Rift is occupied by the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red
Sea.
• The Afar Triangle of Ethiopia and Eritrea is the location of a triple junction. The Gulf of Aden is an
eastward continuation of the rift, and from this point, the rift extends south-eastward as part of the mid-
oceanic Aden Ridge.
• In a southwest direction, the fault continues as the East African Rift, which split the older Ethiopian
highlands into two halves. In eastern Africa, the valley divides into the Eastern Rift (Gregory Rift) and
the Western Rift (Albertine Rift), which contains some of the deepest lakes in the world.
• The Eastern Rift includes the Ethiopian Rift, running eastward from the Afar Triple Junction, which con-
tinues south as the Kenyan Rift. The Western Rift includes the Albertine Rift, and farther south, the valley
of Lake Malawi.
• Before rifting, enormous continental flood basalts erupted on the surface and uplift of the Ethiopian,
Somalian, and East African plateaus occurred.

Africa is Splitting
• The East African Rift (EAR) is an active continental rift zone in East Africa. It began developing around
the onset of the Miocene, 22-25 million years ago. In the past, it was considered to be part of a larger
Great Rift Valley.

• The EAR is subjected to different stages of rifting along its length. To the south, where the rift is young,
extension rates are low, and faulting occurs over a wide area. Volcanism and seismicity are limited. To-
wards the Afar region, however, the entire rift valley floor is covered with volcanic rocks. This suggests
that, in this area, the lithosphere has thinned almost to the point of complete break-up.
The EAR is developing a divergent tectonic plate boundary where the African Plate is in the process of
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•
splitting into two tectonic plates, called the Somali Plate and the Nubian Plate (African Plate), at a rate
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 of 6–7 mm annually. As extension continues, the lithospheric rupture will occur within 10 million years,
the Somalian plate will break off, and a new ocean basin will form.

Volcanism & Seismicity Along East African Rift Valley

• The East African Rift (EAR) zone includes many active as well as dormant volcanoes.
• Mount Kilimanjaro (it has three volcanic cones) is a dormant stratovolcano in Tanzania. Mount Kenya
is an extinct stratovolcano. Although most of these mountains lie outside of the rift valley, the East
African Rift created them.
• The East African Rift is the largest seismically active rift system on Earth today. Most earthquakes occur
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near the Afar Depression, with the largest earthquakes typically occurring along or near major faults.
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Mains Practise: Despite extensive volcanism, there is no island formation along the diver-
gent boundary (mid-ocean ridge)
• Basaltic magma flows out along the divergent edge (fissure type or shield type volcano). It has less
silica, and hence it is less viscous. It flows over a long distance causing seafloor spreading but not
volcanic islands.
• On the other hand, along the convergent boundary, andesitic or acidic magma flows out. Andesitic
or acidic magma has more silica content, and hence it has a higher viscosity. It doesn’t move quickly
and also solidifies faster. This helps in building layer over layer (stratovolcano) on a confined region
giving rise to a conical volcanic mountain.

Mains Practise: How is it that Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya that formed close to
the divergent boundary are stratovolcanoes when the magma that flows out at the diver-
gent boundary is basaltic?
• While most of the stratovolcanoes occur along the convergent boundaries, a few stratovolcanoes like
Mt Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya have formed far away from them. This is because the formation of
stratovolcanos and shield volcanoes depends on the silica content (viscosity) of the outpouring
magma and not exactly the location of formation.
• Shield volcanoes are formed from basaltic magma which is less viscous as it contains a low propor-
tion of silicates (magma coming from the mantle, like in divergent boundary & hotspot volcanism).
• Stratovolcanoes are formed from andesitic magma which is viscous as it contains a high proportion
of silicates (magma formed due to the melting of crustal plates, like in convergent boundary).
• Mt Kilimanjaro, Mt. Kenya and other stratovolcanoes along the EAR zone were formed at a distance
from the rifts during the process of the formation of the African Rift Valley which was subjected to a
lot of faulting. The stress caused in the crustal plates led to the melting of the subsurface layer into
andesitic magma, and the stratovolcanoes in the region were formed due to the outpouring of this
magma (a high proportion of silicates).
• On the other hand, the Ethiopian Highlands were formed due to the outpouring of basaltic magma
(shield volcanism) along the diverging boundary at the EAR and Afar Hotspot.

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 10. Types of Mountains

10.1. Classification of Mountains

Classification of Mountains based on The Period Of Origin

• A total of nine orogenic or mountain-building movements have taken place so far. The three most recent
orogenies are the Caledonian, Hercynian and Alpine.

Precambrian Mountains
• Precambrian mountains belong to the Precambrian Period (4,600 mya to 541 mya). The mountains have
been subjected to upheaval, denudation and metamorphosis and the remnants appear as residual moun-
tains. E.g. Laurentian & Algoman mountains (north of the St. Lawrence River and Ottawa River).

Caledonian Mountains
• Caledonian mountains originated due to the great mountain-building movements of the late Silurian and
early Devonian periods (approximately 430 mya to 380 mya). E.g. the Appalachians, Aravallis, Mahadeo
etc.

Hercynian Mountains
• These mountains originated during the upper Carboniferous to Permian Period in Europe (approximately
340 mya to 225 mya). E.g. Vosges and the Black Forest, Altai, Tien Shan mountains of Asia, Ural Moun-
tains etc.

Alpine Mountain System

• Alpine mountain system has its origin in the Tertiary Period (65 million years to 7 million years ago).
Examples are:
 the Rockies of North America,
 the Alpine mountains of Europe,
 the Atlas Mountains of north-western Africa,
 the Himalayas of the Indian subcontinent
 the mountains radiating from Pamir knot like Pontic, Taurus, Elburz, Zagros and Kunlun etc.
• Being the most recently formed, these ranges, such as the Alps, Himalayas, Andes and Rockies are the
loftiest with rugged terrain.

Classification of Mountains based on Mode Of Origin

Original or Tectonic Mountains

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• Original or Tectonic mountains may be categorized into:

1. Fold mountains (the Himalayas, Rockies, Andes),
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 2. Block mountains (Vosges mountains in France, the Black Forest in Germany, Vindhya & Satpura
in India) &
3. Volcanic mountains or mountains of accumulation (Cascade Range in the USA, Mount Aconca-
gua, Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Mauna Kea, Mount Fujiyama, etc.).

Circum-Erosional or Relict or Residual Mountains

• Circum-erosional or relict or residual mountains (Aravallis in India, the Urals in Russia) are the rem-
nants of old fold mountains derived as a result of denudation (strip of covering).
• Residual mountains may also evolve from plateaus which have been dissected by rivers into hills and val-
leys. Examples of dissected plateaux, where the down-cutting streams have eroded the uplands into
mountains of denudation, are the Highlands of Scotland, Scandinavia and the Deccan Plateau.

Classification of Mountains Based on Location

Continental Mountains
• Coastal Mountains: The Rockies, The Appalachians, The Alpine chain, The Western & Eastern Ghats.
• Inland Mountains: The Vosges and the Black Forest (Europe), The Kunlun, Tienshan, Altai mountains of
Asia, The Urals of Russia, The Aravallis, the Himalayas, the Satpura, and the Maikal of India.

Oceanic Mountains
• Oceanic mountains are found on continental shelves and ocean floors. If the height of the mountains is
considered from the ocean floor, Mauna Kea (4207 m above sea level & 9140 m from the ocean floor),
would be the tallest mountain. It is a dormant volcanic mountain in the Hawaii hotspot volcanic chain.

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Mouna Loa (active) & Mauna Kea (dormant) volcanic islands on the island of Hawaii
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10.2. Fold Mountains

• Fold mountains are formed when sedimentary rock strata in geosynclines are subjected to compressive
forces. They are the loftiest mountains, and they are generally concentrated along continental margins.
 Geosyncline: a large-scale depression in the earth's crust containing very thick deposits. E.g. Tethys geosyn-
cline.

‘Fold’ In Geology
• A fold is an undulating structure (wave-like) that forms when rocks or a part of the earth’s crust is folded
(deformed by bending) under compressional stress. The folds are made up of multiple strata (rock lay-
ers).
• The folds that are upwardly convex are called anticlines. The core (centre) of an anticline fold consists of
the older strata, and the strata are progressively younger outwards. In contrast, the folds that are down-
wardly convex are called synclines. The core of a syncline fold consists of the younger strata, and the strata
are progressively older outwards.

Types of Folds
• Symmetrical fold: the axial plane is vertical.
• Asymmetrical fold: the axial plane is inclined.
• Isoclinal fold: the limbs are approximately parallel to the axial plane.
• Overturned fold: highly inclined axial plane such that the strata on one limb are overturned.
• Recumbent fold: has an essentially horizontal axial plane.
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Classification of Fold Mountains

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On the Basis of Period of Origin

1) Very Old Fold Mountains

• Very old fold mountains are more than 500 million years old. They have rounded features and are of
low elevation (due to denudation). E.g. Appalachians in North America and the Ural Mountains in Rus-
sia.

2) Old Fold Mountains

• The fold mountain systems belonging to the Caledonian and Hercynian mountain-building periods (ear-
lier than 66 million years ago) that occurred before the Tertiary Period falls in this category.
• Old fold mountains are also called thickening relict fold mountains because of their lightly rounded
features and medium elevation. Top layers are worn out due to erosional activity. Example: Aravalli
Range (India’s oldest fold mountain system. The range rose in the post-Precambrian event called the
Aravalli-Delhi orogeny).

3) Alpine or Young Fold Mountains

• Alpine fold mountains belonging to the Tertiary period (66 million years ago to present) can be
grouped under the new fold mountains category since they originated in the Tertiary period. Examples are
the Rockies, the Andes, the Alps, the Himalayas, etc. They are characterised by rugged relief, imposing
height and highly conical peaks.

On The Basis of The Nature of Folds

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1. Simple fold mountains: mountains in which well-developed systems of synclines and anticlines are
found, and folds are of wavy patterns.
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2. Complex fold mountains: mountains in which the rock strata are intensely compressed to produce a
complex structure of folds. In the Himalayas, overfolds and recumbent folds are often found detached
from their roots and carried a few hundred kilometres away by the tectonic forces. These detached folds
are called nappe.

Characteristics of Fold Mountains

• Fold mountains belong to the group of youngest mountains of the earth.
• The presence of fossils suggests that the sedimentary rocks of these folded mountains were formed after
the accumulation and consolidation of silts and sediments in a marine environment.
• Fold mountains extend for great lengths whereas their width is considerably small.
• Generally, fold mountains have a concave slope on one side and a convex slope on the other.
• Fold mountains are mostly found along continental margins facing oceans (C-O Convergence).
• Fold mountains are characterized by granite intrusions (formed when magma crystallises and solidifies
underground to form intrusions) on a massive scale.
• Recurrent seismicity is a common feature in folded mountain belts.
• High heat flow often finds expression in volcanic activity (Himalayas is an exception, because of C-C
convergence).
• Fold mountains are by far the most widespread and also the most important (they significantly influence
the climate on both micro- as well as macro-scale). They also contain rich mineral resources such as tin,
copper, gold etc.

10.3. Block Mountains or Fault-Block Mountains

• Block mountains are created because of faulting on a large scale (when large areas or blocks of earth
are broken and displaced vertically or horizontally). The uplifted blocks are termed horsts, and the low-
ered blocks are called graben. The Great African Rift Valley (valley floor is graben), The Rhine Valley
(graben) and the Vosges mountain (horst) in Europe are examples.

There are two basic types of block mountains:

1. Tilted block mountains have one steep side contrasted by a gentle slope on the other side.
2. Lifted block mountains have a flat top and extremely steep slopes.

‘Fault’ in Geology
• When the earth’s crust bends due to different types of forces (tensile, compressive & shearing) folding
occurs, but when it cracks, faulting takes place.
• A fault is a planar fracture (crack) in a volume of the earth’s crust, across which there has been significant
displacement of a block(s) of crust. The faulted edges are usually very steep, e.g. the Vosges and the
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Black Forest mountains of the Rhineland.

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• Large faults within the Earth's crust result from the action of plate tectonic forces, such as subduction
zones or transform faults. Energy release associated with rapid movement on active faults is the cause of
most earthquakes.
• In an active fault, the pieces of the Earth's crust along a fault move over time. Inactive faults had movement
along them at one time, but no longer move. The type of motion along a fault depends on the type of
fault.

Types of Faults

Strike-Slip Fault
• In a strike-slip fault (also known as transcurrent fault), the plane of the fault is usually near vertical, and
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the blocks move laterally either left or right with very little vertical motion (the displacement of the
block is horizontal).
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Transform Fault
• A special class of strike-slip fault is the transform fault or transform boundary when it forms a plate
boundary. The transform boundary ends abruptly and is connected to another transform, a spreading
ridge, or a subduction zone.
• Most of these faults are hidden in the deep ocean, where they offset divergent boundaries in short zigzags
resulting from seafloor spreading. They are less common within the continental lithosphere (e.g. Dead Sea
transform fault).

Dip-Slip Faults
• Dip-slip faults can be either normal or reverse. In a normal fault, the hanging wall (displaced block of
crust) moves downward, relative to the footwall (stationary block). In a reverse fault (thrust fault) the
hanging wall moves upwards.
• Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended (tensile force) such as a diver-
gent boundary. Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened (compressive force)
such as at a convergent boundary.
• A downthrown block between two normal faults is a graben. An upthrown block between two normal
faults is a horst.

Rift Valley system

• Tension causes the central portion to be let down between two adjacent fault blocks forming a graben or
rift valley (e.g. East African Rift Valley), which will have steep walls. In general, large-scale block mountains
and rift valleys are due to tension rather than compression.

Block Mountains
• Block mountains may originate when the middle block moves downward and becomes a rift valley while
the surrounding blocks stand higher as block mountains.

Plateaus
• Sometimes, the surrounding blocks subside leaving the middle block stationary. Such cases are found in
high plateau regions.

Oblique-Slip Faults
• A fault which has a component of dip-slip and a component of strike-slip is termed an oblique-slip fault.
Nearly all faults have some component of both dip-slip and strike-slip. Many disastrous earthquakes are
caused along the oblique-slip.
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 11. Volcanism

• A volcano is a vent or a fissure (rupture) in the earth’s crust from which lava (molten rock), ash, gases,
and rock fragments erupt from a magma chamber below the surface. Volcanism is the phenomenon of
the eruption of pyroclastics (a hot mixture of molten rock, rock fragments, gas, and ash).

11.1. What Causes Volcanism?

• The convection currents in the mantle create convergent and divergent boundaries (weak zones). At
the divergent boundary, volcanism appears at the first available opportunity through the fault zones. At
the convergent boundary, the subduction of the denser plate creates magma at high pressure which will
escape to the surface in the form of violent eruptions. In some other cases, volcanism is caused at unusual
locations by mantle plumes (hotspot volcanism).

11.2. Lava Types

• Magma is composed of molten rock and is stored in the Earth's crust. Lava is magma that reaches the
surface through a volcano vent.

Andesitic Or Acidic Or Composite Or Stratovolcanic Lava

• Andesitic lava flow occurs mostly along the destructive boundaries (convergent boundaries). Here the
lava is produced due to the melting of the subducting plate and the sediments brought down by it.
• Andesitic lavas have a high percentage of silica (because the source is the crust — felsic) and hence
they are highly viscous with a high melting point, are light-coloured and of low density.
• They flow slowly and seldom travel far before solidifying. The resultant volcanic cone is therefore strat-
ified (hence the name composite or stratovolcano) and steep-sided.

Volcanic plug (lava plug) at the crater

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• The rapid solidifying of lava in the vent obstructs the flow of the out-pouring lava, resulting in loud
explosions, throwing out many volcanic bombs or pyroclasts. Sometimes the lavas are so viscous that
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 they form a volcanic plug (object created when magma hardens within a vent on an active volcano) at
the crater, like that of Mt. Pelée in Martinique (an island in the Lesser Antilles, Caribbean Islands).

Basic Or Basaltic Or Shield Lava

• Basaltic lava flow occurs mostly along the constructive boundaries (divergent boundaries — fissure
type or flood basalt volcanism) and through volcanic hotspots (shield and/or flood basalt volcan-
ism). Here the lava comes directly from the mantle (less silica compared to the crust) and hence they
are the hottest lavas (about 1,000 °C).
• Basaltic lavas are rich in iron and magnesium (hence dark coloured) but poor in silica. Hence they are
relatively less viscous (highly fluid). They flow out of the volcanic vent quietly and are not very explo-
sive.
• Due to their high fluidity, they flow readily with a speed of 10 to 30 miles per hour. They affect extensive
areas, spreading out as thin sheets over great distances before they solidify. The resultant shield volcano
is gently sloping with a wide diameter and forms a flattened shield or dome.

11.3. Types of Volcanoes

Composite Type Volcano (Stratovolcano)

• A composite volcano or a stratovolcano is a large and steep conical volcano built up by many layers
(strata) of hardened andesitic lava, pyroclastic and mudflow (lahar) deposits, and tephra.
• Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with a summit crater and
periodic intervals of explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions, although some have collapsed summit
craters called calderas.

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• The highest and most common volcanoes have composite cones with many having snow-covered peaks.
They are built up during the volcano’s active periods (thousands of years). Mount Stromboli (the Light-
house of the Mediterranean), Mount Vesuvius, Krakatoa, and Mount Fuji are examples.

Shield Type Volcano

• The shield-type volcanoes are made up of basaltic lava (very fluid). These volcanoes are not steep and are
less common compared to composite volcanoes. They become explosive if somehow water gets into the
vent; otherwise, they are less explosive. E.g. The Hawaiian volcanoes Mauna Loa (active shield volcano)
and Mauna Kea (dormant shield volcano).

Fissure Type or Flood Basalt Volcanoe (Lava Plateaus)

• Sometimes, a very thin magma escapes through cracks and fissures in the earth's surface and flows after
intervals for a long time, spreading over a vast area, finally producing a layered, undulating (wave-like),
flat surface. E.g. Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, Snake Basin, Icelandic Shield, Canadian Shield.

11.4. Types of Volcanoes Based on Frequency of Eruption

141

Active Volcanoes
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• Active volcanoes erupt fairly frequently. Barren Island in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and Anak
Krakatoa are active volcanoes.

Dormant Volcanoes
• Dormant volcanoes are the ones that have not erupted regularly in recent times. They undergo long inter-
vals of repose. E.g. Mount Kilimanjaro (which has three volcanic cones) in Tanzania. They may become
active or go extinct as the years pass.

Extinct or Ancient Volcanoes

• Extinct volcanoes are the ones with eruptions being recorded in historic times but remained dormant for
hundreds of years without any activity. E.g. Mount Kenya is an extinct stratovolcano.
• Before a volcano becomes extinct, it passes through a waning stage during which steam and other hot
gases and vapours are exhaled. These are known as fumaroles or solfataras.

11.5. Volcanism Types

1) Exhalative (Vapour Or Fumes)

• Exhalative volcanism includes the discharge of material in gaseous forms, such as steam, fumes, HCl,
ammonium chloride, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide, hydro-
gen, nitrogen, etc.
• Volcanic gases may escape through vents which are in the form of hot springs, geysers, fumaroles (open-
ings that emit steam and volcanic gases, such as sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide) and solfataras (fuma-
roles where sulphur gases are dominant).
• Exhalative volcanism indicates the volcano is reaching its extinction. Associated landforms are called sinter
mounds, cones of precipitated minerals and mud volcanoes.

2) Effusive (Lava Outpouring)

• Effusive type refers to abundant outpourings and solidification of basaltic lava from a vent or fissure. A
columnar structure is sometimes developed in fine-grained plateau basalts (e.g. Deccan Traps near Mum-
bai).
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3) Explosive (Violent Ejection Of Solid Material)

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• Explosive type of activity results in fragmentation and ejection of various volcanic ejects:
 Tephra: all fragmented ejects from the volcanoes.
 Ash: The finest sand-sized tephra.
 Lapilli: These are gravel-sized particles either in the molten or solid state.
 Blocks: Boulder-sized solid ejecta.
 Bombs: A lump of lava that is thrown out and solidifies as it falls.
 Tuff: Layers of volcanic dust and ashes.
• Smaller particles like lapilli and ash travel through the air for many kilometres. The heavier particles like
bombs and blocks fall in the vicinity of the vent.

4) Subaqueous Volcanism
• Subaquaous volcanic activity takes place below the surface of the water. The lava consolidates to pro-
duce a structure like that of a heap of pillows. Highly viscous lavas depths develop glassy margins. The
related volcanic product is hyaloclastite. Most hyaloclastites identified are in Iceland.

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11.6. Eruptive Volcanism Types

1) Hawaiian Eruption
• Hawaiian eruption is a type of volcanic eruption, named after the Hawaiian volcanoes. They are the calm-
est types characterised by the effusive (lava outpouring) eruption of very fluid basaltic lavas from cra-
ters, lava lakes and fissures, with little-ejected material.
• A single flow spreads over a wide area and the steady outpouring of lava builds up a large shield vol-
cano. Eruptions are not centralised at the main summit and often occur at vents around the summit and
from fissure vents radiating out of the centre.

2) Icelandic Eruption
• The Icelandic type is characterized by effusions of molten basaltic lava that flow from long, parallel fis-
sures. Such outpourings often build lava plateaus. E.g. Deccan Traps, Siberian Traps, etc.

3) Strombolian Eruption
• Strombolian eruption is named after the Stromboli Volcano (Lipari Islands, Italy) (famously known as
the lighthouse of the Mediterranean). It has been erupting continuously for centuries.
• Strombolian eruptions are driven by episodic explosive eruptions (erupts once in every few minutes –
fountain-like eruption) due to the continuous formation of large gas bubbles within the magma. Upon
reaching the surface, the bubbles burst with a loud pop, throwing magma in the air.

Anak Krakatau
• The greatest volcanic explosion known to humans is perhaps that of the Krakatau (Plinian) eruption
in 1883. The explosion could be heard in Perth, Australia, almost 3,000 miles away. More than 36,000
people died, mostly from the tsunamis that followed the explosion.
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• At present, Krakatau is a group of four small volcanic islands situated in the Sunda Strait between the
islands of Java and Sumatra. Three of the four islands are the remnants of the previous volcanic
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 structure destroyed in the 1883 eruption. The fourth island, Anak Krakatau (meaning Child of Krakatoa)
emerged in the 1920s from the caldera formed in 1883. It is the current location of eruptive activity.

2018 Sunda Strait Tsunami

• In recent times, Anak Krakatau has become increasingly active with Strombolian eruptions. An eruption
in 2018 and the subsequent collapse of a portion of the volcano triggered a tsunami that killed many.
While Indonesia possessed a tsunami warning system for tsunamis caused by earthquakes, there were
none in place for volcanic tsunamis.

4) Vulcanian Eruption
• In Vulcanian eruptions, intermediate viscous magma within the volcano makes it difficult for gases to es-
cape. This leads to the build-up of high gas pressure, eventually resulting in an explosive eruption. After
each eruption cycle, the volcano is dormant for decades or centuries.
• Vulcanian eruptions are more explosive than their Strombolian counterparts, with eruptive columns often
reaching between 5 and 10 km high. The molten lava is explosively ejected as a great cauliflower cloud
of dark tephra. Bombs, blocks, lapilli and another ejecta fall in the surrounding area.

5) Plinian Eruption
• In Plinian (or Vesuvian) eruptions, dissolved volatile gases stored in the magma are channelled to the top
through a narrow conduit (pipe-like structure). The gases erupt into a massive column of gas plume that
can reach up to 45 km into the atmosphere. As it reaches higher the plume expands and becomes less
dense and convection and thermal expansion of volcanic ash drive it even further up into the stratosphere.
At the top of the plume, powerful prevailing winds drive the plume in a direction away from the volcano.

Mount Vesuvius
• Mount Vesuvius is a stratovolcano in the Bay of Naples, Italy. It is best known for its Plinian-type
eruption in AD 79 that led to the destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii. The eruption ejected a
cloud of stones, ashes and volcanic gases to a height of more than 30 km.
Vesuvius has erupted many times since. The eruptions alternated between Plinian and Peléan with most
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•
of them being Plinian type.
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• Today, Mount Vesuvius is regarded as one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world because
of the population of more than 3 million people living nearby.

Mount St. Helens

• Mount St. Helens is an active volcano located in the Cascade Volcanic Arc. Mount St. Helens is most
notorious for its major 1980 Plinian-type eruption that killed more than 50 people.

Mount Tambora
• Mount Tambora is an active volcano located in the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia. Tambora is
known for its major Plinian-type eruption in 1815. It was one of the most powerful in recorded history,
with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 7.
• The ash from the eruption column dispersed around the world and lowered global temperatures, in
an event sometimes known as the Year Without a Summer in 1816. More than 71,000 people died due
to famines caused in Europe and America.

Nevado del Ruiz

• Nevado del Ruiz is a volcano located in Colombia. The volcano usually generates Vulcanian to Plinian
eruptions, which produce destructive lahars. In 1985, a small eruption produced an enormous lahar
that buried and destroyed the towns causing an estimated 25,000 deaths.

Lahar
• A lahar is a violent type of mudflow or debris flow composed of a slurry of pyroclastic material, rocky
debris and water. The material flows down from a volcano, typically along a river valley. Lahars are ex-
tremely destructive as they flow fast and can engulf entire settlements in a matter of minutes.

Mount Pinatubo
• Mount Pinatubo is an active volcano located on the Luzon island of the Philippines. Pinatubo plinian
type eruption in 1991 brought about dramatic changes in the global environment. The amount of
sulfuric ash it sent into the stratosphere cooled global ground temperatures by 1°C for the next two
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years, and ozone depletion temporarily increased substantially.

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6) Pelean Eruption
• In peléan type eruptions (named after Mt. Pelée), the sudden burst of the lava dome causes the collapse
of the cinder cone and a large amount of very viscous, ash-rich acidic lava and fragments are blown out
laterally. The lava flowing out violently at high speed causes massive destruction on its path.
• Hot gases are not carried skyward but spread downslope as a nuce ardente (swiftly flowing, dense cloud
of hot gases, ashes, and lava fragments), continuing to cushion the downflowing fragments.

Mount Pelée
• Mount Pelée is a volcano at the northern end of Martinique Island (French overseas department in
the Lesser Antilles island arc of the Caribbean). The volcano is famous for its pelean type eruption
in 1902 that killed about 30,000 people. Most deaths were caused by pyroclastic flows which destroyed
the city of Saint-Pierre.

11.7. Volcanic Landforms

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• Volcanic landforms are divided into extrusive and intrusive landforms based on whether magma cools
within the crust or above the crust. Rocks formed by the cooling of magma within the crust are called
Plutonic rocks. Rocks formed by the cooling of lava above the surface are called Igneous rocks. In
general, the term ‘Igneous rocks’ is used to refer to all rocks of volcanic origin.

Extrusive Volcanic Landforms

• Extrusive landforms are formed from material thrown out to the surface during volcanic activity. The ma-
terials thrown out include lava flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash, dust and gases such as ni-
trogen compounds, sulphur compounds and minor amounts of chlorine, hydrogen and argon.

Volcanic Vents
Fissure Vent
• A fissure vent (volcanic fissure) is a narrow, linear volcanic vent through which lava erupts, usually without
any explosive activity. The vent is often a few meters wide and maybe many kilometres long. Fissure
vents are common in basaltic volcanism (shield-type volcanoes).

Conical Vent
• A conical vent is a narrow cylindrical vent through which magma flows out violently. Conical vents are
common in andesitic volcanism (composite or stratovolcano).

Crater
• A crater is an inverted cone-shaped vent through which the magma flows out. When the volcano is not
active the crater appears as a bowl-shaped depression. When water from rain or melted snow gets accu-
mulated in the crater, it becomes a crater lake.

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The crater of Mount Fuji, Japan

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Caldera
• In some of the most explosive of the earth’s volcanoes, the magma chamber below the surface may be
emptied after successive volcanic eruptions. The volcanic material above the chamber collapses into
the empty magma chamber, and the collapsed surface appears like a large cauldron-like hollow (tub-
shaped) called the caldera. When water from rain or melted snow gets accumulated in the caldera, it
becomes a caldera lake.

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Difference Between Crater Lake and Caldera Lake
• Due to their unstable environments, some crater lakes exist only intermittently. Caldera lakes, in con-
trast, can be quite large and long-lasting. For example, Lake Toba (Indonesia) formed after its super-
volcanic eruption around 75,000 years ago has the largest caldera lake in the world.
• Lake Taal (Luzon, Philippines) and Crater Lake (Oregon, USA) are some of the notable caldera lakes. (The
literal name of the caldera lake formed by the collapse of Mount Mazama (in Cascade Volcanic Arc) is
‘Crater Lake’! (in general, the caldera lakes are also called crater lakes))

Taal Lake (Luzon, Philippines)

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 A crater lake, in general, could be of volcanic origin (volcanic crater lake, volcanic caldera lake) or due
to a meteorite impact (meteor crater or impact crater), or in the crater left by an artificial explosion
caused by humans.
 Lonar Lake (Ramsar Site), also known as Lonar crater (Lonar, Buldhana district, Maharashtra) was
created by a meteor impact during the Pleistocene Epoch.

Pseudo Volcanic Features

• Pseudo volcanic features are certain topographic features that resemble volcanic forms but are of
non-volcanic origin. They include meteorite craters, salt plugs, and mud volcanoes.

Meteorite Craters
• Meteorite craters are impact craters that are formed when a meteorite strikes the surface of the earth
creating a huge depression.

Salt Plug (Salt Dome)

• A salt plug is formed when underground salt deposits at high pressure become ductile and pierce
through the overlying sediments to create a diapir (a dome-like intrusion forced into brittle overlying
rocks). Salt extrusions may take the form of salt hills which exhibit volcanic crater-like features.
• Salt structures are impermeable and can lead to the formation of a stratigraphic trap (an impermea-
ble layer that is formed due to changes in porosity and permeability and can retain hydrocarbons.
Structural traps, in contrast, are cracks in faults and folds that can retain hydrocarbons).

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 Mud-Volcanoe
• A mud volcano or mud dome is a landform created by the eruption of mud, water and gases. They are
usually found near the subduction zones and hot springs.
• Other mud volcanoes, entirely of a non-volcanic origin, occur near oil fields where methane and
other volatile hydrocarbon gases mixed with mud force their way upward.

Cinder Cone
• A cinder cone is a steep circular or oval-shaped hill of loose pyroclastic fragments (clinkers, volcanic ash,
etc.) that have been built around a volcanic vent. Most cinder cones have a bowl-shaped crater at the
summit.

Lava Dome
• A lava dome (volcanic dome) is a mound-shaped protrusion (a structure that extends outside the surface)
resulting from the slow extrusion (coming out) of viscous magma from a volcano. The magma does not
have enough gas or pressure to escape, although sometime later after sufficient pressure builds up, it may
erupt explosively.

Lava dome protruding from a volcanic vent

Mid-Ocean Ridges
• The system of mid-ocean ridges stretches for more than 70,000 km across all the ocean basins. The central
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portion of the mid-ocean ridges experiences frequent eruptions. The lava is basaltic (less silica and hence
less viscous) and causes the spreading of the seafloor.
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Intrusive (Plutonic) Volcanic Landforms
• Intrusive landforms are formed when magma cools within the crust.

Batholiths
• Batholiths are large granitic rock bodies formed due to the solidification of hot magma inside the earth.
They form the core of huge mountains and may appear at the surface only after the denudation processes
remove the overlying materials.

Laccoliths
• Laccoliths are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies (plutons) connected by a pipe-like conduit from below.
These are intrusive counterparts of an exposed domelike batholith. The Karnataka plateau is spotted with
dome hills of granite rocks. Most of these, now exfoliated, are examples of laccoliths or batholiths.

Lopolith
• A portion of lava may tend to move in a horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak plane. It may get
rested into a saucer shape (depression) to form a lopolith.

Phacolith
• Phacoliths are lens-shaped plutons (intrusive rocks) found at the base of synclines or the top of the
anticline in folded igneous strata. Such plutons have a definite conduit to source beneath in the form of
magma chambers (subsequently developed as batholiths).

Sills
• The near-horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill. The thinner ones are called sheets.

Dykes
• When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures developed in the land, it solidifies almost
perpendicular to the ground. It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like structure. Such
structures are called dykes.
• Dykes are the most commonly found intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area. These are consid-
ered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the development of the Deccan traps.

11.8. Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes across the World

• Most known volcanic activity and earthquakes occur along converging plate margins and mid-oceanic
ridges. It is said that nearly 70 per cent of earthquakes occur in the Circum-Pacific belt. Another 20 per
cent of earthquakes take place in the Mediterranean-Himalayan belt including Asia Minor, the Himalayas
and parts of northwest China.
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• Since the 16th century, around 480 volcanoes have been reported to be active. Of these, nearly 400 are
located in and around the Pacific Ocean, and 80 are in the mid-world belt across the Mediterranean Sea,
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 Alpine-Himalayan belt and in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The belts of the highest concentration are
the Aleutian-Kurile islands arc, Melanesia and New Zealand-Tonga belt.
• Only 10 per cent to 20 per cent of all volcanic activity is above the sea, and terrestrial volcanic mountains
are small when compared to their submarine counterparts.

Pacific Ring of Fire

• Circum-Pacific region popularly termed the 'Pacific Ring of Fire', has the greatest concentration of active
volcanoes. The volcanic belt and earthquake belt closely overlap along the 'Pacific Ring of Fire'.

Regions with active volcanism along the 'Pacific Ring of Fire'

• The Aleutian Islands into Kamchatka, Japan,
• The Philippines, and Indonesia (Java and Sumatra in particular),
• Pacific islands of Solomon, New Hebrides, Tonga and North Island, New Zealand.
• The Andes to Central America (particularly Guatemala, Costa Rica and Nicaragua), Mexico and right up to
Alaska.

The 5 countries with the most volcanoes (Source)

1. United States – 173 (most of them are in Alaska)
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2. Russia - 166
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3. Indonesia - 139
4. Iceland - 130
5. Japan – 112

[UPSC Mains 2020] Discuss the geophysical characteristics of Circum-Pacific Zone.

Other regions

Along the Atlantic coast

• In contrast, the Atlantic coasts have comparatively few active volcanoes but many dormant or extinct vol-
canoes, e.g. St. Helena, Cape Verde Islands and the Canary Islands etc.
• But the volcanoes of Iceland and the Azores are active.

Great Rift Region

• In Africa, some volcanoes are found along the East African Rift Valley, e.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya.

The West Indian Islands

• The Lesser Antilles (Part of the West Indies Islands) are made up mainly of volcanic islands, and some of
them still bear signs of volcanic liveliness.

Mediterranean Volcanism
• Volcanoes of the Mediterranean region are mainly associated with the Alpine folds, e.g. Vesuvius, Strom-
boli (Light House of the Mediterranean) and those of the Aegean islands. A few continue into Asia
Minor (Mt. Ararat, Mt. Elbrus).
• The volcanism of this broad region is largely the result of convergence between the Eurasian Plate and the
northward-moving African Plate. This type of volcanism is mainly due to the breaking up of the
Mediterranean plate into multiple plates due to the interaction of African and Eurasian plate

Volcanos in India
• There are no volcanoes in the Himalayan region or the Indian peninsula.
• Barren Island (only active volcano in India) in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands became active in the
1990s. It is now considered an active volcano after it spewed lava and ash in 2017. The other volcanic island
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in Indian territory is Narcondam, about 150 km northeast of Barren Island; it is probably extinct. Its crater
wall has been destroyed.
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[UPSC Prelims 2018] Consider the following statements:
1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian territory.
2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3
c) 3 only
d) 1 and 3

Explanation:
• Statement (3) is incorrect. The answer is (a) 1 only — elimination method.

11.9. Geysers and Hot Springs

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• Water that percolates into the porous rock is subjected to intense heat by the underlying hard rock which
is in contact with hot magma in the upper mantle or the lower part of the crust. Under the influence of
intense heat, the water in the capillaries and narrow roots in the porous rock undergoes intense expansion
and gets converted to high-pressure steam. When this steam or water at high pressure finds a path to
the surface through narrow vents and weak zones, appears at the surface as geysers and hot water
springs.

Hot water spring

Geyser
Steam or water at high pressure, along its path, gets Steam or water at high pressure smoothly flows
accumulated in small reservoirs, fissures and frac- to the top through the vent and condenses at the
tures. Once the pressure exceeds the threshold limit, surface giving rise to a hot water spring.
the steam bursts out to the surface disrupting the
water at the mouth. Hence the name geyser.
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Silicate deposits at the mouth give them their distinct Some springs are very colourful because of the
colours. presence of cyanobacteria of different colours.
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 Generally, geysers are located near active volcanic Springs are found all across the world.
areas.
Almost all the world’s geysers are confined to Ice-
land (famous among tourists for its geysers), New
Zealand and Yellowstone National Park.
Usually, a carter-like structure is created at the mouth.

11.10. Destructive Effects of Volcanoes

• Showers of cinders and bombs can cause damage to life. E.g. the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.
• Tsunamis can be generated in large water bodies due to violent eruptions. E.g. 1883 Krakatoa eruption.
• The collapse of the volcanic landforms in seas and oceans causes tsunamis. E.g. 2018 Sunda Strait tsunami.
• The ash from a larger eruption dispersing over a large area can lower temperatures on a regional or global
scale. This could trigger famines on a large scale. E.g. 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora.
• In Hawaiian-type eruption, a single flow spreads widely over open slopes or down the valleys as lava rivers
engulf entire cities.
• Lahars (a violent type of mudflow or debris flow) can bury entire cities in a matter of minutes causing a
high number of causalities. E.g. 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz volcano.
• The collapse of lava domes can cause violent volcanic flows that destroy everything on their path. E.g.
the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée.
Powerful winds drive the gas plume higher into the atmosphere and carry it to a greater distance disrupting
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•
air travel (this happened in 2010 when a stratovolcano in Iceland erupted and disrupted air travel over
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entire Europe for weeks).

• A supervolcanic super-eruption can cause a small-scale extinction event. E.g. The Toba eruption (Indonesia)
triggered a dramatic global winter 74,000 years ago.

Volcanism – Acid Rain, Ozone Destruction

• The volcanic gases that pose the greatest potential hazard to people, animals, agriculture, and property
are sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen fluoride. Locally, sulphur dioxide gas can lead to
acid rain and air pollution downwind from a volcano.
• Globally, large explosive eruptions that inject a tremendous volume of sulphur aerosols into the strato-
sphere can lead to lower surface temperatures and promote depletion of the Earth's ozone layer.

11.11. Positive Effects of Volcanoes

• Volcanism creates new fertile landforms like islands, plateaus, volcanic mountains etc. E.g. Deccan traps.
The volcanic ash and dust are very fertile for farms and orchards. Volcanic rocks yield very fertile soil upon
weathering and decomposition.
• Although steep volcano slopes prevent extensive agriculture, forestry operations on them provide valuable
timber resources.
• Mineral resources, particularly metallic ores are brought to the surface by volcanoes. Sometimes copper
and other ores fill the gas-bubble cavities. The famed Kimberlite rock of South Africa, the source of dia-
monds, is the pipe of an ancient volcano.
• The heat from the earth's interior in areas of volcanic activity is used to generate geothermal electricity.
Countries producing geothermal power include the USA, Russia, Japan, Italy, New Zealand and Mexico.
The Puga valley in the Ladakh region and Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) are promising spots in India
for the generation of geothermal electricity. Geothermal potential can be used for space heating.
• As scenic features of great beauty, attracting a heavy tourist trade, few landforms outrank volcanoes. At
several places, national parks have been set up, centred around volcanoes. E.g. Yellowstone National
Park.
• As a source of crushed rock for concrete aggregate or railroad ballast and other engineering purposes,
lava rock is often extensively used.

[UPSC Mains 2021] Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in 2021 and their
impact on the regional environment.
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 12. Hotspot Volcanism

• Hotspot volcanism is a type of volcanism that typically occurs at the interior parts of the lithospheric
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plates rather than at the plate margins. The Iceland Hotspot and Afar Hotspot which are situated at the
divergent boundary are exceptions. Hotspot volcanism occurs due to abnormally hot centres in the
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 mantle known as mantle plumes. This explains the so-called anomalous volcanism — the type that oc-
curs far from the plate margins (when the mantle plumes lie far from tectonic plate boundaries), like in
Hawaii and Yellowstone, or in excessive amounts along mid-ocean ridges, as in Iceland.

12.1. Mantle Plumes

• Mantle plumes are the convection of abnormally hot magma within the Earth's mantle. They form at the
core-mantle boundary where an abnormally hot plume of rock accumulates. Unlike the larger convection
cells in the mantle which change their position over geological timescales, the position of the mantle
plumes seems to be relatively fixed.
• Mantle plumes are shaped like a mushroom with a long conduit (tail) connecting the bulbous head to its
base. The head expands in size as the plume rises. The plume rises through the Earth's mantle becoming
a diapir (dome-like intrusion forced into brittle overlying rocks) in the upper mantle.

12.2. Mantle Plumes and Flood Basalt Volcanism (Large Igneous Provinces)

• Mantle plumes rise slowly towards the upper mantle. When a plume head encounters the base of the
lithosphere, it flattens out and undergoes widespread decompression melting to form large volumes of
basalt magma. The basaltic magma may erupt onto the surface through a series of fissures giving rise to
large igneous provinces (extensive accumulations of flood basalts) occupying several thousand
square kilometres. E.g. Iceland, Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, and Ontong Java Plateau.

Flood Basalt Events and Extinctions

• Very large amounts of volcanic material in large igneous provinces can cover huge areas with lava and
volcanic ash, causing long-lasting climate change (such as the triggering of a small ice age).
• The largest flood basalt event (that led to the formation of the Siberian Traps) occurred around 250
million years ago and was coincident with the largest mass extinction in history, the Permian–Triassic
extinction event.
• The Réunion hotspot (which produced the Deccan Traps about 66 million years ago) coincides with
the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (also known as Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) extinction or ―
fifth and the most recent mass extinction). Though a meteor impact (Chicxulub Crater) was the cause of
the extinction event, the volcanic activity may have caused environmental stresses.

12.3. Mantle Plumes and Volcanic Hotspots

• The mantle plume provides a continuous supply of abnormally hot magma to a fixed location in the
mantle referred to as a hotspot. The abnormally high heat of the hotspot facilitates the melting of rock at
the base of the lithosphere. The melted rock (magma), which is at high pressure, often pushes through
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cracks in the crust to form hotspot volcanoes (e.g. Mount Mauna Kea).
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Hotspot Volcano Chain

• A volcano above a hotspot does not erupt forever. Attached to the tectonic plate, the volcano moves and
is eventually cut off from the hotspot (the plate moves overhead relative to the fixed plume source).
Without any source of heat, the volcano becomes extinct and cools. This cooling causes the rock of the
volcano and the tectonic plate to become denser. Over time, the dense rock sinks and erodes. A new and
active volcano develops over the hotspot creating a continuous cycle of volcanism, forming a volcanic arc
that parallels plate motion.

• The Hawaiian Islands chain is the best example for a hotspot volcano chain. The islands and seamounts
(submarine mountains) exhibit age progression, with the youngest near present-day Hawaii and the old-
est near the Aleutian Trench.

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• Other hotspots with time-progressive volcanic chains behind them include Réunion, the Chagos-Lacca-
dive Ridge, the Louisville Ridge, and the Yellowstone. Some hotspots lack time-progressive volcanic
trails, e.g., Iceland, the Galapagos, the Azores, and the Canaries.

Reunion Hotspot

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• The Reunion hotspot is a volcanic hotspot which currently lies under the Island of Reunion in the Indian
Ocean. A huge eruption of this hotspot 66 million years ago is thought to have laid down the Deccan
Traps and opened a rift which separated India from the Seychelles Plateau.
• As the Indian plate drifted north, the hotspot continued to punch through the plate, creating a string of
volcanic islands and undersea plateaus. The Chagos-Laccadive Ridge (Lakshadweep is a part of this
ridge) and the southern part of the Mascarene Plateau are volcanic traces of the Reunion hotspot. The
Laccadive Islands, the Maldives, and the Chagos Archipelago are atolls resting on former volcanoes
created 60-45 million years ago that subsequently submerged below sea level.
• About 45 million years ago, the mid-ocean rift crossed over the hotspot, and the hotspot passed under
the African Plate and had been relatively quiet from 45-10 million years ago. When activity resumed, the
Mascarene Islands, which include Mauritius, Reunion, and Rodrigues were created.

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Mantle Plumes And Divergence (Plate Tectonics)

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 [UPSC Mains 2018] What is a mantle plume and what role does it play in plate tectonics?
Backdrop: In early 2018, a large crack made a sudden appearance in south-western Kenya adding fuel to
the debate on the breakup of Africa. Also, the Yellowstone supervolcano has evoked considerable interest
in recent times (The Yellowstone supervolcano is a disaster waiting to happen).

• Mantle plumes are convection currents on a small scale (in comparison to major convection currents in
the mantle). The plume rises through the centre and diverges in all directions just below the lithospheric
plates. The divergence of the plume exerts extensional stress (tensile stress) on the lithospheric plate above
and causes the plate to stretch and rupture and then diverge to form a rift in between. Afar hotspot in
Africa got ruptured due to the mantle plume below. At the Afar triple junction, the Arabian, African, and
Somali plates are moving away from the centre.
 Afar Triple Junction: The Afar Triple Junction is located along a divergent plate boundary dividing the
Nubian, Somalian, and Arabian plates. Here, the Red Sea Rift meets the Aden Ridge and the East African Rift.

12.4. Mantle Plumes and Uplifted Landforms (Epeirogenic Movements)

• As the plume reaches the crust, it spreads out laterally doming zones of the Earth. E.g. The Ethiopian
Highlands. The Ethiopian Highlands began before the beginning of the Tertiary Period (66 mya), as the
mantle plume below uplifted a broad dome of the ancient rocks of the Arabian-Nubian Shield. Around 30
million years ago, a flood basalt plateau began to form, piling layers upon layers of voluminous fissure-
fed basaltic lava flows.
• The opening of the Great Rift Valley split the dome of the Ethiopian Highlands into three parts ― two
parts to the east and west of the rift and the third part consisting of the mountains of the southern Arabian
Peninsula (geologically a part of the ancient Ethiopian Highlands, now separated by the rifting).

12.5. Mantle Plumes and Thinning of The Continental Crust

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• The Yellowstone hotspot is an example for a hotspot developed beneath a continent. Here the mantle
plume has been thinning the part of the crust (divergence of the plume exerts extensional stress on the
lithospheric plate) above and is likely to thin the whole of the surface opening the door for the underlying
supervolcano.

12.6. Mantle Plumes and Supervolcanoes

• A supervolcano is a large volcano in which the volume of magma deposits that can erupt to the surface is
greater than 1,000 cubic kilometres. Supervolcanoes occur when a large volume of magma accumulates
under the lithospheric plate but is unable to break through it. Over time (thousands of years), the pressure
keeps building up until the plate can no longer contain the pressure, resulting in an eruption. This can
occur at hotspots (for example, Yellowstone Caldera) or subduction zones (for example, Toba Cal-
dera Lake, Sumatra Island, Indonesia).

Supervolcano Eruptions

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• There were more than 40 super-eruptions in earth’s history, and the most recent occurred in New Zea-
land's Lake Taupo (Taupo supervolcano) some 26,000 years ago.
• The Oruanui eruption of the Taupo Volcano was the world's largest known eruption in the past 70,000
years, with a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 8.
• The Toba eruption (Indonesia) 74,000 years ago, caused by shifting tectonic plates triggered a dramatic
global winter.

Disaster Potential
• A supervolcanic super-eruption can cause a small-scale or regional extinction event. The ash can engulf
major portions of the continent in which they occur. The gas (including sulphur aerosols that reflect back
sunlight) and dust ejected can blanket the earth’s troposphere for months or years to come causing se-
vere climate change (global winter).
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 13. Types of Rocks & Rock Cycle

• Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals held together by chemical bonds.
• Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found in rocks.
• Based on the mode of formation three major groups of rocks are defined:
1. Igneous Rocks — solidified from magma and lava.
2. Sedimentary Rocks — the result of deposition of fragments of rocks.
3. Metamorphic Rocks — formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallisation.
 The scientific study of rocks is called petrology.

13.1. Igneous Rocks or Primary rocks

• Rocks formed out of solidification of magma (molten rock below the surface) and lava (molten rock above
the surface) and are known as igneous or primary rocks. Having their origin under conditions of high
temperatures the igneous rocks are unfossiliferous. Granite, gabbro, and basalt are some examples of
igneous rocks.
• There are three types of igneous rocks based on place and time taken in cooling of the molten matter,
plutonic rocks, volcanic rocks and intermediate rocks. There are two types of rocks based on the pres-
ence of acid-forming silicon radical, acidic rocks and basic rocks.

Intrusive Igneous Rocks (Plutonic Rocks)

• If magma cools slowly at great depths, mineral grains formed in the rocks may be very large. Such rocks
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are called intrusive rocks or plutonic rocks (e.g. Granite). These rocks appear on the surface only after
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being uplifted and denuded.

Extrusive Igneous Rocks (Lava Or Volcanic Rocks)
• Sudden cooling of magma just below the surface or lava above the surface results in small & smooth
grains in rocks as rapid cooling prevents crystallisation, as a result, such rocks are fine-grained. Such
rocks are called extrusive rocks or volcanic rocks (e.g. Basalt).
• The Deccan Traps are of basaltic origin. Basic rocks contain a greater proportion of basic oxides, e.g. of
iron, aluminium or magnesium, and are thus denser and darker in colour.

Hypabyssal or Dyke Rocks or Intermediate rocks

• Dyke rocks occupy an intermediate position between the deep-seated plutonic bodies and the surface
lava flows. They are semi-crystalline in structure.

Acid Rocks
• Acidic rocks are characterised by a high content of silica (quartz and feldspar) — up to 80 per cent. The
rest is divided among aluminium, magnesium, iron oxide, etc. Since these rocks have a lesser content of
heavier minerals like iron and magnesium, they are less dense and are lighter in colour than basic rocks.
• Acidic rocks are hard, compact, massive and resistant to weathering. They constitute the sial portion of
the crust. Granite, quartz and feldspar are typical examples. Due to the excess of silicon, the parent ma-
terial of acidic rocks (acidic magma) cools fast and does not flow and spread far away. Hence high
mountains are formed from this type of rock.

Basic Rocks
• Basic rocks are poor in silica (about 40 per cent); magnesia content is up to 40 per cent, and the remain-
ing is spread over iron oxide, lime, aluminium, alkalis, potassium etc. The presence of heavy elements
imparts to these rocks a dark colour.
• Not being very hard, these rocks are weathered relatively easily. Basalt, gabbro and dolerite are typical
examples. Due to low silica content, the parent material of such rocks (basaltic magma) cools slowly and
thus, flows and spreads far away. This flow and cooling give rise to plateaus.

Economic Significance of Igneous Rocks

• Since magma is the chief source of metal ores, many of them are associated with igneous rocks. The
valuable minerals found in igneous rocks are iron, nickel, copper, lead, zinc, chromite, manganese, gold,
diamond and platinum.
• Amygdales are bubbles formed in basalt due to the escape of gases and are filled with minerals. The old
rocks of the great Indian peninsula are rich in these crystallised minerals or metals.
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• Many igneous rocks like granite are used as building materials as they come in beautiful shades.

13.2. Sedimentary Rocks or Detrital Rocks

• Sedimentary rocks are formed by lithification ― consolidation and compaction of sediments (a result of
denudation (weathering and erosion) of all types of rocks). Hence, they are layered or stratified of varying
thicknesses. Example: sandstone, shale etc. Ice deposited sedimentary rocks are called tillite. Wind-
deposited sediments are called loess.
• Sedimentary rocks cover 75 per cent of the earth’s crust but volumetrically occupy only 5 per cent (because
they are available only in the upper part of the crust). Depending upon the mode of formation, they are
classified into:
1. mechanically formed — sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess, etc.
2. organically formed — geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal, etc.
3. chemically formed — limestone, halite, potash, etc.

Mechanically Formed Sedimentary Rocks

• They are formed by mechanical agents like running water, wind, ocean currents, ice, etc. Some are arena-
ceous rocks (consisting of sand or large particles of a substance similar to sand). They are hard and porous
and form the best reservoirs for liquids like groundwater and petroleum. E.g. sandstone. Argillaceous
rocks have more clay and are fine-grained, softer, and mostly impermeable (mostly non-porous or have
very tiny pores). E.g. claystone and shales.

Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks

• Water containing minerals evaporates at the mouth of springs or salt lakes and gives rise to stalactites
and stalagmites (deposits of lime left over by the lime-mixed water as it evaporates in the underground
caves).

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Organically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
• The remains of plants and animals are buried under sediments, and due to heat and pressure from over-
lying layers, their composition changes. Coal and limestone are well-known examples. Depending on the
predominance of calcium content or carbon content, sedimentary rocks may be calcareous (limestone,
chalk, dolomite) or carbonaceous (coal).

Chief Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks

• They are stratified (consist of many layers or strata) and are generally porous and allow water to per-
colate through them.
• They are fossiliferous (have fossils of plants and animals) and hold the most informative geological rec-
ords due to the marks left behind by various geophysical (weather patterns, wind and water flow) and
biological activities (fossils).

The Spread of Sedimentary Rocks in India

• Alluvial deposits in the Indo-Gangetic plain and coastal plains are of sedimentary accumulation. These
deposits contain loam and clay.
• Different varieties of sandstone are spread over Madhya Pradesh, eastern Rajasthan, parts of Himalayas,
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa.
• The great Vindhyan highland in central India consists of sandstones, shales, and limestones.
• Coal deposits occur in river basins of the Damodar, Mahanadi, and the Godavari in the Gondwana sedi-
mentary deposits.

Economic Significance of Sedimentary Rocks

• Sedimentary rocks are not as rich in minerals of economic value as igneous rocks. But important minerals
such as hematite iron ore, phosphates, building stones, coals, petroleum and material used in the cement
industry are found.
• Important minerals like bauxite, manganese, and tin, are derived from other rocks but are found in gravels
and sands carried by water. Sedimentary rocks also yield some of the richest soils.

[UPSC Prelims 2001] Consider the following statements made about sedimentary rocks:
1. Sedimentary rocks are formed at the earth's surface by the hydrological system
2. Formation of sedimentary rocks involves the weathering of pre-existing rocks
3. Sedimentary rocks contain fossils
4. Sedimentary rocks typically occur in layers

Which of these statements are correct?

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a) 1 and 2
b) 1 and 4
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 c) 2, 3 and 4
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

13.3. Metamorphic Rocks

• The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’. Metamorphism is a process by which recrystallisation
and reorganisation of minerals occur within a rock.
• Metamorphism occurs due to pressure, volume and temperature changes.
• When rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic processes or when molten magma rising through
the crust comes in contact with the crustal rocks, metamorphosis occurs.
• Gneissoid, slate, schist, marble, quartzite etc. are some examples of metamorphic rocks.
• In the process of metamorphism in some rocks grains or minerals get arranged in layers or lines. Such an
arrangement is called foliation or lineation.
• Sometimes minerals or materials of different groups are arranged into alternating thin to thick layers. Such
a structure is called banding.

Causes of Metamorphism
• Orogenic (Mountain Building) Movements: Orogenic movements often take place with an interplay of
folding, warping and high temperatures. These processes give existing rocks a new appearance.
• Lava Inflow: The molten magmatic material inside the earth’s crust brings the surrounding rocks under
the influence of intense temperature pressure and causes changes in them.
• Geodynamic Forces: The omnipresent geodynamic forces such as plate tectonics also play an important
role in metamorphism.

Thermal Metamorphism
• The change of form or re-crystallisation of minerals of sedimentary and igneous rocks under the influence
of high temperatures is known as thermal metamorphism. Due to thermal metamorphism, sandstone
changes into quartzite and limestone into marble.
• A magmatic intrusion causing thermal metamorphism is responsible for the peak of Mount Everest con-
sisting of metamorphosed limestone.

Dynamic Metamorphism
• This refers to the formation of metamorphic rocks under high pressure. Sometimes high pressure is ac-
companied by high temperatures and the action of chemically charged water. Under high pressure, gran-
ite is converted into gneiss; clay and shale are transformed into schist.
• The combination of directed pressure and heat is very powerful in producing metamorphism because it
leads to more or less complete recrystallisation of rocks and the production of new structures. This is
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known as dynamo thermal metamorphism.

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Some Examples of Metamorphosis
Factor Metamorphosed rock
Igneous or Sedimentary rock
Granite Pressure Gneiss
Clay, Shale Pressure Schist
Sandstone Heat Quartzite
Clay, Shale Heat Slate  Phyllite
Coal Heat Anthracite  Graphite
Limestone Heat Marble

Metamorphic Rocks in India

• The gneisses and schists are commonly found in the Himalayas, Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh and Rajasthan.
• Quartzite is a hard rock found over Rajasthan, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and areas surrounding
Delhi.
• Marble occurs near Alwar, Ajmer, Jaipur, Jodhpur in Rajasthan and parts of Narmada Valley in Madhya
Pradesh.
• Slate, which is used as a roofing material and for writing in schools, is found over Rewari (Haryana), Kangra
(Himachal Pradesh) and parts of Bihar.
• Graphite is found in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.

[UPSC Prelims 2001] Quartzite is metamorphosed from:

a) limestone
b) obsidian
c) sandstone
d) shale

13.4. Rock Cycle

• Rock cycle is a continuous process through which old rocks are transformed into new ones.
• Igneous rocks are primary rocks, and other rocks form from these rocks. Igneous rocks can be changed
into sedimentary or metamorphic rocks.
• The fragments derived out of igneous and metamorphic rocks form sedimentary rocks.
• Sedimentary and igneous rocks themselves can turn into metamorphic rocks.
• The crustal rocks (igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary) may be carried down into the mantle (interior
of the earth) through the subduction process and the same meltdown and turn into molten magma, the
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source for igneous rocks.

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13.5. Some Rock-Forming Minerals

• Feldspar: Half of the crust is composed of feldspar. It has a light colour, and its main constituents are
silicon, oxygen, sodium, potassium, calcium, and aluminium. It is used for ceramics and glass making.
• Quartz: It has two elements, silicon and oxygen. It has a hexagonal crystalline structure. It is uncleaved,
white or colourless. It cracks like glass and is present in sand and granite. It is used in the manufacture of
radio and radar.
• Bauxite: A hydrous oxide of aluminium, it is the ore of aluminium. It is non-crystalline and occurs in small
pellets.
• Cinnabar (mercury sulphide): Mercury is derived from it. It has a brownish colour.
• Dolomite: A double carbonate of calcium and magnesium. It is used in the cement and iron and steel
industries.
• Gypsum: It is hydrous calcium sulphate and is used in cement, fertiliser and chemical industries.
• Haematite: It is a red ore of iron.
• Magnetite: It is the black ore (or iron oxide) of iron.
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• Amphibole: It forms about 7 per cent of the earth's crust and consists mainly of aluminium, calcium, silica,
iron, magnesium, etc. It is used in the asbestos industry. Hornblende is another form of amphiboles.
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• Mica: It consists of potassium, aluminium, magnesium, iron, silica, etc., and forms 4 % of the earth's crust.
It is generally found in igneous and metamorphic rocks and is mainly used in electrical instruments.
• Olivine: The main elements of olivine are magnesium, iron and silica. It is normally a greenish crystal, often
found in the basaltic rocks. These are used in jewellery.
• Pyroxene: It consists of calcium, aluminium, magnesium, iron and silica. It is commonly found in meteor-
ites. It is of green or black colour.
• Other minerals like chlorite, calcite, magnetite, hematite, bauxite, barite, etc., are also present in rocks.

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 14. Earthquakes

• An earthquake is a shaking or trembling of the earth’s surface caused by the seismic waves or earthquake
waves that are generated due to a sudden movement (sudden release of energy) in the earth’s crust
(shallow-focus earthquakes) or upper mantle (some shallow-focus and all intermediate and deep-
focus earthquakes).

14.1. Terms

Focus and Epicentre

• A seismograph or seismometer is used to detect and record earthquakes. The point where the energy is
released is called the focus or the hypocentre of an earthquake. The point on the surface directly above
the focus is called the epicentre (the first surface point to experience the earthquake waves). A line con-
necting all points on the surface where the intensity is the same is called an isoseismic line.

Foreshocks, Aftershocks & Swarms

• Usually, a major or even moderate earthquake of shallow focus is followed by many smaller earthquakes
known as aftershocks. A mild earthquake preceding the violent shaking movement of an earthquake is
known as a foreshock.
• Large numbers of small earthquakes may occur in a region for months without a major earthquake. Such
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a series of earthquakes are called earthquake swarms. Earthquakes associated with volcanic activity often
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 occur in swarms. Earthquake swarms can serve as markers for the location of the flowing magma through-
out the volcanoes.

14.2. Causes of Earthquakes

Fault Zones
• The immediate cause of most shallow earthquakes is the sudden release of stress along a fault rupture
(crack) in the earth's crust due to the constant change in volume and density of rocks due to intense
temperature and pressure in the earth’s interior.
• The longer the length and the wider the width of the faulted area, the larger the resulting magnitude. The
longest earthquake ruptures along thrust faults or reverse faults (convergent boundary) are approxi-
mately 1,000 km.
• The longest earthquake ruptures on strike-slip faults (transform fault) are about half to one-third long as
the lengths along the thrust fault. The fault ruptures along normal faults (divergent boundary) are shorter.

Plate Tectonics
• Slipping of land along the faultline along plate boundaries causes earthquakes. Earthquakes associated
with normal faults (divergent boundary) are generally less than magnitude 7.
• Strike-slip faults, particularly continental transforms, can produce major earthquakes up to about mag-
nitude 8. San Andreas Fault is a transform fault where the Pacific plate and North American plate move
horizontally relative to each other causing earthquakes along the fault lines.
• Reverse faults (convergent boundary) are associated with the most powerful earthquakes, megathrust
earthquakes, including almost all of those of magnitude 8 or more. Megathrust earthquakes occur at
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subduction zones, where one tectonic plate is forced underneath another. E.g. 2004 Indian Ocean Earth-
quake.
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Volcanic Activity
• Volcanic activity also can cause an earthquake, but the earthquakes of volcanic origin are generally less
severe and more limited in extent than those caused by fracturing the earth’s crust.
• Earthquakes in volcanic regions are caused by the consequent release of elastic strain energy both by
tectonic faults and the movement of magma in volcanoes. Such earthquakes can serve as an early warning
of volcanic eruptions, as during the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.
• There is a clear correspondence between the geographic distribution of volcanoes and major earthquakes,
particularly in the Circum-Pacific Belt and along oceanic ridges. Volcanic vents, however, are generally
several hundred kilometres from the epicentres of most major shallow earthquakes, and many earthquake
sources occur nowhere near active volcanoes.

Human-Induced Earthquakes
• Human-Induced Earthquakes refer to typically minor earthquakes and tremors that are caused by human
activity like mining, large-scale petroleum extraction, artificial lakes (reservoirs), nuclear tests etc.

Reservoir-Induced Seismicity
• The pressure offered by a column of water in a large and deep artificial lake alter stresses along an existing
fault or fracture. Also, the percolation of water weakens the soil structure and lubricates the faults. Water
loading and unloading can significantly change the stress. This significant change in stress can lead to a
sudden movement along the fault or fracture, resulting in an earthquake.
• The 6.3 magnitude 1967 Koynanagar earthquake occurred near the Koyna Dam reservoir in Maharash-
tra and claimed more than 150 lives. There have been several earthquakes of smaller magnitude since
then. Some geologists believe that the earthquake was due to reservoir-triggered seismic activity.
• The 2008 Sichuan earthquake, which caused approximately 68,000 deaths, is another possible example.
It is believed that the construction and filling of the Zipingpu Dam may have triggered the earthquake.

14.3. Earthquakes Based on The Depth of Focus

• Earthquakes can occur anywhere between the Earth's surface and about 700 kilometres below the surface.
For scientific purposes, this earthquake depth range of 0-700 km is divided into three zones:
1. Shallow earthquakes are 0-70 km deep (within the earth’s outer crustal layer).
2. Intermediate earthquakes are 70-300 km deep (deeper subduction zones).
3. Deep earthquakes are 300-700 km deep (deeper subduction zones).
• Of the total energy released in earthquakes, about 12-15 per cent comes from intermediate earth-
quakes, about 3-5 per cent from deeper earthquakes and about 70-85 per cent from shallow earth-
quakes.
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• A quake's destructive force depends not only on the energy released but also on location, distance from
the epicentre and depth. On 24 August 2016, a 6.2 earthquake rocked Central Italy killing about 300
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 people. An even bigger 6.8 hit Myanmar the same day killing just a few people. Italy's quake was very
shallow, originating within 10 km underground. By contrast, the quake in Myanmar was deeper ― 84 km.

Shallow-Focus Earthquakes
• The great majority of earthquakes have a shallow focus. Hence, they are also called ‘crustal earthquakes.’
The majority of the shallow focus earthquakes are of smaller magnitudes (usual range of 1 to 5). But a few
can be of a higher magnitude and can cause a great deal of destruction. They occur quite frequently
and at random. However, as most of them are either of smaller magnitudes or occur along submarine
ridges, they are often not felt.
• Though comparatively of low magnitude, shallow focus earthquakes can cause relatively greater
damage at the surface (as the whole energy is directed towards a small area) compared to their
deep-focus counterparts.

Deep-Focus Earthquakes
• In general, the term "deep-focus earthquakes" is applied to earthquakes deeper than 70 km. The deeper-
focus earthquakes commonly occur in patterns called Benioff zones that dip into the Earth, indicating the
presence of a subducting slab (zone of subduction). Hence, they are also known as intraplate earth-
quakes (triggered by the collision between plates).
• They happen as huge quakes with larger magnitudes (usual range of 6 to 8), as a great deal of energy
is released with the forceful collision of the plates. But the earthquakes alone may not cause much de-
struction as the foci of the quakes are at great depths and the energy of the quakes dissipates over
a wide area.
• The strongest deep-focus earthquake in the seismic record was the magnitude 8.3 Okhotsk Sea earthquake
that occurred at a depth of 609 km in 2013. The deepest earthquake ever recorded was a 4.2 earthquake
in Vanuatu at a depth of 735.8 km in 2004.

Wadati–Benioff Zone: Earthquakes Along the Convergent Boundary

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• Wadati Benioff zone is a zone of subduction along which earthquakes are common. The most powerful
earthquakes occur along this zone (most powerful earthquakes occur along the convergent boundary).
Differential motion along the zone produces numerous earthquakes, the foci of which may be as deep as
about 700 kilometres.
• Wadati–Benioff zones can be produced by slipping along the subduction thrust fault (Himalayan Re-
gion – C-C convergent boundary) or slip-on faults within the downgoing plate (O-O and C-O con-
vergent boundary).

14.4. Distribution of Earthquakes

• Earth’s major earthquakes occur mainly in belts coinciding with the margins of tectonic plates.
• The most important earthquake belt is the Circum-Pacific Belt, which affects many populated coastal
regions around the Pacific Ocean — for example, those of New Zealand, New Guinea, Japan, the Aleutian
Islands, Alaska, and the western coasts of North and South America. Because in many places the Circum-
Pacific Belt is associated with volcanic activity, it has been popularly dubbed the Pacific Ring of Fire. The
Pacific Ring of Fire accounts for about 68 per cent of all earthquakes.
• A second belt, known as the Alpine Belt (Himalayas and Alps). The energy released in earthquakes from
this belt is about 15 per cent of the world’s total. The mid-world mountain belt (Alpine Belt) extends parallel
to the equator from Mexico across the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea from Alpine-Caucasus
ranges to the Caspian, Himalayan mountains and the adjoining lands.
• There also are striking connected belts of seismic activity, mainly along oceanic ridges — including those
in the Arctic Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the western Indian Ocean — and along the rift valleys of East
Africa.

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14.5. Richter Magnitude Scale

• Charles F. Richter developed the Richter magnitude scale (ML) for measuring the strength (amount of
energy released) of earthquakes in the 1930s. Because of the various shortcomings of the ML scale, seis-
mologists now use the moment magnitude scale (Mw), which is now generally referred to as Richter
Scale.
• The Richter Scale is only effective for regional earthquakes no greater than M5. The moment magnitude
scale is more effective for large earthquakes. Both the scales are logarithmic and are scaled to have com-
parable numeric values.
• Under the Richter magnitude scale, an increase of one step corresponds to about 32 times an increase
in the amount of energy released, and an increase of two steps corresponds to a 1,000 times increase
in energy. Thus, an earthquake of Mw of 7.0 releases about 32 times as much energy as one of 6.0
and nearly 1,000 times (~ 32 X 32) as one of 5.0.

Magni- Descrip- Average Earthquake Effects Frequency of Occurrence

tude tion
1.0–1.9 Micro
• Microearthquakes, not felt, or felt Several million per year
rarely.
• They are recorded by seismographs.

2.0–2.9 Minor
• Felt slightly by some people. Over one million per year
• No damage to buildings.

3.0–3.9
• Often felt by people, but very rarely Over 100,000 per year
causes damage.
• Shaking of indoor objects can be no-
ticeable.

4.0–4.9 Light
• Noticeable shaking of indoor objects. 10,000 to 15,000 per year
• They are felt by most people in the af-
fected area.
• Slightly felt outside.
• Generally, causes none to minimal
damage.
• Some objects may fall off shelves or be
knocked over.

5.0–5.9 Moderate
• Can cause damage of varying severity 1,000 to 1,500 per year
to poorly constructed buildings.
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• At most, none to slight damage to all

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other buildings.
 • Felt by everyone.

6.0–6.9 Strong
• Damage to a moderate number of well- 100 to 150 per year
built structures in populated areas.
• 2011 Christchurch earthquake
• Earthquake-resistant structures survive
(6.2)
with slight to moderate damage.
• Poorly designed structures receive
moderate to severe damage.
• Felt in wider areas; up to hundreds of
kilometres from the epicentre.
• Strong to violent shaking in the
epicentral area.

7.0–7.9 Major
• Causes damage to most buildings, 10 to 20 per year
some to partially or completely collapse
• 1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake
or receive severe damage. Well-de-
(7.7-8.2)
signed structures are likely to receive
• 2001 Gujarat earthquake (7.7)
damage. Felt across great distances
with major damage mostly limited to
250 km from the epicentre.

8.0–8.9 Great
• Major damage to buildings, and struc- One per year
tures are likely to be destroyed.
• 1556 Shaanxi earthquake (8.0)
• Will cause moderate to heavy damage
• 1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake
to sturdy or earthquake-resistant build-
(8.6)
ings.
• 2008 Sichuan earthquake (8.0)
• Damaging in large areas.
• 2010 Chile earthquake (8.8)
• Felt in extremely large regions.

9.0 and
• At or near-total destruction – severe One per 10 to 50 years
greater
damage or collapse to all buildings.
• 1960 Valdivia earthquake, Chile
• Heavy damage and shaking extend to
(9.4–9.6)
distant locations.
• 1964 Alaska earthquake (9.2)
• Permanent changes in ground topogra-
• 2004 Indian Ocean quake (9.1–
phy.
9.3)
• 2011 Tōhoku quake, Japan (9.1)

14.6. Most Powerful Earthquakes Ever Recorded

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Event Mw Focus
1 1960 Valdivia earthquake 9.4–9.6 33 km
• Undersea megathrust earthquake
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 • Most powerful earthquake ever recorded
• The resulting tsunami affected the entire Pacific
Rim killing 1,000–7,000 people.

2 1964 Alaska earthquake 9.2 25 km

• Collapsing structures and tsunamis resulted in
100+ deaths.

3 2004 Indian Ocean earth- 9.1–9.3 30 km

• Undersea megathrust earthquake
quake
• Caused by a rupture along the fault between the
Burma Plate and the Indian Plate.
• A series of large tsunamis up to 30 metres high
were created.
• The earthquake and the resulting tsunami caused
the 6th deadliest natural disaster in recorded his-
tory with more than 227,000 causalities in 14 coun-
tries.
• The shift of mass and the massive release of en-
ergy slightly altered the Earth's rotation.

4 2011 Tōhoku earthquake 9.1 30 km

• Undersea megathrust earthquake
• Most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan
• The earthquake triggered powerful tsunami waves
• 15,896 causalities
• Caused Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster

14.7. Notable Earthquakes

Magnitude Notes
Event
1556 Shaanxi earthquake 8.0 Deadliest earthquake with 8,00,000+ fatalities
Most of the deaths were caused due to the collapse of arti-
ficial caves carved into the loess cliffs
2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami Costliest earthquake that caused damage to property
9.1 worth $250 billion
1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake 7.7 to 8.2 It triggered a tsunami and caused more than 1000 deaths
The earthquake caused an area of subsidence that formed
the Sindri Lake and a local zone of uplift to the north about
80 km long, 6 km wide and 6 m high that dammed the several
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rivers. This natural dam was known as the Allah Bund (Dam
of God).
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 2001 Gujarat earthquake (Focus: 24 7.7 The earthquake killed between 13000 and 20000 people
km)

• The Gujarat quake occurred 400 km to the southeast of the tectonic boundary separating the Indian Plate
and the Eurasian Plate. The current tectonics is governed by the effects of the continuing continental col-
lision along this boundary.
• The collision has reactivated the original rift faults and the development of new thrust faults in the region.
The pattern of uplift and subsidence associated with the 1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake is consistent with
the reactivation of such faults. The area saw many minor earthquakes in the 20th Century including the
2001 earthquake.

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14.8. Earthquake Zones of India

• The latest seismic zone map prepared by the National Disaster Management Authority reveals that nearly
59% of India's land area is prone to moderate or severe earthquakes. This earthquake zoning map
divides India into five different zones of earthquake intensity and highlights the location that falls under
them.

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• North-East, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand & parts of Himachal Pradesh fall under Zone 5. Delhi
falls in Zone 4, central India falls under the relatively low danger zone of Zone 3, while most of the
south falls in Zone 2 with limited danger, but it is a thicker classification.

Earthquakes in Delhi NCR Region

• The National Capital Region (NCR) is witnessing many low-intensity earthquakes which is a sign that a
major earthquake is due for the Delhi-NCR. This is because Delhi is closer to multiple tectonic faults
(regions of seismic activities) such as the Mahendragarh-Dehradun Fault (MDF), Sohna Fault (SF) &
Mathura Fault (MF). Moreover, the 500 km long ‘Central Himalayan seismic gap’ in northwest India
has not experienced a very large earthquake in the past 200-500 years. Hence there might be a significant
accumulation of strain/energy.
 A seismic gap refers to the portion of a fault that hasn’t experienced quakes in a while though it should
have, indicating its building strain that it could later release in one large burst.

Earthquakes in the North East

• Northeast India is a highly fragile & earthquake-prone zone. The high seismicity of the northeast In-
dian region has been attributed to a complex tectonic juxtaposition of the East-West trending Him-
alayas & the North-South trending Arakan Yoma belt, and major faults present in the nearby region
— Po Chu fault, Kopili Fault and Jiali Fault.

Kopili Fault Zone

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• The Kopili fault zone is a 300 km long & 50 km wide faultline extending from the western part of Mani-
pur up to the tri-junction of Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh & Assam. It is a tectonic depression filled up by
the alluvium of the Kopili river (a south bank tributary of Brahmaputra). This fault is closer to Himala-
yan Frontal Thrust (Main Frontal Thrust (MFT).
• Himalayan Thrust Fault is a thrust faultline that defines the boundary between Indian & Eurasian Plates.
This is a seismically active area falling in the highest Seismic Hazard Zone V. It is a convergent tectonic
boundary where the Indian Plate is subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate.

14.9. Effects of Earthquakes

Shaking and Ground Rupture

• Shaking and ground rupture result in severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. Ground rup-
ture (crack along the fault) is a major risk for large engineering structures such as dams, bridges and
nuclear power stations.

Landslides and Avalanches

• Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, coastal wave attacks, and wildfires, can produce
slope instability leading to landslides, a major geological hazard.

Fires
• Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. More deaths in the 1906 San Fran-
cisco earthquake were caused by fire than by the earthquake itself.

Soil Liquefaction
• Soil liquefaction occurs when water-saturated soil temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a
solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink.

Tsunami
• Megathrust earthquakes can produce long-wavelength, long-period sea waves due to the abrupt move-
ment of large volumes of water.

Floods
• Floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips
to dam rivers, which collapse and cause floods.
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 15. Tsunami

• Tsunami is a Japanese word for “Harbour wave”. A tsunami is a series of very long-wavelength waves in
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large water bodies like seas or large lakes caused by a major disturbance above or below the water surface
or due to the displacement of a large volume of water. They are sometimes referred to as tidal waves
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 because of their long wavelengths, although the attractions of the Moon and Sun play no role in their
formation.
• Earthquakes (e.g. 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami), volcanic eruptions (e.g. tsunami caused by the violent
eruption of Krakatoa in 1883), landslides (tsunami caused by the collapse of a section of Anak Krakatoa in
2018), underwater explosions, meteorite impacts, etc. have the potential to generate a tsunami.
• Subduction zones off Chile, Nicaragua, Mexico and Indonesia have created killer tsunamis. The Pacific
among the oceans has witnessed the most number of tsunamis (over 790 since 1990).

15.1. Mechanism of Tsunami Waves

Disturbance
• Megathrust earthquakes cause a sudden displacement in a seabed sufficient to cause the sudden raising
of a large body of water. E.g. 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami was caused after an earthquake displaced the
seabed off the coast of Sumatra.
• As the subducting plate plunges beneath the less dense plate, stresses build up, the locked zone between
the plates gives way abruptly, and the parts of the oceanic crust are then upthrusted resulting in the dis-
placement of a large column of water vertically.
• A marine volcanic eruption can generate an impulsive force that displaces the water column and gives
birth to a tsunami. During a submarine landslide, the equilibrium of the sea level is altered by sediment
moving along the floor of the sea. Gravitational forces then propagate a tsunami. Most destructive tsuna-
mis can be caused due to the fall of extra-terrestrial objects onto the earth.

Propagation of The Waves

• Gravity acts to return the sea surface to its original shape. The ripples then race outward, and a tsunami is
caused. As a tsunami leaves deep waters and propagates into the shallow waters, it transforms. This is
because as the depth of the water decreases, the speed of the tsunami reduces. But the change in total
energy of the tsunami remains constant. With the decrease in speed, the height (amplitude) of the
tsunami wave grows. A tsunami which was imperceptible in deep water may grow to many metres high,
and this is called the ‘shoaling’ effect.
• Sometimes, the sea seems to at first draw a breath, but then this withdrawal is followed by the arrival of
the crest of a tsunami wave. In some cases, there are several great waves separated by intervals of several
minutes or more. The first of these waves is often preceded by an extraordinary recession of water from
the shore, which may commence several minutes or even half an hour beforehand.

15.2. Properties of Tsunami Waves

Basics
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• Wave crest and trough: The highest and lowest points of a wave are called the crest and trough respec-
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tively.
• Wave height: It is the vertical distance from the bottom of a trough to the top of a crest of a wave.
• Wave amplitude: It is one-half of the wave height.
• Wave period: It is the time interval between two successive wave crests or troughs.
• Wavelength: It is the horizontal distance between two successive crests.
• Wave frequency: It is the number of waves passing a given point during a one-second time interval.

Normal Waves
• The horizontal and vertical motions are common in ocean water bodies. The horizontal motion refers to
the ocean currents and waves. The vertical motion refers to tides.
• Water moves ahead from one place to another through ocean currents while the water in the normal wind-
generated waves does not move, but the wave trains move ahead. The motion of normal waves seldom
affects the stagnant deep bottom water of the oceans.

Wind-generated wave motion

• The actual motion of the water beneath the waves is circular. It indicates that things are carried up and
forward as the wave approaches, and down and back as it passes. As a wave approaches the beach, it
slows down. And, when the depth of water is less than half the wavelength of the wave, the wave breaks
(dies).

Normal Waves vs Tsunami Waves

• Wavelength and period: Tsunamis are a series of waves of very, very long wavelengths (exceeding 500
km) and periods (in the range of ten minutes to two hours). They are different from wind-generated waves
which have wavelengths of a few meters and periods of five to twenty seconds.
• Energy loss: The rate of energy loss of a wave is inversely related to its wavelength. So, tsunamis lose little
energy as they propagate because of their very large wavelength. On the other hand, the wind-generated
waves die out on reaching the shore.
• Wavespeed: Normal waves rarely reach speeds in excess of 60 kmph. Tsunami waves travel at high
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speeds in deep waters, and their speed falls when they hit shallow waters. A tsunami that occurs 1000
metres deep in water has a speed of more than 350 kmph. At 6000 m, it can travel at speeds of 850 kmph.
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• Shoaling Effect: Tsunami waves are not noticed by ships far out at sea. Their amplitude is negligible
when compared with their wavelength, and hence the waves go unnoticed in deep oceans. When tsuna-
mis approach shallow water, however, the wave amplitude increases (conservation of energy). The
waves may occasionally reach a height of 20 to 30 metres above mean sea level in closed harbours and
inlets (funnelling effect).

15.3. 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami

• A series of tsunami waves struck havoc in the Indian Ocean on the 26th of December 2004. The waves were
the result of a megathrust earthquake (9.0 on the Richter scale) that had its epicentre near the western
boundary of Sumatra.

Plate Tectonics
• Indian plate went under the Burma plate and there was a sudden movement of the sea floor causing the
earthquake. The ocean floor was displaced by about 10-20 m and tilted in a downward direction. A huge
mass of ocean water flowed to fill in the gap that was being created by the displacement. This marked the
withdrawal of the water mass from the coastlines of the landmasses in south and Southeast Asia. After
thrusting the Indian plate below the Burma plate, the water mass rushed back towards the coastline as a
tsunami.

Tsunami Waves
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• Tsunami travelled at a speed of about 800 kmph and completely washed away some of the islands in the
Indian ocean. The Indira Point in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands which marked the southernmost point
of India got completely submerged.
• As the wave moved from the earthquake epicentre from Sumatra towards the Andaman Islands and Sri
Lanka, the wavelength decreased with decreasing depth of water. The travel speed also declined from
700-900 kmph to less than 70 kmph.
• Tsunami waves travelled up to 3 km inwards from the coast killing more than 10,000 people. In India, the
worst affected were the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Pondicherry and the Anda-
man and Nicobar Islands.

Shifts in Geography
• Tsunamis and earthquakes can cause changes in geography. The 2004 earthquake and tsunami shifted the
North Pole by 2.5 cm in the direction of 145 degrees East longitude and reduced the length of the day by
2.68 microseconds. This, in turn, affected the velocity of the earth’s rotation and the Coriolis force which
plays a strong role in weather patterns.
• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands may have moved by about 1.25 m owing to the impact of the colossal
earthquake and the tsunami.
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15.4. Tsunami Warning Systems

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• While earthquakes cannot be predicted in advance, it is possible to give a three-hour notice of a potential
tsunami. Such early warning systems are in place across the Pacific Ocean. Post-2004, they were installed
in the Indian Ocean as well.
• In 1965, the early warning system was started by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA). The member states of the NOAA include the major Pacific Rim countries.
• NOAA has developed the ‘Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis’ (DART) gauge. Each
gauge has a very sensitive pressure recorder on the sea floor. Data is generated whenever changes in water
pressure occur. The data is transmitted to a surface buoy which then relays it over a satellite. Computer
systems at the Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre (PTWC) in Hawaii monitor data. Based on the data,
warnings are issued.

India’s Preparedness
• The Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting System (DOARS) was set up in the Indian Ocean post-
2004. The Indian government plans to set up a network with Indonesia, Myanmar and Thailand etc.
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• A National Tsunami Early Warning Centre, which can detect earthquakes of more than 6 magnitude in
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the Indian Ocean, was inaugurated in 2007 in India. Set up by the Ministry of Earth Sciences in the Indian
 National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad, the tsunami warning system
would take 10-30 minutes to analyse the seismic data following an earthquake.

‘Tsunami Ready’ Tag

• Tsunami Ready Programme of UNESCO is a programme that facilitates tsunami preparedness. The tag
is given by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO. Tsunami Ready in
India is implemented by INCOIS.
• INCOIS provides warning services for the coastal population on tsunamis, storm surges, high waves, etc.
through the in-house Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC). IOC of UNESCO designated
ITEWC as a Regional Tsunami Service Provider (RTSP) to provide tsunami warnings to countries on the
Indian Ocean Rim.

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 16. Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

• Soil erosion is the loosening and displacement of topsoil from the land due to the action of agents like
wind and water. Soil erosion in nature may be a slow process (geological erosion) or a fast process pro-
moted by human activities like overgrazing, and deforestation.
• Weathering and erosion lead to the simultaneous process of ‘degradation' and ‘aggradation'. Erosion is a
mobile process while weathering is a static process (there is no motion of disintegrated material except
the falling under the force of gravity). The landforms created as a result of degradational action (erosion
and transportation) or aggradational work (deposition) of running water are called fluvial landforms.

16.1. Fluvial Erosional Landforms

• Fluvial Erosional Landforms are landforms created by the erosional activity of rivers. Various aspects of
fluvial erosive action include:
 Hydration: the force of running water wearing down rocks.
 Corrosion: chemical action that leads to weathering.
 Attrition: river load particles striking, colliding against each other and breaking down in the process.
 Abrasion: solid river load striking against rocks and wearing them down.
 Downcutting (vertical erosion): the erosion of the base of a stream (downcutting leads to valley
deepening).
 Lateral erosion: the erosion of the walls of a stream (leads to valley widening).
 Headward erosion: erosion at the origin of a stream channel, which causes the origin to move back
away from the direction of the stream flow, and so causes the stream channel to lengthen.
 Braiding: the main water channel splits into multiple, narrower channels. A braided river or braided
channel consists of a network of river channels separated by small, and often temporary, islands called
braid bars. Braided streams occur in rivers with low slopes and/or large sediment loads.

River Valley
• The extended depression on the ground through which a stream flows is called a river valley. At different
stages of the erosional cycle, the valley acquires different profiles.
• At a young stage, the valley is deep, and narrow with steep wall-like sides and a convex slope. The erosional
action here is characterized by predominantly vertical downcutting. The profile of the valley here is typical
V-shaped. A tributary valley lies above the main valley and is separated from it by a steep slope, down
which the stream may flow like a waterfall or a series of rapids.
• A deep and narrow V-shaped valley is also referred to as a gorge and may result due to downcutting
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erosion or because of the recession of a waterfall (the position of the waterfall receding due to headward
erosive action). Most Himalayan rivers pass through deep gorges (at times more than 500 metres deep)
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 before they descend to the plains. An extended form of the gorge is called a canyon. The Grand Canyon
of the Colorado River in Arizona (USA) runs for 483 km and has a depth of 2.88 km.
• As the cycle attains maturity, the lateral erosion (erosion of the walls of a stream) becomes prominent,
and the valley floor flattens out (attains a ‘V’ to ‘U’ shape). The valley profile now becomes typically ‘U’
shaped with a broad base and a concave slope.

River Course

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Youth
• Young rivers close to their source tend to be fast-flowing, high-energy environments with rapid headward
erosion, despite the hardness of the rock over which they may flow. Steep-sided V-shaped valleys, wa-
terfalls, and rapids are characteristic features. E.g. Rivers flowing in the Himalayas.

Maturity
• Mature rivers are lower-energy systems. Erosion takes place on the outside of bends, creating looping
meanders in the soft alluvium of the river plain. Deposition occurs on the inside of bends and on the river
bed. E.g. Rivers flowing in the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plain.

Old Age
• At a river's mouth, sediment is deposited as the velocity of the river slows. As the river becomes shallower
more deposition occurs, forming temporary islands (Majuli, a river island in the Brahmaputra River,
Assam is currently the world's largest river island) and braiding (e.g. braided channels of Brahmaputra
river flood plain in Assam) the main channel into multiple, narrower channels. As the sediment is laid down,
the actual mouth of the river moves away from the source into the sea or lake, forming a delta. E.g. Ganga-
Brahmaputra delta.

Meanders
• A meander is defined as a pronounced curve or loop in the course of a river channel. Meanders may be
wavy type, horse-shoe type or oxbow type. The outer bend of the loop in a meander is characterized by
intensive erosion and vertical cliffs and is called the cliff-slope side and has a concave slope. The inner
side of the loop is characterized by deposition, a gentle convex slope, and is called the slip-off side.

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• It is common to find meandering courses over floodplains and delta plains where stream gradients are
very gentle. But very deep and wide meanders can also be found cut in hard rocks. Such meanders are
called incised or entrenched meanders.

Point Bars
• Point bars are also known as meander bars. They are found on the convex side of meanders of large rivers
and are sediments deposited in a linear fashion by flowing waters along the bank. They are almost uniform
in profile and in width and contain mixed sizes of sediments.

Oxbow Lake
• Sometimes, because of intensive erosion action, the outer curve of a meander gets accentuated to such
an extent that the inner ends of the loop come close enough to get disconnected from the main channel
and exist as independent water bodies called oxbow lakes. These water bodies are converted into swamps
in due course of time. In the Indo-Gangetic plains, the southwards shifting of the Ganga has left many
oxbow lakes to the north of the present course of the Ganga.

Waterfalls

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• A waterfall is simply the fall of an enormous volume of water from a great height. They are mostly seen in
the youth stage of the river. Relative resistance of rocks, the relative difference in topographic reliefs, fall
in the sea level and related rejuvenation, earth movements etc. are responsible for the formation of wa-
terfalls.
 Kunchikal Falls (it is a cascade falls ― falls with many steps) formed by the Varahi river in Shimoga
district, Karnataka is the highest waterfall in India (455 m).
 Nohkalikai Falls (340 m) is the tallest plunge waterfall in India. The waterfall is located near Cherrapunji.
 Jog or Gersoppa falls (253 m) on Sharavati river (a tributary of Cauvery), Karnataka is the second-
highest plunge waterfall in India.
 Angel Falls in Venezuela is the world's highest waterfall, with a height of 979 metres and a plunge
of 807 metres.
 Tugela Falls (948 m) in the Drakensberg mountains, South Africa is the world's second-highest
waterfall.

Potholes
• The small cylindrical depressions in the rocky beds of the river valleys are called potholes. Potholing or
pothole-drilling is the mechanism through which the fragments of rocks when caught in the water eddies
of swirling water start dancing circularly and grind and drill the rock beds. They thus form small holes
which are gradually enlarged by the repetition of the said mechanism.
• At the foot of waterfalls also, large potholes, quite deep and wide, form because of the sheer impact of
water and rotation of boulders. Such large and deep holes at the base of waterfalls are called plunge
pools.

Terraces
• Stepped benches along the river course in a flood plain are called terraces. Terraces represent the level of
former valley floors and remnants of former (older) floodplains.
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Gulleys/Rills
• Gulley is a water-worn channel, which is particularly common in semi-arid areas. It is formed when water
from overland-flows down a slope, especially following heavy rainfall, is concentrated into rills, which
merge and enlarge into a gulley. The ravines of Chambal Valley and the Chos of Hoshiarpur in Punjab
are examples of gulleys.

Ravines of Chambal Valley in Madhya Pradesh

Peneplane (Peneplain)
• Peneplain refers to an undulating (wavy) featureless plain punctuated with low-lying residual hills of re-
sistant rocks. It is considered to be an end product of an erosional cycle. Fluvial erosion, in the course of
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geologic time, reduces the land almost to base level (sea level), leaving so little gradient that essentially
no more erosion could occur.
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 Uluru (Ayers) Rock in Australia standing on a peneplane

16.2. Fluvial Depositional Landforms

• Fluvial Depositional Landforms are landforms created by the depositional activity of rivers. The deposi-
tional action of a stream is influenced by stream velocity and the volume of river load. The decrease in
stream velocity reduces the transporting power of the streams which are forced to leave some load to
settle down. Various landforms resulting from fluvial deposition are described in this section.

Alluvial Fans and Cones

• When a stream leaves the mountains and comes down to the plains, its velocity decreases due to a lower
gradient. As a result, it sheds a lot of material, which it had been carrying from the mountains, at the
foothills. This deposited material acquires a conical shape and appears as a series of continuous fans. These
are called alluvial fans. Such fans appear throughout the Himalayan foothills in the north Indian plains.

• Usually, the streams which flow over fans are not confined to their original channels for long and shift their
position across the fan forming many channels called distributaries. Alluvial fans in humid areas show
normally low cones with gentle slope from head to toe and they appear as high cones with steep slope
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in arid and semi-arid climates.

Floodplains
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• A floodplain is a generally flat area of land next to a river or stream. It stretches from the banks of the river
to the outer edges of the valley. A riverbed made of river deposits is the active floodplain. The floodplain
above the bank is inactive floodplain.
• In plains, channels shift laterally and change their courses occasionally leaving cut-off courses which get
filled up gradually. Such areas over flood plains built up by abandoned or cut-off channels contain coarse
deposits. The flood deposits of spilled waters carry relatively finer materials like silt and clay.

Natural Levees

• Natural levees and point bars (meander bars) are some of the landforms found associated with floodplains.
Natural levees are found along the banks of large rivers. They are low, linear, and parallel ridges of coarse
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deposits along the banks of rivers, quite often cut into individual mounds.
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• They are formed due to deposition action of the stream, appearing as natural embankments. They act as
natural protection against floods but a breach in a levee causes sudden floods in adjoining areas, as in the
case of the Hwang Ho River of China.

Delta
• A delta is a tract of alluvium at the mouth of a river where it deposits more material than that can be
carried away. The river gets divided into distributaries which may further divide and re-join to form a
network of channels. A combination of two processes forms a delta:
1. the load-bearing capacity of a river is reduced as a result of the check to its speed as it enters a sea or
lake, and
2. clay particles carried in suspension in the river coagulate in the presence of salt water and are
deposited.
• The finest particles are carried farthest to accumulate as bottom-set beds. Depending on the conditions
under which they are formed, deltas can be of many types.

Arcuate or Fan-Shaped (Curved)

• Arcuatetype of delta results when light depositions give rise to shallow, shifting distributaries and a general
fan-shaped profile. Examples: the deltas of River Nile, Ganga, and Indus.

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Bird’s Foot Delta (Elongated)

• Bird’s foot delta emerges when limestone sediment deposits do not allow downward seepage of wa-
ter. The distributaries seem to be flowing over projections of these deposits which appear as a bird’s foot.
The currents and tides are weak in such areas and the number of distributaries is lesser as compared to
an arcuate delta. Example: Mississippi River Delta.

Estuaries
• Sometimes the mouth of the river appears to be submerged. This may be due to a drowned valley
because of a rise in sea level. Here fresh water and the saline water get mixed. When the river starts ‘filling
its mouth’ with sediments, mud bars, marshes and plains seem to be developing in it. These are ideal
sites for fisheries, ports and industries because estuaries provide access to deep water, especially if
protected from currents and tides. Example: Hudson Estuary.

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Cuspate Delta

• Cuspate delta is a pointed delta generally formed along strong coasts and is subjected to strong wave
action. There are very few or no distributaries in a cuspate delta. Examples: Tiber River Delta on the west
coast of Italy and the Ebro River Delta of Spain.

High-Constructive Deltas – Elongate and Lobate Delta

• Elongate and lobate deltas develop when fluvial action and depositional process dominate the system.
Both of these types have a large sediment supply that tends to disperse sediment along the shoreline.
Elongate delta is represented by the bird-foot delta of the Mississippi River. The Godavari River
represents the lobate delta.

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• A lobate delta (a subtype of the fan-shaped or arcuate delta) is formed if the river water is as dense as
the seawater (precipitation or coagulation of river sediments occurs immediately, and hence the delta is
not elongated).
• A bird-foot delta (elongated delta) is formed when the river water is lighter than seawater (precipita-
tion or coagulation of river sediments can occur at a distance from shore, and hence the delta is elongated).
 Godavari – Lobate (a subtype of Arcuate) | Krishna – Arcuate | Kaveri – Quadrilateral (a subtype of
Arcuate) | Nile, Indus, Ganga-Brahmaputra – Arcuate

High-Destructive Deltas
• Shoreline energy is high and much of the sediment delivered by the river is reworked by wave action or
currents before it is finally deposited. Deltas formed by rivers such as the Nile and the Rhône have been
classified as wave dominated. In this class of high-destructive delta, sediment is finally deposited as arcu-
ate sand barriers near the mouth of the river.

16.3. Drainage Basin or River Basin

• Other terms that are used to describe drainage basins are drainage area, river basin, and water basin.
The drainage basin includes both the streams and rivers and the land surface. The drainage basin acts as
a funnel by collecting all the water within the area covered by the basin and channelling it to a single point.
• In closed (endorheic) drainage basins the water converges to a single point inside the basin, known as a
sink, which may be a permanent lake (e.g. Lake Aral (Aral Sea), Dead Sea, etc.), dry lake (some desert
lakes like Lake Chad, Africa), or a point where surface water is lost underground (sinkholes in Karst land-
forms).

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Drainage Divide
• Adjacent drainage basins are separated from one another by a drainage divide. A drainage divide is usu-
ally a ridge or a high platform. It is conspicuous in the case of youthful topography (Himalayas), and it is
not well marked in plains and senile topography (old featureless landforms ― rolling plateaus of Peninsular
region).

Difference between a River Basin, Watershed and Catchment Area

• Both river basins and watersheds are areas of land that drain to a particular water body, such as a lake,
stream, river or estuary. In a river basin, all the water drains into a large river. The term watershed is used
to describe a smaller area of land that drains to a smaller stream, lake or wetland. There are many smaller
watersheds within a river basin. For example, the watershed of Yamuna + watershed of Chambal +
watershed of Gandak + …. = Drainage basin of Ganga.
• Catchment, catchment area or catchment basin of a river is the area from which the water flows into the
river. The catchment area includes areas that receive rainfall or water from snow melt or springs.

Some Important Drainage Basins Across The World

Basin Continent Drains to Basin Area km2
Amazon River South America Atlantic Ocean 6,144,727
Hudson Bay North America Atlantic Ocean 3,861,400
Congo River Africa Atlantic Ocean 3,730,474
Caspian Sea Asia/Europe Endorheic basin 3,626,000
Nile River Africa Mediterranean Sea 3,254,555
Mississippi-Missouri River North America Gulf of Mexico 3,202,230
Lake Chad Africa Endorheic basin 2,497,918
Black Sea multiple Mediterranean Sea 2,400,000
Niger River Africa Atlantic Ocean 2,261,763
Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) Asia Pacific Ocean 1,722,155
Baltic Sea Europe Atlantic Ocean 1,700,000
Ganges–Brahmaputra Asia Bay of Bengal 1,621,000
Indus River Asia Arabian Sea 1,081,733

16.4. Drainage Systems (Drainage Patterns)

• Drainage systems, also known as river systems, are the patterns formed by the streams, rivers, and lakes
in a particular drainage basin. They are governed by tectonic irregularity, the nature of underlying rock
strata, and the gradient of the land. Based on the correlation between the topology and the direction of
flow, drainage patterns are classified into concordant drainage and discordant or insequent drainage.

Concordant Drainage
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• A drainage pattern is described as concordant if it correlates to the topology and geology of the area.
In simple words, in a concordant drainage pattern, the path of the river is highly dependent on the slope
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 of the river and topography. Concordant drainage patterns are the most commonly found drainage
patterns and are classified into many consequent, subsequent, obsequent and resequent.

Consequent Rivers
• The rivers which follow the general direction of the slope are known as the consequent rivers. Most of
the rivers of peninsular India are consequent rivers. For example, rivers like the Godavari, Krishna and
Cauvery, descending from the Western Ghats and flowing into the Bay of Bengal, are some of the conse-
quent rivers of Peninsular India.

Subsequent Rivers
• A tributary stream that is formed by headward erosion along an underlying rock after the main drain-
age pattern (consequent river) has been established is known as a subsequent river. The Chambal,
Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons and Son meet the Yamuna and the Ganga at right angles. They are the subse-
quent drainage of the Ganga drainage system.

Obsequent Rivers
• After the valley development of consequent and subsequent rivers, obsequent rivers may form at right
angles to the subsequent rivers and flow opposite to the direction of flow of the original consequent
river.

Resequent Rivers
• A resequent river flows in the same direction as that of the initial consequent drainage. Resequent
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rivers originate at a much later stage (hence they are called resequent) in comparison to the master
consequent rivers.
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Discordant or Insequent Drainage Patterns
• A drainage pattern is described as discordant if it does not correlate to the topology (surface relief
features) and geology of the area. In simple words, in a discordant drainage pattern, the river follows
its initial path irrespective of the changes in topography. Discordant drainage patterns are classified
into two main types: antecedent and superimposed. Usually, rivers in both these drainage types flow
through a highly sloping surface.

Antecedent Drainage or Inconsequent Drainage

• A part of a river slope and the surrounding area gets uplifted, and the river sticks to its original slope,
cutting through the uplifted portion like a saw (vertical erosion) and forming deep gorges. This type of
drainage is called antecedent drainage. Example: Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra, and other Himalayan
rivers that are older than the Himalayas themselves. There are usually called antecedent rivers (rivers
older than the existing land itself).

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Superimposed or Epigenetic (Discordant) or Superinduced Drainage
• When a river flowing over a softer rock stratum reaches the harder basal rocks but continues to follow the
initial slope, it seems to have no relation with the harder rock bed. This type of drainage is called super-
imposed drainage.

Explanation
• Usually, the drainage patterns (dendritic, trellis, etc.) are strongly influenced by the hardness and softness
of the rock and patterns of faults or fractures. Sometimes, however, the land rises rapidly relative to the
base level of the stream. This increases the gradient of the stream and therefore, gives the stream more
erosive power. The stream has enough erosive power that it cuts its way through any bedrock, main-
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taining its former drainage pattern. You get a situation, then, where the drainage pattern does not
correspond to the hardness or softness of the bedrock or the locations of faults and fractures.
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• In other words, it is a drainage pattern which exhibits discordance with the underlying rock structure
because it originally developed on a cover of rocks that has now disappeared due to denudation. Conse-
quently, river directions relate to the former cover rocks and, as the latter was being eroded, the rivers
have been able to retain their courses unaffected by the newly exposed structures. The stream pattern is
thus superposed on or placed on structural features that were previously buried. The Damodar, the Sub-
arnarekha, the Chambal, the Banas and the rivers flowing at the Rewa Plateau present some good ex-
amples of superimposed drainage.
 Antecedent Drainage: cuts through the newly formed landform and maintains the same path. E.g. Hima-
layan Rivers.
 Superimposed Drainage: cuts deeper through the existing landform and maintains the same path. E.g.
some medium scale rivers of the Northern and Eastern peninsular India.
 Antecedent Drainage: The soil formed is weak (mostly weak sediments), and the rivers easily erode it.
 Superimposed Drainage: The rivers have high erosive power so that they can cut through the underlying
strata.

Other Drainage Patterns

Dendritic or Pinnate Drainage Pattern

• Dendritic is an irregular tree branch-shaped pattern that develops in a terrain which has uniform lithology
(uniform rock structure), and where faulting and jointing are insignificant. Examples: Indus, Godavari,
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Mahanadi, Cauvery, Krishna.

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Trellis Drainage Pattern
• In the Trellis pattern, the short subsequent streams meet the main stream at right angles, and differential
erosion through soft rocks paves the way for tributaries. Examples: The old folded mountains of the
Singhbhum (Chotanagpur Plateau) and the Seine and its tributaries in the Paris basin (France) have
drainage of trellis pattern.

Angular Drainage Pattern

• The tributaries join the main stream at acute angles. This pattern is common in Himalayan foothill
regions.

Rectangular Drainage Pattern

• The main stream bends at right angles and the tributaries join at right angles creating rectangular pat-
terns. This pattern has a subsequent origin. Example: Colorado River (USA), streams found in the Vin-
dhyan Mountains of India.

Radial Drainage Pattern

• The tributaries from a summit follow the slope downwards and drain down in all directions. Examples:
Streams of the Saurashtra region, the rivers originating from the Amarkantak Mountain, Central
French Plateau, Mt. Kilimanjaro. The Narmada, Son and Mahanadi originate from Amarkantak Hills and
flow in different directions.

Annular Drainage Pattern

• When the upland has a soft outer stratum, the radial streams develop subsequent tributaries which try to
follow circular drainage around the summit. Example: Black Hill streams of South Dakota. This is not a very
common drainage pattern in India. Some examples of this are however found in Pithoragarh (Uttarak-
hand), Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
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Parallel Drainage Pattern
• The tributaries seem to be running parallel to each other in a uniformly sloping region. Example: Rivers of
lesser Himalayas and The small and swift rivers originating in the Western Ghats that flow into Arabian
Sea.

Centripetal Drainage Pattern

• In a low-lying basin, the streams converge from all sides. Examples: streams of Ladakh, Tibet, and the
Baghmati and its tributaries in Nepal.

Deranged Drainage Pattern

• Deranged pattern is an uncoordinated pattern of drainage characteristic of a region recently vacated by
an ice sheet. The picture is one of the numerous watercourses, lakes and marshes; some inter-connected
and some in local drainage basins of their own. This type of drainage is found in the glaciated valleys of
Karakoram.

Barbed Drainage Pattern

• A pattern of drainage in which the confluence of a tributary with the main river is characterized by a
discordant junction — as if the tributary intends to flow upstream and not downstream. This pattern is
the result of the capture of the main river which completely reverses its direction of flow, while the tribu-
taries continue to point in the direction of former flow. The Arun River (Nepal), a tributary of the Kosi is an
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interesting example of barbed drainage pattern.

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 17. Major Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

17.1. Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

• Sea waves, aided by winds, currents, tides and storms carry on the erosional and depositional processes.
The erosive work of the sea depends upon the size and strength of waves, slope, the height of the shore
between low and high tides, the shape of the coast, the composition of rocks, depth of water, human
activity etc.
• The wave pressure compresses the air trapped inside rock fissures, joints, faults, etc. forcing them to ex-
pand and rupture along the weak points. This is how rocks undergo weathering under wave action.
• Waves also use rock debris as instruments of erosion (glaciers are far good at this). These rock fragments
carried by waves themselves get worn down by striking against the coast or one another.
• The solvent or chemical action of waves is another mode of erosion, but it is pronounced only in the case
of soluble rocks like limestone and chalk.

Marine Erosional Landforms

Chasms
• Chasms are narrow, deep indentations (a deep recess or notch) carved due to headward erosion (downcut-
ting) through vertical planes of weakness in the rocks by wave action. With time, further headward erosion
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is hindered by lateral erosion of the chasm mouth, which itself keeps widening till a bay is formed.
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Wave-Cut Platform
• When the sea waves strike against a cliff, the cliff gets eroded (lateral erosion) gradually and retreats. The
waves level out the shore region to carve out a horizontal plane or a wave-cut platform. The bottom of
the cliff suffers the maximum intensive erosion by waves and, as a result, a notch appears at this position.

Sea Cliff
• Sea cliff is the shoreline marked by a steep bank or escarpment.

Sea Caves
• Differential erosion by sea waves through rock with varying resistance across its structure produces arched
caves in rocks called sea caves.

Sea Arches
• When waves from opposite directions strike a narrow wall of rock, differential erosion of the rock leaves a
bridge-like structure called a sea arch.

Stacks/Skarries/Chimney Rock
• When a portion of the sea arch collapses, the remaining column-like structure is called a stack, skarry or
chimney rock.

Hanging Valleys
• If the fluvial erosion of a stream at the shore doesn’t match the retreat of the sea, the rivers appear to be
hanging over the sea. These river valleys are called hanging valleys.
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Blow Holes or Spouting Horns
• The burst of water through a small hole in a sea cave due to the compression of air in the cave by strong
waves gives rise to spouting horns or blow holes which make a peculiar noise.

Plain of Marine Erosion/Peneplain

• The eroded plain left behind by marine action is called a plain of marine erosion. If the level difference
between this plain and the sea level is not much, the agents of weathering convert it into a peneplain.

Marine Depositional Landforms

Beach
• Beach is the temporary covering of rock debris and sand on or along a wave-cut platform.

Bar
• Currents and tidal currents deposit rock debris and sand (sandbar) along the coast at a distance from the
shoreline. The resultant landforms which remain submerged are called bars. The enclosed water body so
created is called a lagoon.
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Barrier
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• A barrier is the overwater counterpart of a bar.

Tombolos
• Sometimes, islands are connected to each other by a bar called a tombolo.

Shoal
• A shoal is a natural submerged ridge, bank, or bar that consists of sand or other unconsolidated material
and rises from the bed of a body of water to near the surface. They constitute a danger to navigation.

Spit and Hook

• A spit is a projected deposition joined at one end to the headland, with the other end free in the sea. The
mode of formation is similar to a bar or barrier. A shorter spit with one end curved towards the land is
called a hook.

Reef
• A reef is a shoal of rock or coral material at or near the surface of the ocean. Natural reefs are made of
consolidated skeletons of corals. Earth's largest coral reef system is the Great Barrier Reef (2,300 km in
length) in Australia.

Coral Reefs
• Coral reefs are formed by the accumulation of calcareous skeletons of dead coral polyps. Polyps are
related to anemones and jellyfish (phylum cnidaria).
• They are shallow warm water organisms which have a soft body covered by a calcareous skeleton. The
polyps extract calcium salts from seawater to form these hard skeletons. They occur in different forms and
colours, depending upon the nature of the salts they are made of.
• The polyps live in colonies fastened to the rocky seafloor. The tubular skeletons grow as a cemented cal-
careous rocky mass, collectively called corals. When the coral polyps die, they shed their skeleton (coral)
on which new polyps grow. The cycle is repeated for millions of years leading to the accumulation of layers
of corals. Shallow rock layers created by the depositions of corals are called coral reefs. Coral reefs over a
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period of time transform or evolve into coral islands (e.g. Lakshadweep).

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Coral Reef Relief Features
• Fringing reef, barrier reef and atoll (coral islands are formed on atolls) are the most important relief
features. The fringing reef is the most common of the three major types of coral reefs.

Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs)

• Fringing reefs are reefs that grow directly from a shore. They are very narrow (1-2 km wide) and are
located very close to the land. A shallow lagoon exists between the beach and the main body of the reef.
 A lagoon refers to a comparatively wide band of water that lies between the shore and the main area of reef
development and contains at least some deep portions.
• Fringing reef grows from the deep-sea bottom with the seaward side sloping steeply into the deep sea.
Coral polyps do not extend outwards because of the sudden and large increase in depth.
• Fringing reefs can be seen at the New Hebrides Society islands off Australia and off the southern coast of
Florida.

Barrier Reefs
• Barrier reefs are extensive linear reefs that run parallel to the shore and are separated from it by a lagoon.
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They extend as a broken, irregular ring around the coast or an island. Barrier reefs are far less common
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than fringing reefs or atolls.

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• Barrier reefs are the largest (in size, not distribution) of the three reefs, running hundreds of kilometres
and several kilometres wide. The 2,300 km long Great Barrier Reef (GBR) off the NE coast of Australia is
the world's largest barrier reef. The GBR is not a single reef, but rather a very large complex consisting of
many reefs.

Atolls
• An atoll is a roughly circular oceanic reef system surrounding a large central lagoon. The lagoon has a
depth of 80-150 metres and may be joined with seawater through several channels cutting across the reef.
• Atolls are located at great distances from deep sea platforms. They form on submarine features such as
a submerged island or a volcanic cone which reaches a level suitable for coral growth.
• An atoll may have any one of the following three forms:
1. true atoll: a circular reef enclosing a lagoon with no island;
2. an atoll surrounding a lagoon with an island;
3. a coral island or an atoll island which is, in fact, an atoll reef, built by the process of erosion and
deposition of waves with island crowns formed on them.
• Atolls are far more common in the Pacific than in any other ocean. The Fiji atoll is a well-known example.
In the South Pacific, most atolls occur in the mid-ocean. Examples of this reef type are common in French
Polynesia, the Caroline and Marshall Islands, Micronesia, and the Cook Islands.
• Many atolls occur in the Lakshadweep Islands. Others are found in the Maldives and Chagos island
groups, Seychelles, and in the Cocos.
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Development of Major Coral Reef Types

Formation of Lakshadweep Islands (You must include the concept of Reunion Hotspot)
• The basic coral reef classification scheme described earlier was first proposed by Charles Darwin and is
still widely used today.
1. Step 1: A fringing reef forms first and starts growing in the shallow waters close to a tropical island.
2. Step 2: Over time, the island subsides, the reef grows outwards, and the distance between the land
and the reef increases. The fringing reef develops into a barrier reef.
3. Step 3: If the island completely subsides, all that is left is the reef. The reef retains the approximate
shape of the island it grew around, forming a ring enclosing a lagoon (atoll).

Coastlines
• The boundary between the coast (the part of the land adjoining or near the sea) and the shore (the land
along the edge of a sea) is known as the coastline. Coastlines are modified either due to rise or fall in sea
levels or upliftment or subsidence of land, or both. They can be divided into the following classes:
1. Coastline of Emergence
2. Coastline of Submergence
3. Neutral coastline
4. Compound coastline
5. Fault coastline

Coastlines of Emergence

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• Coastlines of emergence are formed either by an uplift of the land or by the lowering of the sea level.
Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes, beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the typical features.
• The east coast of India, especially the south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast), appears to be a coast of
emergence. The west coast of India, on the other hand, is both emergent and submergent. The north-
ern portion of the coast (Konkan coast) is submerged as a result of faulting and the southern portion,
that is the Kerala coast, is an example of an emergent coast.
 Coromandel coast  Tamil Nadu Coast  Coastline of emergence
 Malabar coast  Kerala Coast  Coastline of emergence
 Konkan coast  Maharashtra and Goa Coast  Coastline of submergence

Coastlines of Submergence
• A submerged coast is produced either by subsidence of land or by a rise in sea level. Ria, fjord, Dalma-
tian and drowned lowlands are its typical features.

Ria
• When streams dissect a region into a system of valleys, submergence produces a highly irregular shoreline
called the ria coastline. The coast of southwest Ireland is a typical example of a ria coastline.

Fjord
• Some coastal regions have been heavily eroded by glacial action, and the valley glacier troughs have been
excavated below sea level. After the glaciers have disappeared, a fjord coastline emerges. These coasts
have long and narrow inlets with very steep sides. The fjord coasts of Norway are a typical example.
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Dalmatian
• The Dalmatian coasts result from the submergence of mountain ridges with alternating crests and troughs
which run parallel to the sea coast. The Dalmatian coast of Yugoslavia is a typical example.

Drowned Valley (Lowland)

• A drowned lowland coast is low and free from indentations, as the submergence of a low-lying area forms
it. It is characterized by a series of bars running parallel to the coast, enclosing lagoons. The Baltic coast of
eastern Germany is an example of this type of coastline.

 Indented Coastline: irregular coastlines with creeks and inland waterways. Indented coastlines form ideal
locations for natural harbours. E.g. The indented coastline of Europe.

Neutral Coastlines
• Neutral coastlines are formed as a result of new materials being built out into the water. The word ‘neutral’
implies that there need be no relative change between the level of the sea and the coastal region of the
continent. Neutral coastlines include the alluvial fan-shaped coastline, delta coastline, volcano coastline
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and the coral reef coastline.

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Compound Coastlines
• Compound coastlines show the forms of two of the previous classes combined, for example, submergence
followed by emergence or vice versa. The coastlines of Norway and Sweden are examples of compound
coastlines.

Fault Coastlines
• Fault coastlines are unusual features and result from the submergence of a downthrown block along a
fault, such that the uplifted block has its steep side (or the faultline) standing against the sea forming a
fault coastline.

17.2. Karst Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

• Karsts are so named after a province of erstwhile Yugoslavia (in Balkans) on the Adriatic Sea coast where
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such formations are most noticeable. Karst landforms are characterized by underground drainage sys-
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tems with sinkholes, fissures, caves, etc. formed from the dissolution (chemical weathering) and erosion
 of soluble rocks such as limestone, and dolomite. There is a general absence of surface drainage as the
water flow is mostly subsurface (underground).

Chemistry Behind Karst Landforms

• In its pure state, limestone is made up of calcium carbonate, but where magnesium is also present, it is
termed dolomite. Limestone is an organically formed sedimentary rock (formed by the decomposition of
calcareous shells) and is soluble in rainwater. The carbonic acid that causes karstic features is formed as
rain passes through the atmosphere picking up carbon dioxide. Once the rain reaches the ground, it may
pass through soil that can provide much more carbon dioxide to form a weak carbonic acid solution,
which dissolves calcium carbonate (limestone).

Conditions for The Formation of Karst Topography

 Surface or subsurface strata that are made up of porous water-soluble rocks such as limestone.
 Thinly bedded and highly jointed and cracked rock strata that make it easy for the water to seep in.
 Moderate to abundant rainfall for chemical weathering of limestone.
 A perennial source of water and a low water table to erode the weathered rock.

Karst Landforms

Sinkhole/Swallow Hole
• Sinkholes are funnel-shaped depressions developed by enlargement of the cracks found in porous water-
soluble rocks, as a result of continuous solvent action (chemical weathering) of the rainwater. The surface
streams disappear underground through swallow holes. There is a great variation in the size and depth
of sinkholes.

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Karst Window
• When some adjoining sinkholes collapse, they form an open aquifer or a broad area called a karst window
which is directly exposed to the surface. There is no filtration by soil or bedrock for water that moves over
the ground and into this window.

Polje/Blind Valley
• Dolines are small depressions dotting a karst landscape. They are less common than sinkholes. Some ad-
joining dolines may come together to form a long, narrow trench called uvala. Some uvalas may coalesce
to create a ‘U’ shaped valley called polje. If the streams lose themselves in these valleys, then these are
called blind valleys.

Cavern
• Cavern is an underground cave formed by water action by various methods in a limestone stratum. Me-
chanical action by rock debris and pebbles and solution action of water may be responsible for cavern
formation. In India, such caves can be seen in Bastar, Dehradun, and Shillong plateau.

Arch/Natural Bridge
• When a part of the cavern collapses the portion, which keeps standing forms an arch.
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Sinking Creeks/Bogas
• In a karst valley, the water often gets lost through cracks and fissures in the bed. These are called sinking
creeks, and if their tops are open, they are called bogas.

Stalactite and Stalagmite

• When water containing limestone seeps through the roof in the form of a continuous chain of drops a
small deposit of limestone is left behind due to evaporation of water contributing to the formation of a
lean inverted cone-like structure growing downwards from the roof called stalactite. The remaining por-
tion of the drop falls to the floor. This also evaporates, leaving behind a small deposit of limestone aiding
the formation of a stalagmite, thicker and flatter, rising upwards from the floor. Sometimes, stalactite and
stalagmite join together to form a complete pillar known as the column.

Dry Valley/Hanging Valley/Bourne

• Sometimes, a stream erodes so much that it goes very deep. The water table is also lowered. Now the
tributaries start serving the subterranean drainage and get dried up. These are dry valleys or bournes. Lack
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of adequate quantities of water and reduced erosion leaves them hanging at a height from the main valley.
Thus, they are also referred to as hanging valleys.
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The Karst Cycle of Erosion

Youth
• Youth begins with the surface drainage on an initial limestone surface. Gradually, the upper impervious
layer is eroded. Dolines, sinkholes and swallow holes are formed. No large caverns exist, and underground
drainage has not yet completed its course.

Maturity
• There is maximum underground drainage. Surface drainage is limited to short-sinking cracks ending in
swallow holes or blind valleys. Cavern networks are characteristic of this stage. Late maturity marks the
beginning of the decline of karst features. The portions of cavern streams are exposed through karst win-
dows. These expand to form large uvalas, and detached areas of original limestone upland begin to stand
out as hums.

Old Age
• Large-scale removal of limestone mass leaves behind a karst plain. There is a reappearance of surface
drainage with only a few isolated hums as remnants of the original limestone terrain.

17.3. Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

• A glacier is a moving mass of ice at speeds averaging a few meters a day.

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• Glaciers are charged with rock debris which is used for erosional activity by moving ice. Continental
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glaciers, ice caps, piedmont glaciers and valley glaciers are different types of glaciers.
1. The continental glaciers are found in Antarctica and Greenland. The biggest continental ice sheet is in
Iceland.
2. Ice caps are the covers of snow and ice on mountains from which the valley or mountain glaciers originate.
3. The piedmont glaciers form a continuous ice sheet at the base of mountains as in southern Alaska.
4. The valley glaciers, also known as Alpine glaciers, are found in higher regions of the Himalayas in our
country and all such high mountain ranges of the world.

Glacial Erosional Landforms

Cirque/Corrie
• Cirque is a hollow basin cut into a mountain ridge. It has a steep-sided slope on three sides, an open end
on one side and a flat bottom. When the ice melts, the cirque may develop into a tarn lake.

Glacial Trough
• Glacial Trough is a stream-cut steed-sided ‘U’ shaped matured valley, further modified by glacial action.
Since glacial mass is heavy and slow-moving, erosional activity is uniform – horizontally as well as vertically.

Hanging Valley
• Hanging valleys are formed when smaller glacial tributaries are unable to cut as deeply as bigger ones and
remain ‘hanging’ at higher levels than the main valley as discordant tributaries.

Arete
• Arete is a steep-sided, sharp-tipped summit with glacial activity cutting into it from two sides.

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Horn
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• Horn is a ridge that acquires a ‘horn’ shape when the glacial activity cuts it from more than two sides.
The highest Matterhorn in Alps and the Everest in the Himalayas are in horns formed through headward
erosion of radiating cirques.

D-Fjord
• D-fjord is a steep-sided narrow entrance-like feature at the coast where the stream meets the coast. Fjords
are common in Norway, Greenland and New Zealand.

Mains Practise: Why are the world's highest mountains mostly near the tropics?
• Glacial erosion is very strong because of the huge boulders of rocks carried by the glacial ice that
graze the surface. Though ice moves only a few meters a day, it can take along with it huge rocks that
can peel the outer layers.
• Colder climates are better at eroding peaks. Ice and glacier coverage at lower altitudes in cold climates
is more important than the tectonic forces. Here, the snowline on mountains starts lower down, and
erosion takes place at lower altitudes. In general, mountains only rise to around 1,500 m above their
snow lines, so it is the altitude of these snowlines — which depends on climate and latitude — that
ultimately decides their height. When you then go to Canada or Chile, the snowline altitude is around
1,000 m, so the mountains are around 2.5 km.
• At low latitudes (tropics), the atmosphere is warm, and the snowline is high. Around the equator, the
snowline is about 5,500 m at its highest, so mountains get up to 7,000 m. There are a few exceptions
(that are higher), such as Everest, but extremely few.

Glacial Depositional Landforms

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Outwash Plain
• When the glacier reaches its lowest point and melts, it leaves behind a stratified deposition material, con-
sisting of rock debris, clay, sand, gravel etc. This layered surface is called till plain or an outwash plain.

Moraine
• Moraine is the general term applied to rock fragments, gravel, sand, etc. carried by a glacier. Depending
on its position, the moraine can be ground moraine, lateral moraine (form along the sides parallel to
the glacial valleys), recessional moraine — moraine that is deposited during a temporary glacial stand-
still, medial moraine (a moraine in the glacial valley flanked by lateral moraines), and end (terminal)
moraine — moraine that forms at the edge from where the glacier retreats.

Esker
• Easker is a winding (twisting course) ridge of un-assorted depositions of rock, gravel, clay etc. running
along a glacier in a till plain. The eskers resemble the features of an embankment and are often used for
making roads.

Kame Terraces
• Kame terraces form when sediment accumulates in ponds and lakes trapped between lobes of glacier ice
or between a glacier and the valley side.

Kame
• A kame is an irregularly shaped hill or mound composed of sand and gravel that accumulates in a depres-
sion on a retreating glacier.

Drumlin
• Drumlin is an Inverted boat-shaped deposition in a till plain caused by deposition. Drumlins give an indi-
cation of direction of glacier movement.

Kettle Holes
• Kettle holes are formed when the deposited material in a till plain gets depressed locally and forms a basin.

Glacial Cycle of Erosion

Youth
• The stage is marked by the inward cutting activity of ice in a cirque. Aretes and horns are emerging. The
hanging valleys are not prominent at this stage.

Maturity
• Hanging valleys start emerging. The opposite cirques come closer, and the glacial trough acquires a
stepped profile which is regular and graded.
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Old Age
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• The emergence of a ‘U’-shaped valley marks the beginning of old age. An outwash plain with features such
as eskers, kame terraces, drumlins, kettle holes etc. is a prominent development.

17.4. Arid Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

• Arid regions are regions with scanty rainfall. Deserts and Semi-arid regions fall under arid landforms.

Water Eroded Arid Landforms

Rill
• A rill is a narrow and shallow channel cut into the soil by the erosive action of flowing water.

Gully
• A gully is a landform created by running water. Gullies resemble large ditches or small valleys but are
metres to tens of metres in depth and width.

Ravine
• A ravine is a landform narrower than a canyon and is often the product of stream-cutting (downcutting)
erosion. Ravines are typically classified as larger in scale than gullies, although smaller than valleys.

Canyon
• A canyon is a deep, narrow valley with steep sides. A gorge is similar to a canyon with the difference being
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that a gorge is almost always steeper and narrower than a canyon.

Badland Topography
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• In arid regions, occasional rainstorms produce numerous rills and channels which extensively erode weak
sedimentary formations. Ravines and gullies are developed by linear fluvial erosion leading to the for-
mation of badland topography. Example: Chambal Ravines.

Bolsons
• The intermontane basins in dry regions are generally known as bolsons.

Playas
• Three unique landforms viz. pediments, bajadas and playas are typically found in bolsons. Small streams
flow into bolsons, where water is accumulated. These temporary lakes are called playas. After the evap-
oration of water, salt-covered playas are called salinas.

Pediments
• In form and function there is no difference between a pediment and an alluvial fan; however, a pediment
is an erosional landform while an alluvial fan is a constructional one. A true pediment is a rock-cut surface
at the foot of mountains.

Bajada
• Bajadas are moderately sloping depositional plains located between pediments and playa. Several allu-
vial fans coalesce to form a bajada.

Wind Eroded Arid Landforms

• The wind or Aeolian erosion takes place in the following ways, viz. deflation, abrasion, and attrition.
 Deflation: removing, lifting and carrying away dry, unsorted dust particles by winds. It causes depres-
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sions known as blowouts.

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  Abrasion: When wind loaded with sand grains erodes the rock by grinding against its walls is called
abrasion or sandblasting.
 Attrition: refers to the wear and tear of the sand particles while they are being transported.

Deflation Basins
• Deflation basins, called blowouts, are hollows formed by the removal of particles by wind. Blowouts are
generally small but may be up to several kilometres in diameter.

Mushroom Rocks
• A mushroom rock also called rock pedestal or a pedestal rock is a naturally occurring rock whose shape,
as its name implies, resembles a mushroom. The rocks are deformed in many different ways: by erosion
and weathering, glacial action, or from a sudden disturbance. Mushroom rocks are related to, but different
from, yardangs.

Inselbergs
• A monadnock or inselberg is an isolated hill, knob, ridge, outcrop, or small mountain that rises abruptly
from a gently sloping or virtually level surrounding plain.

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Demoiselles
• Demoiselles are rock pillars which stand as resistant rocks above soft rocks as a result of differential erosion
of hard and soft rocks.

Zeugen
• A table-shaped area of rock found in arid and semi-arid areas formed when the more resistant rock is
reduced at a slower rate than softer rocks around it.

Yardangs
• Yardangs are ridges of rock, formed by the action of the wind, usually parallel to the prevailing wind di-
rection.

Wind Bridges and Windows

• Powerful wind continuously abrades (scrapes or wears away) stone lattices, creating holes. Sometimes the
holes are gradually widened to reach the other end of the rocks to create the effect of a window — thus
forming a wind window. Window bridges are formed when the holes are further widened to form an arch-
like feature.

Arid Depositional Landforms

Ripple Marks
• Ripple marks are depositional features on a small scale formed by saltation (the transport of hard particles
over an uneven surface in a turbulent flow of air or water).

Sand Dunes
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• Sand dunes are heaps or mounds of sand found in deserts. Generally, their heights vary from a few metres
to 20 metres, but in some cases, dunes are several hundred metres high and 5 to 6 km long.
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Longitudinal Dunes
• Latitudinal dunes are formed parallel to the wind movement. The windward slope of the dune is gentle
whereas the leeward side is steep. These dunes are commonly found at the heart of trade-wind deserts
like the Sahara, Australian, Libyan, South African and Thar deserts.

Transverse Dunes
• Transverse dunes are deposited perpendicular (transverse) to the prevailing wind direction.

Barchans
• Barchans are crescent-shaped dunes. The windward side is convex whereas the leeward side is concave
and steep.

Parabolic Dunes
• Parabolic dunes are U-shaped and are much longer and narrower than barchans.

Star Dunes
• Star dunes have a high central peak and radically extending three or more arms.

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Loess
• In some parts of the world, windblown dust and silt blanket the land. This layer of fine, mineral-rich ma-
terial is called loess. Extensive loess deposits are found in northern China, the Great Plains of North
America, central Europe, and parts of Russia and Kazakhstan. The thickest loess deposits are near the
Missouri River in the U.S. state of Iowa and along the Yellow River in China.
• Loess accumulates, or builds up, at the edges of deserts. For example, as the wind blows across the Gobi,
a desert in Asia, it picks up and carries fine particles. These particles include sand crystals made of quartz
or mica. It may also contain organic material, such as the dusty remains of skeletons from desert animals.
• Loess often develops into extremely fertile agricultural soil. It is full of minerals and drains water very
well. It is easily tilled, or broken up, for planting seeds. Loess usually erodes very slowly – Chinese farmers
have been working the loess around the Yellow River for more than a thousand years.

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 18. Latitudes and Longitudes

• Latitudes and Longitudes (coordinate system) are imaginary lines used to determine the location of a place
on earth. For example, New Delhi is situated near the intersection of 28° N Latitude and 77° E Longitude.

18.1. Latitude or Parallel

• Latitude is the angular distance of a place north or south of the equator measured in degrees from the
earth’s centre. As the earth is slightly flattened at the poles, the linear distance of a degree of latitude
at the pole is slightly longer than that at the equator. For example, at the equator linear distance of a
degree of latitude is 110.57 km (68.7 miles), at 45° it is 111.13 km (69 miles), and at the poles, it is 111.7
km (69.4 miles). The average is taken as 111 km (69 miles).

Important Parallels of Latitudes

• Besides the Equator (0°), the North Pole (90° N) and the South Pole (90° S), there are four important
parallels of latitudes:
1. The Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the northern hemisphere.
2. The Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the southern hemisphere.
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3. The Arctic Circle (66½° N) in the northern hemisphere.

4. The Antarctic Circle (66½° S) in the southern hemisphere.
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The Shape of The Earth and Latitudinal Heat Zones
• The earth’s shape is Geoid (some sources mention it as an oblate spheroid). That is, the earth is slightly
flattened at the poles and bulged at the equatorial region. The radius at the equator is larger than
at the poles due to the long-term effects of the earth's rotation (the speed of rotation, and hence the
centrifugal force, is greater at the equator than at the poles. This caused the bulge at the Equator).

• The gravitation force is not the same at different latitudes on the surface. It is greater near the poles
and less at the equator. This is because of:
a) The poles are closer to the centre due to the equatorial bulge and thus have a stronger gravitational
field.
b) The speed of rotation of the earth is greater at the equator than at the poles. Thus, the centrifugal
force is greater at the equator. As the centrifugal force and the gravitational force are counteracting
forces (acting in the opposite direction), the latter is slightly less at the equator compared to the poles.

Que: Shouldn't the gravity at the equator be greater as there is more mass at the equator?
Ans: The density of earth along the poles is greater than along the equator (because of the difference in speed
of rotation). As a denser object of a given mass is smaller, you get closer to its centre of mass and experience a
stronger gravitational force.
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Latitudinal Heat Zones of The Earth

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• The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least once a year on all latitudes in between the Tropic of Cancer
and the Tropic of Capricorn. This area, therefore, receives the maximum heat and is called the torrid zone.
• The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn. The angle of the sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards the poles. As such, the areas
bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic circle, and the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic circle,
have moderate temperatures. These are, therefore, called temperate zones.
• Areas lying beyond the Arctic circle and the Antarctic circle are very cold. Here the sun does not rise
much above the horizon. Therefore, its rays are always slanting. These are, therefore, called frigid zones.

Temperature Falls as We Move From The Equator Towards The Poles

• Temperature falls at the surface of the earth as one moves away from the equator towards the poles. This
is because of the spherical (geoid) shape of the earth and the position of the sun relative to earth.
• The energy received per unit area decreases from the equator towards the poles as the equator re-
ceives direct sunlight and the sun’s rays become slant or oblique as we move poleward.

18.2. Longitude or Meridian

• Longitude is an angular distance of a place east or west of the Prime (First) Meridian measured in degrees
from the earth’s centre. On the globe, longitude is shown as a series of semi-circles that run from pole to
pole passing through the equator. Such lines are also called meridians. It was decided in 1884 to choose
the meridian which passes through the Royal Astronomical Observatory at Greenwich, near London, as
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the Zero Meridian or Prime Meridian. All other meridians radiate eastwards and westwards of the prime
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meridian up to 180°.
• Unlike the parallels of latitude, the meridians of longitude are of equal length. The meridians of longitude
have one very important function; they determine local time in relation to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT),
which is sometimes referred to as World Time.

Longitude and Time

• Since the earth makes one complete rotation of 360° in one day or 24 hours, it passes through 15° in one
hour or 1° in 4 minutes. The earth rotates west to east, so every 15° we go eastwards, local time is
advanced by 1 hour. Conversely, if we go westwards by 15°, local time is retarded by 1 hour. Thus,
the places east of Greenwich gain time, whereas places west of Greenwich lose time.
• A traveller going eastwards gains time from Greenwich until he reaches the meridian 180° E when he
will be 12 hours ahead of GMT (GMT+12). Similarly, in going westwards, he loses 12 hours when he
reaches 180° W. There is thus a total difference of 24 hours or a whole day between the two sides of the
180° meridian (180° E and 180° W correspond to the same longitude. The difference is the direction of
travel).

Standard Time and Time Zones

• Standard Time is the time corresponding to a certain longitude or longitude chosen by a country. Most
countries adopt their standard time from the central meridian of their countries. E.g. IST corresponds to
the time at 82.5° E longitude.
• In countries with a large longitudinal extent (large east-west span), such as Canada, the USA, and Russia,
it would be inconvenient to have a single time zone. So, such countries have multiple time zones. For
example, Russia has eleven time zones, and Canada and USA have six time zones each.

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[UPSC Prelims 1995] The standard time of the following countries is ahead of or behind
Greenwich Mean Time depending on whether they are East or West of the longitude pass-
ing through Greenwich.
1. Cuba
2. Greece
3. Iraq
4. Costa Rica
5. Japan

Which of the following sequential orders gives the correct arrangement of the countries
according to their standard time from ahead to behind GMT?
a) 5, 3, 2, 1, 4
b) 2, 4, 1, 3, 5
c) 4, 1, 3, 2, 5
d) 3, 5, 4, 1, 2
• Hint: The standard time of Japan (the land of the rising sun) is 9 hours ahead o GMT

[UPSC Prelims 2007] Which one of the following cities does not have the same clock time
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as the other three cities at any given instant?

a) London (UK)
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 b) Lisbon (Portugal)
c) Accra (Ghana)
d) Addis Ababa (Ethiopia)

Indian Standard Time

• Indian Standard Time (IST) is taken as the time at 82.5° E longitude (Standard Meridian passing close to
the east of Prayagraj (formerly Allahabad). This means that IST is 5 hours 30 mins ahead of GMT (IST
= GMT+5:30).

The Extent of India & The Standard Meridian

Chaibagaan Time
• One hundred fifty years ago, British colonialists introduced “Chaibagaan time” or “Bagaan time”, a
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schedule observed by tea planters, which was one hour ahead of IST. This was done to improve produc-
tivity by optimising the usage of daytime.
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• After Independence, Assam, along with the rest of India, has been following IST. The administration of the
Indian state of Assam put forward a proposal to change its time zone back to Chaibagaan time to conserve
energy and improve productivity. The Indian government refused to accept such a proposal.

The International Date Line (IDL)

• The International Date Line is an imaginary line that passes through the Pacific Ocean. Along the Inter-
national Date Line, the date changes by exactly one day when it is crossed. A traveller crossing the
date line from east to west loses a day, and while crossing the dateline from west to east, he/she
gains a day.
• Explanation: 180° E is GMT+12 and 180° W is GMT-12, hence the difference between 180° E and 180° W
is 24 hours. That is, the time difference on either side of IDL is 24 hours. So, the date changes as soon as
one crosses IDL.

[UPSC Prelims 1997] If the earth's direction of rotation is reversed, what should be the IST
when it is noon at the International Date Line?
a) 06.30 hrs
b) 05.30 hrs
c) 18.30 hrs
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d) 17.30 hrs

Explanation:
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• IDL (GMT-12) is 180° W of GMT (because the earth rotates from west to east). Hence it is 12 hours
behind GMT. IST (GMT+5.5) is 5.5 hours ahead of GMT. Thus, IST is 17.5 hours ahead of IDL. So, if its
noon (12 PM (12:00 hrs), 25-08-2022) at IDL, GMT will be 12 AM (00:00 hrs), 26-08-2022 and IST will be
GMT+5.5 = 5:30 AM (05:30 hrs), 26-08-2022.
• If the earth’s rotation is reversed (east to west), IDL (GMT+12 in this case) will be 12 hours ahead of
GMT, and IST (GMT-5.5 in this case) will be 5.5 hours behind GMT. Hence IST will be 17.5 hours behind
IDL. So, if its noon (12 PM, 25-08-2022) at IDL, GMT will be 12 AM, 24-08-2022 and IST will be GMT-5.5
= 6:30 PM (18:30 hrs), 24-08-2022. So (c) 18.30 hrs is the answer.

[UPSC Prelims 1998] When it is noon at I.S.T. meridian people at another place on the earth
are taking their 6 O' clock morning tea. The longitude of the place is:
a) 17°30' E
b) 7°30' W
c) 172°30' E
d) 90° W

Explanation:
• The said place is 6 hrs behind IST. Hence the place is to the west of India. IST is taken at 82.5° E. So, the
said place is 90° (1 hr = 15°, so 6 hrs = 90°) to the west of India (on the other side of the globe) = 7.5°
W of GMT.

[UPSC Prelims 2000] Along which one of the following meridians did India experience the
first light of the sunrise of the new millennium?
a) 2°30' W
b) 82°30' E
c) 92°30' W
d) 92°30' E

Explanation:
• Only 82°30' E & 92°30' E pass through India. So (d) 92°30' E is the answer.
 97° 25′ E is the easternmost longitude of India (at the easternmost tip of Arunachal Pradesh). Thus,
India experiences the first light of the sunrise along this meridian.

[UPSC Prelims 2008] Which of the following straits is nearest to the International Date
Line?
a) Malacca Strait
b) Bering Strait
c) Strait of Florida
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d) Strait of Gibraltar
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 248
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IDL Cutting Across Oceania (Australia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia)

 249

The Island Groups of Australia, Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia

Why Is the IDL Drawn in A Zigzag Manner?
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• The International Date Line curves from the normal 180° meridian at the Bering Strait, and at the island
groups of Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia. If the dateline was straight, then two regions of the
same Island Country or Island group would fall under different date zones. Thus, to avoid any confu-
sion, this line is drawn in a zig-zag manner. Some of the regions along the dateline keep Asiatic, or New
Zealand standard time, others follow the American date and time.
• Samoa, Christmas Island (Kiribati) and Tonga are the first places that welcome a New Year.
• Baker Island (USA) and Howland Island (USA) are the last to celebrate a new year.

18.3. Comparison: Latitude vs. Longitude

Longitude
Latitude
• Angular distance measured along the
• Angular distance of a point measured along the north
equator.
or south of the equator.
• Longitudes are named east or west of the
• Latitudes are named south and north of the Equator.
Prime Meridian.

• Also called Meridian

• Also called Parallels
• Prime meridian = 0° Longitude
• Equator = 0° Latitude
• All longitudes are equal in length
• The Equator has the maximum length
• Prime meridian (0°) and International
• The Equator, Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N), Tropic of
Date Line (180° E or 180° W) are the
Capricorn (23.5° S), Arctic circle (66.5° N), Antarctic
important longitudes.
circle (66.5° S), North Pole (90° N) and the South Pole
(90° S) are the important latitudes.
Both are used to determine the location of a point on earth. The location is identified with Co-ordinates

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 19. The Motions of The Earth and Their Effects

19.1. Rotation of Earth

• The spinning movement of the earth is called rotation. The earth rotates around its axis in the west to east
direction. It takes earth approximately 24 hrs (23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds) to complete one
rotation.
• Earth’s axis is an imaginary line that is antipodal ― meaning it passes through the centre of the earth
connecting two exactly opposite ends. It passes through the North Pole, the earth’s centre, and the South
Pole
• Days and nights occur due to the rotation of the earth. The circle dividing day from night on the globe
is called the circle of illumination.
• Earth rotates on a tilted axis. Earth’s rotational axis makes an angle of 23.5° with the normal, i.e. it makes
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an angle of 66.5° with the orbital plane of the earth (the ecliptic plane – the plane in which the earth
revolves around the sun).
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19.2. Revolution of Earth

• While the Earth spins on its axis, it also orbits or revolves around the Sun. This movement is called revo-
lution.
• The plane in which the earth revolves around the sun is called an orbital plane or the ecliptic. It takes
365¼ days (one year) for the earth to complete one revolution around the sun.
• Six surplus hours saved every year are added to make one day over a span of four years. This surplus day
is added to the month of February. Thus, every fourth year, February is of 29 days instead of 28 days. Such
a year with 366 days is called a leap year.

Solstice

Summer Solstice
• On 21st June, the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, and the rays of the sun fall directly on
the Tropic of Cancer. As a result, these areas receive more heat. Since a large portion of the northern
hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it is summer in the regions north of the equator. The longest
day and the shortest night across the northern hemisphere occur on the 21st of June. This position of
the earth is called the summer solstice. During summer solstice the whole Arctic region falls within
the ‘zone of illumination’ all day long.
• At this time in the southern hemisphere, all these conditions are reversed. It is winter season there. The
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nights are longer than the days. (For the southern hemisphere 21st of June is the winter solstice)
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Winter Solstice
• On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn receives direct rays of the sun. The longest night and the
shortest day all across the northern hemisphere occur on this date. It is summer in the southern hemi-
sphere with longer days and shorter nights. This position of the earth is called the winter solstice. The
reverse happens in the northern hemisphere. (For the southern hemisphere 22nd December is the sum-
mer solstice)

Midnight Sun
• Because of the axial tilt of the Earth, the Sun does not set at high latitudes in local summer. The
number of days per year with potential midnight sun increases as one goes closer to the poles. The Sun
remains continuously visible for one day during the summer solstice (21st June in the Northern Hemi-
sphere and 22nd December in the Southern Hemisphere) at the polar circle, for several weeks only 100
km closer to the pole, and for six months at the poles.

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The Sun sets and rises very close to the horizon at the higher latitudes
• At extreme latitudes, the midnight sun is usually referred to as polar day. At the poles themselves, the Sun
rises and sets only once each year on the equinox. The opposite phenomenon, polar night, occurs in
winter when the Sun stays below the horizon throughout the day.

Daylight Saving in Temperate Regions

• Daylight saving time (DST) or summer time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months
by one hour or more. In DST, evening time is increased by sacrificing the morning hours. Typically, users
in regions with summer time (countries in extreme north and south) adjust clocks forward one hour close
to the start of spring and adjust them backwards in the autumn to standard time.
 Normal days = Start office at 10 AM and close at 5 PM
 DST = Start office at 9 AM and Close at 4 PM
• Advantages: benefits retailing, sports, and other activities that exploit sunlight after working hours. Re-
duces evening use of incandescent lighting, which was formerly a primary use of electricity.
• Disadvantages: DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel and sleep pat-
terns.

Equinox
• On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator. At this position, neither of
the poles is tilted towards the sun; so, the whole earth experiences equal days and equal nights. This is
called an equinox.
• On 23rd September, it is the autumn season (season after summer and before the beginning of winter) in
the northern hemisphere and spring season (season after winter and before the beginning of summer) in
the southern hemisphere. The opposite is the case on 21st March when it is spring in the northern hemi-
sphere and autumn in the southern hemisphere.

Days Are Always Longer Than Nights at The Equator

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• If there was no atmosphere, there would be no refraction, and the daytime and night-time would be near
equal at the equator, at least during equinoxes. But due to the atmosphere, the sun’s rays get refracted
(bending of light due to change in density of the medium). Refraction is particularly stronger during the
morning and the evening time when the sun’s rays are slant. Even though the actual sun is below the
horizon, its apparent image would appear above the horizon due to refraction. This makes the days
longer than nights at the equator.

Perihelion and Aphelion

• The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one of the foci. Approximately
every 100,000 years, Earth's orbital path changes from being nearly circular to elliptical due to gravitational
influences of other planetary objects, particularly the Moon.
• The Earth is closest to the Sun at its perihelion which occurs about two weeks after the December
Solstice (around the 3rd of January). At the perihelion position, the earth is about 147.3 million km
away from the sun.
• The Earth is farthest from the Sun at its aphelion which occurs about two weeks after the June Solstice
(around the 4th of July). At aphelion position, the earth is about 152.1 million km away from the sun.
• The dates when Earth reaches the extreme points in its orbit are not fixed.

[UPSC Prelims 2007] What is the average distance (approximate) between the sun and the
earth?
a) 70 x 105 km
b) 100 x 105 km
c) 110 x 106 km
d) 150 x 106 km
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[UPSC Prelims 2019] On 21st June the sun

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a) Does not set below the horizon at the Arctic circle

 b) Does not set below the horizon at the Antarctic circle
c) Shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator
d) Shines vertically overhead at the tropic of Capricorn

[UPSC Prelims 2022] In the northern hemisphere, the longest day of the year normally oc-
curs in the:
a) First half of the month of June
b) Second half of the month of June
c) First half of the month of July
d) Second half of the month of July

How Much Does the Elliptical Orbit Affect the Weather on Earth?

Amount of Energy Received From The Sun

• The difference in the amount of the sun's energy that the earth receives (called the solar constant) doesn't
vary considerably between perihelion and aphelion. After all, the distance difference between perihelion
and aphelion is only a small fraction of Earth's average distance to the sun.
 Throughout the year, the solar constant varies by very little due to the very small eccentricity of the earth’s
orbit (the eccentricity of an ellipse varies between 0 and 1. A circle is an ellipse with an eccentricity of 0). In
the southern hemisphere, the meagre solar constant increase is offset by the higher water-to-land ratio.

Duration of Seasons
• The elliptical orbit does affect our weather by affecting the duration of the seasons, although this
effect is not significant. Earth is farther away from the Sun in summer. Therefore, its orbital velocity is at
its lowest (Kepler’s second law of planetary motion), and it requires more time to travel from the summer
solstice point to the autumnal equinox (September 23rd) than it needs to move between the winter solstice
and vernal equinox (21st March). Thus, the winter is about 89 days, and the summer is approximately 92
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days long. That is, in the northern hemisphere the summer is slightly longer than the winter.
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 Kepler's second law of planetary motion: a line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out
equal areas during equal intervals of time. Thus, the speed of the planet increases as it nears the sun
and decreases as it recedes from the sun.
 The earth achieves its fastest orbital speed at the perigee and slowest orbital speed at the apogee.

19.3. Eclipse

• An eclipse happens when a planet or a moon gets in the way of the sun’s light. On earth, we experience
two kinds of eclipses: 1) solar eclipses that occur only on a new moon day and lunar eclipses that
occur only on a full moon day.
• Revolution of the moon around the earth close to the earth’s ecliptic plane, proximity between the
moon and the earth, and the relative apparent size of the sun and the moon, are all together respon-
sible for the occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses.
 The Sun's distance from Earth is about 400 times the Moon's distance, & the Sun's diameter is about 400
times the Moon's diameter. Because these ratios are approximately the same, the Sun & the Moon as seen
from Earth appear to be approximately the same size.

Phases of The Moon

The Moon's rotation is tidally locked by Earth's gravity; therefore, most of the same lunar side always faces
Earth. This near side is variously sunlit, depending on the position of the Moon in its orbit. The lunar phase or
phase of the Moon is the shape of this sunlit portion of the Moon as viewed from Earth

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 Tidal locking is the situation when an object's orbital period matches its rotational period. E.g. the
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Moon’s rotation time is 27.3 days, just the same as its orbital time, 27.3 days.
[UPSC Prelims 2005] Assertion-Reasoning
 Assertion (A): The same face of the moon is always presented to the earth.
 Reason (R): The moon rotates about its own axis in 23 and half days which is about the
same time that it takes to orbit the earth.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
258

b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT a correct explanation of A

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c) A is true but R is false

 d) A is false but R is true

• During the New moon phase, the Sun and the Moon are aligned on the same side of the Earth, and the
side of the Moon facing Earth is under darkness. As the Moon waxes (the amount of illuminated surface
as seen from Earth is increasing), the lunar phases progress through new moon, crescent moon, first-
quarter moon, gibbous moon, and full moon. The Moon is then said to wane as it passes through the
gibbous moon, third-quarter moon, crescent moon, and back to the new moon.
• The lunar phases gradually and cyclically change over the period of a synodic month (about 29.53 days),
as the orbital positions of the Moon around Earth and Earth around the Sun shift.

Perigee and Apogee

• Like the Earth's orbit around the Sun, the Moon's path around the Earth is elliptical. The point in the Moon's
orbit that is closest to the Earth is called the perigee and the point farthest from the Earth is known as the
apogee. The terms are also sometimes used interchangeably with the Earth's Perihelion and Aphelion.
• In January 2019 perigee was ~3,57,000 km and apogee was ~4,06,000 km. The distance of perigee and
apogee positions changes from time to time. On average, the distance is taken as 382,900 kilometres
from the Moon's centre to the centre of Earth.

Supermoons & Micromoons

• The Moon's phase and the date of its approach to its perigee or apogee are not synced. When a Full
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Moon or New Moon occurs close to the Moon's perigee, it is known as a Supermoon. On the other
hand, when a Full Moon or New Moon occurs close to the Moon's apogee, it is known as a Micromoon.
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Sidereal Period
• The orbit of a planet around the Sun measured with respect to the fixed stars is used to determine the
sidereal period. The sidereal period of the Earth is 365.25 days (The Gregorian calendar month is about
30.44 days).
• The Moon's sidereal orbital period (the sidereal month) is ~27.3 days ― the time interval that the Moon
takes to orbit 360° around the Earth relative to the fixed stars.

Synodic Period
260

• Synodic period is the time required for a body within the solar system, such as a planet, the Moon, to
return to the same position relative to the Sun as seen by an observer on the Earth. The Moon’s synodic
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 period (29.53 days) is the time between successive recurrences of the same phase; e.g., between a full
moon and a full moon.
• The time difference in sidereal and synodic months is due to the constantly shifting orbital positions
of the Moon around Earth and of Earth around the Sun.
• The Moon completes one revolution
 relative to the fixed stars in about 27.32 days (a sidereal month) and
 relative to the Sun in about 29.53 days (a synodic month).
• Thus, one Georgian year = 12 Georgian months = ~13.37 sidereal months = ~12.37 synodic
months

Solar Eclipse
• A solar eclipse happens when the moon gets in the way of the sun’s light and casts its shadow on Earth.
The type of solar eclipse that happens during each season (whether total, annular or partial) depends on
the apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon.

Total Solar Eclipse (Umbra)

• A total solar eclipse occurs when the sun and the moon are exactly in line with the Earth and the moon
completely obscures the sun. During a total solar eclipse, the sun’s corona is visible to the naked eye as a
bright ring around the obscured sun.
• A total solar eclipse happens about every year and a half somewhere on Earth. The moon’s shadow on
Earth isn’t very big, so only a small portion of places on Earth will see it. On average, the same spot on
Earth only gets to see a solar eclipse for a few minutes about every 375 years!

[UPSC Prelims 1996] Diamond ring is a phenomenon observed:

a) at the start of a total solar eclipse
b) at the end of a total solar eclipse
c) only along the peripheral regions of the totality trail
d) only in the central regions of the totality trail

Explanation:
• During a total or annular solar eclipse, some of the peripheral regions of the rugged lunar topography
allow beads of sunlight to shine through so that the eclipsed sun appears like a shining diamond ring.
This is known as the diamond ring effect. So (c) only along the peripheral regions of the totality trail, is
the answer.
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 Sun’s Corona and the diamond ring effect during a total solar eclipse

Umbra

262
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• Umbra is the region of the shadow of the moon in which all light from the sun is completely excluded.
Thus, in an eclipse of the Sun, the regions within the umbra experience a total solar eclipse. During
any one eclipse, totality (total solar eclipse or umbra) occurs at best only in a narrow track on the surface
of Earth. This narrow track is called the path of totality.

Annular Solar Eclipse

• An annular eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line with the Earth, but the apparent size
of the Moon is smaller (when the moon is at its apogee) than that of the Sun. Hence the Sun appears
as a very bright ring surrounding the dark disk of the Moon.

Annular Solar Eclipse

Partial Solar Eclipse (Penumbra)

• A partial eclipse occurs when the sun and the moon are not exactly in line with the earth and the moon
only partially obscures the sun. This phenomenon can usually be seen from a large part of the Earth outside
of the track of an annular or total eclipse. Partial eclipses are virtually unnoticeable in terms of the sun's
brightness as it takes well over 90% coverage to notice any darkening at all. A partial solar eclipse happens
at least twice a year somewhere on Earth.

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• Some eclipses can only be seen as partial eclipses (no umbra on earth) because the umbra passes
above the Earth's polar regions and never intersects the Earth's surface.

Penumbra
• Penumbra is the region of the shadow of the moon outside the umbra where the light from the Sun is
partially blocked. Thus, in an eclipse of the Sun, the regions within the penumbra experience a partial
solar eclipse.

Lunar Eclipse

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• During a lunar eclipse, Earth gets in the way of the sun’s light hitting the moon. That means that during
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the night, a full moon fades away as Earth’s shadow covers it up.
• If the moon passes through the lighter part of Earth's shadow, a penumbral eclipse (partial lunar eclipse)
occurs. If the moon passes through the darker part of Earth's shadow, an umbral eclipse (total lunar
eclipse) occurs.

Blood moon
• During a total lunar eclipse, a little bit of light from Earth's sunrises and sunsets (on the disk of the planet)
falls on the surface of the moon. The moon can look reddish because of the Earth’s atmosphere that
absorbs the other colours while it bends (refraction) some red light toward the moon.

Why Don’t We Have a Lunar Eclipse or A Solar Eclipse Every Month?

Why not every full moon day a lunar eclipse? Why not every new moon day a solar eclipse?

• Not every new moon causes a solar eclipse and not every full moon sees a lunar eclipse. This is because
of the of moon’s tilted orbit around Earth with respect to the earth’s orbital plane (ecliptic). Moons
orbital plane is tilted to the earth’s ecliptic (Earth's orbital plane) by about 5.1°.
Solar and lunar eclipses happen only during an eclipse season when the plane of the Earth's orbit
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•
around the Sun crosses with the plane of the Moon's orbit around the Earth (at the descending and
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the ascending nodes).

• It is because of the non-planar and non-circular differences that eclipses are not a common event. If the
orbit of the Earth around the Sun and the Moon's orbit around the Earth were both in the same plane,
then there would be a lunar eclipse at every full moon, and a solar eclipse at every new moon. And
if both orbits were perfectly circular, each solar eclipse would be the same type every month.

Lunar Nodal Cycle

• The Moon’s orbital plane wobbles to a maximum & minimum of +/- 5 degrees over a period of ~18.6
years. This natural cycle of orbits is called the Lunar Nodal Cycle. Scientists claim that 18.6-year Lunar
Nodal Cycle might lead to rising sea levels in the near future. Currently, we are in the phase of an
18.6-year lunar cycle that lessens the moon’s influence on the oceans i.e., the downward phase.
• When the lunar plane is more closely aligned with the plane of Earth’s equator, tides on Earth are
exaggerated (the tidal bulge is maximum along the equator due to maximum centrifugal force). Con-
versely, when the lunar plane tilts further away from the equatorial plane, tides on Earth are muted
(the tidal bulge decreases as we move away from the equator due to decreasing centrifugal force).
 Rotation of earth  Days and Nights
 Revolution of earth on a tilted axis  Seasons (Variations in the length of daytime and nighttime
from season to season)
 Revolution of the earth around the sun in an elliptical manner  Perihelion and Aphelion
 Revolution of the moon around the earth  Phases of the Moon (New Moon, Full Moon)
 Revolution of the moon around the earth in an elliptical manner  Perigee and Apogee
 Revolution of the moon on a tilted orbital plane around the earth  Solar Eclipse and Lunar Eclipse
 Revolution of the moon on a tilted orbital plane around the earth in an elliptical manner  Moons
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apparent size is different for various Solar Eclipses (not all solar eclipses are similar)
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[UPSC Prelims 2013] Variations in the length of daytime and nighttime from season to sea-
son are due to (In simple words, seasons are caused due to?)
a) the earth’s rotation on its axis
b) the earth’s revolution around the sun in an elliptical manner
c) latitudinal position of the place
d) revolution of the earth on a tilted axis

Explanation:
• The earth’s rotation on its axis causes day and night.
• The earth’s revolution around the sun in an elliptical manner causes perihelion (the closest position of
the earth to the sun) and aphelion (the farthest position of the earth to the sun).
• Latitudinal position of the place determines the amount of sunlight received.
• Revolution of the earth on a tilted axis causes seasons or variations in the length of daytime and
nighttime from season to season.

Answer: d) revolution of the earth on a tilted axis

[UPSC Prelims 2013] Consider the following:
1. Electromagnetic radiation
2. Geothermal energy
3. Gravitational force
4. Plate movements
5. Rotation of the earth
6. Revolution of the earth

Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the
earth?
a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only
b) 1, 3, 5 and 6 only
c) 2, 4, 5 and 6 only
d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6

Explanation:
• Visible light  Evaporation, heat budget, pressure systems, winds, etc.
• Geothermal energy (energy emanating from the earth’s interior)  Endogenic geomorphic processes
such as earthquakes, volcanism, mountain building, etc.
• Gravitational force  isostasy and isostatic equilibrium (gravitational equilibrium between the blocks
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of crust and the underlying mantle — heavier blocks subside and the lighter blocks rise), mass move-
ments, etc.
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• Rotation of the earth  low and high tide, Coriolis force and its effects, etc.

Answer: All

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 20. Earth’s Atmosphere

• Our planet earth is enveloped by a deep blanket of gases extending several hundreds of kilometres above
its surface. This gaseous cover of the earth is known as the atmosphere. Like land (lithosphere) and water
(hydrosphere), the atmosphere is also an integral part of the earth, and it is held in place by the gravita-
tional influence of the earth.
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20.1. Composition of The Earth’s Atmosphere

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• The composition of Earth's atmosphere is largely governed by the by-products of the life it sustains. Dry
air contains 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon and traces of hydrogen, helium, and other
noble gases. The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse
gases, principally carbon dioxide (0.036%), methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.

• Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine, fluorine com-
pounds and elemental mercury vapour. Sulphur compounds such as hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and sul-
phur dioxide (SO2) may be derived from natural sources or industrial air pollution.

Evolution of The Earth’s atmosphere

• The first atmosphere consisted of gases in the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen.

Hadean Eon (4,540 – 4,000 mya)

• Volcanic outgassing created the primordial atmosphere. Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by
gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth, produced the next atmosphere.
 During the Late Heavy Bombardment (4 billion years ago), a disproportionately large number of aster-
oids collided with the early terrestrial planets including earth.
• Over time, the Earth’s surface solidified leaving behind hot volatiles which resulted in a heavy CO2 at-
mosphere with hydrogen, nitrogen, inert gases, and water vapour.
• After the formation of oceans, dissolving in ocean water removed most CO2 from the atmosphere.
Some CO2 reacted with metals to form carbonates that were deposited as sediments.
• The early atmosphere contained almost no oxygen. Most of the lighter gases like hydrogen and he-
lium escaped into space and are continually escaping even to the present day due to atmospheric
escape (outer layers stripped by the solar wind).

Archean Eon (4000 mya – 2500 mya)

• The atmosphere was without oxygen, and the atmospheric pressure was around 10 to 100 atmos-
pheres. Nitrogen formed a major part of the then stable "second atmosphere". Most of the nitrogen in
the air was carried out from deep inside the earth by volcanoes.
• In the late Archean Eon, an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently produced
by photosynthesising cyanobacteria.

Proterozoic Eon (2500 mya – 541 mya): Oxygen in The Atmosphere

• Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago. O2 showed major
variations until reaching a steady state of more than 15% by the end of the Proterozoic.

Phanerozoic Eon (541 mya to Present): The Present Atmosphere

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 • The amount of oxygen peaked at about 30% around 280 million years ago. This period with more oxygen
is associated with the rapid development of animals. Today's atmosphere contains 21% oxygen, which
is great enough for this rapid development of animals.
• Two main processes govern changes in the oxygen levels in the atmosphere:
1. Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen.
2. Breakdown of pyrite (iron sulphide) and volcanic eruptions release sulphur into the atmosphere,
which oxidises and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic
eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen.

[UPSC Prelims 2018] Consider the following statements:

1. The Earth's magnetic field has reversed every few hundred thousand years.
2. When the Earth was created more than 4000 million years ago, there was 54% oxygen and no carbon
dioxide.
3. When living organisms originated, they modified the early atmosphere of the Earth.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Permanent Gases of The Atmosphere

Percentage by Volume
Name
Nitrogen (N2) 78.08
Oxygen (O2) 20.95
Argon (Ar) 0.93
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.036
Neon (Ne) 0.002
Helium (He) 0.0005
Krypto (Kr) 0.001
Methane (CH4) 0.000179
Xenon (Xe) 0.00009
Hydrogen (H2) 0.00005
NO AC NH KM

• Permanent atmospheric gases remain in fixed proportion to the total gas volume. Other constituents vary
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in quantity from place to place and from time to time. Heavier gases like nitrogen and oxygen tend to
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stick at the bottom of the atmosphere.

• The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be
almost in negligible quantity at the height of 120 km. Similarly, carbon dioxide and water vapour are
found only up to 90 km from the surface of the earth.

Important Constituents of The Atmosphere

Oxygen
• All living organisms inhale oxygen. Besides, oxygen can combine with other elements to form important
compounds, such as oxides. Also, normal combustion is not possible without oxygen.

Nitrogen
• Nitrogen is a relatively inert gas and is an important constituent of all organic compounds. The main
function of nitrogen is to control combustion by diluting oxygen, i.e., it prevents the spontaneous com-
bustion of oxygen in the atmosphere. It also indirectly helps in the oxidation of different kinds.
 Chips packets are filled with nitrogen to prevent rancidity (oxidation of oils & fats present in the chips).
 Inactive gases such as argon and nitrogen are used for filling an electric bulb. This prevents the tungsten
filament in an electric bulb from coming in contact with oxygen (which can burn the filament).

Carbon Dioxide
• Being an efficient absorber of heat, carbon dioxide is a very important factor in the heat energy budget.
With the increased burning of fossil fuels, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing
at an alarming rate. This could significantly raise the temperature at lower levels of the atmosphere.

Ozone (O3)
• Ozone (O3) is a type of oxygen molecule consisting of three oxygen atoms. It forms less than 0.00005% of
the volume of the atmosphere and is unevenly distributed. It is formed at higher altitudes (due to in-
teraction between O2 and UV light) and transported downwards.
• It is between 20 km and 30 km altitude (lower stratosphere) that the greatest concentrations of ozone
are found. Here it plays a crucial role in blocking the harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

Water Vapour
• Water Vapour is one of the most variable gaseous substances present in the atmosphere — constituting
between 0.02% and 4% of the total volume (in cold dry, and humid tropical climates, respectively).
• 90% of moisture content in the atmosphere exists within 6 km of the surface of the earth. Like carbon
dioxide, water vapour plays a significant role in the insulating action, of the atmosphere. It absorbs not
only the long-wave terrestrial radiation (infrared or heat emitted by the earth during the nights)
but also a part of the incoming short-wave solar radiation (visible and UV radiation).
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• Water vapour is the source of precipitation and clouds. On condensation, it releases latent heat of con-
densation — the ultimate driving force behind all storms.

Solid Particles
• The solid particles present in the atmosphere consist of sand particles (from weathered rocks and also
derived from volcanic ash), pollen grains, small organisms, soot, and ocean salts; the upper layers of the
atmosphere may even have fragments of meteors which got burnt up in the atmosphere. These solid
particles perform the function of absorbing, reflecting and scattering the radiation.
• The solid particles are, consequently, responsible for the orange and red colours at sunset and sunrise
and for the length of dawn (the first appearance of light in the sky before sunrise) and twilight (the soft
glowing light from the sky when the sun is below the horizon, caused by the refraction of the sun's rays
by the atmosphere. Dusk: the darker stage of twilight). The blue colour of the sky is also due to selective
scattering by dust particles.
• Some of the dust particles are hygroscopic (i.e., readily absorbing moisture from the air) in character, and
as such, act as nuclei of condensation. Thus, dust particles are an important contributory factor in the
formation of clouds and different forms of precipitation, fog and hailstones, etc.

UPSC Mains 2015: How far do you agree that the behaviour of the Indian monsoon has
been changing due to humanising landscapes? Discuss.
• Humanising landscapes refer to the large-scale interaction of humans with the natural environment and
the consequent changes brought upon due to such interactions.
• Examples of such interactions include urbanisation, industrialisation, deforestation and desertification,
depletion of water resources, etc.
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 • Consequences of such interactions include a rapid increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases
and aerosols in the atmosphere, global climate change, changes in sea surface temperature, an alarming
rate of depletion of natural resources, imbalances in the ecosystems, etc.

Impact on Monsoons
• The increasing incidence of El Nino, La Nina, El Nino Modoki, and IOD, due to climate change post-
industrial revolution has an overarching effect on the overall mechanism of the Indian Monsoons.
• Localised pollution (condensation nuclei), and deforestation, on the other hand, cause a change in
regional monsoon patterns.

The impact of El Nino, La Nina, El Nino Modoki, etc. will be discussed in the chapter on ‘Indian Monsoons in
PMF IAS Indian Geography’. Here let us focus on the impact of condensation nuclei on the behaviour of the
Indian monsoons.

A high concentration of condensation nuclei disrupts regional patterns of Indian monsoons

• Increase in the number of condensation nuclei due to increased availability of pollutants and dust par-
ticles will increase condensation of water vapour.
• As the urban atmosphere tends to have a greater concentration of condensation nuclei due to vehicular
pollution and construction activity, the monsoonal rainfall is disproportionately high in the urban
areas. As a consequence, the agriculture-dependent rural areas tend to receive disproportionately low
rainfall.

20.2. Structure of The Earth’s Atmosphere

• The earth’s atmosphere can be studied as a layered entity — each layer having its peculiar characteristics.
These layers are systematically discussed below.
1. Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (it’s upper reaches varies between 8-18 km)
2. Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km
3. Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km
4. Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km
5. Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km
 The speed of sound in the atmosphere follows the temperature profile: this is because the speed of
sound is directly proportional to temperature as we move away from the earth. Because in an ideal gas of
constant composition the speed of sound depends only on temperature and not on the gas pressure or density.

Troposphere (0 to 12 km)
• The altitude of the troposphere is 8 km at the poles and 18 km at the equator. The troposphere ends
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with tropopause (the topmost layer of the troposphere marked by constant temperatures). The thickness
is greater at the equator because of the heated air that rises to greater heights.
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 Speed of sound follows temperature profile

• The temperature in the troposphere falls (positive lapse rate) upwards at the rate of 6.5 °c per kilome-
tre. It is -45 °c at the poles and -80 °c over the equator at the tropopause (the greater fall in temperature
above the equator is because of the greater thickness of the troposphere – 18 km).
• The troposphere is marked by temperature inversion, turbulence and eddies. It is also meteorologically
the most significant zone in the entire atmosphere (all weather phenomena like cyclones, rainfall, fog
and hailstorm etc. are confined to this layer). It is also called the convective region since all convection
stops at Tropopause.

[UPSC Prelims 2004] Assertion & Reasoning

Assertion (A): The thickness of the atmosphere is maximum over the Equator.
Reason (R): High insolation and strong convection currents occur over the Equator.
a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true

Stratosphere (12 to 50 km)

• Stratosphere lies beyond tropopause, up to 50 km from the earth’s surface. The temperature in this layer
remains constant for some distance but then rises (negative lapse rate) to reach a level of 0 °C at 50
km altitude. This rise is due to ozone (harmful ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by ozone).
• Stratosphere layer is almost free from clouds (sometimes, cirrus clouds are present at lower levels in the
stratosphere) and associated weather phenomena, making conditions ideal for flying aeroplanes. So, the
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aeroplanes fly in the lower stratosphere, sometimes in the upper troposphere where the weather is
calm.
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• Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) or nacreous clouds (rare clouds) form in frigid regions of the lower
stratosphere, some 15 – 25 km high. They contain water, nitric acid and/or sulfuric acid. The Cl-cata-
lyzed ozone depletion is dramatically enhanced in the presence of these clouds.

[UPSC Prelims 2011] The jet aircraft fly very easily and smoothly in the lower stratosphere.
What could be the appropriate explanation?
1. There are no clouds or water vapour in the lower stratosphere.
2. There are no vertical winds in the lower stratosphere.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct in this context?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither1 nor 2

Explanation:
• The stratosphere is very dry and contains little water vapour. Because of this, few clouds are found in
this layer. Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) are the exception. PSCs appear in the lower stratosphere
near the poles in winter.
• Since the statement is absolute (no clouds or water vapour), the answer is debatable between (b) 2 only
and (c) Both.

Ozonosphere
• Ozonosphere lies at an altitude between 20 km and 55 km from the earth’s surface and spans the strat-
osphere and lower mesosphere. But the highest concentration occurs in the ozone layer between 20
km and 30 km.
• Because of the presence of ozone molecules, the ozonosphere, especially the ozone layer, absorbs
and reflects harmful ultraviolet radiation. This raises temperature (negative lapse rate) at a rate of 5
°C per kilometre through the ozonosphere.
• The ozonosphere is also called the chemosphere because of a lot of chemical activity taking place —
Ultraviolet light splits O2 into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines
with unbroken O2 to create ozone, O3. The ozone molecule is unstable (although, in the stratosphere, it
is long-lived; in the lower troposphere, it is short-lived) and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits
into a molecule of O2 and an individual atom of oxygen (ozone-oxygen cycle). The cycle repeats.
• Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by chlorofluorocarbons, bromofluorocarbons and other
ozone-depleting substances that increase the concentrations of chlorine and bromine radicals. Each of
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these radicals is capable of initiating and catalysing a chain reaction capable of breaking down over
100,000 ozone molecules.
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Mesosphere (50 to 80 km)
• The meteors entering from space don’t burn up in the exosphere and thermosphere because in those
layers the atmosphere is quite rarefied (atmospheric density is insignificant). But when they hit the mes-
osphere, there are enough gases to cause friction and create heat. Hence most of the meteors burn up
in the mesosphere.
• Temperatures drop with increasing altitude in mesopause. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an
average temperature of around -85 °C. Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very
scarce water vapour at this altitude can be condensed into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds (made
of scattered ice crystals). They are the highest clouds in Earth's atmosphere located at altitudes of
around 76 to 85 km. They may be visible to the naked eye during sunset and sunrise.

Thermosphere (80 to 700 km)

• In the thermosphere temperature rises (negative lapse rate) very rapidly with increasing height because
of radiation from the sun. Though the temperature is high, the atmosphere is extremely rarefied — gas
molecules are spaced hundreds of kilometres apart. Hence a person or an object in this layer doesn’t feel
the heat.
• The International Space Station and some satellites orbit in the thermosphere. Auroras are observed
in the lower parts of this layer.
• The Kármán line, located within the thermosphere at an altitude of 100 km, is commonly used to define
the boundary between Earth's atmosphere and outer space. By international convention, this marks
the beginning of space where human travellers are considered astronauts.
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The mass of Earth's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:

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  50% is below 5.6 km.
 90% is below 16 km.
 99.99997% is below 100 km, the Kármán line.

Ionosphere (80 to 400 km)

• Ionosphere is a part of the thermosphere. It extends between 80-400 km. In the ionosphere, Extreme
UltraViolet (EUV) and x-ray solar radiation ionize the atoms and molecules thus creating a layer of
electrons. The ionosphere is important because it reflects and modifies radio waves used for commu-
nication and navigation.
• As the radio signal is transmitted, some signals (greater than critical angle or frequency) will escape the
earth through the ionosphere (green arrow). The ground wave (purple arrow) is the direct signal or
ground wave. This wave weakens quickly due to high energy losses and is what one hears as a fading
signal.
• The remaining waves (red and blue arrows) are called "skywaves." These waves bounce off the ionosphere
and can bounce for many thousands of miles depending upon the atmospheric conditions.

Why Are Microwaves And Some Radio Waves Not Reflected By The Ionosphere?
• Radio waves with frequencies more than the critical frequency of the ionosphere cannot be used for
communication using skywave propagation. This is because the refractive index of the ionosphere be-
comes very high for frequencies higher than the critical frequency.
• High-frequency electromagnetic waves like microwaves cannot be transmitted as ground waves due to
high energy losses. Moreover, these waves are absorbed by the ionosphere hence they cannot be trans-
mitted via skywave propagation.
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[UPSC Prelims 1996] Which of the following layers of the atmosphere is responsible for the
deflection of radio waves?
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 a) Troposphere
b) Stratosphere
c) Mesosphere
d) (d)Ionosphere

[UPSC Prelims 2011] A layer in the Earth’s atmosphere called ionosphere facilities radio
communication. Why?
1. The presence of ozone causes the reflection of radio waves to the earth.
2. Radio waves have a very long wavelength.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Explanation:
• Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. They range from the length
of a football to larger than our planet. The ionosphere contains a high proportion of free electrons. High
Frequency (HF) radio waves, whose frequency is below the critical frequency of the ionosphere, hit
the free electrons in the ionosphere causing them to vibrate, and the vibrating electrons re-radiate the
energy back down at the same frequency.
• Hence, it’s not the long or short wavelength that matters. The wavelength (inversely proportional to
frequency of the wave) must be in a suitable range for the waves to be reflected by the ionosphere. So
(d) Neither is the answer.

[UPSC Prelims 1998] The correct sequence of different layers of the atmosphere from the
surface of the Earth upwards is:
a) Troposphere, Stratosphere, Ionosphere, Mesosphere
b) Stratosphere, Troposphere, Ionosphere, Mesosphere
c) Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Ionosphere
d) Stratosphere, Troposphere, Mesosphere, Ionosphere

Exosphere (700 to 1,000 km)

• Exosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending beyond the ionosphere above a height of
about 400 km. The air is extremely rarefied, and the temperature gradually increases through the layer (as
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it is exposed to direct sunlight).

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• The high earth orbit and mid earth orbit satellites are all in the exosphere because the air is so thin that
satellites can easily move with little atmospheric drag.

Atmospheric Escape
• Certain light gases like hydrogen & helium are constantly lost into space from the exosphere due to at-
mospheric escape. Atmospheric escape (atmospheric stripping) happens when gas molecules achieve
escape velocity due to low gravity or due to energy received from the sun (heat, solar wind).
• Earth's magnetic field reduces atmospheric escape by protecting the atmosphere from the solar wind
that would otherwise greatly enhance the escape of hydrogen.

20.3. Importance of Earth’s Atmosphere

• Earth is unique among plants as it has life and life on earth would not have been possible if not for the
present state of the atmosphere.

Life-giving gases
• Plants require carbon dioxide to survive while animals and many other organisms need oxygen for their
survival. Nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nu-
cleotides and amino acids.

Regulates the entry of solar radiation

• All life forms need a particular range of temperature and a specific range of frequencies of solar radiation
to carry out their biophysical processes. The atmosphere absorbs certain frequencies and lets through
some other frequencies of solar radiation. In other words, the atmosphere regulates the entry of solar
radiation.

Temperature balance
• The atmosphere also keeps the temperature over the earth’s surface within certain limits. In the absence
of the atmosphere extremes of temperature would exist between day and night.

Blocks harmful radiation

• The atmosphere helps to protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation, solar
wind and cosmic rays.

Shields the earth from impact objects

• The atmosphere also takes care of extra-terrestrial objects like meteors which get burnt up while passing
through the atmosphere (mesosphere to be precise) due to friction.

Weather and climate

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• Weather is another important phenomenon which dictates the direction of many natural and human-made
processes like plant growth, agriculture, soil-formation (weathering and erosion), human settlements, etc.
Various climatic factors join together to create weather.

Water on earth exists in a liquid state due to the Atmosphere

• Since liquids cannot exist without pressure, an atmosphere allows liquid to be present at the surface,
resulting in lakes, rivers and oceans. Earth and Titan (Saturn's largest moon) are known to have liquids
at their surface and the terrain on Mars suggests that the planet had liquid on its surface in the past.

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 21. Horizontal Distribution of Temperature

• The differential amount of sun’s energy received by various latitudinal zones on earth is the primary
reason behind the occurrence of seasonal patterns of weather and climate. Thus, understanding the pat-
terns of distribution of temperature in different seasons is important for understanding various climatic
features like wind systems, pressure systems, precipitation, etc.

21.1. Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy

Radiation
• Radiation doesn’t require a medium for heat transfer. Heat is transferred from one body to another
without actual contact or movement in the medium. E.g. Heat transfer from the sun to earth through
space.

Insolation
• Insolation is the amount of sun’s energy received in the form of radiation by the earth. It is measured as
the amount of solar energy received per square centimetre per minute.
• Earth receives the sun’s radiation in the form of short waves (visible light or wavelengths below visible
light — most of it is ultraviolet radiation) which are electromagnetic.
• The earth absorbs short wave radiation during daytime and reflects the heat received into space as
long-wave radiation (mostly infrared radiation which is nothing but heat) during the night.

Conduction
• The heat transfer through conduction happens due to molecular activity in a conducting medium. There
is no actual movement of the medium itself. Generally, denser materials like iron, and water are good
conductors, and lighter mediums like air are bad conductors of heat.

Convection
• Convection is the transfer of heat energy by the actual transfer of matter or substance from one place
to another. E.g. Heat transfer by convection cells in a boiling pot of water, atmosphere, oceans or in the
earth’s mantle.

21.2. Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution

The Angle of Incidence (Inclination) of The Sun’s Rays

• The area lying close to the equator receives maximum heat due to near vertical rays of the sun. The sun’s
rays get progressively slanting as one moves away from the equator towards the poles. As a result, the
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heat received from the sun decrease as the distance increases from the equator. Areas lying close to the
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poles receive the least of the sun’s energy as the sun’s rays are near horizontal.
Duration of Sunshine
• Heat received depends on day or night; clear sky or overcast, summer or winter, etc. Earth’s atmosphere
plays an important role in moderating the temperatures between seasons and between days and nights.

Transparency of Atmosphere
• Aerosols (smoke, soot, pollen), dust, water vapour, clouds etc. affect transparency.
• If the wavelength of the radiation is more than the radius of the obstructing particle (such as a gas),
scattering of radiation takes place. Most of the light received by earth is scattered light. If the wave-
length is less than the obstructing particle (such as a dust particle), then reflection takes place.
• Absorption of solar radiation takes place if the obstructing particles happen to be water vapour, ozone
molecules, carbon dioxide molecules or clouds (Greenhouse effect).

Albedo
• Albedo of a surface is the proportion of sunlight that the surface can reflect back into space. The
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albedo of land is much greater than that of oceans and water bodies. Snow-covered areas have the
highest albedo and can reflect up to 70-90% of insolation.
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Surface Albedo Planet Albedo

1. Fresh Snow 80-90% 1. Mercury 0.14

2. Thick cloud 70-80% 2. Venus 0.84

3. Water at the horizon (upper troposphere) 50-80% 3. Earth (Moon) 0.37 (0.11)

4. Old Snow 45-50% 4. Mars 0.15

5. Concrete 40-50% 5. Jupiter 0.34

6. Desert 30-45% 6. Saturn 0.34

7. Light soil 20-45% 7. Uranus 0.30

8. Thin cloud 25-35% 8. Neptune 0.29

9. Grasses 20-25% 9. Pluto (dwarf planet) 0.44-0.61

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10. Soil 20-25%

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11. Crops 10-25%

12. Forest 10-20%

13. Oceans & Water bodies 06-10%

14. Asphalt (used in road construction) 5%

 Numbers are not important. Just remember the descending order of Albedo.
 Albedo is 0 for a black (darker) object that absorbs all light and reflects none.
 Albedo is 1 for a white (lighter) object that reflects all light and absorbs none.

[UPSC Prelims 2002] Consider the following ecosystems:

1. Taiga
2. Tropical Evergreen
3. Tropical Deciduous
4. Tundra

The correct sequence in decreasing order of the Albedo values of these ecosystems is:
285

a) 1, 4, 3, 2
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 b) 4, 1, 3, 2
c) 4, 1, 2, 3
d) 1, .4, 2, 3

Explanation:
• From the table above, we can conclude that the albedo of Tundra (snow & frost) > Taiga (mostly snow
and sparse forest) > Tropical Deciduous (sparse forest and soil) > Tropical Evergreen (thick canopy). So
(b) is the answer.

[UPSC Prelims 2008] Consider the following statements:

1. Albedo of an object determines its visual brightness when viewed with reflected light.
2. Albedo of Mercury is much greater than the albedo of the Earth.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither1 nor 2

Explanation:
• Mercury is mainly composed of dark porous rock surfaces. Its atmosphere consists of 95 per cent
carbon dioxide which is optically transparent and thus does not contribute to the planet's albedo.
The surface of Venus, however, is completely obscured by the dense atmospheric clouds composed
of highly reflective sulphuric acid. So (a) 1 only is the answer.

[UPSC Prelims 2010] Which one of the following reflects back more sunlight as compared
to the other three?
a) Sand desert
b) Paddy crop
c) Land covered with fresh snow
d) Prairie land

Land-Sea Differential
• The specific heat of water is 2.5 times higher than landmass; therefore water takes longer to get heated
up and to cool down. The average penetration of sunlight is more in water (up to 20 metres) than in land
(up to 1 metre or less). Therefore, the land cools or becomes hot more rapidly compared to the oceans.
In oceans, the continuous convection cycle helps in heat exchange between layers keeping diurnal and
286

annual temperature ranges low.

Temperature Anomaly
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• The difference between the mean temperature of a place and the mean temperature of its parallel (lati-
tude) is called the temperature anomaly or thermal anomaly. The largest anomalies occur in the north-
ern hemisphere (because of more land surface) and the smallest in the southern hemisphere (dom-
inated by vast oceans).
 The Northern Hemisphere's surface is about 40% landmass and is covered by about 60% water in the
Northern Hemisphere. The Southern Hemisphere's surface is about 20% landmass and is covered by 80%
water.

Prevailing Winds
• Winds transfer heat from one latitude to another. E.g. Poles would have been much colder if it is not for
the moderating effect of the atmospheric circulation. Winds also help in the exchange of heat between
land and water bodies. E.g. Land breeze and sea breeze.

Aspects of Slope
• The direction and the steepness of the slope control the amount of solar radiation received locally. Slopes
that receive direct sun rays are dry due to loss of moisture through excess evaporation. These slopes
remain barren if irrigational facilities are absent. But slopes with good irrigational facilities are good for
agriculture due to the abundant sunlight available. They are occupied by dense human settlements.
Slopes that are devoid of direct sunlight are usually well forested.

Ocean Currents
• Ocean currents influence the temperature of adjacent land areas considerably. For example, the U.K., con-
sidering its latitudinal location, has a relatively moderate climate due to the warm North Atlantic Drift.

Altitude

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• With the increase in height, the pressure falls, the effect of greenhouse gases decreases and hence tem-
perature decreases (applicable only to the troposphere). The normal lapse rate is roughly 1 °C for every
150-155 metres of ascent (in the troposphere).

21.3. The Mean Annual Temperature Distribution

• The horizontal or latitudinal distribution of temperature is shown with the help of a map with isotherms.
The Isotherms are imaginary lines joining places having an equal temperature. Effects of altitude are
not considered while drawing an isotherm (temperatures are reduced to sea levels).

General Characteristics of Isotherms

Generally follow the parallels (latitudes)

• Isotherms have a close correspondence with the parallels mainly because the same amount of insolation
is received by all the points located on the same latitude.
• The isotherms are irregular over the northern hemisphere due to an enhanced land-sea contrast.
• The thermal equator (ITCZ) generally lies to the north of the geographical equator (this is because most
of the land surface is in the northern hemisphere).

Sudden bends at ocean-continent boundaries

• Due to differential heating of land and water and ocean currents, temperatures above the oceans and
landmasses vary even at the same latitude.

Spacing between isotherms

• Narrow spacing between isotherms indicates a high thermal gradient (rapid change in tempera-
ture).
• Wide spacing between isotherms indicates a low thermal gradient (small or slow change in temper-
atures).

General Temperature Distribution

• The highest temperatures occur over tropics and subtropics. The lowest temperatures occur in polar and
sub-polar regions and the interiors of large continental subpolar regions due to the effect of continental-
ity (far from the moderating effect of the seas).
• Diurnal (daily) and annual range of temperatures are highest in the interiors of continents due to conti-
nentality.
• Diurnal and annual range of temperatures are least in oceans because of high specific heat and mixing.
• The northern hemisphere is warmer because of the predominance of land over water in the north.
• Low-temperature gradients are observed over the tropics (the sun is almost overhead the entire year).
High-temperature gradients are observed over middle and higher latitudes (insolation decreases sub-
288

•
stantially polewards in the middle and higher latitudes and the sun’s apparent path varies significantly
Page

from season to season).

• Temperature gradients are usually low (isotherms are widely spaced) over the eastern margins of con-
tinents because of warm ocean currents.
• While passing through an area with warm ocean currents, the isotherms show a poleward shift. E.g. North
Atlantic Drift and Gulf Stream in Northern Atlantic; Kurishino Current and North Pacific current com-
bined in Northern Pacific.
• Temperature gradients are usually high (isotherm sare closely spaced) over the western margins of
continents because of cold ocean currents.
• Mountains also affect the horizontal distribution of temperature. For example, the Himalayas insulate India
from the cold winds of Siberia, and the Rockies and the Andes block the oceanic influence from going
inwards into North and South America.

Seasonal Temperature Distribution

• In general, the effect of the latitude on temperature is well pronounced on the map, as the isotherms are
generally parallel to the latitude. The deviation from this general trend is more pronounced in January than
in July, especially in the northern hemisphere because of the land surface area which is much larger than
in the southern hemisphere.

Seasonal Temperature Distribution – January

Northern Hemisphere
• During January, it is winter in the northern hemisphere & summer in the southern hemisphere.
289

• The western margins of continents are warmer than their eastern counterparts since the Westerlies are
able to carry high temperatures (from the oceans) into the landmasses.
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• The isotherms are closer on the eastern margins as the temperature gradient is high because of the
less moderating effect of the oceans (westerlies flow from west to east).
• The isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean. For example, the presence of warm Gulf Stream and
North Atlantic drift make the Northern Atlantic warmer and the isotherms show a poleward shift indi-
cating that the currents are able to carry high temperatures poleward.
• The isotherms deviate equatorward over the continents (due to continentality) as the cold polar winds
are able to penetrate southwards into the interiors.
• Lowest temperatures are recorded over northern Siberia and Greenland (due to continentality).

Southern Hemisphere
• The effect of the ocean is well pronounced, and the isotherms exhibit a more regular behaviour. The iso-
therms are more or less parallel to the latitudes, and the variation in temperature is gradual.
• The high-temperature belt runs in the southern hemisphere, somewhere along 30° S latitude (subtropics
are devoid of cloud cover due to anticyclonic circulation at the surface).
• The thermal equator lies to the south of the geographical equator (because the Intertropical Conver-
gence Zone or ITCZ has shifted southwards with the apparent southward movement of the sun).

Seasonal Temperature Distribution – July

Northern Hemisphere
• During July, it is summer in the northern hemisphere and winter in the southern hemisphere. The temper-
290

ature gradient is irregular and follows a zig-zag path over the northern hemisphere. The isotherms gener-
ally run parallel to the latitudes. The thermal equator lies to the north of the geographical equator.
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• The equatorial oceans record warmer temperatures, more than 27 °C. Over the land, more than 30 °C is
noticed in the subtropical continental region of Asia, along the 30° N latitude.
• The highest annual temperature range is more than 60° C over the Siberian region (due to continen-
tality). The least range of temperature, 3° C, is found between 20° S and 15° N.
• Over the northern continents, a poleward bend of the isotherms indicates that the landmasses are over-
heated, and the hot tropical winds are able to go far into the northern interiors.
• The isotherms over the northern oceans show an equatorward shift indicating that the oceans are cooler
and are able to carry the moderating effect into tropical interiors.
• The lowest temperatures are experienced over Greenland. The highest temperature belt runs through
northern Africa, West Asia, north-west India arid the south-eastern USA.

The range of temperature between January and July

Southern Hemisphere
• The temperature gradient becomes regular over the southern hemisphere but shows a slight bend towards
the equator at the edges of continents (due to the moderating effect of the oceans; it’s winter in the
southern hemisphere).

[UPSC Prelims 2013] The annual range of temperature in the interior of the continents is
high as compared to coastal areas. What is/are the reason/reasons?
1. Thermal difference between land and water
2. Variation in altitude between continents and oceans
3. Presence of strong winds in the interior
4. Heavy rains in the interior as compared to coasts
291

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

Page

a) 1 only
 b) 1 and 2 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Explanation:
• Continentality greatly enhances the thermal difference between land and water. The highest annual
range is observed over Siberia because of continentality and not the altitude difference. Statements (3)
and (4) are factually incorrect. So (a) 1 only is the answer.

21.4. Latitudinal Heat Balance

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• Regions within the equator and 40° N and S latitudes receive abundant sunlight and hence more heat will
be gained than lost. Hence, they are energy surplus regions.
• Regions beyond 40° N and S latitudes lose more heat than that gained from sunlight. Hence, they are
energy deficit regions (because of slant sunlight and high albedo of polar regions).
• Going by this logic, the tropics should have been getting progressively hotter and the poles progressively
cooler. And the planet would have been inhospitable except for a few regions near mid-latitudes. But this
is not the case as the atmosphere and the oceans transfer excess heat from the tropics (energy sur-
plus region) towards the poles (energy deficit regions) making up for heat loss at higher latitudes.
Thus, the transfer of surplus energy from the lower latitudes to the deficit energy zone of the higher
latitudes maintains an overall balance over the earth’s surface.
• Most of the heat transfer takes place across the mid-latitudes (30° to 50), and hence much of the
stormy weather (jet stream and temperate cyclones) is associated with this region.

21.5. Heat Budget

• The earth receives a certain amount of insolation (short waves – UV and visible part of the electromag-
netic spectrum) and gives back heat into space by terrestrial radiation (longwave or infrared radiation).
Through this give and take, or the heat budget, the earth maintains a constant temperature.

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 22. Vertical Distribution of Temperature

• To understand the vertical distribution of temperature we need to know about latent heat, lapse rate and
adiabatic lapse rate. The terms ‘Adiabatic Lapse Rate’ and ‘Latent Heat of Condensation’ frequently occur
in climatology. Understanding these terms once and for all will help immensely in understanding the sub-
sequent topics.

22.1. Latent Heat of Condensation

• Adiabatic lapse rate determines the rate of condensation in the atmosphere which in turn determines the
amount of latent heat of condensation released. The heat released in the form of latent heat of con-
densation supplies the energy necessary for the formation of towering cumulonimbus thunderstorm
clouds and tropical cyclones.

Latent Heat
• Latent heat is the amount of energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its physical
state (phase change) that occurs without changing its temperature.
• For example, when a pot of water is kept boiling, the temperature remains at 100 °C until the last drop
evaporates because all the heat being added to the liquid is absorbed as latent heat of vaporisation and
carried away by the escaping vapour molecules. Similarly, while the ice melts, it remains at 0 °C, and the
liquid water that is formed with the latent heat of fusion is also at 0 °C.

Explanation

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• From the above graph, we can observe that there is no change in temperature in the system during change
of state or phase change. Then where did the heat supplied go?
• Initially, the heat supplied is used to raise the temperature of the system (A-B, C-D and then E-F). During
the phase change, the heat supplied is consumed to turn solid into liquid (B-C: latent heat of fusion —
heat is absorbed) and then liquid into a gas (D-E: latent heat of vaporisation — heat is absorbed). Thus,
the heat supplied is used in phase change. Hence temperature of the system remains constant during the
phase change process (B-C & D-E).
• But when a gas turns into liquid (E-D: latent heat of condensation — heat is released) or liquid into solid
(C-B: latent heat of solidification — heat is released), heat is released (this heat is the heat that was
used during the phase change process). Thus, latent heat of condensation is the heat released when
gases turn into liquid.
 When water vapour in the atmosphere condenses into raindrops, latent heat of condensation is re-
leased.
 Water evaporates from the ocean surface by absorbing latent heat of vaporisation.

22.2. Lapse Rate

• Lapse rate (Temperature Lapse or Temperature Lapse Rate) is the rate of change in temperature of the
atmosphere with altitude (elevation).
• The lapse rate is considered positive when the temperature decreases with elevation, zero when the tem-
perature is constant with elevation, and negative when the temperature increases with elevation (tem-
perature inversion). Hence, the lapse rate of the troposphere below tropopause is positive, the lapse rate
of the tropopause is zero, and the lapse rate of the stratosphere is negative.
• The fall in temperature with altitude is primarily due to the following reason:
 Atmosphere is mostly transparent to the incoming shortwave radiation but actively absorbs the
outgoing terrestrial (longwave) radiation.
 Greenhouse house gases like CO2, and water vapour, are the primary absorbers of terrestrial radi-
ation and their concentration is highest at the earth’s surface and goes on decreasing with altitude.
Hence, the temperature falls with altitude (elevation).
• The lapse rate of non-rising air (environmental lapse rate) is highly variable, being affected by radia-
tion, convection, condensation and concentration of greenhouse gases. It averages about 6-6.5 °C per
kilometre (1 °C for every 153-165 metres) in the lower atmosphere (troposphere).

[UPSC Prelims 2012] Normally, the temperature decreases with the increase in height from
the Earth’s surface, because
1. the atmosphere can be heated upwards only from the Earth's surface
295

2. there is more moisture in the upper atmosphere

3. the air is less dense in the upper atmosphere
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 Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
a) 1, 2,3 and 4

22.3. Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR)

• Lapse rate is the rate of fall in the temperature of the atmosphere with elevation. Adiabatic Lapse Rate
is the rate of fall in temperature of a rising or a falling air parcel adiabatically. Adiabatic change refers
to the change in temperature with pressure. The adiabatic lapse rate is governed by Gas law.
 Adiabatic or adiabatically: Heat doesn’t enter or leave the system. All temperature changes are internal.
 Gas law: According to gas law Pressure ‘P’ is directly proportional to Temperature ‘T’ when Volume ‘V’ is
a constant.

Relation Between Pressure, Temperature and Volume

Example 1: A Balloon

• When we blow air into a balloon, pressure increases but the temperature doesn’t increase due to a
proportionate increase in volume (here V is not constant). When excess air is blown, the balloon bursts
as it cannot withstand the pressure.

Example 2: Vehicle tube

• In a fully inflated vehicle tube, volume remains constant (mostly). When more air is blown, pressure
increases and hence the temperature. We are usually advised not to have fully inflated tubes because
when the vehicle travels on a road, the friction between the tire and the road increases the temperature
of the air in the tube. As the temperature is directly proportional to pressure, an increase in temperature
leads to an increase in pressure and at a certain pressure threshold, the tire bursts.
• The above examples explain the relation between Pressure, Temperature and Volume. But the processes
are non-adiabatic as there is (will be) some heat exchange between the system and the external envi-
ronment.

Adiabatic Process: Temperature Changes In A Parcel of Rising or Falling Air

• An air bubble rises in water whereas stone sinks. This is obvious. The stone is denser (heavier than water),
and it sinks whereas the air bubble is less dense (lighter than water) and it rises. Similarly, a parcel of air
rises when it is less dense than the surrounding environment, and it falls when its density becomes greater
296

than the surrounding environment.

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• When an air parcel is subjected to differential heating compared to the surrounding air, it becomes lighter
(less dense) or heavier (denser) depending on whether the air parcel is heated or cooled.

A Parcel of Rising Air

• When an air parcel receives more heat than the surrounding air, its temperature increases leading to an
increase in volume (an increase in volume implies the air parcel is getting less dense). The air parcel be-
comes lighter than the surrounding air, and it starts to rise. This process is non-adiabatic (there is heat
exchange between the air parcel and the external environment).
• When the air parcel starts to rise, the ambient pressure on it starts to fall (the atmospheric pressure de-
creases with height, so the pressure on the air parcel decreases with height). With the fall in ambient
pressure, the volume of the air parcel increases and hence the temperature of the air parcel falls (gas
law). This is an adiabatic process as there is no heat exchange between the air parcel and the external
environment. Temperature changes are only due to changes in pressure or volume or both.
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• The fall in temperature within the rising parcel of air is called an adiabatic temperature lapse. And the
rate at which it happens is called the adiabatic lapse rate (this is a positive adiabatic lapse rate as the
temperature is falling).
• Rising of a parcel of air is the first step in the formation of thunderstorms, tornadoes and cyclones. The fall
in temperature (adiabatic lapse rate) aids the condensation of water vapour. Condensation of water
vapour releases latent heat of condensation in the process. This latent heat of condensation is the major
driving force be convectional rainfall and tropical cyclones.

A Parcel of Falling Air

• When an air parcel is in the upper levels, it gets cooled due to lower temperatures (because of lapse Rate;
non-adiabatic). Its volume falls, and its density increases. When it becomes denser than the surroundings,
it starts to fall. This also happens when an air parcel is in contact with cooler surfaces like mountain slopes.
• When an air parcel is falling, the atmospheric pressure acting on it will increase, and its internal tempera-
ture will increase adiabatically (this is a negative adiabatic lapse rate as the temperature is rising).
 Lapse Rate  change in temperature with altitude (elevation).
 Adiabatic Lapse Rate  change in temperature of a rising parcel of air without either losing heat to the
external environment or gaining heat from the external environment.
 Rising parcel of air  On the ascent, the air expands as ambient pressure (atmospheric pressure) decreases.
This expansion reduces the temperature of the air parcel and aids the condensation of water vapour. Con-
densation of water vapour releases the latent heat of condensation in the process.
 Falling parcel of air  On descent through the atmosphere, the air parcel is compressed by the lower layers
due to increased atmospheric pressure. As a result, the temperature of the air parcel increases.
 Katabatic Wind  hot dry wind that blows down a mountain slope. It is an example of a falling parcel
of air in which the temperature changes happening adiabatically.

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR)

• The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) is the rate of fall in temperature with altitude for a parcel of dry or
unsaturated air (air with less moisture) rising under adiabatic conditions.
 Saturated air  The air cannot accommodate any more moisture (100% relative humidity — its stomach
is full).
 Unsaturated air  The air can accommodate some more moisture (relative humidity is less than 100%
— its stomach is not full).
• When a rising air parcel has little moisture (below normal), condensation during upliftment is low, and the
latent heat of condensation released is low (less additional heat from inside). As a result, the fall in
temperature with height is greater (9.8 °C per kilometre) compared to the adiabatic lapse rate of a normal
parcel of air (6.5 °C per kilometre — it’s nothing but the environmental lapse rate).
298

• The dry adiabatic lapse rate is mainly associated with stable conditions (because it has less moisture).
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Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR)
• When an air parcel that is saturated (stomach full) with water vapour rises, some of the vapour will con-
dense and release latent heat (additional heat from inside). This process causes the parcel to cool more
slowly than it would if it were not saturated.
• The wet adiabatic lapse rate varies considerably because the amount of water vapour in the air is highly
variable. The greater the amount of vapour, the smaller the adiabatic lapse rate (because the condensation
process keeps on adding more latent heat of condensation). On average, it is taken as 4 °C per kilome-
tre.
• Wet Adiabatic Lapse rate is mainly associated with unstable conditions (because it has more moisture).
• As an air parcel rises and cools, it may eventually lose its moisture through condensation; its lapse rate
then increases and approaches the dry adiabatic value.
 LR =~ 6 °C/km
 DALR  ALR > 6 °C/km
 WALR  ALR < 6 °C/km

Significance In Meteorology (Weather Forecasting)

• The difference between the normal lapse rate in the atmosphere and the dry and moist adiabatic lapse
rates determines the vertical stability of the atmosphere. For this reason, the lapse rate is of prime im-
portance to meteorologists in forecasting certain types of cloud formations, the incidence of thunder-
storms, and the intensity of atmospheric turbulence.

Absolute Stability: ALR (at a place) > DALR

• The above condition means that there is little moisture in the air. When there is little moisture, the con-
densation of water vapour is low, so latent heat of condensation released will be low, and the rising parcel
of air gets cold quickly, and it falls to the ground once it becomes denser. So, there will be no cloud
formation, and hence there will be no rain (thunderstorms). This simply means that the condition is stable.

Conditional Stability: WALR < ALR < DALR

• When there is considerable moisture in the air parcel, condensation of water vapour will be reasonably
high, so latent of condensation released will be adequate to drive a thunderstorm. However, the occur-
rence of thunderstorms depends on many external factors. So, the weather will be associated with condi-
tional stability (there are chances of thunderstorms — it may or may not rain).

Absolute Instability: ALR (at a place) < WALR

• The above condition means that there is more moisture in the air and there will be thunderstorms. When
there is unusually high moisture, condensation of water vapour will be very high, so latent of condensation
299

released will be great enough to drive a violent thunderstorm. So, the weather will be associated with
absolute instability.
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 Absolute stability: ALR (at a place) > DALR  Little moisture in the air parcel (it won’t rain)
 Conditional stability: WALR < ALR < DALR  Normal moisture conditions (it may or may not rain)
 Absolute instability: ALR (at a place) < WALR  Excess moisture in the air parcel (it will rain)

22.4. Temperature Inversion

• Under normal conditions, the temperature usually decreases with altitude (positive lapse rate). Temper-
ature inversion is a reversal of the normal behaviour of temperature in the troposphere, in which a layer
of cool air at the surface is overlain by a layer of warmer air (temperature increases with altitude ―
negative lapse rate). In other words, the vertical temperature gets inverted during a temperature inver-
sion.
• Ideal Conditions for Temperature Inversion:
 Long nights, so that the outgoing radiation is greater than the incoming radiation.
 Clear skies, which allow the unobstructed escape of radiation.
 Calm and stable air, so that there is no vertical mixing at lower levels.

[UPSC Mains 2013] What do you understand by the phenomenon of “temperature inversion”
in meteorology? How does it affect the weather and habitats of the place?

Types of Temperature Inversion

Temperature Inversion in Intermontane Valley (Air Drainage Type of Inversion)

• Sometimes, the temperature along a sloping surface increases instead of decreasing with elevation. Here,
the top part of the sloping surface radiates heat back to space rapidly and cools the surrounding air making
it denser. The cold air sinks towards the bottom along the slope and settles as a zone of low temperature
at the bottom while the upper layers are relatively warmer. This kind of temperature inversion is very strong
in the middle and higher latitudes and regions with high mountains or deep valleys.

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Ground Inversion (Surface Temperature Inversion)
• Surface inversion occurs when the air in contact with a colder surface becomes cooler than the overlying
atmosphere. This occurs most often on clear nights when the ground cools off rapidly by radiation. If the
temperature of surface air drops below its dew point, fog may result. This kind of temperature inversion
is very common in higher latitudes. In the lower and middle latitudes, this kind of inversion gets destroyed
easily during the daytime.

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Subsidence Inversion (Upper Surface Temperature Inversion)
• A subsidence inversion develops when a widespread layer of air descends. As it descends, the ambient
atmospheric pressure increases and the layer is compressed and heated. If the air mass sinks low enough,
it forms a warm intermediate layer which is at a higher temperature compared to the layers below, pro-
ducing a temperature inversion.
• Subsidence inversions are common in areas located under large high-pressure centres. Such conditions
occur in the northern continents in winter and over the subtropical oceans. This temperature inversion is
also called upper surface temperature inversion because it takes place in the upper parts of the atmos-
phere.

Frontal Inversion (Advectional Type of Temperature Inversion)

• A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air mass undercuts a warm air mass and lifts it aloft. This kind of
inversion has a considerable slope, whereas other inversions are nearly horizontal. Also, humidity may be
high, and clouds may be present immediately above it. This type of inversion is unstable and is destroyed
as the weather changes.

Effects of Temperature Inversion

Convection Is Inhibited
302

• An inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of air from the layers below. Convection is limited to
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levels below the inversion, and the rainfall is below normal. In regions where a pronounced low-level
 inversion is present, convective clouds cannot grow high enough to produce rain. Inversions also affect
diurnal variations in temperature. Diurnal variations tend to be very small.

Pollution Is Exacerbated
• Diffusion of dust, smoke, and other pollutants is limited due to stable conditions. Visibility may be greatly
reduced below the inversion due to the accumulation of dust and smoke particles. Because air near the
base of an inversion tends to be cool, fog is frequently present there. Fog lowers visibility affecting
vegetation and human settlements.

Effect On Intermontane Valley Regions

• The temperature of the air at the valley bottom can go below freezing whereas the air at higher altitudes
remains comparatively warm. The trees along the lower slopes are bitten by frost, whereas those at
higher levels are free from it.
• Houses and farms in intermontane valleys are usually situated along the upper slopes, avoiding the cold
and foggy valley bottoms. For instance, coffee growers in Brazil and apple growers and hoteliers of
mountain states of the Himalayas in India avoid lower slopes.
• Air pollutants such as dust particles and smoke do not disperse in the valley bottoms.

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 23. Pressure Systems and Wind System

23.1. Atmospheric Pressure

• The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the atmosphere
is called the atmospheric pressure. It varies from place to place due to differences in topography, insolation
and related weather and climatic factors. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1034 gm per square
centimetre.
• Atmosphere (atm) is an internationally recognised unit for measuring atmospheric pressure at a place. The
units used by meteorologists are millibars (mb) and Pascal (Pa).
• One millibar is equal to the force of one gram on a square centimetre. A pressure of 1000 millibars is equal
to the weight of 1.053 kilograms per square centimetre. The normal pressure at sea level is taken to be
about 1013.25 millibars (equal to the weight of a column of mercury 75 cm high).
 1 atm = 1013.25 millibars (mb) = 101325 pascals (Pa) = 101.325 kilopascals (kPa)

Atmospheric Pressure Cells

• When heated, the volume of a parcel of air increases (air expands) and hence the pressure within the air
parcel falls creating a low-pressure cell (low-pressure centre). When cooled, the volume of the air parcel
decreases (air is compressed) and hence the pressure within the air parcel increases creating a high-pres-
sure cell (high-pressure centre). A combination of atmospheric pressure cells gives rise to distinct pressure
systems within the atmosphere.
• The distribution of continents and oceans has a marked influence on the distribution of pressure. In winter,
the continents are cooler than the oceans and tend to develop high-pressure centres, whereas, in
summer, they are relatively warmer and develop low pressure. It is just the reverse with the oceans.

Isobars
• Isobars are lines connecting places having equal atmospheric pressure. The spacing of isobars expresses
the rate of pressure changes and is referred to as pressure gradient. Close spacing of isobars indicates a
steep or strong pressure gradient, while wide spacing suggests a weak gradient. The pressure gradient
may thus be defined as the decrease in pressure per unit distance in the direction in which the pressure
decreases most rapidly.

Closed Isobars or Closed Pressure Centres

• Low-pressure system (low-pressure cell) is enclosed by one or more isobars with the lowest pressure in
the centre.
High-pressure system (high-pressure cell) is enclosed by one or more isobars with the highest pressure in
304

•
the centre.
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 Closed Isobars

[UPSC Prelims 1997] Daily weather map showing isobars is an example of:
a) Choropleth map (displays divided geographical areas or regions that are coloured, shaded or pat-
terned in relation to a data variable. E.g. shaded map showing relative population densities in a
country)
b) Isopleth map
c) Chorochromatic map (used to show different soil types, rocks, vegetation, etc. E.g. the map of cli-
matic regions)
d) Choroschematic map (portray regions of categorical or nominal data using variations in colour sym-
bols. E.g. map showing water resources area wise)

Vertical Variation of Atmospheric Pressure

• In the lower atmosphere, the pressure decreases rapidly with height. The decrease in pressure with altitude,
however, is not constant because the factors that control air density (temperature and water vapour) are
highly variable.
• Since air pressure is proportional to density as well as temperature, it follows that a change in either
temperature or density will cause a corresponding change in the pressure.
• In general, the atmospheric pressure decreases on average at the rate of about 34 millibars every 300
metres of height. At the height of Mt. Everest, the air pressure is about two-thirds less than what it is at
sea level.

Standard Pressure & Temperature At Selected Levels

Level Pressure in mb Temperature °C
Sea Level 1,013.25 15.2
1 km 898.76 8.7
5 km 540.48 -17. 3
10 km 265.00 -49.7
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• The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of the horizontal pressure gradient. How-
ever, it is generally balanced by a nearly equal but opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not expe-
rience strong upward winds.

23.2. Factors Affecting Wind Movement

 Wind: horizontal movement of air. Currents: vertical movement of air.

• The factors that affect wind movement are pressure gradient force, buoyant force, friction, Coriolis
force, gravitational force, and centripetal acceleration.

Pressure Gradient Force

• The pressure gradient (difference in pressure) between atmospheric pressure cells and the surround-
ings causes the movement of air from relatively high-pressure centres to relatively low-pressure cen-
tres. This movement (motion) of air is called wind. Greater the pressure difference, the greater the wind
speed.
• Small pressure gradients (small differences in pressure) are highly significant in terms of the wind direction
and velocity. The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are close to each other and weak where
the isobars are apart. The wind direction follows the direction of the pressure gradient, i.e. perpendicular
to the isobars.

Buoyant Force
• The atmospheric pressure cells also determine whether the air sinks or rises at a place. The surrounding
atmosphere exerts a buoyant force on low-pressure cells and hence the air within a low-pressure cell
rises. On the other hand, the air within a high-pressure cell sinks as it is denser than the surrounding
atmosphere.

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• Rising air is associated with convergence (low pressure) and unstable weather (cyclonic conditions)
whereas sinking (subsiding) air is associated with divergence (high pressure) and stable conditions
(anticyclonic conditions). The wind circulation at the earth’s surface is associated with an exactly oppo-
site wind circulation above in the upper troposphere.
• Apart from convergence, convection currents, orographic uplift and uplift along fronts also cause the
rising of air, which is essential for the formation of clouds and precipitation.

[UPSC Prelims 2011] Which one of the following weather conditions is indicated by a sud-
den fall in barometer reading?
a) Stormy
b) Calm weather
c) Cold and dry weather
d) Hot and sunny weather

Frictional Force
• The irregularities of the earth’s surface resist the wind movement in the form of friction. At the surface,
due to high friction, the wind direction makes high angles with isobars. The influence of friction generally
extends up to an elevation of 1-3 km. Over the sea surface, the friction is minimal.

Coriolis Force

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• Due to the earth’s rotation, winds do not cross the isobars at right angles as the pressure gradient force
directs but get deflected from their original path. This deviation is the result of the earth’s rotation and is
called the Coriolis effect. Due to this effect, winds in the northern hemisphere get deflected to the
right of their path and those in the southern hemisphere to their left (Farrell’s Law). This deflection
force does not seem to exist until the air is set in motion and increases with wind velocity and an in-
crease in latitude.

Coriolis Effect
• The Coriolis effect is the apparent deflection of objects (such as aeroplanes, wind, missiles, sniper bullets
and ocean currents) moving in a straight path relative to the earth's surface.

Causes of The Coriolis Effect

• As the earth spins in a counter-clockwise direction on its axis any object flying over a long distance appears
to be deflected. This occurs because as something moves freely above the earth's surface, the earth is
moving east under the object at a faster speed. As the object moves away from the equator the speed of
the earth's rotation decreases and the Coriolis effect (deflection) increases.
• A plane flying along the equator itself would be able to continue flying on the equator without any appar-
ent deflection. A little to the north or south of the equator, the plane would be deflected.
 The myth about the Coriolis Effect: One of the biggest misconceptions associated with the Coriolis effect is
that it causes water rotation down the drain of a sink or toilet. But such rotation is a result of the shape and
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orientation of the container. Coriolis effect is negligible to cause any deflection at such minor distances.
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• The Coriolis effect is related to the motion of the object, the motion of the Earth, and the latitude. For this
reason, the magnitude (Coriolis force) of the effect is given by 2νω sin ϕ, in which ν is the velocity of the
object, ω is the angular velocity of the Earth, and ϕ is the latitude. At the equator, ϕ = 0° and at the poles,
ϕ = 90°. Thus, the Coriolis force is zero at the equator but increases with latitude, reaching a maxi-
mum at the poles.

Centripetal Acceleration

• Centripetal acceleration acts only on air that is flowing around centres of circulation. It creates a force
directed at right angles to the wind movement and inwards towards the centres of rotation. This force
produces a circular pattern of flow (vortex) around centres of high and low pressure.

Pressure Sys- Pressure Condition The Pattern of Wind Direction

tem Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere
Cyclone Low Anticlockwise Clockwise

Anticyclone High Clockwise Anticlockwise

Why Tropical Cyclones Do Not Form At The Equator?

• The low pressure close to the equator gets filled instead of getting intensified, i.e., there is no spiralling
of air due to the zero Coriolis effect. The winds directly get uplifted vertically to form thunderstorms.
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Why Do 'Tropical Cyclones' Winds Rotate Counter-Clockwise In The Northern Hemisphere?

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• As the earth's rotation sets up an apparent force (called the Coriolis force) that pulls the winds to the
right in the Northern Hemisphere (and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere). So, when a low-pressure
start to form over the north of the equator, the surface winds will flow inward trying to fill in the low and
will be deflected to the right, and a counter-clockwise rotation will be initiated. The opposite (a de-
flection to the left and a clockwise rotation) will occur south of the equator.

[UPSC Prelims 2010] What causes wind to deflect toward left in the Southern Hemisphere?
a) Temperature
b) Magnetic field
c) Rotation of the earth
d) Pressure

[UPSC Prelims 2005] Assertion & Reasoning

 Assertion (A): Wind patterns are clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and anti-
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
 Reason (R): The direction of wind patterns in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres
are governed by the Coriolis effect.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT a correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
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d) A is false but R is true

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23.3. Horizontal Distribution of Pressure

• Horizontal distribution of pressure is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels by eliminating the effect
of altitude on pressure. There are seven distinctly identifiable zones of pressure belts.
1. equatorial low,
2. the sub-tropical highs (along 30° N and 30° S),
3. the sub-polar lows (along 60° N and 60° S), and
4. the polar highs (80-90° N and S latitudes)

• Except for the equatorial low, all other pressure belts form matching pairs in the northern and southern
hemispheres.

• The pressure belts are not permanent in nature. They oscillate with the apparent movement of the sun.
In the northern hemisphere, they move southwards in winter and northwards in the summer.

Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’

• The equatorial low-pressure belt lies between 10° N and 10° S latitudes. Its position varies with the ap-
parent movement of the sun seasonally between 5° N and 5° S and 20° N and 20° S.
• This belt happens to be the zone of convergence of trade winds (Intertropical Convergence Zone or
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ITCZ) from two hemispheres from sub-tropical high-pressure belts.

• This belt is also called the doldrums, because of the extremely calm air movements.
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Formation
• As this region lies along the equator, it receives highest amount of insolation. Due to intense heating, the
air gets heated up creating a low-pressure region (thermally formed).

Climate
• The air at the margins of the low-pressure region rises (convection) giving rise to clouds and turbulent
weather along the margins. Only vertical currents are found, and the surface winds are almost absent
since winds rise near the margin itself. Hence the region within the belt is characterised by extremely low
pressure yet calm weather conditions.
• As the larger part of the low-pressure belt passes along the oceans, the winds obtain a huge amount of
moisture. Vertical winds carry moisture forming cumulonimbus thunderstorm clouds (convectional
rainfall). The rising air loses all its moisture by the time it reaches the upper parts of the troposphere.
• In spite of high temperatures and moisture, cyclones are not formed 5° N and 5° S of the equator
because of negligible Coriolis force.

Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes

• The sub-tropical highs extend from near the tropics to about 35° N and S.

Formation
• After the complete loss of moisture, the air moving away from the equatorial low-pressure belt and the
subtropical low-pressure belt in the upper troposphere is dry and cold. The blocking effect of air at
upper levels because of the Coriolis force forces the cold, dry air to subside at 30° N and S. So, the
high pressure (dynamically formed) along this belt is due to subsidence of air coming from the equa-
torial region and the subpolar region.

Climate
• A calm condition (anticyclonic) with feeble winds is created in this high-pressure belt. The subsiding air
is warm and dry (heated due to an increase in ambient pressure), therefore, most of the deserts are
present along this belt, in both hemispheres.
• The descending air currents in his belt feed the winds blowing towards adjoining low-pressure belts.
• This belt is frequently invaded by tropical and extra-tropical disturbances.

Horse Latitudes
• The corresponding latitudes of the subtropical high-pressure belt are called horse latitudes. In the early
days, sailing vessels with cargo of horses found it difficult to sail under the calm conditions of this high-
pressure belt. They used to throw horses into the sea when fodder ran out. Hence the name horse latitudes.
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[UPSC Mains 2013] Major hot deserts in the northern hemisphere are located between 20-
30 degrees north and on the western side of the continents. Why?
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 Why between 20-30 degrees?
• The subsiding air is warm and dry; therefore, most of the deserts are present along this belt, in both
hemispheres.

Why on the western side of the continents?

• We will get the answer for this while studying ocean currents.

[UPSC Prelims 2007] Consider the following:

1. Either of the two belts over the oceans at about 30° to 35° N and S Latitudes is known as Horse
latitude.
2. Horse latitudes are low pressure belts.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belt

• The subpolar low-pressure belts are located between 45° N and the Arctic circle (66.5° N) and 45° S and
the Antarctic circles (66.5° S), respectively. Owning to low temperatures they are not very well pro-
nounced year long. They are mainly encountered above oceans

Formation
• The subpolar low-pressure belts are dynamically produced due to:
1. Coriolis Force (blocking effect of air at upper levels),
2. Ascent of air as a result of the convergence of westerlies (coming from the subtropical high-pressure
regions) and polar easterlies.

Seasonal Behaviour
• During winter, because of the high contrast between land and sea, this belt is broken into two distinct low
centres – one in the vicinity of the Aleutian Islands and the other between Iceland and Greenland. During
summer, a lesser contrast results in a more developed and regular belt. The belt in the southern hemi-
sphere is not well differentiated.

Climate
• The area of contrast between cold and warm air masses produces polar jet streams which encircle the
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earth at 60 degrees latitudes and are focused in these low-pressure areas.

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Polar High-Pressure Belt

• The polar highs are small in area and extend around the poles. They lie around poles between 80-90° N
and S latitudes.

Formation
• The air from sub-polar low-pressure belts after saturation becomes dry. This dry air becomes cold while
moving towards the poles through the upper troposphere.
• The cold air (heavy) on reaching the poles subsides creating a high-pressure belt at the surface of the
earth.

Factors Controlling Pressure Systems

Thermal Factors
• When air is heated, it leads to low pressure, and when it is cooled, it leads to high pressure. The formation
of equatorial lows and polar highs are examples of thermal lows and thermal highs.

Dynamic Factors
• Apart from variations in temperature, the formation of pressure belts may be explained by dynamic
factors arising out of pressure gradient forces, apparent movement of the sun and rotation of the
earth (Coriolis force).

Example
• The rate of deflection of wind increases with distance from the equator (Coriolis force). The de-
fection is higher in the upper troposphere due to less friction. As a result, by the time the poleward-
directed winds in the upper troposphere reach 25° latitude, they are deflected into a nearly west-to-
east flow.
• Similarly, equatorward-directed winds in the upper troposphere are deflected into a nearly east-to-west
flow. This produces a blocking effect and the air piles up. This causes general subsidence in the areas
between the tropics and 35° N and S, and they develop into high-pressure belts.

Pressure Belts In July

• In the northern hemisphere, during summer, with the apparent northward shift of the sun, the thermal
equator (belt of highest temperature) is located north of the geographical equator. The pressure belts shift
slightly north of their annual average locations.

Pressure Belts In January

• During winter, the conditions are reversed, and the pressure belts shift south of their mean locations.
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• Opposite conditions prevail in the southern hemisphere. The amount of shift is, however, less in the south-
ern hemisphere due to the predominance of water.
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[UPSC Prelims 2002] Assertion & Reasoning
 Assertion (A): 60°-65° latitudes in both the hemispheres have a low pressure belt instead
of high pressure.
 Reason (R): The low pressure areas are permanent over oceans rather than on land.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT a correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true
315

23.4. Pressure systems and General Circulation

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• The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds (permanent winds) is called the general circula-
tion of the atmosphere. The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in motion the ocean water
circulation which influences the earth’s climate.
• The pattern of planetary winds depends on:
 latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating;
 emergence of pressure belts;
 the migration of belts following the apparent path of the sun;
 the distribution of continents and oceans;
 the rotation of earth.

Hadley Cell
The air at the equatorial low-pressure belt rises because of the convection currents. The air reaches the
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•
top of the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km and moves towards the poles. This causes accumulation
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of air at about 30° N and S. Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground and forms a subtropical high.
• At the surface a component of the diverging wind from the subtropical high flows towards the equator as
the easterlies (northeast to southwest). The easterlies from either side of the equator converge at the
equatorial low pressure and the cycle repeats. Such circulations of wind is called a cell. Such a cell in the
tropics is called Hadley Cell.

Ferrel Cell
• In the middle latitudes, the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the rising
warm air that blows from the subtropical high. At the surface, these winds are called westerlies, and the
cell is known as the Ferrel cell.

Polar Cell
• At polar latitudes, the cold dense air subsides near the poles and blows towards middle latitudes as the
polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.

These three cells set the pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere. The transfer of heat energy from
lower latitudes to higher latitudes maintains the general circulation.

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23.5. Classification of Winds

Permanent/Primary/Prevailing/Planetary Winds
• The trade winds, westerlies and polar easterlies.

Secondary or Periodic Winds

• Seasonal winds: These winds change their direction in different seasons. E.g. Monsoons in South Asia.
• Periodic winds: Land & sea breeze, mountain & valley breeze etc.

Local Winds
• These blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small area. E.g. Loo, Mistral, Foehn, etc.

Primary winds or Prevailing Winds or Planetary Winds

• The winds blowing almost in the same direction throughout the year are called prevailing or permanent
winds. These are also called invariable or planetary winds because they involve larger areas of the globe.
The two most significant winds for climate and human activities are trade winds and westerly winds.

The Trade Winds

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• The trade winds are those blowing from the sub-tropical high-pressure areas towards the equatorial
low-pressure belt. Therefore, these are confined to a region between 30° N and 30° S throughout the
earth’s surface. They flow as the north-eastern trades in the northern hemisphere and the south-eastern
trades in the southern hemisphere.
• Trade winds are descending and stable in areas of their origin (sub-tropical high-pressure belt), and as
they reach the equator, they become humid and warmer after picking up moisture on their way. The
trade winds from two hemispheres meet near the equator, and due to convergence, they rise and cause
heavy rainfall
• The eastern parts of the trade winds associated with the cool ocean currents are drier and more stable
than the western parts of the ocean.

The Westerlies
• The westerlies are the winds blowing from the sub-tropical high-pressure belts towards the sub-polar
low-pressure belts. They blow from southwest to northeast in the northern hemisphere and northwest
to southeast in the southern hemisphere. They produce wet spells and variability in weather.
• The westerlies are best developed between 40° and 65° S latitudes. These latitudes are often called Roar-
ing Forties, Furious Fifties, and Shrieking Sixties – dreaded terms for sailors. The poleward boundary of
the westerlies is highly fluctuating.
• The westerlies of the southern hemisphere are stronger and persistent due to the vast expanse of
water, while those of the northern hemisphere are irregular because of uneven relief of vast land masses.

[UPSC Prelims 2000] Consider the following statements about the 'Roaring Forties':
1. They blow uninterrupted in the northern and Southern Hemispheres
2. They blow with great strength and constancy
3. Their direction is generally from north-west to east in the Southern Hemisphere
4. Overcast skies, rain and raw weather are generally associated with them

Which of these statements are correct?

a) 1, 2 and 3
b) 2, 3 and 4
c) 1, 3 and 4
d) 1, 2 and 4

[UPSC Prelims 2011] Westerlies in the southern hemisphere are stronger and persistent
than in the northern hemisphere. Why?
1. Southern hemisphere has less landmass as compared to northern hemisphere.
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2. Coriolis force is higher in southern hemisphere as compared to northern hemisphere.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

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 a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

The Polar Easterlies

• The Polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds blowing from north-east to south-west direction in
Northern Hemisphere and south-east to the north-west in Southern Hemisphere. They blow from the
high-pressure polar areas of the sub-polar lows.

Secondary or Periodic Winds

• These winds change their direction with change in season. Monsoons are the best example of large-
scale modification of the planetary wind system. Other examples of periodic winds include land and sea
breeze, mountain and valley breeze, cyclones and anticyclones, and air masses.

Monsoons

• The monsoons are characterized by seasonal reversal of wind direction. They were traditionally explained
as land and sea breezes on a large scale and were earlier considered as a convectional circulation on
a giant scale.
• During summer, the trade winds of the southern hemisphere are pulled northwards by an apparent north-
ward movement of the sun and by an intense low-pressure core in the northwest of the Indian sub-
continent. While crossing the equator, these winds get deflected to their right under the effect of Coriolis
force. These winds now approach the Asian landmass as south-west monsoons.
• During winter, these conditions are reversed, and a high-pressure core is created to the north of the
Indian subcontinent. Divergent winds are produced by this anticyclonic movement which travels
southwards towards the equator. This movement is enhanced by the apparent southward movement of
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the sun. These are north-east or winter monsoons which are responsible for some precipitation along the
east coast of India.
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• The monsoon winds flow over India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma), Sri Lanka, the Arabian Sea,
Bay of Bengal, south-eastern Asia, northern Australia, China and Japan. Outside India, in the eastern
Asiatic countries, such as China and Japan, the winter monsoon is stronger than the summer monsoon.

Land Breeze and Sea Breeze

• During the day the land heats up faster and becomes warmer than the sea. Therefore, over the land, the
air rises giving rise to a low-pressure area, whereas the sea is relatively cool and the pressure over the sea
is relatively high. Thus, a pressure gradient from sea to land is created, and the wind blows from the sea
to the land as the sea breeze.
• In the night the reversal of condition takes place. The land loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea. The
pressure gradient is from the land to the sea and hence land breeze results.

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Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze
• In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up, and air moves upslope. The air from the
valley blows up the valley to fill the resulting gap. This wind is known as the valley breeze.
• During the night the slopes get cooled, and the dense air descends into the valley as the mountain
breeze. The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley, is called katabatic wind
(high-density air flowing down the slope).

Tertiary or Local Winds

• Local differences in temperature and pressure produce local winds. Such winds are local in extent and are
confined to the lowest levels of the troposphere. Some examples of local winds are discussed below.

Cold Wind Region Affected Warm Wind Region Affected

Pampero Argentina Foehn Switzerland
Gregale Malta & nearby islands in the Mediterra- Chinook Prairies
nean
Bora Adriatic Coast Zonda Argentina
Tramon- Blows down the Alps into Italy Loo Indo-Gangegtic plains
tane
Mistral Rhone valley (France) Sirocco North Africa & Southern Europe
Harmattan Severe dust storms in Western Africa The Canterbury plains of New Zealand
Nor'wester
Levanter A strong wind that brings foggy weather to Santa Ana Strong dry, dusty winds in California
the Mediterranean coasts of France & Karaburn Violent dry wind of Central Asia
Spain
Southerly New South Wales and Victoria, Australia Khamsin Egypt
Buster
Nor'easter Blizzard in Northeast Canada Brickfielder Dry wind in Southern Australia

Loo
• In the plains of northern India and Pakistan, sometimes a very hot and dry wind blows from the west
(from the deserts of Iran and Pakistan) in May and June, usually in the afternoons. It is known as loo. Its
temperature invariably ranges between 45 °C and 50 °C.

Foehn or Fohn

• Foehn is a gusty, dry hot wind of local importance in the Alps. It develops on the leeward side (katabatic
wind) as the windward side takes away whatever moisture there is in the incoming wind in the form of
orographic precipitation. With temperatures varying between 15°C and 20°C, the wind helps animal
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grazing by melting snow and aids the ripening of grapes.

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Chinook (Snow Eaters)

• Chinooks are foehn-like winds (hot local katabatic wind) in the USA and Canada moving down the
eastern slopes of the Rockies into the prairies. It may raise the temperature by 5 °C within a matter of 20
minutes. It is beneficial to farmers and animal ranchers east of the Rockies as it keeps the grasslands
clear of snow during the winter.
 Zonda is a regional term for the foehn wind that often occurs on the eastern slope of the Andes, in
Argentina.

Sirocco

• Sirocco is a hot, dry and dusty Mediterranean wind that originates in the Sahara or Arabian deserts.
It arises from a warm, dry, tropical air mass that is pulled northward by low-pressure cells moving eastward
across the Mediterranean Sea. It reaches hurricane speeds in North Africa and Southern Europe.
• The Sirocco causes dusty dry conditions along the northern coast of Africa. Its scorching heat withers
(dry up due to loss of moisture) vegetation and crops.
• After crossing the Mediterranean Sea, the Sirocco is slightly cooled by the absorption of the water vapour.
It causes storms in the Mediterranean Sea and cool, wet weather in Europe. There may be blood rain
because the wind is carrying the red dust of the Sahara Desert.

Harmattan
• Harmattan is an infamous dry, dusty, north-easterly trade wind (also called Harmattan) that blows from
the Sahara and the dry Sahel into the West African sub-region. The wind deeply affects Nigeria. It is so
dense that it reduces radiation from the sun and warmth and further lowers temperatures during colder
dry months (November to March).

Mistral
• Mistral is a cold wind from the Alps rushing down the Rhone valley (France) and towards the Mediter-
ranean Sea in violent gusts. The velocity of the Mistral is intensified by the funnelling effect in the valley
between the Alps and the Central Massif (Plateau in France). It is a very cold and dry wind that blows
at high speed. It brings blizzards into southern France.

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 A similar type of cold north-easterly wind experienced along the Adriatic coast is called the Bora.
 Tramontan, Levanter and Gregale are similar cold winds of the Mediterranean Sea.
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 Pampero is a burst of cold polar air from the south on the pampas in the south of Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay,
Paraguay and Bolivia.

[UPSC Prelims 2001] Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the lists:
List-II (Re-
List-I (Local
gion)
Wind)
A. Fohn 1. Argentina
B. Sarmun 2. Kurdistan
C. Santa Ana 3. California
D. Zonda 4. Alps

Codes:
a) A-2; B-4; C-1; D-3
b) A-4; B-2; C-3; D-1
c) A-2; B-4; C-3; D-1
d) A-4; B-2; C-1; D-3

Can be solved using the elimination method.

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 24. Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle)

• There is a continuous exchange of water between the atmosphere, the oceans and the continents through
the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation and precipitation. The moisture in the at-
mosphere is derived from water bodies through evaporation and from plants through transpiration
(evapotranspiration). Evaporated water undergoes condensation and forms clouds. When saturation is
reached, clouds give away water in the form of precipitation. Since the total amount of moisture in the
entire system remains constant, a balance is required between evapotranspiration and precipitation. The
hydrological cycle maintains this balance.

24.1. Humidity

• Water vapour present in the air is known as humidity.

Water Vapour In Atmosphere

• Water vapour in air varies from zero to four per cent by volume of the atmosphere (averaging around
325

2% in the atmosphere). The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere (humidity) is measured by a
hygrometer.
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Significance of Atmospheric Moisture
• Water vapour absorbs both incoming and outgoing radiation and plays a crucial role in the earth’s
heat budget.
• The amount of water vapour present decides the quantity of latent energy stored in the atmosphere for
the development of storms and cyclones.
• The atmospheric moisture affects the human body’s cooling rate by influencing the sensible temperature.

Absolute Humidity
• The actual amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as absolute humidity. It is
the weight of water vapour per unit volume of air and is expressed in grams per cubic metre.
• The absolute humidity differs from place to place on the earth’s surface. Absolute humidity is greater over
oceans because of the greater availability of water for evaporation.
• The ability of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its temperature. Warm air can hold more
moisture than cold air. Cold air is mostly dry as water vapour condenses into dew, snow and other forms
and falls to the ground.

Relative Humidity
• The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere compared to its full capacity at a given tem-
perature is known as relative humidity.
• Relative Humidity = [Actual amount of water vapour in the air (absolute humidity) / humidity at the
saturation point (maximum capacity: the maximum water vapour air can hold at a given temperature)] X
100
• With the change in air temperature, the capacity to retain moisture increases or decreases and the relative
humidity is also affected. The relative humidity determines the amount and rate of evaporation, and
hence it is an important climatic factor.

• Air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be saturated. At this temper-
ature, the air cannot hold any additional amount of moisture (evaporation is suppressed). Thus, the
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relative humidity of the saturated air is 100%. If the air has half the amount of moisture that it can carry,
then it is unsaturated, and its relative humidity is only 50% (evaporation is enhanced).
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• Relative humidity is greater over the oceans and least over the continents (because absolute humidity
is greater over oceans because of the greater availability of water for evaporation).

Change In Relative humidity

Relative humidity can be changed in either of the two ways:

1. By adding moisture through evaporation (by increasing absolute humidity): if moisture is added by
evaporation, the relative humidity will increase and vice versa.
2. By changing the temperature of air (by changing the saturation point): a decrease in temperature
(hence, decrease in moisture-holding capacity/decrease in saturation point) will cause an increase in
relative humidity and vice versa.

Explanation
• Consider 1 m3 of air at a temperature ‘T’.
• Let us assume that saturation occurs when 0.5 kg of water vapour is present in 1 m3 of air. That is, relative
humidity will be 100% if 1 m3 of air contains 0.5 kg of water vapour at temperature T (saturation point).
• Assume that 1 m3 of air at a given time consists of 0.2 kg of water vapour at a temperature ‘T’.

Here,
Absolute Humidity = 0.2 kg/m3 and
Relative Humidity = 40% (0.2/0.5 X 100) (The relative humidity is expressed as % whereas absolute hu-
midity is expressed in absolute terms).
Now to make the air saturated (100% relative humidity),

1. we can add an additional 0.3 kg of water vapour by evaporation, or

2. we can decrease the temperature (the saturation point will come down).
• Let us assume that the temperature of 1 m3 of air is decreased by 2 °C.
• The water holding capacity (and saturation point) will fall due to a decrease in temperature.
• Let us assume that the water holding capacity decreases by 0.1 kg/m3 for a 1 °C fall in temperature.
• So, for a 2 °C fall in temperature, the fall in the water holding capacity is 0.2 kg/m3.
• Hence the new saturation point occurs at 0.3 kg/m3 of air [0.5 kg/m3 – 0.2 kg/m3].
• So now, we can saturate 1 m3 of air by adding just 0.1 kg of water vapour instead of 0.3 kg as in the earlier
case (because, initially, we assumed that 1 m3 of air at a given time consists of 0.2 kg of water vapour at a
temperature ‘T’).

Dew point
• The temperature at which saturation occurs (100% relative humidity) in a given sample of air is known
as the dew point (Dew point occurs when Relative Humidity = 100%).
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Specific Humidity
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• Specific humidity is expressed as the weight of water vapour per unit weight of air (grams of water
vapour per kilogram of air). It is not affected (does not vary) by changes in pressure or temperature (be-
cause the weight of water vapour in the atmosphere is not significantly influenced by temperature). The
only way of changing specific humidity is by adding (evaporation) or removing moisture (precipitation).

[UPSC Prelims 2003] Assertion & Reasoning

 Assertion (A): The amount of moisture in the atmosphere is related to latitude.
 Reason (R): The capacity to hold moisture in the form of water vapour is related to
temperature.
a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true

Hint: Temperature, and thereby the humidity levels, fall as we move poleward.

24.2. Evaporation

• Evaporation is a process by which water is transformed from liquid to a gaseous state. The oceans con-
tribute 84% of the annual total and the continents 16%. The highest annual evaporation occurs in the
sub-tropics of the western North Atlantic and North Pacific because of the influence of the Gulf
Stream and the Kuroshio Current, and in the trade wind zone of the southern oceans. The land maxi-
mum occurs in the equatorial region because of high insolation and luxuriant vegetation.

Factors Affecting Rate of Evaporation

• Amount of water available
• Area of evaporating surface
• Temperature
• Relative humidity: air with low relative humidity has more space for moisture and hence evaporation
increases.
• Wind: The movement of air replaces the saturated layer with the unsaturated layer. Hence, the greater
the wind speed, the greater the evaporation. Whenever there is a combination of high temperature, very
low relative humidity and strong winds, the evaporation rate is exceptionally high. This leads to soil
dehydration to a depth of several inches (like in dry summers).
• Air Pressure: Evaporation is also affected by the atmospheric pressure exerted on the evaporating surface.
Lower pressure over the open surface of the liquid (atmospheric pressure < vapour pressure of the
liquid) results in a higher evaporation rate.
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• Composition of water: Evaporation is inversely proportional to the salinity of the water. The evapo-
ration rate is always greater over fresh water than over salt water (because of the reduction in the vapour
pressure (the ability of the water molecules to bounce off the surface) at the water surface due to salinity).
Under similar conditions, ocean water evaporates about 5% more slowly than fresh water.
• More evaporation by plants: Water from plants generally evaporates at a faster rate than from land.

24.3. Condensation

• The transformation of water vapour into water is called condensation. Condensation is caused by the
loss of heat (latent heat of condensation, opposite of latent heat of vaporisation).
• When moist air is cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity to hold water vapour ceases (100% Relative
Humidity  Saturation Point  Dew Point reached). Then, the excess water vapour condenses into
liquid form. If it directly condenses into solid form, it is known as desublimation.
 Sublimation is the transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas phase, without passing through
the intermediate liquid phase.

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• In free air, condensation results from cooling around very small particles termed hygroscopic condensa-
tion nuclei. Particles of dust, smoke, pollen and salt from the ocean are particularly good nuclei because
they absorb water.
• Condensation also takes place when the moist air comes in contact with some colder object, and it may
also take place when the temperature is close to the dew point.
• Thus, condensation takes place:
1. when the temperature of the air is reduced to dew point with its volume remaining constant (ad-
iabatically),
2. when both the volume and the temperature are reduced (brings down saturation point),
3. when moisture is added to the air through evaporation (increase in relative humidity),
• After condensation, the water vapour or the moisture in the atmosphere takes one of the following forms
— dew, frost, fog and clouds.

Processes of Cooling For Producing Condensation

Adiabatic Temperature Changes

• When the air rises, it expands. Thus, heat available per unit volume is reduced and, therefore, the temper-
ature is also reduced. Such a temperature change which does not involve any subtraction of heat, and
cooling of air takes place only by ascent and expansion, is termed ‘adiabatic change’. The vertical displace-
ment of the air is the major cause of adiabatic and katabatic (cold, dense air flowing down a slope)
temperature changes.
• Near the earth’s surface, most processes of change are non-adiabatic because horizontal movements
often produce a mixing of air and modify its characteristics.

Non-Adiabatic Temperature Changes

• Non-adiabatic processes include cooling by radiation, conduction or mixing. The air may be cooled due
to the loss of heat by radiation. The non-adiabatic processes of cooling produce only dew, fog or frost.
They are incapable of producing a substantial amount of precipitation.
• In case there is direct radiation from moist air, the cooling produces fog or clouds, subject to the presence
of hygroscopic nuclei in the air. Cooling by contact with a cold surface produces dew, frost or fog de-
pending on other atmospheric conditions.

24.4. Forms of Condensation

• The forms of condensation can be classified on the basis of the temperature at which the dew point is
reached.
• Condensation can take place when the dew point is
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 lower than the freezing point — white frost, snow, hailstones and some clouds (cirrus clouds)
are produced.
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  higher than the freezing point — dew, fog and clouds are produced.
• Forms of condensation may also be classified on the basis of their location, i.e. at or near the earth’s surface
and in free air. Dew, white frost, fog and mist come in the first category, whereas clouds are in the
second category.

Dew
• When the moisture is deposited in the form of water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid objects (rather
than nuclei in the air above the surface) such as stones, grass blades and plant leaves, it is known as dew.
• For dew formation, the dew point must be above the freezing point. The ideal conditions include a clear
sky (for sufficient cooling of the surface from heat loss from outgoing infrared radiation), calm air,
high relative humidity, and cold and long nights.

[UPSC Prelims 2019] Why are dewdrops not formed on a cloudy night?
a) Clouds absorb the radiation released from the Earth's surface.
b) Clouds reflect back the Earth's radiation.
c) The Earth's surface would have low temperature on cloudy nights.
d) Clouds deflect the blowing wind to ground level.

Explanation:
• Cloudy nights are warm due to the reflection of outgoing long-wave radiation (towards the earth) by
the clouds. Hence dew formation is suppressed on a cloudy night.

White Frost
• Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes place below the freezing point (0° C), i.e. the dew
point is at or below the freezing point. The excess moisture is deposited in the form of minute ice crystals
instead of water droplets. The ideal conditions for the formation of white frost are the same as those for
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the formation of dew, except that the air temperature must be at or below the freezing point.
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Fog
• When the temperature of an air mass containing a large quantity of water vapour falls all of a sudden
(mostly due to temperature inversion), condensation takes place within itself on fine dust particles. So,
the fog is a cloud with its base at or very near to the ground. In fog, visibility is less than one kilo-
metre.

Types of Fog
• In urban and industrial centres smoke provides plenty of nuclei which help the formation of fog and
mist. Such a condition when fog is mixed with smoke is described as smog (for more information on
smog, refer to PMF IAS Environment > Effects of Air Pollution > Smog).

Haze
• In a haze dust, smoke and other dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky. There is no condensation
in haze. Smog is similar to haze, but there is condensation in smog. Sources for haze particles include
farming (ploughing in dry weather), traffic, industry, and wildfires.

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• Radiation fog results from radiation, and cooling of the ground and adjacent air. These fogs are not very
thick and are usually in winter.
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• Fogs formed by condensation of warm air when it moves horizontally over a cold surface, is known as
advectional fog. These fogs are thick and persistent. Occurs over warm and cold water mixing zones
in oceans.
• Frontal or precipitation fog is produced due to convergence of warm and cold air masses where warm
air mass is pushed under by the heavier cold air mass. Precipitation in the warm air mass condenses to
produce fog at the boundary of the two air masses. These are called frontal or precipitation fog.

Mist
• The difference between mist and fog is that mist contains more moisture than fog. In mist, each nucleus
contains a thicker layer of moisture.
• Mists are frequent over mountains as the rising warm air up the slopes meet a cold surface. Water droplets
also form mist, but with less merging or coalescing. This means mist is less dense and quicker to dissipate.
• In mist, visibility is more than one kilometre but less than two kilometres.

Clouds
• Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the water
vapour in free air at considerable elevations. Clouds are caused mainly by the adiabatic cooling of air
below its dew point.
• As the clouds are formed at some height over the surface of the earth, they take various shapes. According
to their height, expanse, density and transparency or opaqueness clouds are grouped under four types: (i)
cirrus (ii) cumulus (iii) stratus (iv) nimbus.

Cirrus Clouds
• Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes (8,000-12,000m). They are made of ice crystals. They are thin
and detached clouds having a feathery appearance. They are always white.

Cumulus Clouds
• Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They are generally formed at the height of 4,000-7,000 m. They exist
in patches and can be seen scattered here and there. They have a flat base.
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Stratus Clouds
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• As their name implies, these are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky. These clouds are gen-
erally formed either due to loss of heat or the mixing of air masses with different temperatures.

Nimbus Clouds
• Nimbus clouds are black or dark grey masses of thick vapour. They form at middle levels or very near the
surface of the earth. These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the sun. Sometimes, the clouds
are so low that they seem to touch the ground.
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Types of Clouds
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• A combination of the four basic types can give rise to the following types of clouds:
• High clouds — cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus (thin clouds)
• Middle clouds — altostratus and altocumulus
• Low clouds — stratocumulus & nimbostratus (long duration rainfall clouds; rain bands in tropical
cyclones)
• Clouds with extensive vertical development — cumulus and cumulonimbus (thunderstorm cloud)

Sun’s halo is produced by the refraction of light in: [2002]

a) water vapour in Stratus clouds
b) ice crystals in Cirro-Cumulus clouds
c) ice crystals in Cirrus clouds
d) dust particles in Stratus clouds

Explanation:
• Halos (22° halo) are caused by both refraction & reflection of sunlight by ice crystals in cirrus
clouds.
• Just like a rainbow (caused due to reflection, refraction, dispersion & total internal reflection of
light by water droplets), halos around the sun (or moon-moon ring or winter halo) are personal.
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• Everyone sees their particular halo, made by particular ice crystals, which are different from the ice crys-
tals making the halo of the person standing next.

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 [UPSC Prelims 2022] Consider the following statements:
1. High clouds primarily reflect solar radiation and cool the surface of the Earth.
2. Low clouds have a high absorption of infrared radiation emanating from the Earth’s surface and thus
cause a warming effect.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Explanation:
• High clouds are thin clouds (albedo: 25-30%) whereas low clouds are thick clouds (albedo: 70-
80%).
• High clouds let through most of the incoming short-wave radiation (visible light) and block and
reflect most of the outgoing long-wave radiation (heat or infrared radiation by earth) — the
greenhouse effect.
• Low, thick clouds are excellent reflectors of solar radiation, and they do block or absorb some of
the outgoing long-wave radiation. However, they emit nearly as much infrared radiation to space as
would to the surface. Thus, they reflect more heat than they trap, having a net cooling effect. So (d)
Neither is the answer.

Precipitation
• The process of continuous condensation in the air helps the condensed particles to grow in size. When the
resistance of the air fails to hold them against the force of gravity, they fall onto the earth’s surface as
different forms of precipitation.
 Precipitation in the form of drops of water is called rainfall when the drop size is more than 0.5 mm.
 It is called Virage when raindrops evaporate before reaching the earth while passing through dry air.
 Drizzle is light rainfall with a drop size of less than 0.5 mm. When evaporation of drizzle occurs before
reaching the ground, it is referred to as mist.
 When the temperature is lower than 0° C, precipitation takes place in the form of fine flakes of snow and
is called snowfall. Moisture is released in the form of hexagonal crystals.
 Sleet is frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow water. When a layer of air with a temperature above
freezing point overlies a subfreezing layer near the ground, precipitation takes place in the form of sleet
— small pellets of ice not bigger than the raindrops from which they are formed.
 Sometimes, drops of rain after being released by the clouds become solidified into small rounded solid
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pieces of ice and which reach the surface of the earth are called hailstones. These are formed by the
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 rainwater passing through the colder layers. Hailstones have several concentric layers of ice one over the
other.
 Rainfall: drop size more than 0.5 mm.
 Virage: raindrops evaporate before reaching the earth.
 Drizzle: light rainfall; drop size less than 0.5 mm.
 Mist: evaporation drizzle occurs before reaching the ground leading to foggy weather.
 Snowfall: fine flakes of snowfall when the temperature is less than 0° C.
 Sleet: frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow; a mixture of snow and rain or merely partially melted
snow.
 Hail: precipitation in the form of hard rounded pellets (5 to 50 mm) is known as hail.

24.5. Types of Rainfall

• Based on origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types — convectional, orographic (relief) and
cyclonic (frontal) rainfall.

Convectional Rainfall
• The air on being heated, becomes light and rises in convection currents. As it rises, it expands and loses
heat, and consequently, condensation takes place, and cumulous clouds are formed (when convection is
rapid and intense cumulonimbus clouds are formed). This process releases latent heat of condensation
which further heats the air and forces the air to go further up.

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• Convectional precipitation is heavy but of short duration, highly localised and is associated with a
minimum amount of cloudiness.
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• It occurs mainly during summer and is common over equatorial doldrums in the Congo Basin, the Am-
azon Basin and the islands of south-east Asia.

Orographic Rainfall
• Orographic Rainfall occurs when warm, humid air strikes an orographic barrier (a mountain range). Be-
cause of the initial momentum, the air is forced to rise (forceful upliftment). As the moisture-laden air gains
height, it expands (because of a fall in ambient pressure) and the temperature falls (adiabatic). Condensa-
tion sets in to form a cumulonimbus cloud (orographic thunderstorm), and soon saturation (dew
point) is reached. The surplus moisture falls as orographic rainfall along the windward slopes. Oro-
graphic cloudbursts are common in Jammu and Kashmir, Cherrapunji and Mawsynram.
• After giving rain on the windward side, the winds are relatively dry and cold. They reach the leeward
slope and descend (katabatic wind), and their temperature rises due to increasing ambient pressure. Their
capacity to take in moisture increases (relative humidity decreases) and hence the leeward slopes remain
rainless and dry.
• The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area. Example:
Mahabaleshwar, situated on the windward side of Western Ghats, receives more than 600 cm of rainfall,
whereas Pune, lying in the rain shadow area, receives only about 70 cm.
• Some arid and semi-arid regions are a direct consequence of the rain-shadow effect. Example: the
Patagonian Desert in Argentina, the Atacama Desert, the Eastern slopes of Western Ghats, etc.

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Cyclonic Rainfal
Frontal Rainfall
• When two air masses with different temperatures meet, turbulent conditions are produced. Along the front
convection occurs (frontal thunderstorm) and causes precipitation (we will study this in detail in the
chapter on “Fronts”).

[UPSC Prelims 2002] Consider the following climatic and geographical phenomena:
1. Condensation
2. High temperature and humidity
3. Orography
4. Vertical wind

Thunder cloud development is due to which of these phenomena?

b) 1 and 2
c) 2, 3 and 4
d) 1, 3 and 4
e) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Tropical Cyclonic Rain

• Cyclonic rainfall in tropical cyclones is convectional type rainfall on a large scale (we will study this in
detail in the chapter on “Tropical Cyclones”). The precipitation in a temperate cyclone is because of
frontal activity.

World Distribution of Rainfall

• Different places on the earth’s surface receive different amounts of rainfall in a year and that too in different
seasons. In general, as we proceed from the equator towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing steadily.
• The coastal areas of the world receive greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of the continents.
• The rainfall is more over the oceans than on the landmasses of the world because of being great sources
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of water.
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• Between the latitudes 35° and 40° N and S of the equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern coasts
(because of warm ocean currents) and goes on decreasing towards the west.
• But, between 45° and 65° N and S of the equator, due to the westerlies, the rainfall is first received on
the western margins of the continents, and it goes on decreasing towards the east.
• Wherever mountains run parallel to the coast, the rain is greater on the coastal plain, on the windward
side and it decreases towards the leeward side. E.g. Rainfall along the Western Ghats.
• On the basis of the total amount of annual precipitation, major precipitation regimes of the world are
identified as follows:
 The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains along the western coasts in the cool
temperate zone and the coastal areas of the monsoon land receive heavy rainfall of over 200 cm
per annum.
 Interior continental areas receive moderate rainfall varying from 100-200 cm per annum.
 The coastal areas of the continents receive a moderate amount of rainfall.
 The central parts of the tropical land and the eastern and interior parts of the temperate lands receive
rainfall varying between 50-100 cm per annum.
 Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the continents and high latitudes receive very
low rainfall ― less than 50 cm per annum.
• In some regions rainfall is distributed evenly throughout the year such as in the equatorial belt and in the
western parts of cool temperate regions. In the other regions, the rainfall distribution is variable sea-
sonally.

World Distribution of Rainfall

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 25. Thunderstorm

• Thunderstorms and tornadoes are severe (violent), short-duration, localized storms (occurring over a
small area) that involve rapid convection or upliftment of air.
• Thunderstorms are storms with thunder and lightning and typically also heavy rain or hail. They mostly
occur in areas where the temperature is high and the air has good humidity. They are less frequent on
water bodies due to low temperature.
• Worldwide, there are an estimated 16 million thunderstorms each year, and at any given moment, there
are roughly 2,000 thunderstorms in progress.

25.1. Formation of A (Thermal) Thunderstorm

Stage 1: Cumulus Stage

• Thermal thunderstorms (cumulonimbus cloud and convectional rain) are caused due to intense heat-
ing of the ground during summer and the subsequent rapid upliftment of the warm humid parcel of air. A
low pressure starts to establish due to the intense upliftment of an air parcel (convention). Air from the
surroundings start to rush in to fill the low pressure. Intense convection of humid warm air builds up a
towering cumulonimbus cloud.

Stage 2: Mature stage

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• Condensation releases latent heat of condensation making the air warmer. It becomes much lighter and
is further uplifted. An intense updraft of rising warm air causes the cloud to grow bigger and rise to a
greater height. The void created is filled by fresh moisture-laden air. Condensation occurs in this air, and
the cycle is repeated as long as the moisture is supplied. The incoming thunderstorm is indicated by a
violent gust of cool wind of the intense downdraft, and rain.
• The formation of a cumulonimbus anvil cloud signifies that the thunderstorm is in its mature stage. A
cumulonimbus anvil cloud is a cumulonimbus cloud which has reached the level of stratospheric stability
and has formed the characteristic flat, anvil-top shape.

Motion And Speed of A Thunderstorm

• Path of a thunderstorm is erratic. Motion is primarily due to interactions of its updrafts and downdrafts.
• The speed of isolated storms is typically about 20 km (12 miles) per hour, but some storms move much
faster. In extreme circumstances, a supercell storm may move 65 to 80 km (about 40 to 50 miles) per
hour.

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Downbursts
• Downdrafts are referred to as macrobursts or microbursts. Macroburst is more than 4 km in diameter
and can produce winds as high as 60 metres per second, or 215 km per hour. A microburst is smaller in
dimension but produces winds as high as 75 metres per second, or 270 km per hour. They are seriously
hazardous to aircraft, especially during take-offs and landings.

Stage 3: Dissipating stage

• When the clouds extend to heights where sub-zero temperature prevails, hails are formed, and they come
down as hailstorms. Intense precipitation occurs. In a matter of a few minutes, the storm dissipates, and
clear weather starts to prevail.

25.2. Types of Thunderstorms

• Convectional (Thermal), Frontal and Orographic thunderstorms (were discussed in the preceding chap-
ters) and Isolated, Multiple-Cell and Supercell thunderstorms are the different types of thunderstorms.

Single-Cell Thunderstorm (Isolated Thermal Thunderstorm)

• Single-cell thunderstorms are small, brief, weak storms that grow and die within an hour or so. They are
typically driven by heating on a summer afternoon. Single-cell storms may produce brief heavy rain and
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lightning. They are very common in India during summers, mostly during April and May. In Kerala, they
are called Mango Showers, and in Karnataka, Blossom showers.
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A Multi-Cell Thunderstorm
• A multi-cell storm is a thunderstorm in which new updrafts form along the leading edge of rain-cooled
air (the gust front). Individual cells usually last 30 to 60 minutes, while the system as a whole may last for
many hours. Multicell storms may produce hail, strong winds, brief tornadoes, and flooding.

A Supercell Thunderstorm
A supercell is a long-lived (greater than 1 hour) and highly organised storm feeding off an updraft (a rising
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•
current of air) that is tilted and rotating. Most large and violent tornadoes come from supercells.
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Mesocyclone
• A mesocyclone is a rotating vortex of air within a supercell thunderstorm. Mesocyclones sometimes pro-
duce tornadoes.

25.3. Tornado
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• Tornado is a small-diameter whirling vortex developed within a convective cloud and in contact with the
ground. Tornadoes can generate the strongest winds known on Earth: wind speeds in the range of 500
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 km (300 miles) per hour. They are often referred to as twisters. They occur most often in association with
thunderstorms in the mid-latitudes (zone of convergence of warm and cold air masses) of both the
hemispheres during the spring and summer.

Tornadogenesis (Formation of A Tornado)

• When warm humid air mass meets a cold airmass, horizontally spinning winds are created due to vertical
wind shear (the difference in wind speed at two different altitudes).
• As the warm air rises as updrafts, the horizontally sipping winds rise and begin rotating vertically (due to
the vertical wind shear) and make the updrafts rotate forming a mesocyclone (supercell) in the centre of
the cumulonimbus cloud. The rotating warm air (brought by the spinning updraft) condenses into rain and
creates a downdraft. The downdraft pulls the mesocyclone closer to the ground, and the tornado
begins to form as a whirling vortex.

Composite of five shots of Tornadogenesis

Waterspout
• Waterspout is an intense tornado that occurs over a body of water. Watersports are connected to the
towering cumulonimbus cloud. Most waterspouts do not suck up water; they are small and weak rotating
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columns of air over water which are much weaker than the tornadoes formed on land.
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 Waterspout

Distribution of Tornadoes
• The temperate regions are the most prone to tornadoes. Tornadoes have been reported on all continents
except Antarctica. The United States has the most violent tornadoes. Canada reports the second largest
number of tornadoes. In the Indian sub-continent, Bangladesh is the most prone country to tornadoes.

25.4. Lightning And Thunder

• Water vapour condenses into small ice crystals when it moves upward in the cumulonimbus cloud. The
ice crystals continue to move up until they gather enough mass that can overcome the buoyant force. This
leads to a system where smaller ice crystals move up while bigger crystals come down. The resulting col-
lisions trigger the release of electrons, in a process very similar to the generation of electric sparks (due
to ionisation)
 In ionisation, an electron in the outer shell is peeled out of the atom, and the atom becomes an ion.
There are two types of ions based on charge – cation and anion.
 Cation: an atom or a molecule which is positively charged, i.e. it has a greater number of protons than
electrons.
 Anion: an atom or molecule which is negatively charged, i.e. it has a greater number of electrons than
protons.
• The moving free electrons cause more collisions and more electrons are released and a chain reaction
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ensues. The process results in a situation in which the top layer of the cloud gets positively charged
(cations) while the middle and bottom layers are negatively (anions) charged.
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• The electrical potential difference between the top and the bottom layers is huge, of the order of 109 or
1010 volts. In little time, a huge current, of the order of 105 to 106 amperes, starts to flow between the
layers. It produces heat, leading to the heating of the air column between the two layers of cloud. It is
because of this heat that the air column looks red during lightning. The heated air column expands and
produces shock waves that result in thunder.

Thunder
• Thunder is the sound caused by the discharge of atmospheric electrical charge (plasma ― ionised gas
medium ― 30,000 °C) by lightning. The channel pressure of the electric charge greatly exceeds the ambient
(surrounding) pressure, and the channel expands at a supersonic rate (speed of sound). The resultant shock
wave decays rapidly with distance and is eventually heard as thunder once it slows to the speed of sound.
Thunderbolt is a flash of lightning accompanied by a crash of thunder.

Lightning From Cloud To Earth

• Earth is a good conductor of electricity but is electrically neutral. In comparison to the middle layer of the
cloud, however, it becomes positively charged. As a result, a flow of current (about 20-15%) gets directed
towards the Earth as well. It is this current flow that results in damage to life and property.
• Once about 80-100 m from the surface, lightning tends to change course to hit the taller objects (guess
why very tall buildings have a vertical pole above?). This is because travelling through the air, which is a
bad conductor of electricity, electrons try to find a better conductor, and also the shortest route to the
relatively positively charged Earth’s surface.

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 Lightning Strikes The Metallic Tower of Burj Khalifa

• The most lightning activity on Earth is seen on the shore of Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela. It is surrounded
by mountains on three sides. The waters are very warm throughout the year. This makes the lake a ready
source of heat and humidity to drive thunderstorms.

Lightning Deaths
• Incidents of lightning have been showing an increasing trend over the last 20 years, especially near the
foothills of the Himalayas. It has become a deadly natural phenomenon in Bihar and surrounding regions
during the pre-monsoon season (April to June in South India – convectional thunderstorms; April to July
in North India – frontal thunderstorms in March-April due to Western Disturbances).
• People are rarely hit directly by lightning. But such strikes are almost always fatal. The most common way
in which people are struck by lightning is by ground currents. The electrical energy, after hitting a tree or
any other object, spreads laterally on the ground for some distance, and people in this area receive elec-
trical shocks. It becomes more dangerous if the ground is wet, or there is conducting material like metal
on it.
• Precautions: Moving under a tree or lying flat on the ground can increase risks. Even indoors, electrical
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fittings, wires, metal and water must be avoided.

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25.5. Hailstorm

• Hail is a form of solid precipitation in which frozen pellets fall in showers from a cumulonimbus cloud.
A hailstone is a layered irregular lump of ice. It is made of thick and translucent layers, alternating with
layers that are thin, white and opaque. Hailstones are produced in almost all thunderstorms, but in most
cases, they don’t reach the surface. Any thunderstorm which produces hail that reaches the ground is
known as a hailstorm.

Favourable Conditions For Hail Formation

 Strong, upward motion of air (strong updraft) within the parent thunderstorm
 High liquid water content
 Great vertical extent of the cumulonimbus cloud
 Good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing (0 °C or below)
 High surface temperatures (hail growth is greatly inhibited during cold surface temperatures)

Formation of Hail
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• Hail begins as water droplets in a cumulonimbus cloud. As the droplets rise and the temperature goes
below freezing, they freeze on coming in contact with condensation nuclei.
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• The storm's updraft with great wind speeds (180 kmph) blows the forming hailstones up the cloud. When
the hailstone moves into an area with a high concentration of supercooled water droplets, it acquires a
new opaque layer.
• The hailstone will keep rising in the thunderstorm until its mass can no longer be supported by the updraft.
It doesn’t fall immediately to the surface because of melting, friction with air, wind, and interaction with
rain and other hailstones that slow its descent. In the process, it acquires more layers. It then falls toward
the ground while continuing to grow, based on the same processes, until it leaves the cloud. Finally, it may
fall to the surface as hailstone if it can overcome the frictional force of the wind and ground temperature.
• Hailstones can grow up to 15 centimetres and weigh more than 0.5 kg. Generally, the larger hailstones will
form some distance from the stronger updraft where they can pass more time growing.
• Hail is less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-
latitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater altitude.

25.6. Hazards Posed by Thunderstorms

• Under the right conditions, rainfall from thunderstorms causes flash flooding (cloudburst).
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• Lightning is responsible for many fires around the world each year and causes fatalities.
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• Hail damages crops, vehicle windshields, and windows, and kills livestock caught out in the open.
• Strong (120 mph) winds associated with thunderstorms knock down trees, power lines and mobile homes.
• Downbursts pose a huge risk to aircraft during take-off and landing (especially in the ITCZ zone).
• Tornadoes (with winds up to about 300 mph) can destroy all but the best-built human-made structures.

Pyrocumulonimbus Clouds And Forest Fires

• The pyrocumulonimbus clouds are essentially thunderstorms (cumulonimbus clouds) that form from the
smoke plume of fire as intense heat from the fire causes air to rise rapidly, drawing in the surrounding air.
As the cloud climbs and then cools in the low temperatures of the upper atmosphere, the collisions of ice
particles in the higher parts of the cloud build up an electrical charge, which can be released as lightning,
which could ignite new fires.
• The rising air also spurs intense updrafts that suck in so much air that strong winds develop, causing a
fire to burn hotter and spread further.
• The forest fires in Australia, Western Canada, and California in recent times were accentuated by the for-
mation of pyrocumulonimbus clouds due to severe heat waves.

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 26. Tropical Cyclones

• Tropical cyclones are rapidly rotating violent storms that originate over tropical oceans in late summers.
They are characterised by:
 a closed low-pressure centre with steep pressure gradients, which is responsible for the wind
speeds (category 1 cyclones have a barometric pressure of greater than 980 millibars; category 5 cy-
clones can have central barometric pressure of less than 920 millibars),

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  a closed low-level atmospheric circulation (cyclonic circulation) — a result of rapid upward move-
ment of hot moist air which is subjected to Coriolis force,
 strong winds (squalls ― a sudden violent gust of wind), and
 a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce very heavy rain (torrential rainfall).

26.1. Conditions Necessary for The Formation of A Tropical Cyclone

 Large sea surface with a temperature higher than 27° C

 Presence of the Coriolis force enough to create a cyclonic vortex
 A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level cyclonic circulation
 Low wind shear
 Upper-level divergence

Good Source of Latent Heat

• Ocean waters having temperatures of 27° C and depth of warm water extending for 60-70 m deep supply
enough moisture, and hence latent heat of condensation, to generate and drive a tropical storm. The
thick layer of warm water ensures that the deep convection currents within the water do not churn and
mix the cooler water below with the warmer water near the surface.

Why Do Tropical Cyclones Form Mostly on The Western Margins of The Oceans (Eastern
Margins of The Continents)?
• Because of warm ocean currents (easterly trade winds drag ocean waters towards west) that flow from
the east towards west forming a thick layer of warm water with temperatures greater than 27°C.

Why Are Tropical Cyclones Very Rare on The Eastern Margins Of The Oceans (Western Mar-
gins of The Continents)?
• The cold currents lower the surface temperatures of the eastern parts of the tropical oceans making
them unfit for the breeding of cyclonic storms.
 Exceptional case: During strong El Nino years, strong hurricanes occur in the eastern Pacific. This is due
to the accumulation of warm waters in the eastern Pacific due to the weak Walker Cell.

Why Do Tropical Cyclones Weaken On Landfall?

• On landfall, the storm is cut off from adequate moisture supply and hence it is deprived of latent
heat of condensation. Thus, the storm dissipates (weakens or dies off) on landfall.
 High insolation and warm climate  rising of humid air parcel  ambient pressure on the air parcel
decreases with altitude  adiabatic lapse rate (fall in temperature of air parcel)  condensation of
moisture in air parcel due to low temperature  latent heat of condensation is released in the process
355

 air parcel is heated further due to the release of latent heat of condensation and becomes less dense 
air parcel is further uplifted  more air comes in to fill the gap  new moisture is available for
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 condensation  latent heat of condensation is released. The cycle repeats as long as there is enough
supply of moisture.

[UPSC Prelims 2015] In the South Atlantic and South-Eastern Pacific regions in tropical lati-
tudes, cyclone does not originate. What is the reason?
a) Sea surface temperatures are low
b) Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone seldom occurs
c) Coriolis force is too weak
d) Absence of land in those regions

Hint: Cold currents

Coriolis Force
• The Coriolis force is zero at the equator, but it increases with latitude. Coriolis force at 5° latitude is
significant enough to create a storm (cyclonic vortex).

Why Do Cyclones Occur Mostly In Late Summers In The Northern Hemisphere?

356

1. Due to high specific heat of water, and mixing, the ocean waters in the northern hemisphere attain
maximum temperatures in August (in contract continents attain maximum temperatures in June-July).
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 2. Whirling motion (cyclonic vortex) is enhanced when the doldrums (region within ITCZ) over oceans are
farthest from the equator (Coriolis force increases with distance from the equator).

Low-level Disturbances
• Low-level disturbance is a low-pressure trough (an extended region of low-pressure associated with
extensive cloud formation and numerous thunderstorms) that moves from east to west in the form of
easterly wave disturbances in the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Easterly wave disturbances
act as seedling circulations (birthplace) for a large number of tropical cyclones. However, not all disturb-
ances develop into cyclones.
 A disturbance is a persistent group of thunderstorms with heavy rains and strong wind gusts.
 Easterly wave disturbances are a convective trough (thermal origin) ― a persistent group of thunder-
storms travelling together in an east-west direction (westward travelling disturbances) under the influence
of trade winds.

Why Fewer Cyclones Form Over The Arabian Sea As Compared To The Bay Of Bengal?
• The average annual frequency of tropical cyclones in the north Indian Ocean (the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea) is about 5 (about 5-6 % of the global annual average), and about 80 cyclones form
around the globe in a year (most of them occur in Western Pacific and Western Atlantic). The fre-
quency is more in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea, the ratio being 4:1.

More Low-Level Disturbances In Bay Of Bengal

• Cyclones that form over the Bay of Bengal are either those that develop in-situ over the southeast Bay
of Bengal or remnants of typhoons over the Northwest Pacific that move across the south China sea
to the Indian Seas. As the frequency of typhoons is quite high (~35% of the global average), the Bay
of Bengal also gets its increased quota.
• The cyclones over the Arabian Sea either originate in-situ over the southeast Arabian Sea or remnants
of cyclones from the Bay of Bengal that move across the south peninsula. As the majority of Cyclones
over the Bay of Bengal weaken over land after landfall, the frequency of migration into the Arabian Sea
is low.

Monsoons
The Surface Temperature Of The Bay Of Bengal Is Higher
• Surface temperature in the Bay of Bengal is usually between 22 °C and 31 °C. The Arabian Sea is cooler
by 1-2 °C in because of the monsoon winds.

Monsoon Winds Drive Away Moisture

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• Though the monsoon winds increase evaporation in the Arabian Sea, the moisture is constantly driven
away by the winds towards India.

Vapour Pressure of Water And Rate of Evaporation

• Just like air molecules exert pressure on water, water molecules exert a counter-pressure on the air
molecules. This counter pressure is called the vapour pressure of water. The rate of evaporation is
controlled by this vapour pressure of water. Higher the vapour pressure of water, the higher the
rate of evaporation and vice versa.
• The vapour pressure of water can be modified by:
1. Changing the air pressure: higher wind speeds decrease air pressure and hence increase evap-
oration.
 Bernoulli's principle: Within a horizontal flow of fluid, points of higher fluid speed will have less
pressure than points of slower fluid speed. Practical examples: swinging cricket ball; lift achieved by
aeroplane wings.
2. Changing the temperature of water: when the temperature of the water is increased, the water
molecules attain higher kinetic energy and hence the vapour pressure of water increases. This
increases evaporation.
3. Changing salinity: Increased salinity reduces the kinetic energy of the water molecules. This de-
creases evaporation.

Vapour Pressure and Rate of Evaporation

The Arabian Sea Surface Has Higher Salinity

• Salinity near the surface in the northern Bay of Bengal can be as low as 31 ppt because the bay receives
lots of freshwater from the Ganga, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Godavari, and others.
• Salinity near the surface in the Arabian Sea is much higher than in the Bay of Bengal because evaporation
over the Arabian Sea is much greater than precipitation and river runoff (it loses more freshwater than
it receives).

Higher Stratification In The Bay Of Bengal

358

• If all the freshwater that the bay receives during a year is accumulated and spread uniformly over its
entire surface, it would form a layer over a metre thick.
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 • Freshwater is less dense compared to saline water. Hence vertical mixing is inhibited in the Bay of
Bengal. On the other hand, high evaporation and low inflow of fresh water increase salinity (water
becomes denser) at the surface of the Arabian Sea, and this increases vertical mixing.

Temperature Contrast Between Air Masses

• The convergence of air masses of different temperatures results in instability causing low-level disturb-
ances (low-pressure cells) which are a prerequisite for the origin and growth of violent tropical storms.
• Trade winds from both the hemispheres meet along the inter-tropical front (ITCZ). Temperature contrasts
between these air masses must exist when the ITCZ is farthest from the equator so that the low-level
disturbances can intensify into a depression (intensifying low-pressure cell).

Wind Shear
• Vertical Wind Shear is the difference between wind speeds at different altitudes. Tropical cyclones
develop when the vertical wind shear is low. High wind shear inhibits the development of towering cu-
mulonimbus clouds and the cyclonic vortex.

Why Is Convective Cyclogenesis (Tropical Cyclogenesis) Confined To Tropics?

• About 65 per cent of cyclonic activity occurs between 10° and 20° latitude and almost all of the trop-
ical cyclonic activity is confined to latitudes equatorward of the subtropical jet stream as the ver-
tical wind shear in this region is weak. In the temperate regions, vertical wind shear is high due to
westerlies, and this inhibits convective cyclogenesis.

Why There Are Very Few Tropical Cyclones During The Southwest Monsoon Season?
Large Vertical Wind Shear
• The southwest monsoon is characterized by the presence of strong westerly winds (south-west mon-
soon winds) in the lower troposphere (below 3 km) and strong easterly winds in the upper troposphere
(above 9 km). This results in large vertical wind shear. Strong vertical wind shear inhibits cyclone
development.

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Less Time For Development
• The potential zone for the development of cyclones shifts to the North Bay of Bengal (very narrow)
during the southwest monsoon season. Low-pressure systems up to the intensity of depressions form
along the monsoon trough (along ITCZ), which extends from northwest India to the north Bay of
Bengal. The Depression forming over this area crosses the Orissa-West Bengal coast in just a day or two
as the bay is narrower to the north. These systems thus have shorter oceanic stay (they make landfall
very quickly) and hence cannot intensify beyond the depression stage.

Upper Air Disturbance

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Westerly Trough Assisting Convective Cyclogenesis

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• An upper tropospheric cyclone usually moves slowly from east to west and is prevalent in summer. Its
circulations generally do not extend below 6000 m in altitude. The remains of this cyclone (upper tropo-
spheric westerly trough or tropical upper tropospheric trough) from the westerlies move deep into
the tropical latitude regions. These troughs can assist tropical cyclogenesis and intensification by providing
additional forced ascent.
 Troughs may be at the surface, or aloft. They may be convective (thermal origin ― tropics), or frontal (dy-
namic origin ― temperate regions).
• As divergence prevails (upper tropospheric divergence) on the eastern side of the troughs, a rising motion
occurs at the surface; this leads to the development of thunderstorms or intensification of existing storms.
• Further, these abandoned troughs (remnants of temperate cyclones) usually have cold cores,
suggesting that the environmental lapse rate is steeper. Such instability encourages thunderstorms.
• An upper tropospheric westerly trough is important for tropical cyclone forecasting. This is because,
1. Fast-moving upper tropospheric westerly troughs can create large vertical wind shear over tropical
disturbances and tropical cyclones which may inhibit their strengthening.
2. Slow-moving upper tropospheric westerly troughs can drive the tropical cyclones eastward or north-
eastward.

26.2. Convective Cyclogenesis (Development of Tropical Cyclones)

• Cyclogenesis is the development or strengthening of cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere. It involves

any of these three processes:
1. Convective cyclogenesis or tropical cyclone formation.
2. Frontal cyclogenesis of extratropical cyclone formation (will be discussed in the upcoming chap-
ters).
3. Mesocyclones forming as warm core cyclones giving rise to tornadoes and waterspouts
(explained in the previous chapter).

Stage 1: Tropical Disturbance

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• The tropical cyclones have a thermal origin, and they develop over tropical seas during late summers
(August to mid-November). At these locations, under favourable conditions, multiple thunderstorms
(strong local convectional currents) merge and create an intense low-pressure system (low-level dis-
turbance).

Stage 2: Tropical Depression (Maximum Sustained Wind Speed < 63 Kmph)

• The intense low-pressure system might acquire a whirling motion because of the Coriolis force giving rise
to a tropical depression. A tropical depression has sustained winds below 63 kmph.

 Maximum sustained wind speed: India Meteorological Department (IMD) uses a 3 minutes averaging for
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the sustained wind. Maximum sustained wind is the highest 3 minutes of surface wind occurring within
the circulation of the system.
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Stage 3: Tropical Storm (63 Kmph < Maximum Sustained Wind Speed < 119 Kmph)

• Tropical depression develops into a tropical storm when the cyclonic circulation becomes more organised
with maximum sustained winds at or above 63 kmph but below 119 kmph. At this point, the distinctive
cyclonic shape starts to develop, although an eye is not usually present.

Stage 4: Tropical Cyclone (Maximum Sustained Wind Speed > 119 Kmph)
• As the tropical storm intensifies and acquires a maximum sustained wind speed of 119 kmph it develops
into a tropical cyclone. A cyclone of this intensity (> 119 kmph) tends to develop an eye, an area of
relative calm (lowest surface atmospheric pressure in a tropical cyclone) at the centre of circulation.

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Vertical Structure of A Tropical Cyclone
There are three divisions in the vertical structure of tropical cyclones:

1. The lowest layer, extending up to 3 km and known as the inflow layer, is responsible for driving the
storm.
2. The middle layer, extending from 3 km to 7 km, is where the main cyclonic storm takes place.
3. The outflow layer lies above 7 km. The maximum outflow is found at 12 km and above. The movement
of air is anticyclonic in nature.

Convective Cyclogenesis Mechanism – Early stage

• In the thunderstorm, the air is uplifted as it is warm and light. At a certain height, due to lapse rate and
adiabatic lapse rate, the temperature of the air falls, and moisture in the air undergoes condensation.
Condensation releases latent heat of condensation making the air warmer. It becomes much lighter and
is further uplifted. The space is filled by fresh moisture-laden air. Condensation occurs in this air, and the
cycle is repeated as long as the moisture is supplied.
• Due to excess moisture over oceans, the thunderstorm intensifies and sucks in air at a much faster rate.
The air from the surroundings rushes in and undergoes deflection due to the Coriolis force creating a
cyclonic vortex (spiralling air column).

Eye Formation
• Due to centripetal acceleration, the air in the vortex is forced to form a region of calmness called an
eye at the centre of the cyclone. The eye is created due to the tangential force acting on the high-speed
wind that is flowing in a curvy path (intense low-pressure  greater wind speeds  greater Coriolis force
 greater deflection  greater tangential force  eye/eyewall formation). The diameter of the eye de-
pends on the wind speed. Greater the wind speed, the larger the eye region.

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 The centripetal force pulling towards the centre is countered by an opposing force called centrifugal force. In
a cyclonic vortex, the intense low-pressure (centripetal force) acts as the string that holds the vortex (subjected
to a counteracting tangential/centrifugal force) in place.
• All the wind that is carried upwards loses its moisture and becomes cold and dense. It descends to the
surface through the cylindrical eye region and at the edges of the cyclone.
• If the storm doesn’t make landfall and if the ocean can supply more moisture, the storm will reach a mature
stage.

[UPSC Prelims 2002] Assertion & Reasoning

 Assertion (A): The surface winds spiral inwards upon the centre of the cyclone.
 Reason (R): Air descends in the centre of the cyclone.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT a correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true

Explanation:
• The statement “Air descends in the centre of the cyclone” can be interpreted in two ways:
1. Narrower interpretation: The eye is the cyclone’s centre, and air descends in the eye region. However,
not all cyclones have an eye!
2. Broder interpretation: The cyclone’s centre is marked by intense low pressure, so the air is uplifted.
Hence, the answer is (c) A is true, but R is false.

Characteristics of The Eye

• The cyclone's lowest barometric pressure occurs in the eye at the surface.
The eye is a roughly circular area of comparatively light winds and fair weather.
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•
• There is little or no precipitation, and sometimes blue sky or stars can be seen.
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• Along the eye, the air is slowly sinking and is heated due to compressional warming (adiabatic). The eye
temperature may be 10°C warmer or more at an altitude of 12 km than the surrounding environment,
but only 0-2°C warmer at the surface in the tropical cyclone.
• Eyes range in size from 8 km to over 200 km across, but most are approximately 30-60 km in diameter.

Characteristics of Eyewall
• The eye is surrounded by an eyewall, the most violent region of the cyclone. It is a roughly circular ring
of deep convection (heaviest rainfall in a cyclone). It experiences the maximum sustained winds, i.e.
fastest winds in a cyclone.

[UPSC Prelims 2020] Consider the following statements: [2020-I]

1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only.
2. Only some cyclones develop an eye.
3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10° C lesser than that of the surroundings.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct:

a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 2 only
d) 1 and 3 only

Convective Cyclogenesis Mechanism – Mature stage

A Tropical Cyclone in The Northern Hemisphere (Anti-Clockwise Circulation).

• At this stage, the spiralling winds create multiple convective cells called rain bands with successive calm
and violent regions. Cloud formation is dense at the centre. The cloud size decreases from centre to
periphery.

Central Dense Overcast (CDO)

366

• CDO is the cirrus cloud shield (mostly made up of hexagonal ice crystals) that results from the thunder-
storms in the eyewall of a tropical cyclone and its rainbands.
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• Before the tropical cyclone reaches a very severe cyclonic storm (119 kmph), typically the CDO is uniformly
showing the cold cloud tops of the cirrus with no eye apparent.

Rain Bands (Spiral Bands)

• Convection in tropical cyclones is organized into long, narrow rain bands which are oriented in the same
direction as the horizontal wind. Because these bands seem to spiral into the centre of a tropical cyclone,
they are called spiral bands. A direct circulation develops in rain bands in which warm, moist air converges
at the surface, ascends through these bands, diverges aloft, and descends on both sides of the bands. Rain
bands are mostly made up of cumulonimbus clouds (highest rainfall). The ones at the periphery are
made up of nimbostratus (prolonged rainfall) and cumulus clouds (least).

26.3. Breeding Grounds for Tropical Cyclones

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• The breeding grounds for tropical cyclones coincide with tropical regions with warm ocean currents.
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 Western Pacific (highest number of tropical cyclones): Philippines islands, eastern China and Japan
where they are called typhoons.
 Western Atlantic (South-east Caribbean region) and Eastern Pacific where they are called hurricanes.
 The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea where they are called cyclones.
 Around the southeast African coast and Madagascar-Mauritius islands.
 North-west Australia.

Australia US NW Pacific Arabian Sea/Bay of Bengal

Category
― Tropical low Tropical depres- Tropical depression Depression or severe depres-
sion sion
1 Tropical cy- Tropical storm Tropical storm Cyclonic storm
clone
2 Tropical cy- Tropical storm Severe tropical storm Severe cyclonic storm
clone
3 Severe tropical Hurricane Typhoon Very severe cyclonic storm
cyclone
4 Severe tropical Hurricane Typhoon Very severe cyclonic storm
cyclone
5 Severe tropical Hurricane Typhoon Super cyclonic storm
cyclone

[UPSC Mains 2014] Tropical cyclones are largely confined to the South China Sea, Bay of
Bengal and Gulf of Mexico. Why?
Other ways to put this question:

 Why does the northern hemisphere experience twice the number of tropical cyclones compared
to the southern hemisphere?
 The conditions favourable for tropical cyclone development are more prevalent in the Northern
Hemisphere. Bring out the reasons.
 The most favourable areas for tropical cyclogenesis are the vast tropical western part of the
oceans of the northern hemisphere. Explain. (Tropical western ocean  warm ocean currents;
tropical eastern oceans  cold ocean currents)

The Sea Surface Temperature (SST) Is Higher In The Northern Hemisphere

• The northern hemisphere has comparatively much less ocean water, which means it takes less time for
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the ocean surface here to get warmer. In contrast, the SST of southern hemisphere oceans is relatively
much less because of the vast extent of the ocean and the large Antarctic ice sheet.
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 Water has a high specific heat, meaning it takes more energy to increase the temperature of water
compared to other substances (like land). More water means more time and energy are required to increase
the temperature. So the southern hemisphere is much cooler.

Favourable Position Of The Thermal Equator

• The thermal equator is mostly to the north of the equator for the most part of the year because of the
pressure belts and atmospheric circulation patterns. Hence most of the warm current flow is slight to
the north of the equator for a greater part of the year.

High Wind Shear In The Southern Hemisphere

• The winds are stronger in the southern hemisphere because of the larger temperature change with
distance (or temperature gradient). Also, a lesser land surface means stronger winds due to less friction.

More Freshwater Flow Into The Northern Hemisphere

• More land surface means more rivers and more freshwater in the tropics and subtropics of the northern
hemisphere. The Bay of Bengal  Ganges; the Gulf of Mexico  The Mississippi and Amazon Rivers;
South China Sea  Pearl (Zhu) River, Mekong River, etc. The freshwaters of the Yellow River (which
flows into the Bohai Sea) and Yangtze (which flows into the East China Sea) also contribute.

Medicanes
• Medicanes are extratropical cyclones formed over the Mediterranean Sea. They occur more in colder
waters. Like tropical storms, medicanes have a symmetric structure, a warm core, a clearly visible eye,
and winds of at least tropical-storm strength. They are typically smaller in diameter and have lower wind
369

speeds than true tropical cyclones.

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 • Medicanes typically form in the fall or winter months and occur once or twice a year. Their cores are
relatively colder than the cores of tropical cyclones.

Regional Names For Tropical Cyclones

Term
Regions
Indian Ocean Cyclones
Atlantic Hurricanes
Western Pacific Typhoons
Western Australia Willy-willies

[UPSC Prelims 1995] Willy Willy is:

a) a type of tree grown in temperate regions
b) a wind that blows in a desert
c) a tropical cyclone of the north-west Aus-
tralia
d) a kind of common fish found near Lacca-
dives Islands

26.4. Path of Tropical Cyclones

• Coriolis force, easterly & westerly winds, & upper westerly trough influence the path of tropical cy-
clones. They generally follow a parabolic path with the parabolic axis being parallel to the isobars.
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• In the northern hemisphere, tropical cyclones start with a westward movement as the zone of formation
is under the influence of easterlies (trade winds). The average speed is 15-20 kmph (360-480 km per
day).
• They turn northwards around 20° latitude because of the Coriolis force that deflects the path of the
storm to its right. Their speed decreases to 10 kmph or even less. They turn further north-eastwards at
around 25° latitude (Coriolis force deflects it further). In some instances, a tropical cyclone may avoid
the general path and continue with its westward movement.
• They turn eastwards around 30° latitude because of the westerly winds. The westward movement is
the fastest and they attain speeds of 25 kmph or more. They then lose energy and subside beyond 30°
latitude because of cool ocean waters and increasing wind shear due to westerlies.
• Sometimes tropical cyclones are stalled near the coastline, dropping unprecedented amounts of rainfall.
This could happen due to weak prevailing winds linked to a greatly expanded subtropical high-pressure
system and northward migration of westerlies.
 In certain instances, two cyclones move toward each other and revolve around one another, with the smaller
and less intense one moving more quickly. This phenomenon is called the Fujiwhara effect.

Which Sector Of The Cyclone Experiences The Strongest Winds?

• Wind velocity, in a tropical cyclone, is more on the right side of the storm than at the centre and is more
over oceans than over landmasses. The "right side of the storm" is defined with respect to the storm's
motion: if the cyclone is moving to the west, the right side would be to the north of the storm; if the
cyclone is moving to the north, the right side would be to the east of the storm, etc.
• The strongest wind on the right side of the storm is mainly due to the fact that the motion of the
cyclone also contributes to its swirling winds. A cyclone with 145 kmph winds while stationary would
have winds up to 160 kmph on the right side and only 130 kmph on the left side if it began moving (any
direction) at 16 kmph.

26.5. Tropical Cyclone Scale

Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale

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 Category Wind Speed in Kmph Damage
01 120-150 Minimal
02 150-180 Moderate
03 180-210 Extensive
04 210-250 Extreme
05 250+ Catastrophic
Values rebounded off to make it easy to remember

Tropical Cyclone Scale by Indian Meteorological Department

Intensity Strength of wind Wave height
S.
(m)
No.
1. Depression (L) 31- 49 kmph (17-27 knots) 1-4
2. Deep Depression (DD) 50 - 61 kmph (28-33 knots) 4-6
3. Cyclonic Storm (CS) 62 - 87 kmph (34-47 knots) 6-9
4. Severe Cyclonic Storm (SCS) 88-117 kmph (48-63 knots) 9-14
5. Very Severe Cyclonic Storm (VSCS) 118-166 kmph (64-89 knots) 14+
6. Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm (ESCS) 167-221 kmph (90-119 knots) 14+
7. Super Cyclonic Storm (SuCS) 222+ kmph (120+ knots) 14+

 The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile (1.852 km) per hour. A vessel travelling at 1 knot
along a meridian travels approximately one minute of geographic latitude in one hour.
 1 international knot = 1 nautical mile per hour = 1.852 kilometres per hour = 0.514 metres per second

26.6. Damage Associated with Tropical Cyclones

Damage expected Measures to be taken
Intensity
Depression • Fishermen advised not to
• Minor damage to unsecured structures
venture into the open seas.
Deep Depression

Cyclone • Total suspension of fishing

• Damage to thatched huts.
operations
• Breaking of tree branches.
• Minor damage to power and communication lines.
Severe Cyclone • Coastal hutment dwellers
• Extensive damage to thatched huts.
to be moved to safer
• Flooding of escape routes.
places.
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 Very Severe Cyclone • Mobilise evacuation from
• Extensive damage to kutcha houses.
coastal areas.
• Minor disruption of rail and road traffic.
• Potential threat from flying debris.
Extremely Severe • Extensive evacuation from
• Extensive damage to kutcha houses.
Cyclone coastal areas.
• Large-scale disruption of power and communication
• Diversion or suspension of
lines.
rail and road traffic.
• Disruption of rail and road traffic due to extensive
flooding.
Super Cyclone • Large-scale evacuation of
• Extensive structural damage to residential and indus-
the coastal population.
trial buildings.
• Total suspension of rail
• Total disruption of communication and power supply.
and road traffic.
• Extensive damage to bridges causing a large-scale
disruption of rail and road traffic.
• Large-scale flooding and inundation of seawater.

Floods
• Precipitation of about 50 cm/day is quite common within a cyclonic storm. Record rainfall in a cyclonic
storm has been as low as a trace to as high as 250 cms. The intensity of rainfall is about 85 cms/day within
a radius of 50 km and about 35 cms/day between 50 to 100 km from the centre of the storm.

Wind
• The wind associated with a very severe Cyclonic storm and super cyclonic storm can uproot big trees,
cause widespread damage to houses and installations and total disruption of communications.
 The maximum wind speed associated with a very severe Cyclonic storm that hit the Indian coast in the past
100 years was 260 kmph in Oct 1999 Paradeep Super cyclone.

Storm Surge
• Storm Surge (tidal wave ― long wavelength) is an abnormal rise of sea level as the cyclone makes landfall.
The rise of sea level occurs due to the convergence of winds at great speeds that drag water and cause
accumulation of high water column just below the centre of the cyclone. The destructive power of the
storm surge depends on the intensity of the cyclone and coastal bathymetry (shallower coastlines face
surges of greater heights).
• Seawater inundates the coastal strip causing loss of life, and large-scale destruction to property & crops.
Increased salinity in the soil makes the land unfit for agricultural use for two or three seasons.

What Is Storm Tide?

373

• The storm tide is the combination of storm surge and the astronomical tide. Storm surge is accentuated
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if the landfall time coincides with that of high tides.

 Cyclone Strength Region affected Damage
1970 Bhola cyclone Extremely Severe Cy- West Bengal and
• Deadliest tropical cyclone
clone Bangladesh
• 5,00,000+ fatalities

1999 Odisha Cyclone Super Cyclone (Maxi- Odisha

• Strongest recorded tropical
(Paradeep Super cy- mum sustained wind
cyclone in the North Indian
clone) speed of 260 kmph)
Ocean
• 30,000+ fatalities

2008 Nargis Cyclone Extremely Severe Cy- Irrawaddy delta

• 1,00,000+ fatalities
clone (Myanmar)
• Costliest cyclone in the region

The high number of fatalities in all these cyclones was due to storm surges. The delta regions are always
at higher risk because of the low gradient.

States Vulnerable to Cyclones

 The frequency of SCS for AP > TN > WB > Odisha > Gujarat
 The frequency of CS for Odisha > AP > WB > TN > Gujarat
 Gujarat is the most vulnerable state on the west coast.
 The months of May and October-November are known to produce cyclones of severe intensity.
 Monthly frequency of SCS in November > May > October > December
 Monthly frequency of CS in October > November > June
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 Monthly frequency of Depressions in August > September > July

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 Andhra Pradesh and Odisha are at greater risk of receiving strong cyclones
Page 375
26.7. Positive Effects of Tropical Cyclones

• One of the most important factors is heat balance. Greenhouse gases add to natural factors to cause an
increase in the temperature of the oceans and nature seems to protect itself from hurricanes.

Heat Balance
• Tropical cyclones play a balancing act by regulating the temperature of the oceans and the planet at large.
Regulating the surface ocean temperature is essential for the health of the oceanic food chain and ocean
ecosystems (like coral reefs). This is because the primary producers (as well as most of the oceanic dwell-
ers) in the oceans can not survive beyond their narrow temperature range.

Tropical Cyclones Bring Rainfall To The Rain Shadow And Other Parched Regions
• Rainshadow regions of Western Ghats ad semi-arid regions in south India (Telangana, Rayalaseema, Hy-
derabad-Karnataka, Vidarbha) sometimes receive copious rain during the cyclone season. Likewise, arid
regions such as Oman receive copious rainfall only when a cyclone strikes.

Break Up Red Tide

• Red tide is a phenomenon which involves discolouration of coastal waters caused by algal blooms. The
algal bloom depletes oxygen in the waters and releases harmful toxins. As tropical cyclones move across
the ocean, winds and waves mix and break up patches of bacteria and can bring an earlier end to the red
tide.

Replenish Barrier Islands

• Tropical cyclones have the power to pick up substantial amounts of sand, nutrients and sediment on the
ocean’s bottom and bring it towards barrier islands. Storm surges, wind and waves will often move these
islands closer to the mainland as sand is pushed or pulled in that direction.

Speed Dispersal To Faraway Locations

• Tropical cyclone wind blows spores and seeds further inland from where they would normally fall; this
effect can be seen a thousand miles inland as storms move away from the shoreline. These seeds can
replenish lost growth after fires and urbanisation.

26.8. Naming of Tropical Cyclones

[UPSC Mains 2013] The recent cyclone on the east coast of India was called ‘Phailin’. How
are tropical cyclones named across the world? Elaborate.
• The World meteorological organisation (WMO) divided the world Oceans into Basins and assigned
the responsibility of naming the Cyclones to the respective regional bodies. Each regional body has its
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own rules for naming cyclones.

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 • In the Atlantic, Pacific and in the Indian Ocean in the Southern hemisphere, tropical cyclones receive
names in alphabetical order, and women’s and men's names are alternated. In the Northern Indian
Ocean, the names are listed alphabetically country-wise and are neutral genderwise.

Why name them?

• Since the storms can often last a week or even longer and more than one cyclone can be occurring in
the same region at the same time, names can reduce the confusion about what storm is being described.
• Naming them after a person/flower/animal etc. makes it easier for quick information exchange.

Northern Indian Ocean Region

• It is usual practice for a storm to be named when it reaches tropical storm strength (63 kmph). The
IMD’s Regional Specified Monitoring Centre (RSMC) New Delhi Tropical Cyclone Center is responsible to
name the tropical cyclones that have formed over the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
• The IMD which issues cyclone advisories to eight countries in the region has a list of names contributed
by each of them. The names to be used will be taken from the list starting with Nisarga, then Gati, Nivar,
etc. (The names for cyclones in the Indian Seas are not allocated in alphabetical order)

Column 1 Column 2
WMO Member Countries
Name Name
Bangladesh Nisarga Biparjoy
India Gati (Nov’22) Tej
Iran Nivar Hamoon
Maldives Burevi Midhili
Myanmar Tauktae Michaung
Oman Yaas Remal
Pakistan Gulab (Sep’21) Asna
Qatar Shaheen (Sep’21) Dana
Saudi Arabia Jawad (Nov’21) Fengal
Sri Lanka Asani (May’22) Shakhti
Thailand Sitrang (Next) Montha
UAE Mandous Senyar
Yemen Mocha Ditwah

26.9. Changing Cyclone Patterns in The Indian Ocean

• In recent times there is a noticeable increase in the frequency of high-intensity storms in the Indian Ocean.
Cyclones are forming in the off-season months like January. Some of the storms are following a very unu-
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sual path (E.g. 2018 Cyclone Titli).

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• The increasing ocean temperatures gave rise to the devastating Idai cyclone in March 2019 (1000 died in
Africa). It is one of the most severe storms to have made landfall in Mozambique.

All Because of Global Warming

• The South Indian Ocean which previously experienced temperatures of 26.5°C is now experiencing tem-
peratures as warm as 30-32°C.

• Regions further from the equator are more regularly experiencing the threshold temperature of 24-26°C
widening the range of formation of tropical cyclones (greater the range, greater the intensity and fre-
quency).
• These conditions are exacerbated by global forcing mechanisms including El Niño, Indian Ocean Di-
pole, Southern Annular Mode and Madden-Julian Oscillation (these in turn are affected by global
warming).

Cyclone Patterns in The Arabian Sea

• Almost 50 per cent of the storms do not sustain since the west-central and the north Arabian Sea have a
relatively colder sea temperature (due to Findlater or Somali Current that causes local upwelling).
• In the usual course, there was an occurrence of one extremely severe cyclone every four-five years. Now
the Arabian Sea started receiving tropical cyclones of high intensity in a small-time interval. For instance,
in 15 years (1998 to 2013), five extremely severe cyclones originated in the Sea. In October 2014, the west
coast of India saw an extremely severe cyclonic storm, ‘Nilofar’ (Category 4). In 2015, within one week, the
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Arabian Sea experienced two more cyclones, even stronger than Nilofar: Cyclone ‘Chapal’ followed by
Cyclone ‘Megh’.
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Role of l Nino Modoki
• El Nino Modoki (‘pseudo El Nino’) creates conditions which are not conducive for cyclogenesis in the
Bay of Bengal. On the other hand, it offers large convergence over the Arabian Sea, explaining a large
number of cyclones in that region.

26.10. Twin Cyclones

• When a pair of tropical cyclones form on each side of the equator, they are called twin cyclones. In May
2022, twin tropical cyclones Asani (northern hemisphere — counter-clockwise) & Karim (southern hem-
isphere — clockwise) formed at nearly the same time on opposite sides of the Equator. The Madden-
Julian Oscillation (MJO) coupled with Rossby waves helped fuel the twin storms by promoting convec-
tion.

Fujiwhara Effect
• The simultaneous formation of two storms in the same region is called the Fujiwhara effect. When two
cyclones spinning in the same direction pass close enough to each other, they begin to revolve around
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their common centre. Depending on their strengths, they may merge or move on separate paths.
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 Hybrid Cyclones contain the characteristics of both tropical and extratropical cyclones.

Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)

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 • MJO is an eastward moving trough (series of thunderstorms) in the tropics that recurs every 30 to
60 days. Unlike ENSO, which is stationary (in the Pacific Ocean), the MJO is an eastward moving
disturbance. ENSO is associated with persistent features that last several seasons over the Pacific Ocean
basin. On the other hand, multiple MJO events occur within a season (i.e., weather varies on a week-to-
week basis).
• The MJO consists of enhanced rainfall convective phase and suppressed rainfall convective phase.
These two phases produce opposite changes in rainfall and this entire dipole propagates eastward. The
effect is witnessed mainly in the tropical region, in the band between 30 degrees North and 30 degrees
South of the equator.

Madden-Julian Oscillation’s Impact on Weather

• MJO is associated with surface westerly wind bursts, deep convection, and heavy precipitation.
• The MJO can modulate the timing and strength of monsoons.
• The MJO can influence tropical cyclone numbers and strength in nearly all ocean basins.
• The MJO can result in jet stream changes that can lead to cold air outbreaks, extreme heat events, and
flooding rains over North America.

How Does MJO Help The Formation of Twin Cyclones?

• The MJO provides an environment that is conducive to the birth of tropical cyclones. The enhanced phase
of the MJO provides active thunderstorms which drive cyclonic circulation. Although the Source of
spin is being provided by the Earth’s rotation, however, circulation pattern associated with the MJO can
further intensify the rotation.

How?
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• In the Tropics, trade winds blow from the east, but on the backside of the MJO air is drawn inward at
low levels. This inward air at low levels leads to the development of low-level westerly winds (westerly
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 wind burst) along the Equator. When combined with easterly winds farther away on either side of the
Equator, it produces a low-level environment with enhanced rotation and ultimately helps enhanced rota-
tion.

26.11. Warning of Tropical Cyclones

• Detection of any unusual phenomena in the weather leading to cyclones has three main parameters: fall
in pressure, increase in wind velocity, and the direction and movement (track) of the storm.
• Monitoring is also done by aircraft which carry a number of instruments including weather radar. Cyclone
monitoring by satellites is done through very high-resolution radiometers to obtain an image of the cloud
cover and its structure.
• Today, it is possible to detect a cyclone right from its genesis on the high seas and follow its course, giving
a warning at least 48 hours before a cyclone strike. However, the predictions of a storm course made only
12 hours in advance do not have a very high rate of precision.

4-Stage IMD Warning System For Tropical Cyclones

• In 1999, IMD introduced a 4-Stage warning system to issue cyclone warnings to the disaster managers.

1) Pre-Cyclone Watch
• Issued when a depression forms over the Bay of Bengal irrespective of its distance from the coast.
• The pre-cyclone watch is issued at least 72 hours in advance of the commencement of adverse weather.
• It is issued at least once a day.

2) Cyclone Alert (Colour code Yellow)

• Issued at least 48 hours before the commencement of the bad weather when the cyclone is located beyond
500 Km from the coast.
• It is issued every three hours.

3) Cyclone Warning (Colour code Orange)

• Issued at least 24 hours before the commencement of the bad weather when the cyclone is located within
500 Km from the coast.
• Information about the time/place of landfall is indicated in the bulletin.
• Accuracy in estimation increases as the cyclone comes closer to the coast

4) Post-landfall outlook (Colour code Red)

• It is issued 12 hours before the cyclone’s landfall when the cyclone is located within 200 km from the coast.
• More accurate information about time/place of landfall and associated bad weather are indicated in the
bulletin.
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 27. Jet streams

Jet streams are

 circumpolar (circle around the earth with poles as their centres),

 narrow, concentrated bands of (the air in the stream is directed towards the axis of the stream
making it very narrow ― 50-150 km across),
 upper tropospheric,
 westerly,
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 geostrophic streams,
 flowing at high velocity,
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  with a degree of meandering.
• Jet Streams are formed due to pressure differences between air masses (large bodies of air having little
horizontal variation in temperature and moisture) and Coriolis Force.

27.1. Explanation of Jet Streams

Geostrophic Wind
• The Coriolis force acting on a body increases with an increase in its velocity. The winds in the upper
atmosphere, 2-3 km above the surface, are free from the frictional effect of the surface and are controlled
by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force. When isobars are straight, and when there is no friction,
the pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis force, and the resultant wind blows parallel
to the isobar (deflection of the wind is maximum). This wind is known as the geostrophic wind.

Geostrophic Wind Vector Parallel to The Isobars

Why Don’t Winds Flow from Tropical High-Pressure (In Upper Troposphere) To Polar Low (In
Upper Troposphere) Directly as Shown in The Figure Below?

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• Because these winds (in the upper troposphere) are geostrophic, i.e., they flow at great speeds due to
low friction and are subjected to greater Coriolis force. Thus, they are deflected greatly giving rise to
three distinct cells called Hadley cell, Ferrel Cell and Polar cell. That is, instead of one big cell we have
three small cells that combinedly produce the same effect.
 Hadley Cell and Polar Cell are thermal in origin (convection). Ferrel Cell is dynamic in origin (Coriolis Force
and blocking effect of converging winds). These cells are part of general circulation.

Upper Tropospheric Westerlies

• Jet streams are produced due to winds flowing from the tropics towards poles in the upper troposphere
(just below the tropopause). Both the Northern and Southern hemispheres have jet streams, although the
jet streams in the north are more forceful due to greater temperature gradients.
• The jet stream produced between polar and temperate air masses is called the polar jet stream or polar
jet. The jet stream produced between temperate and tropical air masses is called the subtropical jet
stream. In the polar jet streams wind flows from the temperate region towards the polar region, and
in the subtropical jet streams, winds flow from subtropics towards the temperate region.
 In the upper troposphere, the wind flows from less dense air mass towards the poles due to thermal effect
(poles receive less heat and equator receives more heat. So, at the surface the winds flow from the pole
towards the equator whereas at an altitude the winds flow from the equator towards poles). The high-pressure
gradient force is directed from south to north.
• Anything moving from tropics towards poles deflects towards their right in the northern hemisphere and
towards their left in the southern hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect. Thus, jet streams flow from west
to east in both the hemispheres and hence they are called westerlies or upper-level westerlies.

Why Do Polar Jets and Subtropical Jets Flow At Different Altitudes?

• Polar jet streams flow 6 – 9 km above the ground and Sub-tropical jet streams flow 10 – 16 km above
the ground. This is because the troposphere is thicker at the equator (17 to 18 km) than at the poles (8
to 9 km).

High Velocity
• Temperature contrast between the air masses determines the velocity of the jet stream. The greater the
difference in temperature, the faster the jet stream.
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•
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Winds are highest in the core

• The friction in the upper troposphere is quite low due to less dense air. Hence the jet streams flow at high
speeds. They have an average velocity of 120 kmph in winter (because of the high temperature contrast)
and 50 kmph in summer. The speed is much higher in their cores. Sometimes, jet streams can reach speeds
of up to 400 kmph or greater.

Meandering (Rossby Waves)

• When the temperature contrast (between the air masses) is maximum, a jet stream flows in a nearly straight
path. But when temperature contrast reduces (jet stream is weak), it starts to follow a meandering path
(wavy, irregular manner with a poleward or equatorward component). Thus, meandering depends on tem-
perature contrast (temperature gradient).
 High temperature gradient  high-pressure gradient  greater wind speed  greater Coriolis force 
geostrophic stream  wind direction is parallel to isobars (perfect west-east flow).
 Low temperature gradient  low variable Coriolis force  winds start to meander

Rossby Waves
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• Rossby waves are a natural phenomenon in the atmosphere and oceans due to the rotation of the earth
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(Coriolis Force). In the atmos[here, the meandering jet streams are called Rossby Waves.
• In Rossby waves, the polar air moves toward the equator while tropical air moves poleward. A meander is
called a peak or ridge if it is towards the poles and a trough if it is towards the equator. The existence of
these waves explains the low-pressure cells (cyclones) and high-pressure cells (anticyclones).

27.2. Permanent Jet Streams

• Polar jet and subtropical jet are permanent jet streams that breeze through the upper troposphere for
the most part of the year.

Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ)

• During winter, the STJ is nearly continuous in both hemispheres. It exists all year in the southern hemi-
sphere. However, it is intermittent in the northern hemisphere during summer when it migrates north.
• The STJ can be temporarily displaced when strong mid-latitude troughs (remnants of temperate cyclones)
extend into subtropical latitudes. When these displacements occur, the subtropical jet can merge with the
polar front jet (related to cloudbursts. We will study this in the chapter on Indian Monsoons).
• STJ is closely connected to the Indian and African summer monsoons (we will study this in the chapter
on Indian Monsoons).

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Polar Front Jet (PFJ)
• The strongest jet streams are the polar jets, and subtropical jets are somewhat weaker. It has a more
variable position than the sub-tropical jet. In summer, its position shifts towards the poles and in winter
towards the equator. The jet is strong and continuous in winter.
• The polar front jet is closely related to the polar front (frontogenesis process in mid-latitudes; discussed in
the next chapter). It greatly influences the climates of regions lying close to 60° latitude. It determines the
path and speed and intensity of temperate cyclones.

27.3. Temporary Jet Streams

• Other than polar jet and subtropical jet, there are temporary jet streams which appear only in a particular
season. They are few. Important ones are the Somali Jet and The Tropical (African) Easterly Jet. They
are major high-velocity winds in the lower troposphere, and hence they are called low-level jets (LLJs).

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The Somali Jet
• The Somali Jet is a south-westerly jet. It occurs during the summer over northern Madagascar and off the
coast of Somalia. The jet is most intense from June to August (it plays a role in influencing the Indian
Monsoons). The jet remains relatively steady from June to September before moving to the southern
Indian Ocean during the winter.

The Tropical Easterly (TEJ) Jet or African Easterly Jet

• The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature of the northern hemispheric summer over southern Asia and
northern Africa. The TEJ is found between 5° and 20°N. It is persistent in its position, direction, and in-
tensity from June through the beginning of October.
• During the South Asian summer monsoon, the TEJ induces secondary circulations that enhance con-
vection over South India and the nearby ocean. It acts as the upper-level venting system (puller) for the
strong southwest monsoon.
• The establishment and maintenance of the TEJ are not fully understood, but it is believed that the jet may
be caused by the uniquely high temperatures and heights over the Tibetan Plateau during summer (dry
air encounters more humid air at high altitudes). In recent years due to the decrease in the temperature
contrast between the land and sea over the Indian subcontinent, the TEJ has shown a decreasing trend
(not good for Indian monsoons).

27.4. Influence of Jet Streams on Weather

• Jet streams help in the maintenance of latitudinal heat balance by mass exchange of air. They exercise an
influence on the movement of air masses which may cause prolonged heat waves, drought or flood con-
ditions.
• Sub-tropical jet streams and some temporary jet streams together influence Indian Monsoon patterns.
(More about this while studying India Monsoons in Indian geography)

Jet Streams And Weather In Temperate Regions

• Jet streams generally push air masses around, moving weather systems to new areas and even causing
them to stall if they have moved too far away.
• Polar Front Jet (PFJ) plays a key role in determining the weather of the midlatitudes because they usually
separate the colder polar and warmer midlatitude air masses. It plays a major role in determining the path
and intensity of frontal precipitation and frontal cyclones. Weak PFJ also results in slipping of polar
vortex into temperate regions.

Explanation
• The PFJ drives temperate weather through phenomena called troughing, ridging, and jet streaks. Ridges
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occur when the warm air (at high-pressure) pushes against the cold air. Troughs occur where cold air (at
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 lower pressure) drops into warm air. This condition occurs due to a weak jet stream (lesser temperature
contrast between air masses).

Troughs & ridges are analogous to low-pressure (troughs) & high-pressure (ridges). Active weather occurs
ahead of a trough & quiet weather beneath a ridge.

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• The ridges and troughs give rise to jet streaks. They form in response to localised but major temperature
gradients.
• The process of winds exiting a trough or a jet streak, known as divergence, creates a void in the upper
atmosphere. Air will rush up from lower altitudes to fill the void. This upward rush of air from the surface
creates a low-pressure system. The Coriolis effect creates the cyclonic rotation that is associated with
depressions.
• The winds entering the jet streak are rapidly converging, creating a high pressure at the upper level in the
atmosphere. This leads to divergence (high pressure) at the surface (anticyclonic condition). The Coriolis
effect creates the anticyclonic rotation that is associated with clear weather.

Polar Vortex

• Polar vortex (circumpolar vortex or a polar cyclone) is a cold, upper tropospheric (sometimes extend-
ing to the lower levels of the stratosphere) cyclonic (low-pressure) parcel of air which can reach up to
2,000 km wide. It sits over the polar region during the winter season and gets weaker in summer.
• Polar cyclones differ from others because they are not seasonal. They can occur at any time of the year.
They can form quickly (sometimes less than 24 hours), and their direction or movement cannot be
predicted. They can last from a day up to several weeks. Most frequently, polar cyclonesthye develop
above northern Russia and Siberia.

Polar Vortex Cold Wave (Sudden Stratospheric Warming)

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• The polar vortex lies within the polar front (boundary separating the temperate and polar air masses) and
will remain in its place when the westerlies along with the polar jet are strong (a strong polar vortex means
that there is huge temperature contrast between the temperate and polar regions, mostly in winters).
• When the polar vortex is weak, it intrudes into the mid-latitude regions by buckling the general wind
flow pattern. This leads to significant cold outbreaks in the mid-latitude regions. The polar vortex cold
wave is capable of delivering sub-zero temperatures to the United States and Canada where it occurs the
most.

The polar vortex is associated with the depletion of the ozone layer. The mechanism is explained in detail in the
PMF IAS Environment Book.

How Does Polar Vortex Slip?

• The Polar jet traverses somewhere over 65º N and S latitudes. When the temperature contrast between
polar and temperate regions is maximum, the jet is very strong, and the meandering is negligible. But
when the temperature contrast is low, the jet starts to meander (Rossby waves).
• Meandering jet creates alternating low and high-pressure cells. High-pressure cells are created below
the ridges and the low-pressure cells below the troughs (this is because of the upper air circulations
created by the jet).
• With severe meandering, the high-pressure cells push over to the north and displace the polar cyclone
from its normal position i.e. the cyclone moves away from the pole and slips into the temperate regions.
• With the strengthening of the jet, the high-pressure cells become weak and retreat to their normal latitu-
dinal positions. With the retreat of the high-pressure cells, the polar cyclone moves back to its normal
position.

Heat Domes
• In July 2021, Lytton in British Columbia (South-Western Canada), which lies in the temperate region, has
endured record temperatures close to 50 °C. The blistering temperatures were caused by an atmospheric
high-pressure zone known as a heat dome.
• Heat dome conditions arise when Rossby Waves keep the dome locked in place several miles high in the
atmosphere and its air sinks down toward the ground, heating up because of compression.
• Heat Domes are known to produce high temperatures, violent thunderstorms, and dangerous wild-
fires (exacerbated by pyrocumulonimbus clouds).

Omega Block
• Heat domes often form what are known as blocking patterns in the atmosphere, which halt the west-to-
east movement of weather. One of the blocking patterns is called omega block.
• As the name suggests, the omega block takes on the shape of the Greek letter omega on a weather map.
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It is anchored by zones of low pressure on its west and east sides, flanking the high-pressure zone or heat
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dome in the middle.

27.5. Jet Streams And Aviation

• Jet streams are used by aviators if they have to fly in the direction of the flow of the jet streams and avoid
them when flying in opposite direction.

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• Jet streams can also cause a bumpy flight because the jet stream is sometimes unpredictable and can
cause sudden movement, even when the weather looks calm and clear.
• During volcanic eruptions plumes of volcanic ash tend to get sucked into the same jet stream that
aeroplanes use for travel.

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 28. Temperate Cyclones

• Cyclonic systems developing in the mid and high latitudes beyond the tropics (between 35° and 65°
latitudes) in both hemispheres are called temperate cyclones. They are also known as mid-latitude cy-
clones, extratropical cyclones, frontal cyclones or wave cyclones.
• Unlike the tropical cyclones (convective cyclogenesis) which have a thermal origin, the temperate
cyclones (frontal cyclogenesis) have a dynamic origin (complex interaction of air masses under the
influence of Coriolis force).
• To understand the mechanism of frontal cyclogenesis (origin and development of temperate cyclones) it
is important for us to understand the concepts of air masses and fronts.

28.1. Air Masses

• An air mass is a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture. Air
masses are an integral part of the planetary wind system and are associated with one or other wind belts.
They extend from surface to lower stratosphere and are across thousands of kilometres.

Source Regions
• When a large parcel of the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently long time, it acquires
the characteristics of the area. The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains and
plateaus. These homogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called the source regions. The
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main source regions are the high-pressure belts in the subtropics (giving rise to tropical air masses)
and around the poles (the source for polar air masses).
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• Source region establishes heat and moisture equilibrium with the overlying air mass. When an air mass
moves away from a source region, the upper level maintains the physical characteristics for a longer period.
This is possible because air masses are stable with stagnant air which does not facilitate convection.
Conduction and radiation in such stagnant air are not effective.

Ideal Source Regions (Conditions For The Formation Of Air Masses)

 Source region should be extensive with gentle, divergent air circulation (gentle anticyclonic circula-
tion).
 Areas with high-pressure but little pressure difference or pressure gradient are ideal source regions.
• There are no major source regions in the mid-latitudes as these regions are dominated by frontal
cyclones and other disturbances.

Air Masses Based On Source Regions

There are five major source regions. These are:

1. Warm tropical and subtropical oceans;

2. The subtropical hot deserts;
3. The relatively cold high latitude oceans;
4. The very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes;
5. Permanently ice-covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica.

Accordingly, the following types of airmasses are recognised:

1. Maritime tropical (mT);

2. Continental tropical (cT);
3. Maritime polar (mP);
4. Continental polar (cP);
5. Continental arctic (cA).

The first letter describes the moisture properties of the air mass.

 c: continental air masses (dry)

 m: maritime air masses (moist)

The second letter describes the source region of the air mass.

 T: Tropical (warm)
 P: Polar (cool)
 A: Arctic or Antarctic (cold)
• The heat transfer processes that warm or cool the air take place slowly.
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Cold Air Mass

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• A cold air mass is one which is colder than the underlying surface.
Cold Source Regions (Polar Air Masses)
 Arctic Ocean – cold and moist
 Siberia – cold and dry
 Northern Canada – cold and dry
 Southern Ocean – cold and moist

Warm Air Mass

• A warm air mass is one which is warmer than the underlying surface.

Warm Source Regions (Tropical Air Masses)

 Sahara Desert – warm and dry
 Tropical Oceans – warm and moist

Continental Polar Air Masses (cP)

• Source regions of these air masses are the Arctic basin, northern North America, Eurasia and Antarctica.
• Dry, cold and stable conditions characterize these air masses. The weather during winter is frigid, clear and
stable. During summer, the weather is less stable with a lesser prevalence of anticyclonic winds, warmer
landmasses and lesser snow.

Maritime Polar Air Masses (mP)

• The source region of these air masses are the oceans between 40° and 60° latitudes. These are those
continental polar air masses which have moved over the warmer oceans, got heated up and collected
moisture.
• The conditions over the source regions are cool, moist and unstable. The weather during winters is
characterized by high humidity, overcast skies and occasional fog and precipitation. During summer,
the weather is clear, fair and stable.

Continental Tropical Air Masses (cT)

• The source regions of the air masses include tropical and sub-tropical deserts of Sahara in Africa, and of
West Asia and Australia. These air masses are dry, hot and stable and do not extend beyond the source.
They are dry throughout the year.

Maritime Tropical Air Masses (mT)

• The source regions of these air masses include the oceans in the tropics and sub-tropics such as Mexican
Gulf, the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans.
• These air masses are warm, humid and unstable. The weather during winter has mild temperatures with
overcast skies with fog. During summer, the weather is characterized by high temperatures, high humid-
397

ity, cumulous clouds and convectional rainfall.

Influence of Air Masses on World Weather

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• The properties of an air mass which influence the accompanying weather are vertical temperature dis-
tribution (indicating its stability and coldness or warmness) and moisture content.
• The air masses carry atmospheric moisture from oceans to continents. They transport latent heat, thus
contributing to latitudinal heat balance.
• Most of the migratory atmospheric disturbances such as cyclones and storms originate at the contact
zone between different air masses called fronts. Characteristics of the air masses involved determine the
weather associated with the disturbances.

28.2. Fronts

• Fronts are the typical features of mid-latitude weather (temperate region — 30°-65° N and S). They
are uncommon (unusual) in tropical and polar regions. Understanding front formation and types of fronts
is essential to understanding the formation of mid-latitude cyclones and the dominant weather patterns
of mid-latitudes.
• Front is a three-dimensional boundary zone formed between two converging air masses with different
physical properties (temperature, humidity, density). The two air masses don’t merge readily due to the
effect of the converging atmospheric circulation, different physical properties, relatively low diffusion co-
efficient and low thermal conductivity.

Front Formation
• The process of formation of a front is known as frontogenesis (war between two air masses), and dis-
sipation of a front is known as frontolysis (one of the air masses wins against the other).
• Frontogenesis involves the convergence of two distinct air masses and may give rise to temperate cy-
clones. Frontolysis involves overriding an air mass by another.
• In the northern hemisphere frontogenesis (convergence of air masses) happens in an anti-clockwise
direction and southern hemisphere, clockwise direction. This is due to Coriolis force.

General Characteristics
• The temperature contrast influences the thickness of the frontal zone in an inversely proportional man-
ner. That is, two air masses with higher temperature differences do not merge readily. Thus, the front
formed is less thick.
• The frontal activity is invariably associated with cloudiness and precipitation because of the ascent of
warm air which cools down adiabatically, condenses and causes rainfall. The intensity of precipitation
depends on the slope of the ascent and the amount of water vapour present in ascending air.
• Front experiences wind shift since the wind motion is a function of pressure gradient and Coriolis force.
 Wind Shift: A change in wind direction of 45 degrees or more in less than 15 minutes with sustained wind
speeds of 10 knots (1 knot = 1.852 kmph) or more throughout the wind shift.
398

28.3. Classification of Fronts

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• Based on the mechanism of frontogenesis and the associated weather, the fronts can be studied under
the following types:

Symbols to indicate various fronts, frontogenesis (Occlusion) and frontolysis

Stationary Front
• When the surface position of a front does not change (when two air masses are unable to push against
each other; a draw), a stationary front is formed. The wind motion on both sides of the front is parallel to
the front. Warm or cold front stops moving, so the name stationary front. Once this boundary resumes its
forward motion, it becomes a warm front or cold front.

Weather Along A Stationary Front

• Cumulonimbus clouds are formed due to the overrunning (uplifting air) of warm air along a stationary
front causing frontal precipitation.
399

• Frontal cyclones migrating along a stationary front can dump heavy amounts of precipitation, resulting
in significant flooding along the front.
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Cold Front

• Cold front is formed when a cold air mass replaces a warm air mass by advancing into it or when the
warm air mass retreats and the cold air mass advances (cold air mass is the clear winner). In such a situation,
the transition zone between the two is a steep sloped cold front. Frontolysis begins when the warm air
mass is completely uplifted by the cold air mass.

Weather Along A Cold Front

• The weather depends on a narrow band of cloudiness and precipitation (because the slope is steep). Severe
storms can occur.
• During the summer months, thunderstorms are common in the warm sector. In some regions, tornadoes
occur in the warm sector.
• A cold front moves up to twice as quickly as a warm front and the weather along it is violent. Cold
fronts produce sharper changes in weather in a relatively shorter duration (because the upliftment
of air is quite rapid). Temperatures can drop more than 15 degrees within the first hour.

Cloud Formation Along A Cold Front

• The approach of a cold front is marked by increased wind activity in the warm sector and the appearance
400

of cirrus clouds, followed by lower, denser altocumulus and altostratus. At the actual front, dark nimbus
and cumulonimbus clouds cause heavy showers.
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Warm Front
• Warm Front is a sloping frontal surface along which active movement of warm air over cold air takes
place (warm air mass is too weak to beat the cold air mass).
• The passage of the warm front is marked by a rise in temperature and pressure. Frontolysis (front dissi-
pation) begins when the warm air mass makes way for cold air mass on the ground, i.e. when the warm air
mass completely sits over the cold air mass.

Weather Along A Warm Front

• As the warm air moves up the slope, it condenses and causes precipitation but, unlike a cold front, the
401

temperature and wind direction changes are gradual. Such fronts cause moderate to gentle precipita-
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tion over a large area, over several hours.

Clouds Along A Warm Front
• The hierarchy of clouds with the approach of the warm front is cirrus, cirrostratus, altostratus and nim-
bus. There is no formation of cumulonimbus clouds as the gradient is gentle.
• Cirrus and cirrostratus clouds ahead of the warm front create a halo around the sun and moon.

Occluded Front

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• Occlusion is a process by which the cold front of a rotating low-pressure system catches up with the
warm front so that the warm air between them is forced upwards. Such a front is formed when a cold
air mass overtakes a warm air mass and goes underneath it.
• Frontolysis begins when the warm sector diminishes, and the cold air mass completely replaces the warm
sector on the ground. Thus, a long occluded front is formed which could be a warm front type or cold
front type occlusion.

Weather Along an Occluded Front

• Weather along an occluded front is complex — a mixture of cold front type and warm front type
weather. The formation of mid-latitude cyclones involves the formation of an occluded front.

Clouds Along an Occluded Front

• A combination of the cold front and warm front clouds are formed on the opposite side of the occlusion.

Stationary Front • Tie – no clear winner

Cold Front • Cold air mass is the clear winner. It completely overrides the warm air mass.

Warm Front • The warm air mass picks up a fight but fails to beat the cold air mass.

Occluded Front • Cold front + warm front  Double victory for the cold air mass
403

Cold Front, Warm Front and Occluded front are examples of Temperature Inversion.
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28.4. Origin and Development of Temperate Cyclones

The isobars are not closed in a temperate Cyclones

[UPSC Prelims 1998] Which one of the areas marked as A, B, C and D in the given figure of
the cyclone, witnesses heavy torrential short duration rainfall accompanied by thunder-
storms?

a) A
b) B
c) C
d) D
404

Explanation:
• Cumulonimbus cloud formation is seen along the rapidly moving cold front. D should be the answer.
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Page 405
Polar Front Theory
• According to this theory, the warm-humid air masses from the tropics meet the dry-cold air masses from
the poles and thus a polar front is formed as a surface of discontinuity. Such conditions occur over sub-
tropical high, sub-polar low-pressure belts and along the tropopause.

Explanation
• In the northern hemisphere, warm air blows from the south and cold air from the north of the front. When
the pressure drops along the front, the warm air moves northwards, and the cold air move towards the
south setting in motion an anticlockwise cyclonic circulation (Coriolis Force; northern hemisphere).
• The warm air glides over the cold air and a sequence of clouds appear over the sky ahead of the warm
front and cause precipitation. The cold front approaches the warm air from behind and pushes the warm
air up. As a result, cumulus clouds develop along the cold front. This leads to a well-developed
extratropical cyclone, with a warm front and a cold front.
• There are pockets of warm air or warm sector wedged between the warm front and the cold front. The
cold front moves faster than the warm front ultimately overtaking the warm front. The wedged warm air
is completely uplifted (frontolysis), the front is occluded (occluded front), and the cyclone dissipates.
Thus, the temperate cyclone is intense frontogenesis involving mainly occlusion type fronts.

Seasonal Occurrence of Temperate Cyclones

• The temperate cyclones occur mostly in winter, late autumn and spring. They are generally associated
with rainstorms and cloudy weather. During summer, all the paths of temperate cyclones shift northwards,
and there are only a few temperate cyclones over sub-tropics and the warm temperate zone, although a
high concentration of storms occurs over Bering Strait, USA and the Russian Arctic and sub-Arctic zone.

Distribution of Temperate Cyclones

1. USA and Canada – extend over Sierra Nevada, Colorado, Eastern Canadian Rockies and the Great Lakes
region,
2. the belt extending from Iceland to the Barents Sea and continuing over Russia and Siberia,
3. winter storms over the Baltic Sea,
4. Mediterranean basin extending up to Russia and even up to India in winters (called western disturbances)
and the Antarctic frontal zone.

Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones

Size And Shape

• The temperate cyclones are asymmetrical and shaped like an inverted ‘V’.
• They stretch over 500 to 600 km and may spread over 2500 km over North America.
406

• They have a height of 8 to 11 km.

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Structure
• The north-western sector is the cold sector and the north-eastern sector is the warm sector (because cold
air mass in the north and warm air mass in the south push against each other and rotate anti-clockwise in
the northern hemisphere).

Orientation And Movement

• Normally, individual frontal cyclones exist for about 3 to 10 days, moving in a generally west-to-east
direction under the influence of westerlies. The precise movement of this weather system is controlled
by the orientation of the polar jet stream in the upper troposphere.

Westerly Path of a Frontal Cyclone System

• If the storm front is east-west, the centre moves swiftly eastwards. If the storm front is directed northwards,
the centre moves towards the north, but after two or three days, the pressure difference declines and the
cyclone dissipates.
• In case the storm front is directed southwards, the centre moves quite deep southwards-even up to the
407

Mediterranean region (sometimes causing the Mediterranean cyclones or Western Disturbances ― they
are very important as they bring rains to North-West India – Punjab, Haryana).
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Associated Weather
• The approach of a temperate cyclone is marked by a fall in temperature, wind shifts and a halo around
the sun and the moon, and a thin veil of cirrus clouds.
• A light drizzle follows which turns into a heavy downpour. These conditions change with the arrival of the
warm front which halts the fall in mercury level and the rising temperature.
• Rainfall stops and clear weather prevails until the cold front of an anticyclonic character arrives which
causes a fall in temperature, and brings cloudiness and rainfall with thunder. After this, once again clear
weather is established.
• The temperate cyclones experience more rainfall when there is slow movement and a marked difference
in rainfall and temperature between the front and rear of the cyclone. Anticyclones generally accompany
these cyclones.

[UPSC Mains 2016] Discuss the concept of air mass and explain its role in macro-climatic
changes.
• Macro-climatic changes  unusual cold wave (in tropics and subtropics) and heat wave (in the
temperate regions) conditions brought down by the Rossby Waves (meandering jet streams); climatic
changes brought down by moving fronts and frontogenesis.

28.5. Tropical Cyclones vs. Temperate Cyclones

Tropical Cyclone Temperate Cyclone

Origin • Dynamic Origin: Coriolis Force,

• Thermal Origin.
Movement of air masses.

Latitude • Confined to 35-65º N and S of the

• Confined to 10-30º N and S of the
408

equator.
equator.
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 • More pronounced in the Northern
hemisphere due to greater tem-
perature contrast.

Frontal system • The very cyclone formation is due to

• Absent.
frontogenesis (Occluded Front).

Formation • Can form both on land as well as

• They form only on seas with tempera-
seas.
tures more than 26-27° C.
• They dissipate on reaching the land.
Season • Irregular. But few in summers and
• Seasonal: Late summers (Aug-Nov).
more in winters.

Size • They cover a larger area.

• Limited to a small area.
• Typical size: 300-2000 km in diame-
• Typical size: 100-500 km in diameter;
ter; varies from region to region.
varies with the strength of the cyclone.
Shape • Inverted ‘V’
• Elliptical
Rainfall • In a temperate cyclone, rainfall is
• Heavy but does not last beyond a few
slow and continues for many days,
hours.
sometimes even weeks.
• If the cyclone stays in a place, the rain-
fall may continue for a few days.
Wind Velocity • Comparatively low.
• Much greater.
and destruction • Typical range: 30-150 kmph.
• Typical range: 100-250 kmph
• Less destruction due to winds but
• 200-1200 kmph in the upper tropo-
more destruction due to flooding.
sphere)
• Greater destruction due to winds,
storm surges and torrential rains.
Isobars • Isobars are usually ‘V’ shaped and
• Complete circles and the pressure
the pressure gradient is low.
gradient is steep
Lifetime • Lasts for 2-3 weeks.
• Doesn’t last for more than a week
Path • West – East (Westerlies; Jet Streams).
• East to West; turns North at 20° lati-
• Move away from the equator.
tude and west at 30° latitude.
• Move away from the equator.
Temperature dis- • All the sectors of the cyclone have
• The temperature at the centre is
409

tribution different temperatures

almost equally distributed.
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Calm region • In a temperate cyclone, there is not a
• The centre of a tropical cyclone is
single place where winds and rains
known as the eye. The wind is calm at
are inactive.
the centre with no rainfall.
Driving force • The energy of a temperate cyclone
• The tropical cyclone derives its energy
depends on the temperature, humid-
from the latent heat of condensa-
ity and density differences of air
tion, and the difference in densities of
masses.
the air masses does not contribute to
the energy of the cyclone.
Influence of Jet • The temperate cyclones, in contrast,
• The relationship between tropical cy-
streams have a distinct relationship with
clones and the upper-level air flow is
upper-level air flow (jet streams,
not very clear.
Rossby waves etc.)

Clouds • The temperate cyclones show a vari-

• The tropical cyclones exhibit fewer va-
ety of cloud development at various
rieties of clouds – cumulonimbus,
elevations.
nimbostratus, etc.
Surface anti-cy- • The temperate cyclones are
• Tropical cyclones are not associated
clones associated with anticyclones which
with surface anticyclones and they
precede and succeed a cyclone.
have a greater destructive capacity.
These cyclones are not very destruc-
tive.

Influence on In- • Bring rains to North-West India.

• Both coasts are affected. But the east
dia • The associated instability is called
coast is the hot spot.
Western Disturbances.

Weather Predic- • Easy because of the general west-

• Tough as the movement can be er-
tion erly path of the cyclone, less varia-
ratic due to a lot of factors.
ble jet stream path and simple
frontal system.
410
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29. El Nino, La Nina & El Nino Modoki

411
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29.1. Normal Conditions

• Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is most important in terms of general atmospheric circulation.
In a normal year, a surface low-pressure develops in the region of northern Australia and Indonesia and
a high-pressure system over the coast of Peru. As a result, the trade winds over the Pacific Ocean move
strongly from east to west.
• The easterly flow of the trade winds carries warm surface waters westward, bringing convective storms
(thunderstorms) to Indonesia and coastal Australia. Along the coast of Peru, cold bottom cold
nutrient-rich water wells up to the surface to replace the warm water that is pulled to the west.
 Normal Conditions: Warm water accumulation in Western Pacific and cold water upwelling in Eastern Pacific;
Thunderstorms in equatorial western Pacific and calm conditions in equatorial eastern Pacific.

Walker Circulation (Normal Years)

• The Walker Circulation (Walker Cell) is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high-
pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean, and a low-pressure system over Indonesia. The
Walker cell is indirectly related to upwelling off the coasts of Peru and Ecuador. This brings nutrient-rich
cold water to the surface, increasing fishing stocks.

412

 Thermocline: a temperature gradient in a body of water, separating layers at different temperatures.

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29.2. El Nino

• El Niño is the name given to the occasional development of warm ocean surface waters along the coast
of Ecuador and Peru. In an El Niño year, air pressure drops over large areas of the central Pacific and
along the coast of South America. The normal low-pressure system is replaced by a weak high in the
western Pacific (the southern oscillation).
• The change in pressure pattern causes the trade winds to be reduced ― weak Walker Cell. Sometimes
Walker Cell might even get reversed. This reduction allows the equatorial counter current (west to east
current along calm doldrums) to accumulate warm ocean water along the coastlines of Peru and Ec-
uador replacing the cool Peruvian current.
 El Nino conditions: Equatorial counter current flows along calm doldrums in the west-east direction; Drought
in Northern Australia and floods in Central America.
• The accumulation of warm water causes the thermocline to drop in the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean
which cuts off the upwelling of cold deep ocean water along the coast of Peru. Climatically, the de-
velopment of an El Niño brings drought to the western Pacific (Indonesia and Northern Australia),
rains to the equatorial coast of South America, and convective storms and hurricanes to the central
Pacific.
• El Niño normally occurs around Christmas and usually lasts for a few weeks to a few months. Sometimes
an extremely warm event can develop that lasts for much longer periods. In the 1990s, strong El Niños
developed in 1991 and lasted until 1995.

El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

• The formation of an El Niño (circulation of surface ocean current) is linked with the Pacific Ocean cir-
culation pattern known as the southern oscillation. Southern Oscillation, in oceanography and climatol-
ogy, is a coherent inter-annual fluctuation of atmospheric pressure over the tropical Indo-Pacific re-
gion. El Nino and Southern Oscillation coincide most of the time hence their combination is called El Nino
Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
 Only El Nino == Warm water in Eastern Pacific + Cold water in Western Pacific
 Only SO == Low-pressure over Eastern Pacific + High-pressure over Western Pacific
 ENSO = (Warm water in Eastern Pacific + Low-pressure over Eastern Pacific) + (Cold water
in Western Pacific + High-pressure over Western Pacific)

El Nino Modoki
• Conventional El Niño is characterised by strong anomalous warming in the eastern equatorial Pacific.
Whereas El Niño Modoki is associated with strong anomalous warming in the central tropical Pacific
and cooling in the eastern and western tropical Pacific.
413

• Such zonal gradients result in anomalous two-cell Walker Circulation over the tropical Pacific, with a wet
Page

region in the central Pacific and a dry region in the western and eastern Pacific.
 [UPSC Prelims 2010] A new type of El Nino called El Nino Modoki appeared in the news. In
this context, consider the following statements:
1. Normal El Nino forms in the Central Pacific Ocean whereas El Nino Modoki forms in the Eastern
Pacific Ocean.
2. Normal El Nino results in diminished hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean, but El Nino Modoki results in
a greater number of hurricanes with greater frequency.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Explanation:
• Normal El Nino forms in the Eastern Pacific Ocean whereas El Nino Modoki forms in the Central Pacific
Ocean. So, statement (1) is wrong.
• Both El Nino and El Nino Modoki cause subsidence of air (anticyclonic conditions) in the Atlantic Ocean.
Hence the rainfall and hurricane activity are suppressed. So (d) Neither 1 nor 2 is the answer.

Effects of El Nino & ENSO

• El Nino/ENSO phenomenon is closely monitored and is used for long-range forecasting in major parts of
the world. In the years when the ENSO is strong, large-scale variations in weather occur over the world.
 The arid west coast of South America receives heavy rainfall.
 Heavy rains in California, Ecuador, the Gulf of Mexico and China.
 Severe droughts occur in Australia, Indonesia, India and southern Africa.
 The warmer ocean surface waters have a devastating effect on marine life off the coast of Peru and
Ecuador. Fish catches are lower in the region than in the normal year.

Normal Conditions

• Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Cold Ocean Water == Good for Fishing.
• Western Pacific == Indonesia and Australia == Warm Ocean Water == Plenty of rains.

El Nino/ENSO

• Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru & Ecuador == Warm Ocean Water == Fishing industry takes a hit.
• Western Pacific == Indonesia and Australia == Cold Ocean Water == Drought.

[UPSC Mains 2014] Most of the unusual climatic happenings are explained as an outcome of
414

the El-Nino effect. Do you agree?

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29.3. Impact of El Nino on Indian Monsoons

• El Nino/ENSO and Indian monsoon are inversely related. The location of low-pressure and hence the
rising limb over the Western Pacific is considered to be conducive to good monsoon rainfall in India. It
shifting eastward from its normal position, such as in El Nino years, reduces monsoon rainfall in India.
• The most prominent droughts in India have been El Nino droughts, including the recent ones (2014-16).
However, not all El Nino/ENSO years led to a drought in India. For instance, 1997/98 was a strong El
Nino year, but there was no drought (this is because of Indian Ocean Dipole – IOD). On the other hand,
a moderate El Nino in 2002 resulted in one of the worst droughts.
• El Nino directly impacts India's agrarian economy as it tends to lower the production of summer crops
such as rice, sugarcane, cotton and oilseeds. The ultimate impact is seen in the form of high inflation, and
low gross domestic product growth as agriculture contributes around 14 per cent to the Indian economy.

Southern Oscillation Index and Indian Monsoons

• Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) is used to measure the intensity of the Southern Oscillation. This is the
difference in pressure between Tahiti in French Polynesia (Central Pacific), representing the Central Pa-
cific Ocean and Port Darwin, in northern Australia representing the Eastern Pacific Ocean. The positive
and negative values of the SOI, i.e. Tahiti minus the Port Darwin pressure are pointers towards good or
bad rainfall in India.

Negative SOI
Positive SOI
Tahiti (eastern Pacific) pressure is greater than that of Port Darwin Reverse
(western Pacific)
Drought conditions in Eastern Pacific & good rainfall in Western Pacific Reverse
Good for Indian Monsoons Bad for Indian Monsoons

Indian Ocean Dipole Effect (Not Every El Nino Year Is The Same In India)
• In recent decades, the El Nino/ENSO-Monsoon relationship seemed to have weakened in the Indian
subcontinent. For e.g. in 1997, strong ENSO failed to cause drought in India. It was discovered that just
like ENSO was an event in the Pacific Ocean, a similar seesaw ocean-atmosphere system in the Indian
Ocean was also at play. It was discovered in 1999 and named the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD). IOD starts
to develop in the equatorial region of the Indian Ocean in April and is best devolved in October.
• The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined by the difference in sea surface temperature between two
areas (or poles, hence a dipole) ― a western pole in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and an
eastern pole in the eastern Indian Ocean south of Indonesia.
• Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric component of the IOD was later discovered and named as Equatorial
415

Indian Ocean Oscillation (EQUINOO: oscillation of warm water and atmospheric pressure between
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea).
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• During positive IOD, winds over the Indian Ocean blow from east to west (from the Bay of Bengal to-
wards the Arabian Sea). This results in the Arabian Sea (the western Indian Ocean near African Coast)
being much warmer and the eastern Indian Ocean around Indonesia becoming colder and dry. In the
negative dipole year (negative IOD), the reverse happens to make Indonesia much warmer and rainier.

• It was demonstrated that a positive IOD index often negated the effect of ENSO, resulting in increased
Monsoon rains in several ENSO years like 1983, 1994 and 1997.

Impact of IOD On Cyclogenesis In Northern Indian Ocean

• Positive IOD (the Arabian Sea is warmer than the Bay of Bengal) results in more cyclones than usual
in the Arabian Sea.
• Negative IOD results in stronger than usual cyclogenesis in the Bay of Bengal. Cyclogenesis in the
Arabian Sea is suppressed.

[UPSC Prelims 2017] With reference to 'Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)' sometimes mentioned
in the news while forecasting the Indian monsoon, which of the following statements is/are
correct? [2017-I]
416

1. IOD phenomenon is characterised by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical West-
ern Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.
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 2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino's impact on the monsoon.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Explanation:
• IOD phenomenon is characterised by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western
Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Indian Ocean. So (b) 2 only is the answer.

29.4. La Nina

• After an El Niño event weather conditions usually return to normal. However, in some years the trade winds
can become extremely strong, and an abnormal accumulation of cold water can occur in the central
and eastern Pacific. This event is called a La Niña.

Effects of La Nina
• A strong La Niña occurred in 1988 and scientists believe that it may have been responsible for the summer
drought over central North America.
• During this period, the Atlantic Ocean has seen very active hurricane seasons in 1998 and 1999. One of
the hurricanes that developed, named Mitch, was the strongest October hurricane ever to develop in
about 100 years of record keeping.

Some of the other weather effects of La Niña include:

• Abnormally heavy monsoons in India,

417
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• Cool and wet winter weather in south-eastern Africa, wet weather in eastern Australia,
• Cold winter in western Canada and north-western United States,
• Winter drought in the southern United States.

[UPSC Prelims 2002] For short-term climatic predictions, which one of the following
events, detected in the last decade, is associated with occasional weak monsoon rains in
the Indian subcontinent?
a) La Nina
b) Movement of Jet Stream
c) El Nino and Southern Oscillations
d) Greenhouse effect at global level

Explanation:
418

• La Nina enhances monsoon circulation. So (a) El Nino & SO is the answer.

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[UPSC Prelims 2011] La Nina is suspected of having caused recent floods in Australia. How
is La Nina different from El Nino?
1. La Nina is characterised by unusually cold ocean temperature in the equatorial Indian Ocean whereas
El Nino is characterised by unusually warm ocean temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
2. El Nino has an adverse effect on the southwest monsoon of India, but La Nina has no effect on the
monsoon climate.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Explanation:
• La Nina is characterised by unusually warm ocean temperature in the equatorial Indian Ocean. It is as-
sociated with strong monsoon and above average rains and colder winters. So (d) Neither 1 nor 2 is the
answer.

419
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 30. Climatic Regions

30.1. Koppen’s Scheme of Classification of Climate

• The most widely used classification of climate is the empirical climate classification scheme developed by
V. Koppen. Koppen identified a close relationship between the distribution of vegetation and climate.
He selected certain values of temperature and precipitation and related them to the distribution of
vegetation and used these values for classifying the climates.
 Empirical: verifiable by observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic. E.g. a stone falls to the
ground when dropped — logic; dropping a stone to confirm if it falls to the ground — empirical.

Climatic Groups According to Koppen

• Koppen recognized five major climatic groups; four of them are based on temperature and one on pre-
cipitation. The capital letters: A, C, D and E delineate humid climates and B dry climates.

The average temperature of the coldest month is 18 °C or higher

A
C The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-latitude) climate is higher than minus 3 °C
but below 18 °C (-3 °C to 18 °C)
D The average temperature of the coldest month is minus 3 °C or below (-3 °C or below)
E The average temperature for all months is below 10 °C
B Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation
420
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• The climatic groups are subdivided into types, designated by small letters, based on the seasonality of
precipitation and temperature characteristics. The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters: f,
m, w and s.

no dry season
f
m monsoon climate
w winter dry season
s summer dry season

• The small letters a, b, c and d refer to the degree of severity of temperature.

• The small letters h and k refer to tropical and temperate (mid-latitude) regions respectively.
• The B – Dry Climates are subdivided using the capital letters S for steppe or semi-arid and W for deserts.

Steppe W Desert
S

Major Climatic Types According to Koppen

Type Code Characteristics
Climatic Group
A-Tropical Humid Climate Tropical Wet Af No dry season
Tropical Monsoon Am Monsoonal. Short dry season
Tropical Wet and Aw Winter dry season
Dry
C-Warm Temperate Climates Humid Subtropical Cfa No dry season, warm summer
Mediterranean Cs Dry hot summer
Marine West Coast Cfb No dry season, warm and cool summer
D-Cold Snow-Forest Climates Humid Continental Dfb No dry season, severe winter
Subarctic Dfc Winter is very severe
E-Cold Climates Polar Tundra ET No true summer
Polar Ice Cap (Frost) EF Perennial ice
H-Highland Highland H Highland with snow cover
B-Dry Climate Subtropical Steppe BSh Low-latitude semi-arid or dry
Subtropical Desert BWh Low-latitude arid or dry
Mid-Latitude BSk Mid-latitude semi-arid or dry
Steppe
Mid-Latitude Desert BWk Mid-latitude arid or dry

Köppen–Geiger Climate Classification

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• Köppen–Geiger Climate Classification is the most recently updated model of Köppen Climate Classifica-
tion.
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 Code Climate Type Group Precipitation Salient Feature
Tropical Rainforest Tropical No Dry Sea- No seasons; Monthly Rainfall > 6 cm
1. Af
son
Tropical Monsoon Tropical Wet Summer Seasonal reversal of winds
2. Am

Tropical Wet Savanna Tropical Dry Winter Distinct wet and dry seasons
3. Aw

Tropical Dry Savanna (very Tropical Dry Summer Distinct wet and dry seasons
4. As
rare)
Hot Semi-Arid (Steppe) Arid Steppe Drier extension of savannah
5. BSh

Cold Semi-Arid (Steppe) Arid Steppe Continentality and/or rain shadow effect
6. BSk

Hot Deserts Arid Desert Rainfall < 25 cm

7. BWh
High diurnal temperature range
Cold Desert Arid Desert
8. BWk

Humid Subtropical (China Temperate No Dry Sea- Rainfall throughout the year; summer max-
9. Cfa
Type) son ima
Temperate Oceanic (British Temperate No Dry Sea- Rainfall throughout the year; winter max-
10. Cfb
Type) son ima
Subpolar Oceanic Temperate No Dry Sea- Very similar to Temperate Oceanic
11. Cfc
son
Hot-Summer Mediterranean Temperate Dry Summer Hot dry summers & cool wet winters
12. Csa
Rainfall: 35-90 cm
Warm-Summer Mediterranean Temperate Dry Summer Evergreen oaks
13. Csb
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Cool-Summer Mediterranean Temperate Dry Summer

14. Csc
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 Monsoon-Influenced Subtrop- Temperate Dry Winter Humid Subtropical with long drier sum-
15. Cwa
ical mers
Subtropical Highland Temperate Dry Winter High altitude climate similar to temp oce-
16. Cwb
anic
Cold Subtropical Highland Temperate Dry Winter Some are located in the subpolar regions
17. Cwc

Humid Continental Cold (Continental) No Dry Sea- Rainfall throughout the year; summer max-
18. Dfa
a: hot summer; b: warm summer son ima
Cold (Continental) No Dry Sea-
19. Dfb
son
Subarctic Cold (Continental) No Dry Sea- Highest annual temperature range
20. Dfc
c: cold summer; d: very cold win- son
ter Cold (Continental) No Dry Sea-
21. Dfd
son
Continental Cold (Continental) Dry Summer Similar to humid continental but with a dry
22. Dsa
a: hot summer; b: warm summer summer
Cold (Continental) Dry Summer
23. Dsb

Dry-Summer Subarctic Cold (Continental) Dry Summer Similar to subarctic but with a dry summer
24. Dsc
c: cold summer; d: very cold win-
ter Cold (Continental) Dry Summer
25. Dsd

Monsoon-Influenced Continen- Cold (Continental) Dry Winter Similar to humid continental but with a dry
26. Dwa
tal winter
a: hot summer; b: warm summer Cold (Continental) Dry Winter
27. Dwb

Monsoon-Influenced Subarctic Cold (Continental) Dry Winter Similar to subarctic but with a dry winter
28. Dwc
c: cold summer; d: very cold win-
ter Cold (Continental) Dry Winter
29. Dwd

Ice Cap Polar Icecap Mean monthly temperature < 0 °C

30. EF

Tundra Polar Tundra Not more than 4 months are below freez-
31. ET
ing

30.2. A – Tropical Humid Climates

• Tropical humid climates exist between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. The sun is almost
overhead throughout the year, and the presence of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) makes the
climate hot and humid with the annual range of temperature being very low, and annual rainfall high.
• The tropical group is divided into three types, namely
1) Af – Tropical wet climate
2) Am – Tropical monsoon climate
3) Aw – Tropical wet and dry climate
423

Tropical Wet Climate (Af: A – Tropical, f – no dry season)

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• Tropical wet climate is also known as the hot and wet equatorial climate, and equatorial rainforest
climate. The corresponding regions are generally referred to as equatorial rainforests, equatorial ever-
green forests, tropical moist broadleaf forests, and lowland equatorial evergreen rainforests.

Distribution
• Tropical wet climate is mostly confined to regions lying between 5° N and S of the Equator (little or no
Coriolis Force == no tropical cyclones in the region). Its greatest extent is found in the lowlands of the
Amazon, the Congo, Malaysia and Indonesia.

Equatorial Climate
• The climate is dominated by maritime tropical air masses (high humidity).

Temperature
424

• Temperature is uniform throughout the year (very small annual range of temperatures) and there is no
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winter (typical to the equatorial rainforest climate).

• Cloudiness, heavy precipitation and regular land and sea breezes (on-shore trade winds) moderate
the daily (diurnal) temperature maintaining a truly equable climate (narrow diurnal range of tempera-
ture).
• The mean diurnal and monthly temperatures are always around 27°C with very little variation.

Precipitation
• Heavy thunderstorms (cumulonimbus clouds) occur almost every afternoon. Precipitation is heavy and
well distributed throughout the year with an annual average always above 150 cm. In some regions,
the annual average may be as high as 250-300 cm.

• There is no month without rain (a distinct dry season is absent) and the monthly average is above 6
cm most of the time.
• There are two periods of maximum rainfall, April and October (shortly after the equinox — due to the
passing of ITCZ). The least rainfall occurs in June and December (solstice: the sun and the ITCZ are farthest
from the equator).
• The double rainfall peaks coinciding with the equinoxes are typical to equatorial climates (not found
in any other type of climate).

[UPSC Prelims 2003] Assertion-Reasoning

 Assertion (A): Areas near the equator receive rainfall throughout the year.
 Reason (R): High temperatures and high humidity cause convectional rain to fall mostly
in the afternoons near the equator.
a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true

Equatorial Vegetation

425
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• High temperature and abundant rainfall support a luxuriant tropical rainforest. In the Amazon lowlands,
the forest is so dense that it is called selvas. From the air, the tropical rain forest appears like a thick
canopy of foliage, broken only where it is crossed by large rivers or cleared for cultivation.
 Selvas are dense tropical rainforests usually having a dense canopy (cloud cover).
• The growing season is all year round (seeding, flowering, and decay do not take place in a seasonal
pattern). The tallest trees attain a height close to 50 m. The smaller trees beneath form the next layer.
• Because the tall trees cut out most of the sunlight, the undergrowth is not dense with shade-tolerant
ferns and herbaceous plants. All plants struggle upwards (most epiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a pe-
culiar layer arrangement.

 Epiphyte: An epiphyte is a plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant (such as a tree) and derives its
moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, and sometimes from debris accumulating around it.
• The equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees that yield tropical hardwood, e.g. ma-
hogany, ebony, dyewoods etc. In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove forests thrive. Many
parts of the tropical rain forests have been cleared for either lumbering or shifting cultivation.

Despite dense forests, countries in equatorial regions are net timber importers. Comment.
• Though the tropics have great potential in timber resources, commercial extraction is difficult mainly
because:
1. Multiple species of trees occur in a particular area (trees do not occur in homogenous (pure) stands
like in the temperate region) making commercial exploitation a difficult task.
2. Many tropical hardwoods (very heavy) do not float readily on water, and this makes transportation
an expensive matter.

Life And Economy in The Equatorial Region

Agriculture
426

• The forests are sparsely populated.

• In the forests, most primitive people live as hunter-gatherers.
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• The more advanced ones practice shifting cultivation.

• Food is abundantly available. People generally don’t stock food for the next day.

Commercial
• In the Amazon Basin, the Indian tribes collect wild rubber.
• In the Congo Basin, the Pygmies gather nuts.
• In the jungles of Malaysia, the Orang Asli make all sorts of cane products.

Shifting Cultivation or Slash and Burn Cultivation

• This type of cultivation is followed in many parts of the world where dense forests are common (In India,
the North-East is known for this type of cultivation).
• Tribes cut the trees in a plot, burn them and cultivate the plot till the fertility is exhausted. Once the
fertility is exhausted, the clearing is abandoned, and they move on to a new plot.

Plantation Boom
• With the coming of the Europeans, many large plantations have been established, especially in Java,
Sumatra, Malaysia, West Africa and Central America. These plantations destroyed nearly half of orig-
inal equatorial rainforests.
• The climate is very favourable for the cultivation of certain crops that are highly valued in the industrial
West. The most important is natural rubber. Malaysia and Indonesia are the leading producers. The
home country, Brazil exports practically no natural rubber.
• Cocoa is another important crop which is cultivated in West Africa, bordering the Gulf of Guinea. The
two most important producers are Ghana and Nigeria. All the cocoa here goes into the American and
European chocolate industries.
• Another crop from the same area (West Africa), oil palm, has done equally well and many countries like
Indonesia have now taken to its cultivation (India imports significant quantities of palm oil from
Indonesia and the other countries in the region).

Palm plantations in Indonesia

427

• Other important crops include coconuts, sugar, coffee (Brazil), tea, tobacco, spices, etc.
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 Region(s)
Plantations
Palm Malaysia, Indonesia
Sugarcane Brazil
Coffee Brazil
Rubber Malaysia, Indonesia
Cocoa Ghana, Nigeria

Factors Affecting the Development Of Equatorial Regions

Equatorial Climate And Health

• Excessive heat (sun-stroke) and high humidity create serious physical and mental handicaps.
• High humidity feeds many tropical diseases such as malaria and yellow fever.
• Communicable diseases are rampant as germs and bacteria are transmitted through moist air.
• Insects and pests not only spread diseases but are injurious to crops.

Jungle Hinders The Development

• The construction of roads and railways is a risky business as workers are exposed to wild animals, poison-
ous snakes, insects and most importantly, tropical diseases. Once completed, they have to be maintained
at a high cost.

[UPSC Prelims 2011] If a tropical rainforest is removed, it does not regenerate quickly as
compared to a tropical deciduous forest. This is because
a) the soil of rain forest is deficient in nutrients
b) propagules of the trees in a rain forest have poor viability
c) the rain forest species are slow-growing
d) exotic species invade the fertile soil of rain forest.

Explanation:
• The fertility of topsoil in rainforest regions is very poor. Torrential downpours leach out most of the
topsoil nutrients.
 Leaching: percolation and draining way of nutrients due to rainwater action.
• The soil deteriorates rapidly with subsequent soil erosion and soil impoverishment. It takes decades to
replenish the soil of lost nutrients. Thus, a seed doesn’t usually germinate, and even if it does, its devel-
opment is hindered due to little availability of sunlight. Lalang (tall grass) and thick undergrowth spring
up as soon as the trees are cut. They choke the restoration of forests.
• The Indonesian Island of Java is an exception because of its rich volcanic ashes.
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[UPSC Prelims 2003] Assertion-Reasoning

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  Assertion (A): Unlike temperate forests, the tropical rain forests, if cleared, can yield
productive farmland that can support intensive agriculture for several years even without
chemical fertilizers.
 Reason (R): The primary productivity of the tropical rain forest is very high when
compared to that of temperate forests.
a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true

Explanation:
• The tropical rain forests, if cleared, can yield productive farmland: this statement is wrong. The tropical
soils are heavily leached. Some fertility is added by burning down the felled trees. This little fertility is
lost after 2-3 crops. Can support intensive agriculture for several years even without chemical fertilizers:
this is also wrong. Intensive agriculture for several years is not possible without adding fertilizers. So (d)
A is false but R is true is the answer.

Difficulties In Livestock Farming

• Livestock farming is greatly handicapped by an absence of meadow grass. The grass is so tall and coarse
that it is not nutritious. The few animals like buffaloes are kept mainly for domestic use. Their yield in milk
or beef is well below those of the cattle in the temperate grasslands. In Africa, domesticated animals are
attacked by tsetse flies that cause ngana, a deadly disease.

Mineral resources
• Gold, copper, diamonds and oil are important resources that are found in rainforests around the world.
Extracting these natural resources is a destructive activity that damages the rainforest ecosystem (resource
curse). Examples are:
 gold mining in the Brazilian and Peruvian Amazon,
 rare earth mining in the Congo (cobalt mining in recent times — Congo's rich red earth has the
world's largest known deposit of cobalt, a key metal in the lithium-ion batteries),
 gold and copper mining in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, and
• Oil and gas development in Ecuador, Venezuela and Peru ― some of the world’s most promising oil
and gas deposits lie deep in tropical rainforests.

Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am: A – Tropical, m – monsoon)

• Unlike the equatorial wet climate, the monsoon climate is characterised by distinct wet and dry seasons
associated with seasonal reversal of winds. Usually, there are three seasons namely summer, winter and
429

the rainy season (seasons are the chief characteristic of monsoon climate). Floods in the wet season
and droughts in the dry season are common.
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 The region marked as Aw also exhibits monsoon characteristics. However, the rainy season here is either short or less intense.

Distribution
• The tropical monsoon climate occurs within 5° to 30° N and S of the equator. It is best developed in the
Indian sub-continent, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, parts of Vietnam and south China and
northern Australia.
• On-shore tropical monsoons (winds flowing from sea to land) occur in the summer and off-shore
(dry monsoons winds flowing from land to sea) in the winter.

Monsoon Climate
430

Temperature
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• Monthly mean temperatures are above 18 °C.

• Temperatures range from 30-45 °C in summer. The mean summer temperature is about 30 °C.
• In winters, the temperature range is 15-30 °C with a mean temperature around 20-25 °C.

Precipitation
• Annual mean rainfall ranges from 200-250 cm. In some regions, it is around 350 cm.
• Places like Cherrapunji and Mawsynram receive an annual rainfall of about 1000 cm.
 Cherrapunji and Mawsynram (wettest places on earth by annual rainfall ― a little over 1150 cm per year)
lie on the windward side of the Meghalaya hills, so the resulting orographic lift (orographic rainfall)
enhances precipitation. Also, they are located between mountains which enhances cloud concentration due
to the funnelling effect.

Seasons
The Cool, Dry Season (October To February)
• North-East Monsoon (out blowing dry winds) bring little or no rain to the Indian subcontinent. However,
a small amount of rain falls in Punjab from cyclonic sources (Western Disturbances: frontal precipitation
brought by subtropical jet stream), and this is vital for the survival of winter cereals.
• North-East Monsoons blowing over the Bay of Bengal acquire some moisture and bring rains to the south-
eastern tip (coastal Tamil Nadu) of the peninsula at this time of the year (Nov-Dec).

[UPSC Prelims 2015] Consider the following statements

1. The winds which blow between 30° N and 60° S latitudes throughout the year are known as wester-
lies.
431

2. The moist air masses that cause winter rains in North-Western region of India are part of westerlies.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

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 a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Explanation:
• Western Disturbances are brought towards Northwest India by the westerlies. Both the statements are
correct.

The Hot Dry Season (March To Mid-June)

• The temperature rises sharply with the sun’s northward shift to the Tropic of Cancer. Day temperatures of
35 °C are usual in central India and the mean temperature in Sind, and south India may be as high as 44
°C.
• Coastal districts are a little relieved by sea breezes. There is practically little rain. Hailstorms occur here
and there in April and May.

The Rainy Season (Mid-June To September)

• With the ‘burst’ of the South-West Monsoon in mid-June, torrential downpours sweep across the country.
Almost all the rain for the year falls within this rainy season. This pattern of concentrated heavy rainfall
in summer is a characteristic feature of the tropical monsoon climate.

The Retreating Monsoon

• The amount and frequency of rains decrease towards the end of the rainy season. The monsoon retreats
gradually southwards after mid-September until it leaves the continent altogether. The skies are clear again
and the cool, dry season returns in October, with the out blowing North-East Monsoon.

Tropical Marine Climate

• Just outside the monsoon zone, the climate is modified by the influence of the on-shore trade winds
all year round. This type of climate is called Tropical Marine Climate. Such a climate has a more evenly
distributed rainfall.
• Due to the steady influence of the trades, the Tropical Marine Climate is more favourable for habitation,
but it is prone to severe tropical cyclones, hurricanes or typhoons.
• The rainfall is both orographic where the moist trades meet upland masses as in eastern Brazil, and
convectional due to intense heating during the day and in summer. Its tendency is towards a summer
maximum without any distinct dry period.
• Such a climate is experienced in Central America, West Indies, north-eastern Australia, the Philippines,
parts of East Africa, Madagascar, the Guinea Coast and eastern Brazil.
432

Tropical Monsoon Forests

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• Tropical Monsoon forests are also known as dry-deciduous forests and tropical deciduous forests. The
vegetation is most varied, ranging from forests to thickets, and from savanna to scrubland.
• Broad-leaved hardwood trees are most common here. They are normally deciduous, because of the
marked dry period, during which they shed their leaves to withstand the drought (they shed their leaves
to prevent loss of water through evapotranspiration).
• The forests are more open and less luxuriant than the equatorial jungle, and there are far fewer species.
Where the rainfall is heavy, e.g. in southern Burma, peninsular India, northern Australia and coastal regions
with a tropical marine climate, the resultant vegetation is luxuriant.
• With a decrease in rainfall in summer, the forests thin out into thorny scrubland or savanna with scattered
trees and tall grass. In parts of the Indian sub-continent (rain shadow regions ― regions east of the
Western Ghats like north Karnataka, Telangana, Vidarbha, etc.), rainfall is so deficient that semi-desert
conditions are found in summer.

Population and Economy in Monsoon Climate

• Monsoon climatic regions support high population density. Most of these regions are still developing.
• Subsistence farming is the main occupation. Intensive cultivation is common in regions with irrigational
facilities. Major crops include rice, sugar, cotton, jute, spices, etc.
 Subsistence farming: crops grown with an intention to secure food for the season. The crops are not sold as
the production is very low.
• Shifting cultivation is followed in North-East India and South-East countries.
• Cattle and sheep rearing are carried out for domestic and commercial purposes. The livestock industry
is not as profitable as in temperate regions.

Lumbering
• Most of the forests yield valuable timber and are prized for their durable hardwood. Lumbering is
undertaken in the more accessible areas. This is particularly important in continental South-East Asia.
• Of the tropical deciduous trees, teak, of which Myanmar is the leading producer (three-quarters of the
world’s production), is the most sought after. It is valuable on account of its durability, strength, immun-
ity to shrinkage, fungus attacks and insects.
• Teak logs are so heavy that they will not float readily on water. It is therefore necessary to ‘poison’ the tree
several years before actual felling so that it is dry and light enough to be floated down the Chindwin and
the Irrawaddy to reach the sawmills at Yangon (Rangoon).
• Other kinds of timber include Neem, Banyan, Mango, Teak, Sal, Acacia, and Eucalyptus. Together with
the forests are bamboo thickets, which often grow to great heights.

Agricultural Development in the Monsoon Lands

433
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• Much of the monsoon forest has been cleared for agriculture to support the very dense population. Farm-
ing is the dominant occupation of the Indian sub-continent, China, South-East Asia, eastern Brazil and the
West Indies.
• Farms are small, and the people are forever land-hungry. Industrialisation makes things worse.

[UPSC Mains 2017] What characteristics can be assigned to monsoon climate that succeeds
in feeding more than 50 per cent of the world population residing in Monsoon Asia?

Crops
• Rice is the most important staple crop. Irrigation water from rivers, canals, dams or wells is extensively
used in the major rice-producing countries.
• Other food crops like maize, millet, sorghum, wheat, gram and beans are of subsidiary importance. They
are cultivated in drier or cooler areas where rice cannot be grown.

Lowland Cash Crops

• The most important crop in this category is cane sugar. As much as two-thirds of the world’s sugar
production comes from tropical countries. Some of the major producers include India, Java, Formosa,
Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad and Barbados.
• Jute is confined almost entirely to the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, in India and Bangladesh.
• Other crops include cotton, a major commercial crop of the Indian subcontinent.

Highland Plantation Crops

• The colonisation of tropical lands by Europeans gave rise to a new form of cultivated landscape in the
cooler monsoonal highlands. Thousands of acres of tropical upland forests were cleared to make way for
plantation agriculture in which tea and coffee are the most important crops.

Coffee
• Coffee originated in Ethiopia and Arabia. But Brazil accounts for almost half the world’s production of
coffee. It is mainly grown on the eastern slopes of the Brazilian plateau. The crop is also cultivated on
the highland slopes in the Central American states, India and eastern Java.

Tea
• Tea requires moderate temperatures (about 15° C), heavy rainfall (over 150 cm) and well-drained high-
land slopes.
• The best regions are thus the Himalayan foothills of India and Bangladesh, the central highlands of
Sri Lanka and western Java, from all of which it is exported.
• Tea originated in China and it is still an important crop grown mostly for local consumption.
434

Shifting Cultivation
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• This most primitive form of farming is widely practised in forested regions. As tropical soils are rapidly
leached and easily exhausted, the first crop may be bountiful, but the subsequent harvests deterio-
rate.
• Instead of rotating the crops in the same field to preserve fertility, the tribesmen move to a new clearing
when their first field is exhausted.

Name of Shifting Cultivation

Region
Malaysia Lacking
Burma Taungya
Thailand Tamrai
Philippines Caingin
Java Humah
Sri Lanka Chena
Africa & Central America Milpa
North-East India Jhum

Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw: A – Tropical, w – dry winter)

• Savanna climate has alternate wet and dry seasons. There is no distinct rainy season like in the mon-
soon climate. Rains occur in the warm summer months. Floods and droughts are common. Vegetation,
wildlife and human life are quite different from monsoon climate regions.

435
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Distribution of Savanna Climate
• Savanna climate is confined within the tropics and is best developed in Sudan (hence it is also called the
Sudan Climate). It is a transitional type of climate found between the equatorial rainforests and hot
deserts.
• African Savanna: The belt includes West African Sudan and then curves southwards into East Africa and
southern Africa north of the Tropic of Capricorn.
• South American Savanna: There are two distinct regions namely the Llanos of the Orinoco basin (north
of the equator) and the Compos of the Brazilian Highlands (south of the equator).
• Australian Savanna: The Australian savanna is located south of the monsoon strip (northern Australia)
running from west to east north of the Tropic of Capricorn.
• Indian Savanna: Certain parts across Northern Karnataka, Southern Maharashtra and Telangana exhibit
characteristics of both semi-arid and savanna climates. Irrigational projects that came up after independ-
ence have drastically modified the savanna characteristic of the region.

Savanna Climate

Rainfall
• Savanna climate receives considerably less annual rainfall. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 80-160 cm.
Rainfall decreases with distance from the equator.
• In the northern hemisphere, the rainy season begins in May and lasts till September. In the southern hem-
isphere, the rainy season is from October to March.

Temperature
• Mean annual temperature is greater than 18°C. The monthly temperature hovers between 20 °C and 32
436

°C for lowland stations.

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• Highest temperatures do not coincide with the period of the highest sun but occur just before the
onset of the rainy season, i.e. April in the Northern Hemisphere and October in the Southern Hemisphere.
• Days are hot and nights are cold. This extreme diurnal range of temperature is another characteristic
feature of the Sudan type of climate.

Winds
• The prevailing winds of the region are the trade winds, which bring rain to the coastal areas. They are
strongest in the summer (favourable position of ITCZ) but are relatively dry by the time they reach the
continental interiors or the western coasts (trade winds are easterlies – flow from east to west. Hence,
rainfall decreases from east to west).
• In West Africa, the North-East Trades blow off-shore (continent to sea) from the Sahara Desert and reach
the Guinea coast as dry, dust-laden wind.

What Is The Reason For Alternating Wet And Dry Seasons In Savanna-Type Climate?
• On-shore winds in summer bring rains. Off-shore winds in winter keep the climate dry.

Natural Vegetation of Savanna Climate

• The savanna landscape is typified by tall and coarse grass (6 to 12 feet high) and short trees. As the
rainfall diminishes towards the deserts, the savanna merges into thorny scrub (semi-arid).
• The elephant grass may attain a height of even 15 feet. The grasslands are also called bush-veld. Grasses
appear greenish and well-nourished in the rainy season. They die down in the dry season increasing the
risk of forest fires.
• The trees are deciduous, shedding their leaves in the cool, dry season to prevent transpiration, e.g.
acacias.
• They usually have broad trunks, with water-storing devices to survive through the prolonged drought.
Many trees are umbrella-shaped, exposing only a narrow edge to the strong winds.

[UPSC Prelims 2021] The vegetation of savannah consists of grassland with scattered small
trees, but extensive areas have no trees. The forest development in such areas is generally
kept in check by one or more or a combination of some conditions. Which of the following
are such conditions?
1) Burrowing animals & termites
2) Fire
3) Grazing herbivores
4) Seasonal rainfall
5) Soil properties
437

Select the correct answer using the codes given below

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 a) 1 & 2
b) 4 & 5
c) 2, 3 & 4
d) 1, 3 & 5

Explanation:
• Fires destroy seeds, large herds of grazing herbivores trample small plants and sprouting seeds, and
seasonal rainfall leads to a long dry season that causes forest fires (mostly initiated by dry grasses which
dominate the savannah ecosystem). So (c) 2, 3 and 4 is the answer.

[UPSC Prelims 2012] Which one of the following is the characteristic climate of the Tropical
Savannah Region?
a) Rainfall throughout the year
b) Rainfall in winter only
c) An extremely short dry season
d) A definite dry and wet season

Explanation:
• A definite dry winter and wet summer  Tropical Savannah (there are a few very small regions in the
world where the savannah climate is characterised by dry summers and wet winters).

Animal Life of The Savanna

• Rich animal diversity and seasonal migration of animals in search of food are the typical characteristics
of savanna animal life.
• The savanna is known as the big game country as animals are hunted down both legally and illegally.
Most of the National Geographic and Animal Planet documentaries on wild animals are shot in savanna
regions.

Life And Economy in The Savanna

• Many tribes live in the savanna region. Tribes like the Masai tribes of the East African plateau are pastor-
alists. The cattle kept by the Masai are kept entirely for the supply of milk. They don’t slaughter cattle for
meat. Agriculture is barely practiced.
• The old grazing grounds of Masai tribes in the Kenyan Highlands were taken over by the white immigrant
settlers for plantation agriculture (coffee, tea, cotton) and dairy farming.
• The Hausa are a tribe of settled cultivators who inhabit the savanna lands of Nigeria. They are more
advanced and do not practice shifting cultivation. Instead, they clear a piece of land and use it for several
years.
438

Farming
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• There is a rapid deterioration of soil fertility. During the rainy season, torrential downpours of heavy
rain cause the leaching of nitrates, phosphates, and potash. During the dry season, intense heating and
evaporation dry up most of the water. Many savanna areas, therefore, have poor lateritic soils which are
incapable of supporting cereal crops.
• Droughts are long due to unreliable rainfall. Political instability hinders the development of agricultural
infrastructure.

Crops In Savanna
• Settlements in central Africa, northern Australia, and eastern Brazil have shown that the savannas have the
immense agricultural potential for plantation agriculture of cotton, cane sugar, coffee, oil palm,
groundnuts, and fruits.
• Tropical Queensland has been very successful in developing its huge empty land. Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania,
and Malawi have large-scale production of cotton.
• In West Africa, the commercial cultivation of groundnuts, oil palm, and cocoa has been gradually
extended into the savanna lands. In the cooler highlands, temperate crops have been successfully raised.

Cattle Rearing
• The savanna is said to be the natural cattle country, and many of the native people are pastoralists. But
the quality of grass doesn’t support large-scale ranching (typical in all tropical climates).
• Grasses here are no match for nutritious and soft grasses of temperate grasslands. The cattle varieties
are also poor and yield little meat or milk.
• The export of either beef or milk from the tropical grasslands is so far not important. Few regions pro-
gressed with the adaptation of science and technology. Queensland has become Australia’s largest cattle-
producing state. Both meat and milk are exported.

30.3. B – Dry Climate

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• Grasslands and deserts are classified under B – dry climate.
• Grasslands include:
1. subtropical savanna grasslands (BSh) and
2. temperate steppe grasslands (BSk).
• Deserts are regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation. There are mainly two types:
1. hot deserts like Saharan (BWh) and
2. temperate deserts like the Gobi Desert (BWk).

Hot Desert Climate (BWh: B – Dry, W – Desert, h – low latitude)

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• The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between latitudes
15° and 30°N and S.
• The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore trade winds (hence they are also
known as trade wind deserts), rainshadow effect and/or subtropical high-pressure cells.
• Hot deserts include the Sahara Desert, Great Australian Desert, Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar
Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts. In North America, the desert are called by different names, e.g. the
Mojave, Sonoran, Californian and Mexican Deserts.
• The Atacama or Peruvian Desert is the driest of all deserts (driest place on earth with less than 2 cm
of rainfall annually because of the rain shadow effect of the Andes, off-shore trade winds, westerlies
blow to the south of Tropic of Capricorn and cold ocean currents: upwelling of cold water due to
Walker Circulation).

Mid-Latitude Desert Climate (BWk: B – Dry, W – Desert, k – high latitude)

• The temperate deserts are rainless because of either continentality (e.g. Gobi Desert) or the rain-shadow
effect (e.g. the Patagonian Desert due to the rain-shadow effect of Andes).
• Amongst the mid-latitude deserts, many are found on a plateau and are at a considerable distance from
the sea. These are Ladakh, The Kyzylkum, Turkestan (Karakum and the surrounding area), Taklimakan
and Gobi deserts of Central Asia, and the drier portions of the Great Basin Desert of the western
United States, the Patagonian Desert of Argentina, etc.

Desert Climate

Rainfall (Both Hot and Cold deserts)

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• Deserts, whether hot or mid-latitude have annual precipitation of less than 25 cm. Rain normally occurs
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as violent thunderstorms, occasionally causing flash floods.

Temperature of Hot Deserts
• There is no cold season in the hot deserts and the average summer temperature is high around 30 °C.
The reasons for the high temperatures are obvious — a clear, cloudless sky, intense insolation, dry air and
a rapid rate of evaporation.
• The highest officially registered temperature is 56.7 °C, recorded in California’s Death Valley (Mojave
Desert, bordering the Great Basin Desert) back in 1913.

• Coastal deserts by virtue of their maritime influence and the cooling effect of the cold currents have much
lower temperatures. The desert interiors, however, experience much higher summer temperatures and the
winter months are rather cold.
• High diurnal temperature range is a typical feature of hot deserts. The average diurnal range varies
from 14 to 25 °C. Intense insolation by day in a region of dry air and no clouds causes the temperature to
rise with the sun. But as soon as the sun sets, the land loses heat very quickly by radiation and the mercury
levels drop. Frosts may occur at night in winter.

Climatic Conditions in The Mid-Latitude Deserts

• These inland basins lie hundreds of miles from the sea and are sheltered by the high mountains all around
them. As a result, they are cut off from the rain-bearing winds. Occasionally depressions may penetrate
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the Asiatic continental mass and bring light rainfall in winter. Due to their coldness and elevation, snow
falls in winter.
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• The annual range of temperature is much greater than that of the hot deserts. Continentality ac-
counts for these extremes in temperature. Winters are often severe, freezing lakes and rivers, and strong
cold winds blow all the time. When the ice thaws in early summer, floods occur in many places.

Desert Vegetation
• The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or drought-resistant.
This includes the cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf acacias.
• Trees are rare except where there is abundant groundwater to support clusters of date palms. The areas
along the western coastal deserts washed by cold currents as in the Atacama Desert support a thin cover
of vegetation.
• Absence of moisture retards the rate of decomposition and desert soils are very deficient in humus. Intense
evaporation increases the salinity of the soil and the dissolved salts tend to accumulate on the surface
forming hard salt pans.
• Most desert shrubs have long roots (in search of groundwater) and are well spaced out to gather moisture.
Plants have few or no leaves, and the foliage is either way, leathery, hairy or needle-shaped to reduce
the loss of water through transpiration.
• The seeds of grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to protect them while they lie dormant for years.
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Life In The Deserts
Desert Occupation
Tribe
Bedouin Arabs Arabia nomadic herdsmen
Tuaregs Sahara nomadic herdsmen
Gobi Mongols Gobi nomadic herdsmen
Bushmen Kalahari primitive hunters
Bindibu Australia primitive hunters

The Settled Cultivators

• Modem concrete dams constructed across the Nile, e.g. Aswan and Sennar Dams improved agriculture.
In the same way, desert cultivators rely on the Indus in Pakistan, the Tigris-Euphrates in Iraq, and Col-
orado in the Imperial Valley of California.
• In the deserts, wherever there are oases (depressions where underground water reaches the surface), some
form of settled life is observed. Some oases are abnormally large like the Tafilalet Oasis in Morocco
(7,500 km2). A wall is usually constructed around the oasis to keep out the violent dust storms called
simooms.
• The most important tree is the date palm. The fruit is consumed locally and also exported. Other crops
cultivated include maize, barley, wheat, cotton, cane sugar, fruits and vegetables.

The Mining Settlers

• Gold is mined in the Great Australian Desert. Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie have become large towns.
• In the Kalahari Desert (thirstland), diamonds and copper are mined.
• In Atacama, in northern Chile, large mining camps have been established for the mining of caliche (ce-
mented gravels) from which sodium nitrate, a valuable fertiliser, is extracted. Besides nitrates, copper is
also mined. Chuquicamata is the world's largest copper town.
• In the deserts of North America, silver is mined in Mexico, uranium in Utah and copper in Nevada.
• Discovery of oil, in many parts of the Saharan and Arabian Deserts, has transformed the region.

Steppe/Temperate Grassland (Continental) Climate (BSk: B – Dry, S – Steppe, k – High

Latitude)
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Steppe grasslands in the Mongolian region

Distribution
• Most of the temperate grasslands lie in the interiors of the continents in the westerly wind belt. Some
of the grasslands are formed due to the rain shadow effect of the mountains (good rains on the windward
side; on the leeward side either deserts or grasslands are formed). Grasslands are practically treeless due
to continentality (deep within the interiors of the continents where rain-bearing winds don’t reach) and/or
rain shadow effect.

Region
Temperate Grassland
Steppe From the shores of the Black Sea to the foothills of the Altai Moun-
tains
Pustaz Hungary and surrounding regions
Prairies North America (between the foothills of the Rockies and the Great
Lakes)
Pampas Argentina and Uruguay (Rain-shadow effect)
Bush-veld (more tropical) Northern South Africa
High Veld (more temperate) Southern South Africa
Downs Murray-Darling basin of southern Australia
Canterbury New Zealand (rain shadow effect of Southern Alps)

Climate

Temperature
• Climate is continental with extremes of temperature. The summers are hot (18-20 °C), and the winters
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are cold. In the southern hemisphere, the summers are never severe due to very narrow landmasses.

Precipitation
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• The average rainfall may be taken as about 45 cm. But precipitation varies according to the location from
25 cm to 75 cm (below 25 cm it is desert climate). The maritime influence in the southern hemisphere
causes more rainfall. The heaviest rain comes in June and July (late spring and early summer).
• Most of the winter months have about 2.5 cm of precipitation, brought by the occasional depressions of
the Westerlies and coming in the form of snow.

Natural Vegetation of Steppe Climate

Grasses
• Greatest difference from the tropical savanna is that steppes are practically treeless, and the grasses are
much shorter, tall and nutritious. The growth of grasses is not abruptly checked by summer droughts or
winter cold. This is typical of the grass of the wheatlands in North America, the rich black earth or cher-
nozem areas of Ukraine and the better-watered areas of the Asiatic Steppes.
• Where the rainfall is light or unreliable, or the soil is poor, as in the continental interiors of Asia the short
steppe type of grass prevails. These grasses are shorter, wiry (lean, tough) and sparse (thinly dispersed or
scattered). These areas are less suitable for arable farming and are used for some form of ranching as
in the High Plains of the U.S.A.

Trees
• An increase in precipitation polewards gives rise to a transitional zone of wooded steppes where some
conifers gradually appear.
• In the cultivated regions, such as the wheat farms of the Prairies, double rows of trees are planted around
the house to shield the occupants from the strong wind.

Animals
• Temperate grasslands do not have much animal diversity (in contrast to tropical savanna). Horses are
common in Asian Steppes.

Economic Development of Steppes

Wheat and Maize Cultivation
• The grasslands have been ploughed up for extensive, mechanised wheat cultivation and are now the ‘gran-
aries of the world’ (Prairies). Besides wheat, maize is increasingly cultivated in warmer and wetter areas.

Ranching
• The tufted grasses have been replaced by the more nutritious Lucerne or alfalfa grass for cattle and
sheep rearing. The temperate grasslands are now the leading ranching regions of the globe (e.g. Pampas
of Argentina).
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Nomadic Herding In Asian Steppes

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• This type of migratory animal grazing has almost disappeared from the major grasslands. The herders were
wandering tribes, e.g. the Kirghiz, and the Kazakhs. Now under they are forced to settle down. The steppes
have been made into huge collective farms for ranching or producing cereals.

Extensive Mechanised Wheat Cultivation

• The temperate grasslands are ideal for extensive wheat cultivation. The levelness of the Steppes and
other temperate grasslands all over the world makes ploughing and harvesting a comparatively easy job.
In the Prairies, the Argentinian Pampas, the Ukrainian Steppes and the Downs of Australia, agriculture
is completely mechanised.

Pastoral farming
• The natural conditions suit animal farming. With the development of refrigerated ships in the late nine-
teenth century, the temperate grasslands became major pastoral regions, exporting large quantities of
beef, mutton, wool, and hides. Milk, butter, cheese and other dairy products are also important in some
parts of the North American grasslands.

Grassland Major Economic Activity

Prairies
• Wheat Granaries
• Extensive Ranching

Pustaz
• Rich black soil of Hungary, Ukraine, Romania etc.
• Abundant wheat production
• Sugar from Sugar beet (a plant whose root contains a high concentra-
tion of sucrose)

Pampas
• Alfalfa: nutrient-rich grass
• Ranching, cattle rearing; Dairy products
• Extensive wheat-producing region
• Economy depends on wheat and beef export

Downs and Canterbury

• Sheep and Cattle rearing,
• Merino sheep: wool production

Veldts
• Maize farms
• Sheep and Cattle rearing

30.4. C – Warm Temperate (Mid-latitude) Climates

447

Mediterranean Climate (Cs: C – Warm Temperate, s – Dry summer)

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• Mediterranean climate, characterised by warm dry summers and cool wet winters (winter maxima), is
also known as Warm Temperate Western Margin Climate or Warm Temperate West Coast Climate.
The basic cause of this type of climate is the shifting of the wind belts (westerly wind belts).

Distribution
• Mediterranean climate is confined to the western portion of continents, between 30° and 45° N and S of
the equator. Mediterranean climate regions include:
 The Mediterranean Sea — has the greatest extent of this type of winter rain climate
 Central Chile — the best-developed form of this climatic type
 California (around San Francisco)
 The south-western tip of Africa (around Cape Town)
 Southern Australia, and South-West Australia (Swanland)

Climate
• Climate is characterised by clear skies and high temperatures (making it Bollywood’s favourite filming
spot!).
• The summers are hot and dry, and the winters are cool and wet. Mean annual precipitation ranges from
35-90 cm.
• Temperature of warmest month is greater than or equal to 10° C. Temperature of coldest month is less
than 18° C but greater than -3° C. Climate is not extreme because of cooling from water bodies.

A Dry, Warm Summer With Off-Shore Trades

• In summer, the belt of influence of the Westerlies is shifted a little poleward. Rain-bearing winds are
therefore not likely to reach the Mediterranean lands. The prevailing trade winds (tropical easterlies)
are off-shore, and there is practically no rain. Strong winds from inland desert regions pose the risk of
wildfires.
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Rainfall In Winter With On-Shore Westerlies

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• The Mediterranean lands receive most of the precipitation in winter when the westerlies shift equa-
torward. In the northern hemisphere, the prevailing on-shore westerlies bring much cyclonic rain from
the Atlantic. The rain comes infrequent in heavy showers (torrential) and there are only a few days with
bright sunny periods in between. In mountainous districts, destructive floods occur.

Climate Graphs

Natural Vegetation In The Mediterranean Climate

• Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall. The absence of shade is a distinct
feature of Mediterranean lands. Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, dry air, excessive evapo-
ration and prolonged droughts. They are, in short xerophytic (drought tolerant).

Mediterranean Climate

Mediterranean Evergreen Forests

• These are open woodlands with evergreen oaks found only in the climatically most favoured regions. The
trees are stunted, with massive trunks, small leathery leaves and a wide-spreading root system. The cork
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oaks are valued for their thick barks, used for making wine-bottle corks.
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• In Australia, the eucalyptus forests replace the evergreen oak. The giant redwood is typical of the Cali-
fornian trees.

Evergreen Coniferous Trees

• These include the various kinds of pines, firs, cedars and cypresses which have evergreen, needle-shaped
leaves and tall, straight trunks.

Mediterranean Bushes And Shrubs

• This is perhaps the most predominant type of Mediterranean vegetation.

Grass
• Conditions in the Mediterranean do not suit grass, because most of the rain comes in the cool season
when growth is slow. Even if grasses do survive, they are so wiry (lean, tough) and bunchy that they are
not suitable for animal farming. Cattle rearing is thus unimportant in the Mediterranean.

Agriculture In The Mediterranean Climate

Orchard Farming
• The Mediterranean lands are also known as the world’s orchard lands. They account for 70 per cent of
the world’s exports of citrus fruits. The thick, leathery skin of citrus fruits prevents excessive transpiration.
The long, sunny summer enables the fruits to be ripened and harvested.
• A wide range of citrus fruits such as olives, oranges, lemons, limes, citrons and grapefruit are grown.
• Besides citrus fruits, many nut trees like chestnuts, walnuts, and almonds are grown. The fruit trees have
long roots to draw water from considerable depths during the long summer drought.

Crop Cultivation And Sheep Rearing

• Wheat is the leading food crop. Barley is the next most popular cereal. The mountain pastures, with their
cooler climate, support a few sheep, goats and sometimes cattle. Transhumance is widely practised (sea-
sonal movement up and down the hills in search of pastures).

Wine Production
• Viticulture is by tradition a Mediterranean occupation. The Mediterranean regions account for three-
quarters of the world’s production of wine. Some 85 per cent of grapes produced, go into winemaking.

Economy
• The regions are a net exporter of citric fruits and a net importer of dairy products.
• Clear skies in summer and good landscapes encourage tourism (a lot of Indian songs are shot here).
• European Mediterranean has many ancient cities and is famous for its health and pleasure resorts.
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Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate (Cfa: C – warm temperate, f – no dry season, a – hot
summer)

• Warm temperate eastern margin climate is found between 20° and 35° N and S latitude (warm temperate
latitudes or subtropics; hence it is also known as humid subtropical climate) on the east coast in both
hemispheres. Different variants of this type of climate include:
1. Temperate monsoon or China Type Climate
2. Gulf Type Climate
3. Natal Type Climate

China Type
• Temperate monsoon or China type climate is observed in most parts of China and southern parts of
Japan.

Summer
• Intense heating within interiors (Tibet and desert region) sets up a region of low pressure in summer at-
tracting tropical Pacific air stream (South-East Monsoon). Monsoon does not ‘burst’ as suddenly, nor ‘pour’
as heavily as in India. Typhoons form mostly in late summer, from July to September.

Winter
• In winter, there is intense pressure over Siberia, and the continental polar air stream flows outwards as
the North-West Monsoon, bitterly cold and very dry. There is little rain but considerable snow on the
windward slopes.

Gulf Type
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• Gulf type climate is found in the south-eastern U.S.A., bordering the Gulf of Mexico where continental
heating in summer induces an inflow of air from the cooler Atlantic Ocean. There is no complete seasonal
wind reversal (monsoonal characteristics are less intense). Hurricanes occur in September and October.

Natal Type
• Natal type climate is found in New South Wales (Australia), Natal (South Africa), and the Parana-
Paraguay-Uruguay basin (South America). It is different from the temperate monsoon or China type as
it receives rainfall from on-shore South-East Trade Winds all year round. The narrowness of the con-
tinents and the dominance of maritime influence eliminate the monsoonal elements.

Feature
Climate type
China type Temperate monsoonal
Gulf type Slight-monsoonal
Natal type Non-monsoonal

Climate

• The climate is characterised by a warm moist summer and a cool, dry winter (winters are also moist in
Natal Type).

Temperature
• The mean monthly temperature varies between 4 °C and 25 °C and is strongly modified by maritime
influence. Occasionally, the penetration of cold air (Polar Vortex) from the continental interiors may
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bring down the temperature to the freezing point. Though frosts are rare, they occasionally occur in the
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colder interiors.
Precipitation
• Rainfall is more than moderate, anything from 60 cm to 150 cm. This is adequate for all agricultural pur-
poses and hence supports a wide range of crops. Hence areas which experience this climate are very
densely populated.
• There is a fairly uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the year. Rain comes either from
convectional sources or as orographic rain in summer, or from depressions in prolonged showers in winter.
• In summer, the regions are under the influence of moist, maritime airflow from the subtropical anticy-
clonic cells. Local storms, e.g. typhoons, and hurricanes occur.

Natural Vegetation
• Warm temperate eastern margin climate supports luxuriant vegetation. The lowlands carry both ever-
green broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees (hardwood). On the highlands, are various species of
conifers such as pines and cypresses which are important softwoods. Perennial plant growth is not
checked by either a dry season or a cold season.

Timber
• The forests of China and southern Japan have considerable economic value and include oak, camphor, etc.
• South-eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, and north-eastern Argentina have Parana pine, and the quebracho
(axe-breaker, an extremely hard wood used for tanning).
• Eastern Australia have Eucalyptus forests. In Natal, palm trees thrive. The Gulf states of the U.S.A. have
lowland deciduous forests.

Economic Development
Major Cropping Patterns
Region
South-Eastern China
• Rice, tea and mulberries (sericulture)
• Sericulture is declining

South-Eastern USA
• Widespread cultivation of maize and cotton in the Corn and Cot-
ton Belts of the U.S.A
• Fruit and tobacco are also grown

Natal, South Africa

• Sugarcane

South America
• Coffee and maize and dairying

Farming In Monsoon China

453

• A third of the world’s rice is grown in China, though the huge population leaves very little for export.
Monsoon China has all the ideal conditions for padi cultivation; a warm climate, moderately wet
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 throughout the year, and extensive lowlands with fertile moisture-retentive alluvial soil, which if necessary,
can be easily irrigated. As the flat lands are insufficient for rice cultivation, farmers move up the hill slopes
and grow padi on terraced uplands.

[UPSC Mains 2017] What characteristics can be assigned to monsoon climate that succeeds
in feeding more than 50 per cent of the world population residing in Monsoon Asia?

Agriculture In The Gulf States

• Lack of population pressure and the urge to export gave rise to corn, cotton and tobacco.

Corn
• The humid air, the sunny summer and the heavy showers suit the crop well. It is grown right from the Gulf
coast to the Mid-west south of the Great Lakes, with the greatest concentration in the Corn Belt of Ne-
braska, Iowa, Indiana and Ohio.
• The region accounts for more than half the world’s production of corn, but only 3 per cent of the world’s
export. This is because most of the corn is used for fattening animals, mostly cattle and pigs (thriving
beef and pork industry). The fattened animals are then sold to the meat plants in Chicago and Cincinnati
to be processed into ‘corned beef’ (from here the beef is exported through the Great Lakes and St Law-
rence waterway).
• Apart from its ease of cultivation, corn’s most outstanding feature is its prolific yield. It gives almost twice
as much food (mainly starch) per acre as wheat or other cereals. This explains why it is so widely cultivated
in both the warm temperate and the tropical latitudes.

Cotton
• The Gulf type of climate is undoubtedly the best for cotton growing. Its long, hot growing season with
200 days frost free and a moderately high temperature permits the crop to grow slowly and mature
within six months.
• In the very south, in the Gulf-lands, the heavy rainfall damages the lint. This area is, therefore, less suitable
for cotton and is devoted to citrus fruits, cane sugar and market gardening, as in Florida.
• The commercial cultivation of cotton is now concentrated only in the most favourable areas which are the
Mississippi flood plains and Atlantic coastlands.
• The most dreaded enemy of the Cotton Belt is the boll-weevil. The pest multiplies rapidly. The pest is
responsible for the westward migration of the Cotton Belt.

Tobacco
• It is a native crop of America. Virginia tobacco is famous. The humid atmosphere, the warmth and the well-
drained soils of the Gulf states, enable tobacco to be successfully cultivated in many of the eastern states
454

of the U.S.A. No less than half the tobacco that enters international trade comes from these states.
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Crops In Southern Hemisphere

• In the coastlands of Natal, cane sugar is the dominant crop, followed by cotton and tobacco in the inte-
rior.
• Maize is extensively cultivated for use both as food and animal fodder for cattle rearing.
• In South America where rainfall is less than 120 cm, there is much grassland on which many cattle and
sheep are kept for meat, wool and hides. The extensive natural pastures provide valuable forage for both
cattle and sheep.
• Further north in southern Brazil, the rainfall increases to more than 120 cm, and forest gradually replaces
grass. Here the important occupations are the cultivation of yerba mate (Paraguay tea) and the lumbering
of araucaria or Parana pine. Cattle and sheep are reared, and maize and cane sugar are grown.
• In eastern Australia, Giant eucalyptus trees rise one above the other right up the Eastern Highlands. But
with the influx of European immigrants, much of the forest has been cleared for settlement and dairying.
• The eastern margin of New South Wales is now the chief source of Australia’s milk, butter and cheese,
besides cotton, cane sugar and maize which are increasingly grown in the north.

Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate (Cf: C – Warm temperate, f – no dry season)

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• Cool temperate western margin climate is also known as British type climate or North-West European
Maritime Climate (due to greater oceanic influence). The cool temperate western margins are under
the influence of the Westerlies all year round. They are the regions of frontal cyclonic activity (tem-
perate cyclones).

Distribution of British Type Climate

Europe
• In Europe, the climate is most pronounced in and around Britain and extends far inland into the lowlands
of North-West Europe (northern and western France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, western Norway
and also north-western Iberia).

North America
• High Rockies prevent the on-shore westerlies from penetrating far inland. Hence, it is confined mainly to
the coastlands of British Columbia.

Southern Hemisphere
• The climate is experienced in southern Chile, Southern Australia, Tasmania and most parts of New Zea-
land (regions east of the Southern Alps).

Climate
• The climate is very favourable for maximum human output.

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Temperature
• The mean annual temperatures are usually between 5 °C and 15 °C. Summers are moderately warm. Win-
ters are abnormally mild because of the warming effect brought by the warm North Atlantic Drift.
Sometimes, unusual cold spells are caused by the invasion of cold polar continental air from the interiors.
Ports are never frozen, but frosts do occur on cold nights.

Precipitation
• Rainfall occurs throughout the year with winter maxima (due to frontal cyclones). Western margins
have the heaviest rainfall due to westerlies. In New Zealand, the western margins are subjected to heavy
orographic rainfall whereas the eastern Canterbury plains receive comparatively less rainfall due to the
rain-shadow effect.

The seasons
• As in other temperate regions, there are four distinct seasons (something that is conspicuously absent in
the tropics — rainforest: only rainy season; tropical monsoon: summer, winter and rainy: tropical savanna:
summer (rains) and winter).
• Winter is the season of cloudy skies, foggy mornings, and many rainy days from the passing depressions.
Spring is the driest and the most refreshing season when people emerge from the depressing winter.
This is followed by the long, sunny summer. Next is autumn with the roar of gusty winds, and the cycle
repeats itself.

Natural Vegetation in British Type Climate

• The natural vegetation of this climatic type is deciduous forest (trees shed their leaves in the cold season).
This is an adaptation for protecting themselves against the winter snow and frost. Shedding begins in
autumn, the fall season.
• Some of the common species include oak, elm, ash, birch, beech, and poplar. In the wetter areas grow
willows (lightweight cricket bats are made from willows. In India willows are found in Kashmir).
• Higher up the mountains, deciduous trees are generally replaced by conifers which can survive a higher
altitude, a lower temperature and poorer soils.

Economy In British Type Climate

Lumbering Is Quite Profitable
• Unlike in the equatorial forests, the deciduous trees occur in pure stands and have greater lumbering
value. The open forests with sparse undergrowth mean that logging and transportation are easy and
economical.
• The deciduous hardwoods are excellent for both fuel and industrial purposes. In Tasmania, the temper-
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ate eucalypts are also extensively felled for the lumbering industry. Higher up the mountains, conifers
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 (softwood) are felled and transported to the paper and pulp industry. They are extensively used in card-
board making.

Industrialisation
• The regions are highly industrialized. The countries in the region are concerned with the production of
machinery, chemicals, and textiles rather than agriculture, fishing or lumbering, though these activities are
well represented in some of the countries.
• Britain, France and Germany have significant mineral resources and are heavily industrialised. Ruhr region
in Germany, Yorkshire, Manchester and Liverpool regions in Britain are significant for wide-ranging
manufacturing industries.
• Automobile industry is the most significant (BMW, Volkswagen, Audi, Mercedes-Benz and many other
world-leading car manufacturers have their headquarters in Germany).
• Industries based on dairy products thrive in Denmark, the Netherlands and New Zealand.
• Tasmania is important for merino wool production. The wool produced here is exported to textile facto-
ries in England, Japan, China etc.
• Fishing is particularly important in Britain, Norway and British Columbia.

Agriculture
• A large range of cereals, fruits and root crops are raised, mainly for home consumption. North-West Eu-
rope, which includes some of the most crowded parts of the globe, has practically no surplus for export. It
is, in fact, a net importer of food crops, especially wheat.

Market Gardening
• All the north-western European countries are highly industrialised and have high population densities.
There will normally be great demand for fresh vegetables, eggs, meat, milk and fruits. As the crops are
perishable, a good network of transport is indispensable.
• The produce is shipped by high-speed trucks (truck farming, which is commonly used in the United States).
In Australia, high-speed boats ply across the Bass Strait daily from Tasmania (garden state) to rush
vegetables and fruits to most of the large cities in mainland Australia.

Mixed Farming
• Arable farms are devoured by factories and wheat is now a net import item in Europe.
• Throughout north-western Europe, farmers practice both arable farming (cultivation of crops on ploughed
land) and pastoral farming (keeping animals on grass meadows).
• Amongst the cereals, wheat is the most extensively grown, almost entirely for home consumption. The
next most important cereal raised on the mixed farm is barley. The better quality barley is sold to the
breweries for beer-making or whisky distilling.
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• The most important animals kept on the mixed farm are cattle. The countries bordering the North Sea
(Britain, Denmark, and the Netherlands) are some of the most advanced dairying countries where cattle
are kept on a scientific and intensive basis.

Dairying
• The temperate western margin type of climate is almost ideal for intensive dairying.
• Cheese is a specialized product of the Netherlands. From Denmark and New Zealand comes high-quality
butter.
• Fresh milk is converted into various forms of cream, condensed or evaporated milk (less perishable than
fresh milk) and exported around the world for baby-feeding, confectionery, ice cream and chocolate mak-
ing.

Beef Cattle
• Besides dairying, some cattle are kept as beef cattle. In Argentina and Australia, meat production is the
primary concern. The high rate of beef consumption in Europe necessitates large imports of frozen and
chilled beef.
• The pigs and poultry act as scavengers that feed on the leftovers from root crops and dairy processes.
In this way, Denmark is able to export large quantities of bacon (cured meat from the back or sides of a
pig) from pigs that are fed on skimmed milk, a by-product of butter-making.

Sheep Rearing
• Sheep are kept both for wool and mutton. Britain is the home of some of the best-known sheep breeds.
With the greater pressure exerted on land by increased urbanisation, industrialisation and agriculture,
sheep rearing is being pushed further and further into the less-favoured areas.
• Britain was once an exporter of wool (but now it imports from Australia). Today it exports only British
pedigree animals to the newer sheep lands of the world (Australia).
• In the southern hemisphere, sheep rearing is the chief occupation of New Zealand, with its greatest
concentration in the Canterbury Plain (the rain shadow region).
• Favourable conditions include extensive meadows, a mild temperate climate, well-drained level ground,
scientific animal breeding, and refrigeration (enables the export of chilled Canterbury lamb and Corriedale
mutton to every corner of the globe).

Other Agricultural Activities

Potatoes
• Potatoes feature prominently in the domestic economy of the cool temperate regions. It is the staple food
in supplementing wheat or bread for millions of people. Potato yields far more starch than any cereals and
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can be cultivated over a range of climatic and soil types.

Beet Sugar
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• Found almost exclusively in north-western Europe (including European Russia) and parts of the U.S.A. The
beet is crushed for sugar, and the green tops are used as animal fodder. Producing sugar from beet
sugar started during the Napoleonic Wars when military blockades caused a scarcity of sugar.

30.5. D – Cold Snow-Forest Climates

Cool Temperate Eastern Marine Climate (Dfb: D – cool temperate, f – no dry season, b – warm
summer)

• Cool temperate eastern marine climate, also known as the Laurentian type of climate, is an intermediate
type of climate between the British Type Climate (moderate) and the Taiga Type Climate (extreme). It
has features of both maritime and continental climates.

Distribution of Laurentian Climate

• Laurentian type of climate is present only in the northern hemisphere.
1. North-eastern North America, including eastern Canada, north-east U.S.A., and Newfoundland.
2. Eastern coastlands of Asia, including eastern Siberia, North China, Manchuria, Korea and northern
Japan.
3. Humid continental Hemi-boreal (halfway between the temperate and subarctic (or boreal)) cli-
mate of Eastern Europe and South-Western Russia.

Absent in Southern Hemisphere

• In the southern hemisphere, only a small section of continents extends south of 40° S latitude. Some of
these small sections come under the rain-shadow region of the Andes (Patagonia). So, these regions
are subjected to aridity rather than continentality. In other regions, the oceanic influence is so profound
that neither the continental nor the eastern margin type of climate exists.

Climate

Temperature
• Winters are mostly dry with temperatures below freezing and some snowfall. Summers are wet and as
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warm as the tropics (~25 °C).

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Precipitation
• Rainfall occurs throughout the year with summer maxima (easterly winds from the oceans bring rains).
Annual rainfall ranges from 75 to 150 cm (two-thirds of rainfall occurs in the summer). Dry westerlies that
blow from continental interiors dominate winters.

The North American Region

• In summer, prolonged heat waves cause discomfort. In winter, the temperature drops below freezing and
snowfall occurs.

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• Precipitation occurs all-round the year due to the influence of warm Gulf Stream (increases the moisture
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of easterly winds in summer) and the Great Lakes (westerlies, temperate cyclones in winter).
• Convergence of the warm Gulf Stream and the cold Labrador Current near Newfoundland produces
dense mist and fog and gives rise to much precipitation. It is said that Newfoundland experiences more
drizzles than any other part of the world.

The Asiatic Region

• Rainfall distribution of the Asiatic region is far less uniform when compared to the North American Re-
gion. Winters are cold and very dry while summers are very warm and exceptionally wet. The rainfall
regime resembles the tropical monsoon type in India.
• Intense heating in the interior of China in summer creates a region of low-pressure, and moisture-laden
winds from the Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan blow in as the South-East Monsoon. Thus, the Lau-
rentian type of climate in China is often described as the cool temperate monsoon climate.
• It has a very long, cold winter, and a large annual range of temperature. Much of the winter precipitation
in northern China, Korea and Hokkaido, Japan, is in the form of snow.

Japan
• The warm Kuroshio makes the climate of Japan less extreme. The meeting zone between warm Kuroshio
from south and cold Oyashio from the north produce fog and mist, making north Japan a second New-
foundland.
• Japan receives adequate rainfall from both the South-East Monsoon in summer and the North-West Mon-
soon in winter (western coasts of Japan).
• Fishing replaces agriculture as the main occupation in many of the indented coastlands.

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Natural Vegetation
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• The predominant vegetation is cool temperate forest. The heavy rainfall, the warm summers and the
damp air from fogs, all favour the growth of trees.
• Forest tend to be coniferous north of the 50° N latitude. In the Asiatic region (eastern Siberia and Korea),
the coniferous forests are a continuation of the great coniferous belt of the taiga.

Lumbering
• From Laurentian Climate regions, both temperate hardwood and temperate softwood are obtained.
• Conifers are present in pure stands with only a handful of species. Much of the coniferous forests of fir,
spruce and larch are exploited to a great extent.
• South of latitude 50° N., the coniferous forests give way to deciduous forests. Oak, beech, maple and birch
are most common. They have been extensively felled for the extraction of temperate hardwood.
• In Manchuria, Korea and Japan, the forests have made way for the agriculture.

Economic Development
• Lumbering, timber, paper and pulp industries are the most important economic undertakings. Eastern
Canada is the heart of the Canadian timber and wood pulp industry (St. Lawrence River helps in export).
• Agriculture is less important because of long and severe winters.
• In the North American region, farmers are engaged in dairy farming.
• The Annapolis Valley in Nova Scotia is the world’s most renowned region for apples.
• Fishing is, however, the most outstanding economic activity.

Fishing Off Newfoundland

• Mixing of warm Gulf Stream and cold Labrador currents make the regions around the Grand Banks of
Newfoundland the most productive and largest fishing ground on earth.
• The gently sloping continental shelves stretch for over 200 miles southeast of Newfoundland, and off
the coasts of the Maritime Provinces and New England. Hence microscopic plankton are abundant. Fish of
all types and sizes feed and breed here and support a thriving fishing industry.
 Fish feed on minute marine organisms called plankton. Plankton is abundantly available in shallow waters
(continental shelves) where they have access to both sunlight as well as nutrients. Also, cold and warm water
mixing creates an upwelling of cold nutrient-rich water to the surface.
• In Newfoundland, the fishing industry employs almost the entire population. Further inland, in lakes and
rivers (St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes), freshwater fish like salmon are caught.
• All the fishing activities are carried out by highly mechanised trawlers which can store fish in refrigerated
chambers for months. St. John’s, chief port of Newfoundland is the headquarters of the Grand Banks
fishing industries. All processing activities like cutting, cleaning, packing for disposal are done at the ports
itself.
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• Along with Canada and U.S.A., countries like Norway, France, Britain, Portugal, Denmark, Russia and Japan,
also send fishing fleets to the Grand Banks.
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Fishing Off Japan
• North-west Pacific surrounding the islands of Japan is another very important fishing grounds of the
world. Majority of the people in the region depend on fishing for survival. Hakodate and Kushiro are large
fishing ports with complete refrigeration facilities.
• The Japanese fishing trawlers venture far and wide into the Arctic, Antarctic and the Atlantic waters. Large
whaling fleets with processing plants venture into distant regions as far as Arctic and Antarctic (Japan is
criticized for its whaling operations).
• Japan is one of the few countries that has taken to seaweed cultivation (India is taking baby steps).
Coastal farms that are submerged in water grow weeds for sale as fertilizers, chemical ingredient and food.
The Japanese make use of fish wastes, fish meal and seaweeds as fertilizers in their farms.
• Another aspect of Japanese fishing is pearl culture. Pearls are harvested from pearl oysters. As natural
pearls are difficult to obtain, the Japanese have begun to harvest cultured pearls.

Why Is Fishing The Dominant Occupation Of Japan?

• The mountainous nature of Japan and parts of mainland eastern Asia support little agricultural activity (80
per cent land in Japan is classified as ‘non-agricultural’. Around 50% of the total land is covered by forests).
Also, Japan is not well endowed with natural resources. Hence fishing forms a dominant aspect of the
economy.
• The scarcity of meat (there is little pasture in Japan for livestock farming of any kind) popularised fish as
the principal item of diet and the chief protein food of the Japanese and the Chinese as well.
• There exists a great demand for fish and fish products in the nearby countries where fishing industry is
under-developed.
• Japan has huge stakes in international fishing enterprises and her advanced fishing techniques give her an
edge over competitors.
• Advanced financial services, encouraging government policy, advanced technology at hand, skilled work-
force with decades of experience in fishing, and the only available natural resource to exploit, make Japan
a leader in fishing industry.

Geographical advantage
• The continental shelves around the islands of Japan are rich in plankton, due to the meeting of the warm
Kuroshio and the cold Oyashio currents and provide excellent breeding grounds for all kinds of fish.
• The indented coastline of Japan provides sheltered fishing ports, calm waters and safe landing places,
ideal for the fishing industry.

Mixing zones of Cold and Warm Ocean Currents (Grand Banks) and cold water upwelling
zones (Peru coast) are the most productive fishing grounds on earth. Why?
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• Phytoplankton, algae and other plants (primary producers) are able to photosynthesise to produce
organic material from inorganic nutrients. And the organic material forms the building block for all
animals higher up in the marine food chain.
• Almost all biomass in the ocean is derived from the phytoplankton and to a lesser extent the benthic
algae (found on the bottom of a sea or lake; algae are insignificant players in the marine ecosystem
compared to the phytoplankton as they only inhabit a narrow zone around the coast). Hence phyto-
plankton are called the grass of the sea.
• There is a fundamental problem that phytoplankton in the open ocean face. They need both sunlight
and nutrients (such as nitrate and phosphate) to be able to photosynthesise. Sunlight is only available
in the uppermost layers. During photosynthesis, the nutrients are quickly used up by phytoplankton,
so they are not available for long periods in the upper layers under normal circumstances. This is indeed
the case in tropical waters, and as a result, they are very unproductive.
• To escape this problem the seawater needs to be mixed regularly to bring the nutrient-rich deep
waters up to the sunlight zone where the phytoplankton can grow. This is one of the reasons why cold
and warm current convergence zones (mixing happens; e.g. Grand Banks) and upwelling zones
(e.g. upwelling near the Peruvian coast) are very productive.

Phytoplankton production is highest at high latitudes and mixing zones

• Furthermore, in surroundings where atmospheric temperatures are often colder than oceanic tempera-
tures, the top layers of the ocean are cooled by the atmosphere. This increases the density of the surface
waters and causes them to sink and therefore causes mixing (nutrient deficient water sinks, and
nutrient-rich water is upwelled).
• Both of these factors play a role in Icelandic waters, resulting in the very productive ocean environ-
ment around Iceland.

 Phytoplankton are the primary producers in the oceans. They include:

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 Diatoms (unicellular algae),

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  Coccolithophores (unicelled, eukaryotic protist),
 Cyanobacteria (Bluegreen algae) – Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus, Nostoc, spirogyra etc.
 Dinoflagellates (flagellated protists).
 Diatoms and Dinoflagellates predominate.

Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate (Dfc: D – cool temperate, f – no dry season, c – cold summer)

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• Global distribution of forests, 2020 (million hectares and % of world’s forest) Taiga climate is also known as
Siberian Climate or Cool Temperate Continental Climate or Continental Sub-Polar Climate (just be-
low Arctic circle ― 50° to 70° N).

Distribution
• Taiga climate is found only in the northern hemisphere due to great east-west extent. On its poleward
side, it merges into the Arctic tundra; equatorward it fades into steppe climate. It is absent in the south-
ern hemisphere because of the narrowness of landmasses and strong oceanic influence in the high
latitudes.
• The taiga stretches along a continuous belt across central Canada, some parts of Scandinavian Europe
and most of central and southern Russian.

[UPSC Prelims 2003] Which one among the following covers the highest percentage of for-
est area in the world?
a) Temperate coniferous forests
b) Temperate deciduous forests
c) Tropical monsoon forests
d) Tropical rain forests
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Explanation:
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 • In India, Tropical Moist Deciduous (37%) cover the highest percentage followed by Tropical Dry De-
ciduous (28%). At the global scale, temperate coniferous forests cover the highest percentage.

Taiga Climate

Temperature
• Summers are brief and warm (20-25 °C) whereas winters are long and cold (30-40 °C below freezing). In
North America, the extremes are less severe, because of the continent’s lesser east-west stretch.
• All over Russia, nearly all the rivers are frozen. In normal years, the Volga is ice-covered for about 150
days. Some of the lowest temperatures in the world are recorded in Verkhoyansk (68° N) where -67 °C
was once recorded. The annual temperature range is the greatest due to continentality (almost 50-60
°C in Siberia).
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• Permafrost (subsurface layer of soil that remains below freezing throughout the year) are generally ab-
sent as snow is a poor conductor of heat and protects the ground from the severe cold above.
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• Occasionally cold, polar local winds such as the blizzards of Canada and buran of Eurasia blow violently.
Precipitation
• Maritime influence in the interiors is absent. Most of the moisture is brought by frontal disturbances that
occur in winter. Typical annual precipitation ranges from 38 cm to 63 cm. It is quite well distributed
throughout the year, with a summer maximum (convectional rains). In winter the precipitation is in the
form of snow.

Natural Vegetation
• The predominant vegetation is evergreen coniferous forest as they require little moisture. Pine, fir (e.g.
douglas fir and balsam fir), spruce and larch are the four major species of conifers.
• The greatest single band of the coniferous forest is the taiga (Russian word for coniferous forest) in Siberia.
In Europe, the countries that have a similar type of climate and forests are Sweden and Finland.
• There are small amounts of natural coniferous forest in Germany, Poland, Switzerland, and other parts. In
North America, the belt stretches from Alaska across Canada into Labrador.
• In the southern hemisphere, coniferous forests are found only on the mountainous uplands of southern
Chile, New Zealand, Tasmania and south-east Australia.

Characteristics Of Coniferous Forests

• Coniferous forests are of moderate density and are more uniform. Almost all conifers are evergreen.
There is no annual replacement of new leaves as in deciduous trees. The same leaf remains on the tree for
as long as five years.
• Conifers are conical in shape with sloping branches that prevent snow accumulation. Their shape also
offers little grip to the violent winds. Food is stored in the trunks, and the bark is thick to protect the
trunk from excessive cold.
• Transpiration can be quite rapid in the warm summer. So, leaves are small, thick, leathery and needle-
shaped to check excessive transpiration.
• The soils of the coniferous forests are poor. They are excessively leached and very acidic. Humus content
is also low as the evergreen leaves barely fall and the rate of decomposition is slow. Under-growth is
negligible because of the poor soil conditions. Absence of direct sunlight and the short duration of summer
are other contributory factors.
• Coniferous forests are also found in regions with high elevation (Example: the forests just below the snow-
line in Himalayas). But on very steep slopes where soils are immature or non-existent, even the conifer
cannot survive (Example: Southern slopes of Greater Himalayas).

Economic Development
• Lot of coniferous forests in the northern hemisphere are still untouched due to remoteness. Only a small
fraction of coniferous forests in Canada, Russia etc. are exploited. Agriculture is most unlikely as few crops
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can survive in the sub-Arctic climates.

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Trapping
• Many fur-bearing animals are trapped in northerly lands of Canada and Eurasia. Wherever the cold is
severe, the quality and thickness of the fur increases.
• In Canada trappers and hunters, armed with automatic rifles, reside in log cabins in the midst of the conif-
erous forests to track down these animals.
• Muskrat, ermine, mink, and silver fox are the most important fur-bearing animals. To ensure a more
regular supply of furs, many fur farms have been established in Canada and Siberia.

Lumbering
• Lumbering is the most important occupation of the Siberian type of climate. The vast reserves of soft-
wood coniferous forests provide the basis for the lumbering industry. Contract labourers called
lumberjacks used to temporarily move to the forest regions to fell the trees. Now felling is done by ma-
chines.
• Rivers for transportation: The softwood logs easily float on rivers. Hence rivers are used to transport logs
to the sawmills located down the stream.
• Sawmilling: Logs are processed in sawmills into timber, plywood, and other constructional woods.
• Paper and pulp industry: Timber is pulped by both chemical and mechanical means to make wood pulp.
Wood pulp is the raw material for paper-making and newsprint. U.S.A. is the leader. But in the field of
newsprint, Canada accounts for almost half of the world’s total annual production.
• As a fuel: Very little softwood is burnt as fuel as its industrial uses are far more significant.
• As an industrial raw material: In Sweden, matches form a major export item.
• From the by-products of the timber, many chemically processed articles are derived such as rayon turpen-
tine, varnishes, paints, dyes, liquid resins, wood-alcohols, disinfectants and cosmetics.

Factors That Favour Lumbering In Taiga Climate

Softwood trees
• The coniferous forest belts of Eurasia and North America are the richest sources of softwood. The world’s
greatest softwood producers are Russia, U.S.A., Canada and the Fennoscandian countries (Finland, Nor-
way and Sweden).

Demand
• Softwood is used in construction, furniture, matches, paper and pulp, rayon and chemical industry.

Limited Species
• The conifers are limited in species. Pine, spruce and fir in the northern forests and larch in the warmer
south are the most important.
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Pure Stands
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• Unlike rainforests, trees in taiga occur in homogeneous groups (pure stands). This saves time, costs and
enhances the commercial value of the felled timber. Lumbering is normally carried out in the winter when
the sap ceases to flow (sap stays in the ground, and the wood is lighter).

Cheap Means Of Transportation

• The snow-covered ground makes logging and haulage (commercial transport) a relatively easy job. The
logs are dragged to the rivers and float to the saw-mills downstream when the rivers thaw in spring. It is
quite easy in Canada, Norway and Sweden as the rivers are not frozen for a greater part of the year.
• In Russian taiga, most of Siberian rivers drain poleward into the Arctic Ocean which is frozen for three-
quarters of the year, and there are few saw-mills there. However, with the use of the Northern Sea Route,
which links Murmansk and Vladivostok via the Arctic Ocean, development is increasing.

Cheap Electricity
• Cheap hydro-electricity for driving the saw-mills is harnessed in the mountainous uplands of North Amer-
ica and Europe and has greatly assisted the lumbering industry.

30.6. E – Cold Climates

Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic Climate (ET)

Distribution
• Tundra climate is found in regions north of the Arctic Circle and south of Antarctic Circle.
• The icecaps are confined to highlands and high latitude regions of Greenland and Antarctica. In the south-
ern hemisphere, Antarctica is the greatest single stretch of icecap (3,000 m thick).
• The lowlands – coastal strip of Greenland, the barren grounds of northern Canada and Alaska and the
Arctic seaboard of Eurasia, have tundra climate.

Climate
Temperature
• The tundra climate is characterized by a very low mean annual temperature. In mid-winter temperatures
are as low as 40-50 °C below freezing. Summers are relatively warmer. Normally not more than four
months have temperatures above freezing point.
• Within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, there are weeks of continuous darkness (earth’s tilted axis and
revolution around the sun). The ground remains solidly frozen and is inaccessible to plants. Frost occurs
at any time and blizzards, reaching a velocity of 130 miles an hour is not infrequent.

Precipitation
• Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow and sleet. Convectional rainfall is generally absent.
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Natural Vegetation
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• There are no trees in the tundra. Lowest form of vegetation like mosses, lichens etc. are found here and
there.
• Climatic conditions along the coastal lowlands are a little favourable supporting hardy grasses and rein-
deer moss which provide the only pasturage for reindeers.
• In the brief summer, berry-bearing bushes and Arctic flowers bloom. In the summer, birds migrate north
to prey on the numerous insects which emerge when the snow thaws.
• Mammals like the wolves, foxes, musk-ox, Arctic hare and lemmings also live in tundra regions. Penguins
live only in Antarctic regions.

Human Activities
• Human activities of the tundra are largely confined to the coast. People live a semi-nomadic life.
• In Greenland, northern Canada and Alaska live the Eskimos. During winter they live in compact igloos.
Their food is derived from fish, seals, walruses and polar bears.

Recent Development Of The Arctic Region

• New settlements have sprung up because of the discovery of minerals.
• Gold is mined in Alaska, petroleum in the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska; and copper at the Rankin Inlet, Canada.
• With the declining reserves of iron ore around the Great Lakes, iron ore deposits in Labrador are gaining
importance. New railway lines have been constructed to bring the ores to the St. Lawrence River.
• Rich deposits of iron ores at Kiruna and Gallivare helped Sweden enjoy a prosperous export trade in iron
and steel and other metallurgical products.
• New ports on the Arctic seaboard of Eurasia has made it possible to ship timber and fur from Siberia.
Modern ice-breakers makes the frozen seas navigable.

Polar Ice Cap Climate (EF)

• In polar ice cap climate, no mean monthly temperature exceeds 0 °C. Hence the ground is covered by
a permanent layer of ice (ice sheets) and has no vegetation
• The climate covers areas in or near the high latitudes (65° latitude) to polar regions (70–90° north and
south latitude), such as Antarctica, some of the northernmost islands of Canada and Russia, Greenland,
along with some regions and islands of Norway's Svalbard Archipelago that have vast deserts of snow and
ice.
 The ice cap climate is distinct from the tundra climate. A tundra climate has a summer season with tem-
peratures consistently above freezing for several months. This summer is enough to melt the winter ice cover,
which prevents the formation of ice sheets.

30.7. Previous Year UPSC Prelims Questions

472

Q1. [UPSC Prelims 1995] The graph given below shows the mean average monthly temper-
atures (in °C) and mean monthly rainfall (in cms) of a place:
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This graph is indicative of which one of the climatic zones of the world?
(a) Wet and dry tropical
(b) Rainy tropical
(c) Semi-arid tropical
(d) Temperate marine

Explanation:
• There is no month without rain (distinct dry season is absent) and the monthly average is above 6
cm most of the time  (b) Equatorial Rainforest

Q2. [UPSC Prelims 1998] Consider the following climatic conditions (northern hemisphere):
Temp in °C Rainfall in
Month
Cm.
J 3.9 4.7
F 4.4 5.7
M 8.3 8.2
A 14.4 9.2
M 20.0 9.2
J 23.3 17.7
J 27.8 14.5
A 27.8 14.0
S 22.3 12.7
0 18.3 7.0
N 12.2 5.0
D 6.7 3.5

These are most likely to be found in the natural regions of:

a) China Type
b) Equatorial Type
c) Hot Desert Type
d) Monsoon Type
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Explanation:
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• Equatorial Type & Monsoon Type  Rainfall > 150 cm; Hot Desert Type  Rainfall < 25 cm; Humid
Subtropical Type  Moderate Rainfall with a summer maxima and fairly uniform distribution throughout
the year and the mean monthly temperature varies between 4 °C and 25 °C. So (a) China Type is the
answer.

Q3. [UPSC Prelims 1999] Consider the following temperature and rainfall data:

Month Temp (°C) Rainfall (cm)

January 6.7 14.0
February 6.7 13.2
March 7.2 11.4
April 8.9 9.4
May 8.1 11.1
June 13.9 8.1
July 15.0 9.6
August 15.0 12.2
Septem- 13.9 10.4
ber
October 11.1 14.4
Novem-
ber 8.9 14.0
Decem- 7.8
16.8
ber

The climate to which this data pertains is:

a) St. Lawrence type
b) China type
c) West European type
d) Mediterranean type

Explanation:
• China Type and Laurentian Type  rainfall occur throughout the year with summer maxima. The British
Type has a winter maxima. So (c) West European Type is the answer.

Q4. [UPSC Prelims 1999] Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the lists:
List-II (Country)
List-I (Timber)
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1. Myanmar
A. Cedar
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 2. Canada
B. Douglas Fir
3. Mexico
C. Mahogany
4. Honduras
D. Teak

Codes:
a) A - 3; B- 2; C- 1; D-4
b) A - 3; B- 2; C- 4; D-1
c) A - 2; B- 3; C- 4; D-1
d) A - 2; B- 3; C- 1; D-4

Explanation:
• Cedar  Evergreen Highland Conifer; Douglas Fir  Evergreen Conifer; Mahogany  Tropical Ever-
green Hardwood; Teak  Tropical Deciduous Hardwood. So (b) A - 3; B- 2; C- 4; D-1 is the answer.

Q5. [UPSC Prelims 2001] Temperature and rainfall of a meteorological station are given be-
low:
Temperature (0° Rainfall (cm)
C)
475

J 9.4 12.2
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F 10.6 9.1
 M 11.7 7.9
A 12.2 2.5
M 13.3 1.0
J 13.9 0.3
J 13.9 -
A 14.4 -
S 15.6 0.8
O 15.0 2.5
N 13.3 6.1
D 10.6 11.7
Average temperature: 12.8° C
Average rainfall: 54.9 cm per annum

Identify the region having the above climatic patterns from amongst the following:
a) Mediterranean region
b) Monsoon region
c) Steppe region
d) N.W. European region

Explanation:
• Both the Mediterranean and steppe regions have similar average temperature and rainfall. However, the
rainfall pattern with dry summers and wet winters is typical to the Mediterranean region. So (a) is the
answer.

Q6. [UPSC Prelims 2002] Consider the following statements:

1. In equatorial regions, the year is divided into four main seasons
2. In Mediterranean region, summer months receives more rain.
3. In China type climate, rainfall occurs throughout the year
4. Tropical highlands exhibit vertical zonation of different climates

Which of these statements are correct?

a) 1, 2, 3 and 4
b) 1, 2 and 3
c) 1, 2 and 4
d) 3 and 4

Explanation:
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• Rainforests  no seasons; Mediterranean  dry summers and wet winters. So (d) 3 & 4 is the answer.
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Q7. [UPSC Prelims 2010] A geographic area with an altitude of 400 metres has following
characteristics.

If this geographic area were to have a natural forest, which one of the following would it most likely
be?

a) Moist temperate coniferous forest

b) Montane subtropical forest
c) Temperate forest
d) Tropical rainforest

Explanation:
• Rainforest climate  Rainfall is heavy and fairly distributed throughout the year, and the mean diurnal
and monthly temperatures are always around 27°C with very little variation.

Q8. [UPSC Prelims 2010] A geographic region has the following distinct characteristics:
1. Warm and dry climate
2. Mild and wet winter
3. Evergreen Oak trees

The above features are distinct characteristics of which one of the following regions?
a) Mediterranean
b) Eastern China
c) Central Asia
d) Atlantic coast of North America

Explanation:
• Atlantic coast of North America (Gulf type climate) and Eastern China  warm but not dry; Central Asia
is mostly steppe and arid  dry but not warm. So (a) Mediterranean is the answer.

Q9. [UPSC Prelims 2013] “Climate is extreme, rainfall is scanty, and the people used to be
nomadic herders.”

The above statement best describes which of the following regions?

a) African Savannah
b) Central Asian Steppe
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c) North American Prairie

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 d) Siberian Tundra

Explanation:
• Climate is extreme, rainfall is scanty  Steppe Climate; Nomadic herding  Asiatic Steppe. (b) is the
answer.

Q10. [UPSC Prelims 2015] "Each day is more or less the same, the morning is clear and
bright with a sea breeze; as the Sun climbs high in the sky, heat mounts up, dark clouds
form, then rain comes with thunder and lightning. But rain is soon over." Which of the fol-
lowing regions is described in the above passage?
a) Savannah
b) Equatorial
c) Monsoon
d) Mediterranean

Explanation:
• Short spell of convectional rainfall daily is a chief characteristic of the rainforests.

Q11. [UPSC Prelims 2021] “Leaf litter decomposes faster than in any other biome & as a re-
sult, the soil surface is often almost bare. Apart from trees, the vegetation is largely com-
posed of plant forms that reach up into the canopy vicariously, by climbing the trees or
growing as epiphytes, rooted on the upper branches of trees”. This is the most likely de-
scription of
a) coniferous forest
b) dry deciduous forest
c) mangrove forest
d) tropical rain forest
• Canopy, epiphytes, and quick litter decomposition are typical to rainforests.

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 31. Ocean Relief

• Ocean relief is largely due to tectonic, volcanic, erosional and depositional processes and their interac-
tions. The ocean relief features are divided into major and minor relief features.
• Ocean relief controls the motion of seawater. The oceanic movement in the form of currents, in turn,
causes many variations in both oceans and the atmosphere. The bottom relief of oceans also influences
navigation and fishing.

31.1. Major Ocean Relief Features

The four major ocean relief features are:

1. the continental shelf,

2. the continental slope,
3. the continental rise,
4. the deep sea plain or the abyssal plain.

Continental Shelf
• Continental Shelf is the gently sloping (gradient of 1° or less) seaward extension of a continental plate.
The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
• Continental Shelves cover 7.5% of the total area of the oceans. Shallow seas and gulfs are found along
them.
Examples of continental shelves: Continental Shelf of South-East Asia (Sunda Plate), Grand Banks around
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•
Newfoundland, Submerged region between Australia and New Guinea, etc.
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Formation
• The continental shelf is formed mainly due to
1. Submergence of a part of a continent
2. Relative rise in sea level
3. Sedimentary deposits brought down by rivers and glaciers
• There are various types of shelves based on different sediments of terrestrial origin —
1. Glaciated shelf (e.g. Shelf surrounding Greenland),
2. Coral reef shelf (e.g. Queensland, Australia),
3. Shelf of a large river (e.g. Shelf around Nile delta),
4. Shelf with dendritic valleys (e.g. Shelf at the mouth of Hudson river)
5. Shelf along young mountain ranges (e.g. Shelves between the Hawaiian Islands).

Width And Depth of Continental Shelves

• Continental shelves have an average width of 70-80 km. They may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas
while in some areas it is as deep as 600 m.
• The width of the continental shelf of the eastern coast of the USA varies between 100-300 km. The Siberian
Shelf in the Arctic Ocean is the largest in the world and stretches up to 1,500 km from the coast.
• The shelves are almost absent or very narrow along a convergent boundary. E.g. coasts of Chile.

Importance of Continental Shelves

• 20% of the world’s production of petroleum and gas comes from shelves. They are sites for placer de-
posits and phosphorites (explained in the chapter on ‘Ocean Resources’).
• Marine food comes almost entirely from continental shelves. They form the richest fishing grounds. E.g.
Grand Banks around Newfoundland.

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 Grand Banks, the richest fishing grounds on earth

Continental Slope
• The gradient of the continental slope region varies between 2-5°. It connects the continental shelf and the
ocean basins. Canyons and trenches are observed in this region.
• The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m. The seaward edge of the continental slope
loses gradient at this depth and gives rise to continental rise.
• The continental slope boundary indicates the end of the continents.

Continental Rise
• The continental slope gradually loses its steepness with depth. When the slope reaches a level of between
0.5° and 1°, it is referred to as the continental rise. With increasing depth, the rise becomes virtually flat
and merges with the abyssal plain.

Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain

• Deep sea planes are gently sloping areas of the ocean basins. These are the flattest and smoothest regions
of the world because of terrigenous (marine sediment eroded from the land) and shallow water sedi-
ments that buries the irregular topography.
• Deep sea planes cover nearly 40% of the ocean floor. The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000 m.

31.2. Minor Ocean Relief Features

• Minor ocean relief features include:

 Ridges (along a divergent boundary),
 Abyssal Hills (submerged volcanic mountains): Seamounts and Guyots,
 Trenches (along a convergent boundary),
 Canyons (erosional landform),
 Island arcs (formed due to volcanism along a convergent boundary or hotspot volcanism),
 Atolls and Coral reefs.

Oceanic Deeps or Trenches

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• The trenches are relatively steep-sided, narrow basins (depressions). These areas are the deepest parts of
the oceans — some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.
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• The trenches are of tectonic origin and are formed during ocean-ocean convergence and ocean-conti-
nent convergence. Hence they are associated with active volcanoes and strong earthquakes (like in
Japan).
• Trenches lie along the fringes of the deep-sea plain at the bases of continental slopes and along island
arcs. They run parallel to the bordering fold mountains or the island chains.
• Majority of the trenches are in the Pacific Ocean followed by the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean. In
the Pacific, the trenches form an almost continuous ring along the western and eastern margins of the
Pacific. The Mariana Trench off the Guam Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest trench with a depth
of more than 11 kilometres.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges

• A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a large depression (divergent
boundary). The ridges are either broad, like a plateau, gently sloping or in the form of steep-sided narrow
mountains.

Canyon, George, Valley

• Running for a total length of 75,000 km, these ridges form the largest mountain systems on earth. The
mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above the ocean’s surface.

Abyssal Hills (Seamounts And Guyots)

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• Seamount is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor that does not reach the surface
of the ocean. Seamounts are volcanic in origin. These can be 3,000-4,500 m tall. The Emperor seamount,
an extension of the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean, is a good example. Guyots are flat-topped
mountains (seamounts). Seamounts and guyots are very common in the Pacific Ocean.

Submarine Canyons
 Canyon: a deep gorge, especially one with a river flowing through it.
 Gorge: a steep, narrow valley or ravine.
 Valley: a low area between hills or mountains typically with a river or stream flowing through it.
• Submarine canyons are deep valleys often extending from the mouths of the rivers to the abyssal plains.
They are formed due to erosion by sediments brought down by rivers that cut across continental shelves,
slopes & rises. The sediments are deposited on the abyssal plains.
• Submarine canyons can be far higher in scale compared to those that occur on land. Broadly, there are
three types:
1. Small gorges which begin at the edge of the continental shelf and extend down the slope to very great
depths, e.g., Oceanographer Canyons near New England.
2. Those which begin at the mouth of a river and extend over the shelf, such as the Indus canyons.
3. Those which have a dendritic appearance and are deeply cut into the edge of the shelf and the slope,
like the canyons off the coast of southern California.
• The Hudson Canyon is the best-known canyon in the world. The largest canyons in the world occur in the
Bering Sea off Alaska.

Atoll
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• Atolls are low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting of coral reefs surrounding a central depres-
sion. They may be a part of the sea (lagoon), or sometimes form enclosing a body of fresh, brackish, or
highly saline water.

Bank, Shoal and Reef

• These marine features are formed as a result of erosional, depositional and biological activity. These
are produced upon features of diastrophic (earth movements) origin. Therefore, they are located in the
upper parts of elevations.

Bank
• These marine features are formed as a result of the erosional and depositional activity.
• A bank is a flat-topped elevation located in the continental margins. Banks are formed as a result of
erosional and depositional activity. The depth of water is shallow but enough for navigational purposes.
• The banks are sites of some of the most productive fisheries in the world. The Dogger Bank in the
North Sea and Grand Bank in the north-western Atlantic, Newfoundland are examples.

Shoal
• A shoal is a detached elevation with shallow depths. Since they project out of the water with moderate
heights, they are dangerous for navigation.

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Reef
• A reef is a predominantly organic deposit made by living or dead organisms that form a mound or rocky
elevation like a ridge. Coral reefs are a characteristic feature of the Pacific Ocean where they are associated
with seamounts and guyots. The largest reef in the world is found off the Queensland coast of Australia.
• Since the reefs may extend above the surface, they are generally dangerous for navigation.

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 32. Ocean Movements – Ocean Currents And Tides

• The movements that occur in oceans are categorised as waves, tides, and currents. Waves are formed
due to friction between wind and the surface water layer. The stronger the wind, the bigger the wave.
They die out quickly on reaching the shore or shallow waters. On the other hand, tsunamis, storm surges,
and tides are tidal waves (waves with large wavelengths) that last longer.
• Horizontal currents arise mainly due to friction between wind and water. Coriolis force and differences
in water level gradient also play a major role. Vertical currents arise mainly due to density differences
caused by temperature and salinity changes.

32.1. Ocean Currents

• Ocean currents are the most important ocean movements because of their influence on the climatology
of various regions. They represent a regular volume of water in a definite path and direction.

Forces That Influence Ocean Currents

UPSC Mains 2015: Explain the factors responsible for the origin of ocean currents. How do
they influence regional climates, fishing, and navigation? (Mains 2015)
• Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely:
1. primary forces that initiate the movement of water;
2. secondary forces that influence the currents to flow.
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• The primary forces that influence the currents are:

 Heating by solar energy;
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  Wind;
 Gravity;
 Coriolis force.
• The secondary forces that influence the currents are:
 Temperature and salinity differences

Primary Forces
Influence Of Insolation
• Heating by solar energy causes the water to expand. Near the equator, the ocean water is about 8
cm higher in level than in the middle latitudes. Gravity tends to level the differences by pulling the
water down the pile (along the gradient).

Influence Of Wind (Atmospheric Circulation)

• Frictional force of the wind drags the surface ocean water. Winds are responsible for both magnitude
and direction (Coriolis force) of the ocean currents. Example: Monsoon winds are responsible for the
seasonal reversal of ocean currents in the Indian ocean.
• The oceanic circulation pattern roughly corresponds to the earth’s atmospheric circulation pattern. The
air circulation over the oceans in the middle latitudes is mainly anticyclonic (sub-tropical High-Pressure
Belt), the oceanic circulation pattern also corresponds with the same. At higher latitudes, where the wind
flow is mostly cyclonic, the oceanic circulation follows this pattern.
 The cyclonic and anticyclonic circulations produce large circular currents in all the ocean basins. These
large accumulations of water and the flow around them are called Gyres. One such gyre or circular current
is the Sargasso Sea.

Influence Of Coriolis Force

• The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in the northern hemisphere and
to the left in the southern hemisphere.

Secondary Forces
• Temperature and salinity differences cause density differences. Density differences cause horizontal
and vertical currents under the influence of gravity.
• Water with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity. Similarly, cold water is denser than
warm water. Denser water tends to sink, while relatively lighter water tends to rise.

[UPSC Prelims 2012] Consider the following factors:

1. Rotation of the Earth
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2. Air pressure and wind

3. Density of ocean water
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 4. Revolution of the Earth

Which of the above factors influence ocean currents?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 1, 2 and 3
c) 1 and 4
d) 2, 3 and 4

Explanation
• Revolution causes seasons and seasons are responsible for the poleward and equatorward migration of
the pressure systems and ocean currents. Thus, they have an indirect effect on ocean currents. The an-
swer is (b) 1, 2 & 3

Types of Ocean Currents

Surface Currents and Deep Water Currents

• Surface currents constitute about 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean; these waters are the upper 400
m of the ocean. Deep water currents make up the rest. These waters move around the ocean basins due
to variations in density and gravity. For instance, heavy surface water (due to an increase in salinity) of the
Mediterranean Sea sinks and flows westward past Gibraltar as a sub-surface current.

Cold Currents and Warm Currents

• Cold currents occur when the cold water at the poles sinks and slowly moves towards the equator as a
subsurface flow. Warm currents travel from the equator along the surface, flowing towards the poles to
replace the sinking cold water.
• Cold currents are usually found on the west coast of the continents in the low and middle latitudes
(because of clockwise flow in the northern hemisphere and anti-clockwise flow in the southern hem-
isphere) and on the east coast in the higher latitudes.
• Warm currents are usually observed on the east coast of continents in the low and middle latitudes
and on the west coast of continents in high latitudes.
 Convergence: warm and cold currents meet.
 Divergence: a single current splits into multiple currents flowing in different directions.

Pacific Ocean Currents

Equatorial Currents – Warm

Under the influence of prevailing trade winds (tropical easterlies), the north equatorial current and
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•
the south equatorial current start from the eastern Pacific (west coast of Central America) and traverse a
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distance of 14,500 km moving from east to west. This raises the level of the western Pacific (near
 Indonesia and Australia) ocean by a few centimetres. And this creates a counter-equatorial current which
flows between the north equatorial current and the south equatorial current in a west-east direction.

Factors That Aid the Formation Of Counter-Equatorial Current:

1. Piling up of water in the western Pacific due to trade winds.

2. The presence of doldrums (a calm region in the equatorial low-pressure belt) in between the north
equatorial current and the south equatorial current.

[UPSC Prelims 2015] What explains the eastward flow of the equatorial counter-current?
a) The Earth’s rotation on its axis
b) Convergence of the two equatorial currents
c) Difference in salinity of water
d) Occurrence of the belt of calm near the equator

Explanation:
• Point 1: Earth’s rotation creates Coriolis force, but Coriolis force is not responsible for counter-currents.
• Point 2: Convergence is a prerequisite, but not all convergences lead to counter-currents.
• Point 3: Salinity greatly influences vertical currents and its influence on horizontal movement is less
489

significant. So, ruled out.

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 • Point 4: This is the main reason behind counter equatorial current (the backward movement of equato-
rial waters). Doldrums are calm regions facilitating the backward movement of water. Answer: (d) Oc-
currence of the doldrums

Kuroshio Current – Warm

• The north equatorial current turns northward off the Philippines to form the Kuroshio current. It flows in
the sub-tropical high-pressure belt, and its northern part is under the influence of westerlies.

Oyashio Current and Okhotsk Current – Cold

• Oyashio flows across the east coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula to merge with the warmer waters of
Kuroshio. Okhotsk current flows past Sakhalin Islands to merge with the Oyashio current off Hokkaido
(Northern Japanese Island). The convergence of cold and warm currents makes the zone one of the
richest fishing grounds.

North-Pacific Current – Warm

• From the southeast coast of Japan, under the influence of prevailing westerlies, the Kuroshio current
turns eastwards and moves as the North-Pacific current, reaches the west coast of North America, and
bifurcates into two.

Alaska Current – Warm

• The northern branch of the North-Pacific current flows anti-clockwise along the coast of British Columbia
and Alaska and is known as the Alaska current. The water of this current is relatively warm as compared
to the surrounding waters in this zone.

Californian Current – Cold

• The southern branch of the North-Pacific current moves as a cold current along the west coast of the USA
and is known as the Californian current. The Californian current joins the north equatorial current to
complete the circuit.

East Australian Current – Warm

• Following the pattern in the northern hemisphere, the south equatorial current flows from east to west
and turns southwards as the East Australian current. It then meets the South Pacific current near Tasma-
nia which flows from west to east.

Peru Current or Humboldt Current – Cold

• Reaching the south-western coast of South America, the South Pacific current turns northward as the Peru
current. It is a cold current, which finally feeds the south equatorial current, thus completing the great
490

circuit. The zone where Peru cold current meets the warm equatorial ocean waters is an important
fishing zone.
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Atlantic Ocean Currents

Equatorial Atlantic Ocean Currents – Warm

• Under the influence of prevailing trade winds (easterly trade winds), the north equatorial current and
the south equatorial current start from the eastern Atlantic (west coast of Africa), moving from east to
west. This raises the level of the western Atlantic (north of the Brazil bulge) ocean by a few centimetres.
And this creates a counter-equatorial current which flows between the north equatorial current and the
south equatorial current in a west-east direction.

Antilles Current – Warm

• The south equatorial current bifurcates into two branches near Cape de Sao Roque (Brazil). Part of the
current enters the Caribbean Sea along with the north equatorial current into the Mexican Gulf, while the
remainder passes along the eastern side of the West Indies as the Antilles current.
491

• There is a rise in water level in the Mexican Gulf because of large amounts of water brought by the Mis-
sissippi River and branches of north and south equatorial currents.
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Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift – Warm
• Antilles current creates a current that flows out through the Strait of Florida as Florida current, which
mixes with Antilles current from the south. This combined current moves along the east coast of the USA
and is known as the Florida current up to Cape Hatteras and as the Gulf Stream beyond that.
• Near the Grand Banks, the Gulf Stream mixes with cold Labrador and East Greenland currents and
flows eastward across the Atlantic as the North Atlantic Drift. Here, the westerly movement of the North
Atlantic Drift is due to the influence of westerlies.
• Labrador Current

Grand Banks – The Richest Fishing Grounds on Earth

• The two cold currents, the East Greenland current and the Labrador current flow from the Arctic Ocean
into the Atlantic Ocean. The Labrador current flows along part of the east coast of Canada and meets the
warm Gulf Stream. The confluence of these two currents, one hot and the other cold, produce the famous
fogs around Newfoundland. As a result of the mixing of cold and warm waters, one of the world's most
important fishing grounds is created.

Norwegian Current – Warm

• The North Atlantic Current breaks up into two branches on reaching the eastern part of the ocean. The
main current, continuing as the North Atlantic Drift, reaches the British Isles from where it flows along the
coast of Norway as the Norwegian current and enters the Arctic Ocean.
• Norwegian current is very important as it keeps the ocean to the north of Norway partly free from
ice and also moderates the extremes of climate. It is because of this current, Russia is able to move cargo
in summers through the Arctic Ocean (Barents Sea).

Canary Current – Cold

• The southerly branch of the North Atlantic Current flows between Spain and Azores as the cold Canary
current. This current finally joins the north equatorial current completing the circuit in the North Atlantic.
The Sargasso Sea, lying within this circuit, is full of large quantities of seaweed and is an important geo-
graphical feature.

The Sargasso Sea – A Sea Without a Land Boundary

• The Sargasso Sea is a region in the gyre in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean. It is the only sea on
Earth which has no coastline. It is bounded on the west by the Gulf Stream, north by the North
Atlantic Current, east by the Canary Current, and south by the North Atlantic Equatorial Current.
This system of ocean currents forms the North Atlantic Gyre. All the currents deposit the marine plants
they carry into this sea.
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 Sargasso Sea

Brazil Current – Warm

• In the South Atlantic Ocean, the south equatorial current, flowing from east to west, splits into two
branches near Cape de Sao Roque (Brazil).
• The northern branch joins the north equatorial current, whereas the southern branch turns southward and
flows along the South American coast as the warm Brazil current.

Falkland Curre – Cold

• The south-flowing Brazil current swings eastward at about latitude 35°S (due to westerlies) to join the
West Wind Drift flowing from west to east. A small branch of West Wind Drift splits and flows between
the Argentinian coast and Falkland Islands (a British overseas territory), and this current is called as
Falkland cold current. It mixes with warm Brazil current at the southern tip of Brazil.

Benguela Current – Cold

• A branch of the South Atlantic splits at the southern tip of Africa and flows along the west coast of South
Africa as the cold Benguela current, which joins the south equatorial current to complete the circuit.

UPSC Prelims 1999: In the given map, which one of the following pairs of ocean currents
are shown?

a) Bengula and Falkland

b) Canary and Humboldt
c) Agulhas and Guinea
493

d) Benguela and Guinea

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Indian Ocean Currents
• Most of the Indian Ocean is in the southern hemisphere (the Indian Ocean is half an ocean) and the North
Indian Ocean currents are greatly influenced by the monsoon winds. They change their direction from
season to season in response to the seasonal rhythm of the monsoons.

Winter Circulation
• Under the influence of prevailing trade winds, the north equatorial current and the south equatorial
current start from the south of Indonesian islands, moving from east to west. This raises the level of the
western Indian (south-east of the horn of Africa) ocean by a few centimetres. This creates a counter-
equatorial current that flows between the north equatorial current and the south equatorial current in a
west-east direction.
• The northeast monsoons drive the water along the coast of the Bay of Bengal to circulate in an anti-
clockwise direction. Similarly, the water along the coast of the Arabian Sea also circulates in an anti-
clockwise circulation.

Summer Circulation – North Equatorial Current & Counter-Equatorial Current Are Absent
• In summer, due to the effects of the strong south-west monsoon and the absence of the north-east
trades, a strong current flows from west to east, completely obliterating the north equatorial current.
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Hence, there is no counter-equatorial current as well. Thus, water circulation in the northern part of the
ocean is clockwise during this season.
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 [UPSC Prelims 1997] Which one of the following factors is responsible for the change in
the regular direction of the ocean currents in the Indian Ocean?
a) Indian Ocean is half an ocean
b) Indian Ocean has monsoon drift
c) Indian Ocean is a land-locked ocean
d) Indian Ocean has greater variation in salinity

Southern Indian Ocean Currents

• The general circulation pattern in the southern part of the Indian Ocean is quite similar to that of the
southern Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It is less marked by seasonal changes.
• The south equatorial current, partly led by the corresponding current of the Pacific Ocean, flows from east
to west. It splits into two branches, one flowing to the east of Madagascar known as Agulhas current and
the other between Mozambique and the Western Madagascar coast known as Mozambique current.
• At the southern tip of Madagascar, these two branches mix and are commonly called the Agulhas current.
It continues to be a warm current, till it merges with the West Wind Drift.
• The West Wind Drift, flowing across the ocean in the higher latitudes from west to east, reaches the
southern tip of the west coast, of Australia. One of the branches of this cold current turns northwards along
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the west coast of Australia. This current, known as the West Australian current, flows northward to feed
the south equatorial current.
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Effects of Ocean Currents
• Ocean currents have several direct and indirect influences on human activities.

Desert Formation
• Cold ocean currents have a direct effect on desert formation in west coast regions of the tropical and
sub-tropical continents. There is fog, and most areas are arid due to desiccating effect (loss of mois-
ture ― fog or temperature inversion inhibits convection).

UPSC Mains 2013: Major hot deserts in the northern hemisphere are located between 20-
30 degrees north and on the western side of the continents. Why?
• Major hot wind deserts include the biggest Sahara Desert (3.5 million square miles). The next biggest
desert is the Great Australian Desert. The other hot deserts are the Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert,
Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.

Why Between 20 – 30 Degrees?

• The hot deserts lie along the Horse Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belts where the air
is descending, a condition least favourable for precipitation.

Offshore Winds
• The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-shore (hence the name Trade Wind Deserts) and the West-
erlies that are on-shore blow outside the desert limits (outside tropics). Whatever winds reach the de-
serts blow from cooler to warmer regions, and their relative humidity is lowered, making conden-
sation almost impossible. Under such conditions, every bit of moisture is evaporated.

Why On The Western Coast?

• On the western coasts, the presence of cold currents gives rise to mists and fogs by chilling the on-
coming air. This inhibits convection in the air (because of temperature inversion). This air is later
warmed by contact with the hot land, and little rain falls.
• The desiccating effect of the cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast is so pronounced that the
mean annual rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not more than 1.3 cm.

[UPSC Prelims 2011] What could be the main reason/reasons for the formation of African
and Eurasian desert belt?
1. It is located in the sub-tropical high pressure cells.
2. It is under the influence of warm ocean currents.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct in this context?

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a) 1 only
b) 2 only
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 c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither1 nor 2

Rains
• Warm ocean currents bring rain to coastal areas and even interiors. Example: Summer Rainfall in British
Type climate (North Atlantic Drift). Warm currents flow parallel to the east coasts of the continents in
tropical and subtropical latitudes. This results in warm and rainy climates. These areas lie in the western
margins of the subtropical anti-cyclones.

Tropical Cyclones
• Warm ocean currents pile up warm waters in the tropics, and this warm water is the major force behind
tropical cyclones.

Fishing
• Mixing zones of cold and warm ocean currents bears the richest fishing grounds in the world. Example:
Grand Banks around Newfoundland, Canada and the North-Eastern Coast of Japan.
• The mixing of warm and cold currents helps to replenish the oxygen and favour the growth of planktons,
the primary food for the fish population. The best fishing grounds in the world exist mainly in these mixing
zones.

The most important fishing grounds of the world are found in the regions where
a) warm and cold atmospheric currents meet
b) rivers drain out large amounts of freshwater into the sea
c) warm and cold oceanic currents meet
d) continental shelf is undulating

Climate
Moderating Effect
• Ocean currents are responsible for moderate temperatures at coasts. (North Atlantic Drift brings warm-
ness to England. The Canary cold current brings a cooling effect to Spain, Portugal etc.)

Drizzle
• Mixing zones of cold and warm ocean currents creates foggy weather where precipitation occurs in the
form of drizzle (Newfoundland).

[UPSC Mains 2019] How do ocean currents and water masses differ in their impacts on ma-
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rine life and the coastal environment? Give suitable examples.

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• A water mass is a body of ocean water that acquires distinctive physical properties like temperature,
salinity and density because of a common formation history. The circulation and horizontal movement
of water in a water mass are not rapid as in ocean currents.
• Water masses are formed due to climatic effects and ocean topography in specific regions. For example,
the water masses in the polar regions are formed due to the melting of ice sheets. Hence these water
masses are cold and dense. They occupy the subsurface parts of the polar oceans. They move through-
out the ocean as a subsurface part of the thermohaline circulation.
• Mediterranean water is an example of a tropical water mass. Excessive evaporation, low rainfall, and high
temperatures continually generate large volumes of warm, salty water. Its high density causes it to sink
to the bottom of the Mediterranean and overflow across the submarine sill at the Strait of Gibraltar.

Impact on Marine Life and Climate

• Ocean currents influence the Sea Surface Temperatures (SST) whereas the water masses influence the
characteristics of the benthic zone. While ocean currents have a great impact on marine biodiversity
and coastal climate, the water masses have a less significant bearing because of their limited benthic
movement and less stratification.
• Water masses help deliver oxygen to deep water habitats. Thermohaline circulation carries this ox-
ygen-rich deep water throughout the oceans, where the oxygen will be used by benthic organisms.
• The zones of water mass upwelling (mostly in the tropical oceans — because of the trade winds that
drive the surface waters away) and downwelling (near the source of formation — usually the polar re-
gions, and anticyclonic regions) impact marine life and climate.
• Upwelling brings cold nutrient-rich waters to the surface. Downwelling regions have low productivity
because the nutrients in the water column are used but are not continuously replenished by cold, nutri-
ent-rich water from below the surface.
• The transgression of cold water masses into the tropics can wreak havoc on coral reefs — one of the
most productive marine ecosystems.

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Navigation
• Currents are referred to by their “drift”. Usually, the currents are strongest near the surface and may attain
speeds over five knots (1 knot = ~1.8 kmph). At depths, currents are generally slow with speeds less
than 0.5 knots.
• Ships usually follow routes which are aided by ocean currents and winds. Example: If a ship wants to travel
from Mexico to the Philippines, it can use the route along the North Equatorial Drift which flows from
east to west. When it wants to travel from the Philippines to Mexico, it can follow the route along the
doldrums when there is a counter-equatorial current flowing from west to east.
• However, since modern-day ships are propeller-driven, they are much less dependent on winds and ocean
currents, unlike the ships that explored the world by sail in ancient times.

[UPSC Mains 2015] Explain the factors responsible for the origin of ocean currents. How do
they influence regional climates, fishing, and navigation?
 Warm and rainy climates in tropical and subtropical latitudes (Florida, Natal etc.)
 Cold and dry climates on the western margins in the sub-tropics due to desiccating effect
 Foggy weather and drizzle in the mixing zones
 The moderate climate along the western costs in the sub-tropics

[UPSC Prelims 2002] Consider the following statements:

1. Ocean currents are slow-surface movement of water in the ocean.
2. Ocean currents assist in maintaining the Earth's heat balance
3. Ocean currents are set in motion primarily by prevailing winds
4. Ocean currents are affected by the configuration of the ocean

Which of these statements are correct?

a) 1 and 2
b) 2, 3 and 4
c) 1, 3 and 4
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Explanation:
• The speed of the ocean currents depends on the wind speed and the ocean configuration. The fastest
currents can flow at nine kmph (five knots). Hence ocean currents are not necessarily slow currents.
Moreover, cold currents flow as a sub-surface flow. So option (b) is the answer.
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32.2. Tides

• The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of the
sun and the moon, is called a tide. The study of tides is very complex, spatially and temporally, as it has
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great variations in frequency, magnitude and height.

• The moon’s gravitational pull to a great extent and to a lesser extent the sun’s, are the major causes
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for the occurrence of tides. Another factor is the centrifugal force (which arises due to the rotation of
 the earth) which acts opposite to the gravitational pull of the earth. Tides occur due to a balance be-
tween all these forces.

Tidal Bulge: Why There Are Two Tidal Bulges?

• Together, the gravitational pull and the centrifugal force are responsible for creating the two major
tidal bulges on the earth. The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference between these two forces; i.e. the
gravitational attraction of the moon and the centrifugal force.
• On the surface of the earth nearest to the moon, pull or the attractive force of the moon is greater than
the centrifugal force, and so there is a net force causing a bulge towards the moon.

Why Is There a Tidal Bulge On The Other Side?

• On the opposite side of the earth, the moon’s attractive force is less, as it is farther away from the moon,
the centrifugal force is dominant. Hence, there is a net force away from the moon. This creates the
second bulge away from the moon.

[UPSC Prelims 2015] Tides occur in the oceans and seas due to which among the following?
1. Gravitational force of the Sun
2. Gravitational force of the Moon
3. Centrifugal force of the Earth

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Factors Controlling the Nature And Magnitude Of Tides

 The movement of the moon in relation to the earth
 Changes in the position of the sun and moon in relation to the earth
 Uneven distribution of water over the globe
 Irregularities in the configuration of the oceans

Types of Tides Based On Frequency

• Tides vary in frequency, direction, and movement from place to place and also from time to time. Tides
may be grouped into various types based on their frequency of occurrence in one day or 24 hours or based
on their height.
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Semi-Diurnal Tide
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• It is the most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides each day (it varies
between 3 tides to 4 tides –– 3 tides in rare cases but 4 is normal). The successive high or low tides are
approximately of the same height.
 Southampton experiences tides 6-8 times a day (2 high tides from the North Sea + 2 high tides from
the English Channel + 2 low tides from the North Sea + 2 low tides from the English Channel). This
happens because the North Sea and the English Channel push the water at different intervals.

Southampton

Ebb And Flood

502

• The time between the high tide and low tide, when the water level is falling, is called the ebb. The time
between the low tide and high tide, when the tide is rising, is called the flow or flood.
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• Although tides occur twice a day, their interval is not exactly 12 hours. Instead, they occur at regular
intervals of 12 hours and 25 minutes. This is because the moon revolves around the earth from west to
east, and each day it moves a bit to the east if observed from the same place on earth at the same time
on two consecutive days. This time lag explains the tide interval of 12 hours and 25 minutes, as tides occur
twice a day.

Diurnal Tide
• There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day because of interference by continents. The
successive high and low tides are approximately of the same height. Many areas in the Gulf of Mexico
experience these types of tides.

Mixed Tide
• Semi-diurnal tides having variations in height (two high and two low tides are different heights) are known
as mixed tides. These tides generally occur along the west coast of North America and on many islands
of the Pacific Ocean.

Types of Tides Based On The Sun, Moon And The Earth’s Positions
• The height of rising water (high tide) varies appreciably depending upon the position of the sun and moon
with respect to the earth. Spring tides and neap tides come under this category.

Spring Tides
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• When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, the height of the tide will be higher.
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• These are called spring tides and they occur twice a month, one on full moon period and another during
new moon period.

Neap Tides
• Normally, there is a seven-day interval between the spring tides and neap tides. At this time the sun and
moon are at right angles to each other, and the forces of the sun and moon tend to counteract one
another.
• The Moon’s attraction, though more than twice as strong as the sun’s, is diminished by the counteracting
force of the sun’s gravitational pull. Like spring tides, these tides also occur twice a month.

[UPSC Prelims 1999] At which one of the following positions shown in the diagram will the
height of the ocean tide be maximum?
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 a) M1
b) M2
c) M3
d) M4

[UPSC Prelims 2001] Assertion & Reasoning

Assertion (A): During the neap tides. The high tide is lower, and the low tide is higher than
usual.
Reason (R): The neap tide, unlike the spring tide, occurs on the new moon instead of on the
full moon.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT a correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true

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Magnitude Of Tides

Based On Perigee and Apogee

• Once in a month, when the moon’s orbit is closest to the earth (perigee), unusually high and low tides
occur. During this time the tidal range is greater than normal. Two weeks later, when the moon is far-
thest from earth (apogee), the moon’s gravitational force is limited, and the tidal ranges are less than
their average heights.

Based On Perihelion and Aphelion

• When the earth is closest to the sun (perihelion), around 3rd January each year, tidal ranges are also
much greater, with unusually high and unusually low tides. When the earth is farthest from the sun (ap-
helion), around 4th July each year, tidal ranges are much less than average.

Importance of Tides
• Since tides are caused by the earth-moon-sun positions which are known accurately, the tides can be
predicted well in advance. This helps the navigators and fishermen plan their activities.

Navigation
• Tidal heights are very important, especially harbours near rivers and within estuaries having shallow bars
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at the entrance, which prevent ships and boats from entering the harbour. High tides raise the water level
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close to the shores. This helps the ships to arrive at the harbour more easily.
• Tides generally help in making some of the rivers navigable for ocean-going vessels. Port of London and
Haldia Port, Kolkata (tidal ports) have become important ports owing to the tidal nature of the mouths
of the Thames and Hooghly respectively.

Others
• Tides are used to generate electrical power (in Canada, France, Russia, and China). A 3 MW tidal power
project was constructed at Durgaduani in the Sundarbans of West Bengal.
• Tidal currents (high tides move seawater up into the estuary. Low tides reverse these currents) are helpful
in the circulation of nutrients and oxygen, desilting the sediments and removing polluted water from river
estuaries.
• The high tides help in fishing. Much more fish come closer to the shore during the high tide.

[UPSC Prelims 2000] Consider the following statements:

1. Tides are of great help in navigation and fishing.
2. High tide enables big ships to enter or leave the harbour safely
3. Tide prevents siltation in the harbours
4. Kandla and Diamond Harbour are tidal ports

Which of these statements are correct?

a) 1 and 4
b) 2, 3 and 4
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
507

Explanation:
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 • Diamond Harbour Port of Kolkata and the Kandla Port (Deendayal Port Authority,) (in the Gulf of
Kutch) of Gujarat are the major tidal ports of India. So all the statements are true.

Characteristics of Tides
• On the surface of the earth, the horizontal tide-generating forces (barriers and funnelling effect) are more
important than the vertical forces (the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun) in generating the
tidal bulges.
• The tidal bulges on wide continental shelves have a greater height (because of the barrier effect).
When tidal bulges hit the mid-oceanic islands, they become low (because of the lack of barrier
effect).
• The shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline can also magnify the intensity of tides (because of
the funnelling effect).
• Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal magnitudes. For example, the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia,
Canada –– has the highest tidal range. The tidal bulge is 15-16 m.

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The Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada

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• When the tide is channelled between islands or into bays, gulfs, and estuaries, the in and out movement
of water is called a tidal current (tidal bore is one such tidal current).

Tidal Bore

Tidal bore

• When a strong tide enters the narrow and shallow estuary of a river, the front of the tidal wave appears
to be vertical owing to the piling up of water of the river against the tidal wave and the friction of the river
bed. The steep-nosed tide crest looks like a vertical wall of water rushing upstream and is known as a tidal
bore. The name ‘bore’ is because of the sound the tidal current makes when it travels through narrow
channels.
• A tidal bore takes place during the flood tide and never during the ebb tide (tidal bores almost never
occur during neap tides).
• Bores occur in relatively few locations worldwide, usually in areas with a large tidal range, typically more
than 6 metres (20 ft) between high and low water.
• The mouth of the Amazon is not narrow, but the river still has a strong tidal bore as the mouth of the
river is shallow and dotted by many low-lying islands and sand bars.
• In India, tidal bores are common in the Hooghly river. Most powerful tidal bores occur in Qiantang River
in China.

Enormous Tidal bore

Impact of Tidal Bore

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• Tides are stable and can be predicted. Tidal bores are less predictable and hence can be dangerous. They
adversely affect the shipping and navigation in the estuarine zone. Tidal bores of considerable magnitude
can capsize boats and ships of considerable size.
• Tidal bores have an adverse impact on the ecology of estuaries. Animals slammed by the leading edge of
a tidal wave can be buried in the silty water. For this reason, carnivores and scavengers are common sights
behind tidal bores.
• They disrupt fishing zones in estuaries and gulfs.

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 33. Ocean Temperature And Salinity

33.1. Ocean Temperature

• The study of the temperature of the oceans is important for determining the
1. movement of large volumes of water (vertical and horizontal ocean currents),
2. type and distribution of marine organisms at various depths of oceans,
3. climate of coastal lands, etc.

Source Of Heat In Oceans

1. The sun’s insolation is the principal source of energy.
2. Heat from the earth’s interior (negligible compared to the heat received from the sun): the ocean
water at great depths is heated by volcanism at the mid-oceanic ridges. Some amount of heat is received
from the earth’s interior since the oceanic crust is thin and transfers some heat from the mantle. The
convectional oceanic circulations circulate this heat to the layers above.
3. The heat produced due to friction (negligible): caused by the surface wind and the tidal currents.

Loss of Ocean Heat

1. Back radiation (heat budget) or long wave terrestrial radiation from the seawater.
2. Exchange of heat between the sea and the atmosphere.
3. Evaporation: Heat is lost in the form of latent heat of evaporation (the atmosphere gains this heat in
the form of latent heat of condensation).

How Do Deep Water Marine Organisms Survive In Spite Of The Absence Of Sunlight?
• Photic zone (the zone that receives sunlight) is only about a few hundred meters. It depends on a lot of
factors like turbidity, the presence of algae etc. There are not enough primary producers below the photic
zone to the ocean bottom.
• At the sea bottom, there are bacteria that make use of heat supplied by the earth’s interior to prepare
food. So, they are the primary producers at the depths. Other organisms feed on these primary producers
and subsequent secondary producers. So, the heat from the earth supports wide-ranging deep water ma-
rine organisms.

Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution of Oceans

• Insolation: The average daily duration of insolation and its intensity.
• Heat loss: The loss of energy by reflection, scattering, evaporation and radiation.
• Albedo: The albedo of the sea (depending on the angle of sun rays).
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• The physical characteristics of the sea surface: The boiling point of the seawater is increased in the case
of higher salinity and vice versa (if Salinity is increased  Boiling point will increase  Evaporation
will decrease).
• The presence of submarine ridges and sills: Temperature is affected due to lesser mixing of waters on
the opposite sides of the ridges or sills (e.g. subsurface layers in the Mediterranean Sea).
• The shape of the ocean (enclosed seas): Enclosed seas in the low latitudes record relatively higher tem-
peratures (because of net heat gain) than the open seas (due to less mixing and higher overall insolation);
whereas the enclosed seas in the high latitudes have lower temperatures (because net heat loss and
less mixing) than the open seas. For example, the Mediterranean Sea records higher temperatures than
the longitudinally extensive Gulf of California.
• Local weather conditions such as cyclones: cyclones transfer heat from the oceans to the atmosphere.
• Unequal distribution of land and water: The oceans in the northern hemisphere receive more heat due
to their contact with a larger extent of land than the oceans in the southern hemisphere.
• Prevalent winds generate horizontal and sometimes vertical ocean currents: The winds blowing from the
land towards the oceans (off-shore winds: moving away from the shore) drive warm surface water away
from the coast resulting in the upwelling of cold water from below (this happens near Peruvian Coast
during normal years).
• Contrary to this, the onshore winds (winds flowing from oceans into continents) pile up warm water near
the coast, and this raises the temperature (this happens near the Peruvian coast during the El Nino
event).
• Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas while cold currents decrease
the temperature in warm ocean areas. For example, the Gulf stream (warm current) raises the temper-
ature near the eastern coast of North America and the West Coast of Europe. In contrast, the Labrador
current (cold current) lowers the temperature near the northeast coast of North America (Near New-
foundland).

Why Is the Diurnal Range Of Ocean Temperatures Too Small?

• The process of heating and cooling the oceanic water is slower than land due to vertical and horizontal
mixing and high specific heat of the water (more time is required to heat a Kg of water compared to
heating the same unit of a solid at the same temperatures and with equal energy supply).

Vertical Temperature Distribution of Oceans

• Photic or euphotic zone extends from the upper surface to ~200 m. The photic zone receives adequate
solar insolation. The aphotic zone extends from 200 m to the ocean bottom; this zone does not receive
adequate sun rays.
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Three-Layer System
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• The temperature structure of oceans over middle and low latitudes can be described as a three-layer sys-
tem from surface to the bottom.
1. The first layer represents the top layer of warm oceanic water, and it is about 500m thick with temperatures
ranging between 20° and 25° C. This layer, within the tropical region, is present throughout the year but
in mid-latitudes, it develops only during summer.
2. The second layer called the thermocline layer lies below the first layer and is characterized by a rapid
decrease in temperature with increasing depth. The thermocline is 500-1,000 m thick.
3. The third layer is very cold and extends up to the deep ocean floor. Here the temperature becomes almost
stagnant.

Thermocline

Thermocline
• The temperature profile of oceans shows a boundary region between the surface waters of the ocean and
the deeper layers. The boundary usually begins around 100-400 m below the sea surface and extends
several hundred meters downward. This boundary region, from where there is a rapid decrease in tem-
perature, is called the thermocline. About 90 per cent of the total volume of water is found below the
thermocline in the deep ocean. In this zone, temperatures approach 0° C.

Pycnocline
513

• Pycnocline is a boundary separating two liquid layers of different densities. It exists in oceans at a depth
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of 100-1000 m because of the large density difference between surface waters and deep ocean water.
• Pycnocline effectively prevents vertical currents except in polar regions. It is almost absent in polar re-
gions. This is because of the sinking of cold water near the poles.
• Formation of pycnocline may result from changes in salinity or temperature. Because the pycnocline zone
is extremely stable, it acts as a barrier for surface processes. Thus, changes in salinity or temperature are
very small below pycnocline but are seasonal in surface waters.

Pycnocline

 Similar Term: Halocline — a layer of rapid change in salinity

Thermohaline Circulation
• Winds drive ocean currents in the upper 100 meters of the ocean’s surface. However, ocean currents also
flow thousands of meters below the surface. These deep-ocean currents are driven by differences in the
water’s density, which is controlled by temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline). This process is known
as thermohaline circulation.

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Thermohaline Circulation (Wikipedia)

 Ocean Temperature Distribution (Source: Columbia.edu)

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Ocean Surface Salinity (all values are in ppt (parts per thousand or ‰)) (Source)
• The thermohaline circulation is sometimes called the ocean conveyor belt, the great ocean conveyor, or
the global conveyor belt. Ocean bottom relief greatly influences thermohaline circulation.

Horizontal Temperature Distribution

• The average temperature of surface water of the oceans is about 27°C at the equator, and it gradually
decreases from the equator towards the poles. The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing latitude
is generally 0.5°C per latitude.

[UPSC Prelims 2021] Consider the following statements:

1) In the tropical zone, the western sections of the oceans are warmer than the eastern sections owing
to the influence of trade winds.
2) In the temperate zone, westerlies make the eastern sections of oceans warmer than the western
sections.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 Only
b) 2 Only
c) Both 1 & 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Explanation:
• In the temperate zone, westerlies transfer the warm waters from the western sections of oceans to the
eastern sections, thereby raising the temperature of the eastern sections. However, since the eastern
sections of the oceans are dominated by cold currents, the temperature rise is not high enough to make
them warmer than the western sections. That is, in the temperate zone, westerlies make the eastern
sections of oceans warm but not warmer than the western sections (see the map of ocean temper-
ature distribution). Hence the answer is (a) 1 only.

[UPSC Prelims 2007] Consider the following statements:

1. Annual range of temperature is greater in the Pacific Ocean than that in the Atlantic Ocean.
2. Annual range of temperature is greater in the Northern Hemisphere than that in the Southern Hem-
isphere.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
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d) Neither 1 nor 2
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 Explanation:
• More water  less annual range. Hence statement (1) is false while (2) is true.

General Behaviour
• The rate of decrease of temperature with depth is greater at the equator than at the poles. In the Arctic
and Antarctic circles, the surface water temperatures are close to 0° C and so the temperature change with
the depth is very slight (ice is a very bad conductor of heat). Here, only one layer of cold water exists,
which extends from the surface to the deep ocean floor.
• The surface temperature and its downward decrease is influenced by the upwelling of bottom water (e.g.
near the Peruvian coast during normal years).
• In the cold Arctic and Antarctic regions, the sinking of cold water and its movement towards lower latitudes
is observed.
• In equatorial regions the surface, water sometimes exhibits lower temperature and salinity due to high
rainfall, whereas the layers below it have higher temperatures.
• The enclosed seas in both the lower and higher latitudes record higher temperatures at the bottom.
• The enclosed seas of low latitudes like the Sargasso Sea, the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea have
high bottom temperatures due to high insolation throughout the year and lesser mixing.
• In the case of the high latitude enclosed seas, the bottom layers of water are warmer as water of
slightly higher salinity and temperature move from the outer ocean as a sub-surface current.
• The presence of submarine barriers may lead to different temperature conditions on the two sides of the
barrier. For example, at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the submarine barrier (sill) has a height of about
366 m. The subsurface water in the strait is at high temperature compared to water at the same level in
the Indian ocean. The temperature difference is greater than nearly 20° C.

Range of Ocean Temperature

• The oceans and seas get heated and cooled slower than the land surfaces. Therefore, ocean surface tem-
perature is highest at 2 p.m. and the lowest, at 5 a.m.
• The average diurnal or daily range of temperature is barely 1 degree in oceans and seas. The annual range
of temperature is influenced by the annual variation of insolation, the nature of ocean currents and the
prevailing winds.
• The maximum and the minimum temperatures in oceans are slightly delayed than those of land areas (the
maximum being in August and the minimum in February (tropical cyclones occur mostly between Au-
gust and October. In the North Indian Ocean the peak cyclone season is mostly between mid-October to
mid-November due to its shape).
• The northern Pacific and northern Atlantic oceans (less intense prevailing winds) have a greater range of
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temperature than their southern parts (more extensive ocean currents).

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• Besides annual and diurnal ranges of temperature, there are periodic fluctuations in sea temperature also.
For example, the 11-year sunspot cycle causes sea temperatures to rise after an 11-year gap.

33.2. Ocean Salinity

• Salinity is the term used to define the total content of dissolved salts in seawater. It is calculated as the
amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of seawater. It is usually expressed as parts per thou-
sand or ppt.
• Salinity of 24.7 ppt (the symbol for ppt is ‰) has been considered as the upper limit to demarcate ‘brack-
ish water’.
• Salinity determines compressibility, thermal expansion, temperature, density, absorption of insolation,
evaporation and humidity. It also influences the composition and movement of the sea: water and the
distribution of fish and other marine resources.

Share of Dissolved Minerals and Salts in Sea Water

Share of Dissolved Minerals Grams per kg of water Share of Dissolved Salts

Salt Percentage
1. Chlorine 18.97

2. Sodium 10.47 1. Sodium Chloride 77.7%

3. Sulphate 2.65 2. Magnesium Chloride 10.9%

4. Magnesium 1.28 3. Magnesium Sulphate 4.7%

5. Calcium 0.41 4. Calcium Sulphate 3.6%

6. Potassium 0.38 5. Potassium Sulphate 2.5%

Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity

• Salinity, temperature and density of water are interrelated. Hence, any change in the temperature or den-
sity influences the salinity of an area.
• The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depends mainly on evaporation and precipitation.
• Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the freshwater flow from rivers, and in polar
regions by the processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
• Wind and ocean currents influence the salinity of an area by transferring water to other areas.
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Horizontal Distribution Of Salinity

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• The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33 and 37.

High Salinity Regions

• In the landlocked Red Sea, it is as high as 41.
• In the Mediterranean Sea in Europe the salinity is very high – 38 or more.
• In hot and dry regions, where evaporation is high, the salinity sometimes reaches 70.
• The regions of high salinity (38) in vast oceans coincide with high-pressure cells. Here, there is hardly
any rain and subsiding dry winds cause lots of evaporation.

Low Salinity Regions

• In the estuaries (enclosed mouth of a river where fresh and saline water get mixed) and the Arctic and
Antarctic, the salinity fluctuates from 0 to 35, seasonally (fresh water coming from ice caps).

Atlantic
• The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean is around 36-37. The equatorial region has a salinity of about
35. Near the equator, there is heavy rainfall, high relative humidity, cloudiness and calm air of the dol-
drums.
• The polar areas experience very little evaporation and receive large amounts of fresh water from the melt-
ing of ice. This leads to low levels of salinity, ranging between 20 and 32.
• Maximum salinity (37) is observed between 20° N – 30° N and 20° W – 60° W (high-pressure cells).

[UPSC Mains 2017] Account for variations in oceanic salinity and discuss its multi-
dimensional effects.

Indian Ocean
• The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35. The low salinity trend is observed in the Bay of Bengal due
to the influx of river water by the river Ganga. On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows higher salinity
due to high evaporation and a low influx of fresh water.

Marginal Seas

• The North Sea, in spite of its location in higher latitudes, records higher salinity due to more saline water
brought by the North Atlantic Drift. Baltic Sea records low salinity due to the influx of river waters in
large quantities.
• The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity due to high evaporation. Salinity is, however, very low in
the Black Sea due to the enormous freshwater influx by rivers.

Inland Seas And Lakes

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• The salinity of the inland seas and lakes is very high because of the regular supply of salt by the rivers
falling into them. These water bodies become progressively more saline due to evaporation. For instance,
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 the salinity of the Great Salt Lake (220), (Utah, USA), the Dead Sea (238) and the Lake Van (330) in
Turkey is more than 200.

Cold And Warm Water Mixing Zones

• Salinity decreases from 35 to 31 on the western parts of the northern hemisphere because of the influx of
melted water from the Arctic region.

Vertical Distribution of Salinity

• With depth, the salinity also varies, but this variation again is subject to latitudinal differences. The decrease
is also influenced by cold and warm currents.
• In high latitudes, salinity increases with depth. In the middle latitudes, it increases up to 35 metres and
then it decreases. At the equator, sub-surface salinity is lower.
• Salinity, generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called the halocline (compare this with
thermocline), where salinity increases sharply.
• High salinity seawater general, sinks below the lower salinity water. This leads to stratification by salinity.

33.3. Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)

• AMOC is characterised by a northward flow of warm, salty water in the upper layers of the Atlantic,
and a southward flow of colder, deep waters that are part of the thermohaline circulation.
• As warm water flows northwards in the Atlantic, it cools, while evaporation increases its salt content. Low
temperature and a high salt content raise the density of the water, causing it to sink deep into the ocean.
The cold, dense water deep below slowly spreads southward. Eventually, it gets pulled back to the surface
and warms again, and the circulation is complete.

Importance of AMOC
• AMOC aids in distributing heat and energy around the earth (heat budget).
• Western Europe’s climate is less harsh even in winters because of AMOC (Gulf Stream, North Atlantic Drift).
• It acts as a carbon sink by absorbing and storing atmospheric carbon. AMOC’s carbon sequestration has
significant implications for the evolution of anthropogenic global warming.

Cause of Concern
• AMOC has undergone exceptional weakening in the last 150 years. This is because as the atmosphere
warms, the surface ocean retains more of its heat. Freshwater from melting Greenland ice sheets and the
Arctic region will make AMOC circulation weaker as it is not as dense as saltwater and doesn’t sink to
the bottom.

Effects of AMOC Slowdown

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• Any substantial weakening of the AMOC would cause

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 further decrease in marine productivity in the North Atlantic (less sinking will lead to less mixing of
water),
 colder weather in Northern Europe,
 less Sahelian summer rainfall and South Asian summer rainfall,
 a reduced number of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic and
 an increase in regional sea level along the northeast coast of North America.

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