1

Heat and Flow (4PB00)

Exercises Guided Selfstudy
2
Chapter 1

Introduction to Flow

exercise 1.1. Cylindrical coordinates

a) Show by means of a figure that the unit vectors in cylindrical coordinates er and eϑ are
related to the unit vectors ex and ey by:

er = ex cos ϑ + ey sin ϑ

and

eϑ = −ex sin ϑ + ey cos ϑ.

Use that a unit vector points in the direction where the quantity increases, i.e. the unit vector
er points in the direction of increasing r, increasing distance to the origin.
b) Show that der /dϑ = eϑ and deϑ /dϑ = −er .
c) It holds that r 2 = x2 + y 2 and tan ϑ = y/x. Make use of these relations in combination
with the chain rule to show that for an arbitrary function f :

∂f sin ϑ ∂f ∂f
=− + cos ϑ
∂x r ∂ϑ ∂r
and
∂f cos ϑ ∂f ∂f
= + sin ϑ .
∂y r ∂ϑ ∂r

Hint: write f (x, y) = f (r(x, y), ϑ(x, y)) and apply the chain rule for differentiation. Express
the result in r and ϑ only, by using x = r cos ϑ and y = r ∈ ϑ.
d) Use the previous equations to transform the operator ∇ to cylindrical coordinates. Start
∂ ∂ ∂
from the expression in Cartesian coordinates, ∇ = ex ∂x + ey ∂y + ez ∂z and substitute the
results from parts (a) and (c). Express the final result in r and ϑ only.

exercise 1.2. Gradient

a) The pressure in a flow between two plates is given by P (x, y, z) = P0 − ax. Here, a is a
constant and x denotes the direction of the flow. Calculate ∇P .
b) The temperature of a circular plate with a radius R is equal to

T (x, y) = 333 − 40(x2 + y 2 )/R2 .

3
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO FLOW

Calculate the gradient of the temperature in Cartesian coordinates. Calculate the gradient
by transforming the equation for the temperature into cylindrical coordinates. Use the result
from the previous exercise.
c) Use the result of exercise 1.1(d) to calculate the gradient of ψ(r, ϑ), which is denoted by:

a2
 
ψ = Ar sin ϑ 1 − 2 .
r

exercise 1.3. Divergence

A velocity field is given as vx = αx, vy = βy. Under which condition on α and β is the
velocity field solenoidal? Solenoidal means that the divergence is equal to zero everywhere.

exercise 1.4. Curl of a vector field

A velocity field is given as vx = αy, vy = βx. Under which condition on α and β is the
velocity field irrotational?

exercise 1.5. Curl and divergence

Find a non-trivial, two-dimensional velocity field of which both the divergence and curl are
equal to zero.

exercise 1.6. A free vortex

The velocity field of a free vortex is given by vx = −y/(x2 + y 2 ) and vy = x/(x2 + y 2 ).
Calculate the divergence and the rotation of the velocity field.

exercise 1.7. Laplace-operator

The temperature of a circular plate with a radius R is equal to

T (x, y) = 333 − 40(x2 + y 2 )/R2 .

Calculate ∇2 T in both Cartesian and cylindrical coordinates. Show that the results are
equivalent.

exercise 1.8. Integration in cylindrical coordinates

The temperature of a circular plate with radius R is equal to T (r, ϑ) = 1−r 2 /R2 . Calculate the
average temperature of the plate by integrating the temperature over the plate and dividing
by its area.

exercise 1.9. Turbulent velocity profile

The velocity profile for a turbulent flow in a circular pipe is given in good approximation by:

v(r, ϑ) = vmax (1 − r/R)1/7 ,

where r denotes the distance to the center of the pipe, ϑ the angle with the x-axis, R the
radius of the pipe and vmax the velocity in the center, which is the maximum velocity in
the pipe. Calculate the average velocity in terms of vmax . Hint: the integral you get cannot
directly be calculated, but try to apply a transform of variables so that the power 1/7 appears
in a simpler way.
 5

exercise 1.10. More integration in cylindrical coordinates

For all examples below calculate the integral of the specified function f over the circle
x2 + y 2 ≤ R 2 :
a) f (r, ϑ) = r, R = 2;
b) f (r, ϑ) = r sin ϑ, R = 1;
c) f (x, y) = x, R = 1;
d) f (r, ϑ) = r 2 , R = a;
e) f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 , R = a;
f) f (r, ϑ) = r 2 − r 4 , R = 1;
g) f (r, ϑ) = 1, R = a.

exercise 1.11. More divergence

Calculate the divergence of the following velocity fields:
a) vx = x, vy = y;
b) vx = y, vy = x;
c) vx = x, vy = −y;
d) vx = x2 − y 2 , vy = −2xy;
e) vx = exp(−t), vy = exp(−t);
f) vx = x, vy = y, vz = −2z.

exercise 1.12. More curl

Calculate the curl of the following velocity fields:
a) vx = x, vy = y;
b) vx = y, vy = x;
c) vx = x, vy = −y;
d) vx = x2 − y 2 , vy = −2xy;
e) vx = exp(−t), vy = exp(−t);
f) vx = x, vy = y, vz = −2z.
6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO FLOW
Chapter 3

Fluid in motion

exercise 3.1. Different types of derivatives

We consider the two-dimensional time-dependent velocity field vx (x, y, t) = −y exp(−αt),
vy = x exp(−αt) for x2 + y 2 ≤ R2 where α ≥ 0 is a constant. In this exercise we consider
three different types of acceleration, but first we will try to understand the nature of this flow
field.
a) Plot a few velocity vectors in the (x, y)-plane at t = 0 and sketch streamlines in the same
figure. How does this figure change at later times?
b) For the first type of acceleration consider an observer at a fixed point in space, for instance
(x, y) = (1, 1). Plot the two components of the velocity this observer sees as a function of
∂vy
time and calculate the corresponding acceleration, ∂v ∂t and ∂t . Check with your plot of the
x

velocity in (x, y) = (1, 1) that this acceleration is correct.

c) Now we consider an observer that follows a certain path through the fluid given by x(t) = t
and y(t) = t. Determine the two components of the velocity field this observer sees as
a function of time: vx (x(t), y(t), t) and vy (x(t), y(t), t) and plot them. Calculate the fluid
acceleration this observer sees by taking the derivative of v(x(t), y(t), t). Show that this
acceleration is equal to the expression found by applying the chain rule for differentiation:
dv ∂v ∂v dx ∂v dy
= + + .
dt ∂t ∂x dt ∂y dt

d) Finally, we consider an observer who travels with the fluid. That implies that in the
dy
formula above dx
dt = vx and dt = vy . Calculate the acceleration of this observer. This is the
material derivative, usually indicated as DDtv . Give an interpretation of this acceleration in
case α = 0.

exercise 3.2. Material derivative

In this exercise we do the same as in the previous exercise, but now for a one dimensional
flow field described by

v(x, t) = sin(x + t).

A particle moves with a velocity a, such that its position is given by x(t) = at.
a) Give an equation for the velocity of the fluid at the position of the particle v(x(t), t).
b) The velocity as a function of time is found at (a). Now determine the time derivative of
this equation.

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8 CHAPTER 3. FLUID IN MOTION

c) Determine the material derivative of v(x, t), where x indicates the position of the particle
and show that the result is equal to that of (b).

exercise 3.3. Flow around a cylinder

The velocity field of a flow around a cylinder with radius R and center at x = 0, y = 0 can be
2
described by the function Φ(r, ϑ) = r cos ϑ + Rr cos ϑ, at which (r, ϑ) are polar coordinates.
The velocity v follows from the gradient of Φ: v = grad Φ.
a) Calculate the cylindrical components of the velocity field. Use the result of exercise 1.1(d)
for this.
b) Show that the velocity component perpendicular to the cylinder is equal to 0 if r = R.
This implies that there is no flow across the cylinder wall.
c) Calculate the Cartesian components of the velocity field.
d) What does the velocity field look like at a large distance from the cylinder, if x2 +y 2 ≫ R2 ?
e) Draw the velocity field (for example use the matlab command quiver) and sketch the
streamlines. On Canvas an example matlab file is provided.

exercise 3.4. Streamlines

A two-dimensional velocity field is defined as:

vx (x, y) = sin(x) sin(y)

vy (x, y) = cos(x) cos(y),

where 0 < x < π and −π/2 < y < π/2.
a) Draw the streamlines. Use matlab for this.
b) Calculate div v.

exercise 3.5. A rotating vessel

A two-dimensional velocity field is defined as:

vx (x, y) = −y

vy (x, y) = x,
where x2 + y 2 < 1.
a) Sketch the streamlines by hand. Start by plotting a set of velocity vectors in the (x, y)-
plane.
b) For this velocity field we can actually calculate the streamlines. To this end we use that
the velocity of the fluid is the time derivative of the position: for a fluid parcel dx
dt = vx = −y
dy
and dt = vy = x. By differentiation of the first equation once again with respect to time and
substitution of the second equation, y is eliminated and the resulting differential for x(t) can
be solved. Show that for a particle that has a position (x0 , y0 ) at t = 0 and that moves with
the flow, it has a position that is defined by x(t) = A cos t + B sin t and y(t) = A sin t − B cos t
at time t. Determine A and B from the starting position.
c) Determine the material derivative of the velocity for this particle. (See exercise 3.1)

exercise 3.6. More material derivative

Calculate the material derivative of the following velocity fields:
a) vx = x, vy = y;
 9

b) vx = y, vy = x;
c) vx = x, vy = −y;
d) vx = x2 − y 2 , vy = −2xy;
e) vx = exp(−t), vy = exp(−t);
f) vx = x, vy = y, vz = −2z.

exercise 3.7. Material derivative op temperature

A two-dimensional velocity field is constant in time and space with components vx and vy .
Calculate the material derivative of the temperature in the following cases:
a) T = exp(−(x2 + y 2 ));
b) T = exp(−(x − vx t)2 − (y − vy t)2 ); Explain the result.
10 CHAPTER 3. FLUID IN MOTION
Chapter 4

Mass conservation in integral form

exercise 4.1. A barrel of water

A barrel of water is completely filled and remains completely filled during this exercise. At
the top, there is a round opening with a diameter of 10 cm causing a constant flow of water
with a velocity of 1 cm/s.
a) What is the volume flow rate through this opening?
b) There is a small hole at the bottom of the barrel with a diameter of 2 mm. What is the
velocity of the water that flows through this hole?

exercise 4.2. A compressor

In a compressor, air is compressed to a pressure of 5 × 105 Pa. The air is sucked in from the
outside air. The inflow and outflow pipes of the compressor have a diameter of 0.5 m and 2
cm, respectively. Calculate the velocity of the air that is needed in order to reach a volume
flow rate of 6000 litre per minute at the exit. During the compression, the temperature of
the air is increased from 20o C to 50o C.

exercise 4.3. An open tank

An open tank is being filled by a flow of water with an area of 0.0025 m2 and a velocity of 7
m/s. There is a hole at the bottom of the tank. Water flows through this hole with a volume
flow rate of 0.003 m3 /s. What is the increase or decrease of the volume of the water in the
tank per second?

exercise 4.4. Pipes in series

Two pipes, one with a diameter of 1.2 m and one with a diameter of 60 cm, are connected in
series. The total volume flow rate through the pipes is 2 m3 /s. What is the average velocity
in each of the two pipes?

exercise 4.5. Parallel pipes

Two pipes, one with a diameter of 1.2 m and one with a diameter of 60 cm, connect two
vessels in parallel. Both pipes are of the same length. The total volume flow rate through
the pipes is 2 m3 /s. What are the velocity and volume flow rate in each of the two pipes, if
the pressure difference is proportional to LQ/D 4 , where L is the length, D the diameter and
Q the volume flow rate through the pipe?

exercise 4.6. Perforated pipe

Water flows through a perforated pipe, that has a diameter of 0.2 m, with a velocity of 6 m/s.

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12 CHAPTER 4. MASS CONSERVATION IN INTEGRAL FORM

The velocity profile through the walls of the pipes can be approximated as linear. The flow
is stationary. What is the outflow velocity v?

exercise 4.7. Shockwave

A shockwave moves in a tube, such as is indicated in the figure below. The properties of
the fluid are different at both sides of the shockwave. The velocity of the shockwave is vw .
Use the integral form of conservation of mass to derive a relation between ρ1 , ρ2 , v2 and vw .
Note that v1 = 0. In this case the mass in the sketched control volume is not constant in
time, since mass enters the control volume through the left boundary, but no mass leaves
the control volume. Calculate the unsteady term in the conservation equation by finding an
expression for the change in mass in the control volume in a small time interval.

exercise 4.8. Flow around a cylinder

In this exercise we consider the flow around a cylinder as sketched in the figure. The flow
is two-dimensional, since it is the same in every plane parallel to the figure and the velocity
perpendicular to this plane is zero everywhere. The x-component of the velocity is drawn
everywhere on the edge of the control volume in the figure. On the right boundary the velocity
profile is linear and varies from 0 in the mid point to v0 at the upper and lower boundaries.
The flow is stationary and incompressible. Calculate first the mass flow rate through the two
vertical boundaries of the control volume sketched in the figure. Explain by using conservation
of mass, that there has to be a flow through the horizontal boundaries of the control volume.
What is the mass flow rate through both horizontal boundaries of the control volume?

exercise 4.9. Mixture of two fluid flows

A pump injects water in a pipe with a velocity of V1 = 40 m/s. The pipe has a diameter of
7.6 cm. This causes that a second flow of water with a velocity of V2 = 3 m/s is dragged
along the ring-shaped region around the narrow pipe. Both flows are fully mixed further
 13

downstream, such that V3 can be approximated as constant. Use conservation of mass to

determine velocity V3 if the flow is stationary?
14 CHAPTER 4. MASS CONSERVATION IN INTEGRAL FORM
Chapter 5

Conservation of momentum in
integral form

exercise 5.1. Forces acting on water in a cylindrical tube

Water flows through a long horizontal tube with a constant cross section and a diameter of 2
cm. We consider a part of the tube with a length of 1 m. The velocity at both ends is given
by vx = v0 (1 − (r/R)2 ), where r is the distance to the center of the pipe and R the radius of
the pipe. The other components of the velocity are equal to zero. The flow is stationary and
gravity can be disregarded. RR
a) Calculate the mass flow rate through the end of this part of the tube, ρ(v · n)dA. Since
the velocity is not constant the mass flow rate cannot be found by simple multiplication of
velocity and area. See for example exercise 1.8.
b) Calculate in the same wayRRthe momentum flow rate in the x-direction through the same
end of this part of the tube, ρvx (v · n)dA.
c) There are two forces acting on this fluid: the force due to the pressure and the viscous
force. At the inlet of the piece of tube we are considering, the pressure is equal to P1 and
at the outlet this is P2 with P1 > P2 . How large is the force acting on the fluid due to the
pressure.
d) Use the integral conservation of momentum in the x-direction to determine how large the
viscous force acting on the fluid is and what its direction is.

exercise 5.2. A rocket

A model rocket with a mass of 40 g is tested on thrust while it is attached to a wall (see
drawing). The exhaust gasses of the motor leave the rocket through an opening of 1 cm,
with a velocity of v = 450 m/s and with a density of 0.5 kg/m3 . Assume that the pressure
in the exhaust gasses is equal to that of the surrounding pressure and that the changes in
momentum inside the motor are negligible.
a) What is the momentum flow rate of the exhaust gasses if the velocity profile is uniform?
b) Calculate the momentum flow rate of the exhaust gasses if the velocity profile is equal to
v = v0 (1 − (2r/d)2 ) where r is the distance to the center of the exhaust, d the diameter and
vo is chosen such that the average velocity is equal to 450 m/s.
c) Calculate in both cases the force on the rod with which the rocket is attached to the wall.

exercise 5.3. A constriction

The figure shows a situation in which air has to pass through a constriction of a tube. The

15
16 CHAPTER 5. CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM IN INTEGRAL FORM

pressure at the inlet is 105 kPa and at the outlet the ambient pressure is equal to 101.3 kPa.
The tube is much longer on the left of the figure, but it ends at the right as drawn. At the
inlet, the constriction has a diameter of 60 mm and at the outlet it has a diameter of 10 mm.
flanges

The flow is stationary and gravity does not play a role.

a) Calculate the velocity at the outlet of the constriction. Use the Bernoulli equation and
assume that the density of the air is constant and equal to 1.22 kg/m3 .
b) Use the integral form of the momentum conservation law to calculate the force exerted by
the flow on the flanges in horizontal direction. What is the direction of this force? Hint: what
would be the force in horizontal direction if the air does not flow (vx = 0) and the pressure is
equal to the ambient pressure everywhere?
exercise 5.4. A liquid jet
A stationary, incompressible, frictionless, two-dimensional liquid jet with width h, velocity v
and thickness 1 (perpendicular to the plane of the drawing) touches a horizontal plate with
an angle α. This jet splits into two parts, whereafter both parts flow with the same velocity
v in opposite direction along the plate. The fluid does not exert any force on the plate in
horizontal direction. Gravity can be neglected. Calculate the forces on the plate in vertical
direction.

exercise 5.5. A shockwave

We again consider the shockwave of exercise 4.7, but now apply conservation of momentum
 17

to find the pressure difference P2 − P1 . The shockwave moves with constant velocity from left
to right (see the figure). Show that P2 − P1 = ρ1 vw v2 . Use the result from exercise 4.7 and
calculate the unsteady term in the conservation equation in the same way as the unsteady
term in the conservation of mass equation.

exercise 5.6. Force on a bend in a pipe

Water flows through a bend with an angle of 30o . The flow is stationary. The diameter of the
tube at point 1 is equal to 0.3 m. The velocity here is equal to 12 m/s and the overpressure
is 128 kPa. At point 2, the diameter is equal to 0.38 m and the overpressure is equal to
145 kPa. Calculate the forces in both directions x and z that are required to keep the bend
stationary. Use conservation of mass to determine the velocity at point 2. Gravity does not
play a role since gravity points in the direction perpendicular to the figure. In this exercise
only the overpressure (difference with ambient pressure) is specified. Does the value of the
ambient pressure influence the result?

exercise 5.7. Forces on a cylinder

We again consider the flow around a cylinder as treated in exercise 4.8 and continue with
conservation of momentum to determine the force the flow exerts on the cylinder. In this
exercise gravity does not play a role and the flow is stationary and incompressible. Moreover,
only the force in x-direction is relevant, since the flow is symmetric in the other direction, so
that the force in that direction equals zero. The pressure on the edge of the control volume
that is shown below is the same everywhere. The x-component of the velocity is indicated
in the figure. Start by calculating the momentum flow rate in x-direction through all four
boundaries of the control volume by using the result of exercise 4.8 for the mass flow through
the horizontal boundaries. Then, use the integral form of conservation of momentum to
determine the force in x-direction that the fluid exerts on the cylinder.
18 CHAPTER 5. CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM IN INTEGRAL FORM
Chapter 6

Conservation of energy in integral

form

exercise 6.1. A pump

Seawater, with a density of 1025 kg/m3 flows through a pump with a volume flow rate of
0.21 m3 /s. The inlet of the pump has a diameter of 0.152 m and the pressure there is -15 cm
Hg. The outlet of the pump has a diameter of 0.152 m and is 1.8 m higher than the inlet.
The pressure here is 175 kPa. What is the amount of power the pump adds to the water if
the temperature differences are negligible? The pressures that are given are relative to the
ambient pressure.

exercise 6.2. A fan

A fan sucks in outside air through a round pipe with a diameter of 0.30 m. The inlet of
this pipe is smooth and rounded. The density of the air is 1.22 kg/m3 and the manometer
indicates a height difference of 2.5 cm water.
a) What is the volume flow rate of the air? This is an example where Bernoulli’s equation
can be applied. Start be choosing 2 points that are connected by a streamline and where all
conditions for the application of Bernoulli’s equation are valid (no work!). By appropriate
choice of the two points all quantities in the equation are known, except the velocity and
pressure in the pipe. The pressure can be found from the reading of the manometer and
therefore the velocity can be found and finally the volume flow rate.
b) What is the power of the fan? This can be found from application of the result of Example
1 on page 67 of the book by choosing an appropriate control volume that includes the fan.

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20 CHAPTER 6. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN INTEGRAL FORM

exercise 6.3. A venturi meter

A venturi meter with a inflow diameter of 0.6 m is meant for an air flow rate of 6 m3 /s. What
is the required diameter at the constriction of the venturi meter if a height difference of 10
cm alcohol has to be obtained? The relative density of alcohol is 0.8. Relative density is the
ratio of the mass density and that of water. The mass density of air is ρa = 1.22 kg/m3 . Use
Bernoulli’s equation in the venturi to relate the velocity in the tube to the velocity in the
constriction and determine the pressure difference from the reading of the manometer filled
with alcohol.

exercise 6.4. Free outflow from a tank

A cylindrical shaped tank with height H and diameter D is completely filled with water. The
tank is open at the top, so the water level is in contact with atmospheric pressure P0 . A small
hole is made at the bottom of the tank with a diameter d through which the water can flow
freely.
(a) Give an expression for the velocity of the water flow v at the hole as function of the height
h and the diameter d and D.
(b) Given an expression for the time that is required for the tank to become empty.

exercise 6.5. A flow meter

A flow meter in the shape of a venturi is placed in a vertical pipe. Use Bernoulli’s equation to
calculate the volume flow rate through the pipe in case P1 = 1.6 × 105 Pa, P2 = 1.2 × 105 and
the difference in height between the pressure sensors is h = 0.8 m. The fluid is water. Is this in-
200mm

p1

100mm
p2

formation required for the answer?

exercise 6.6. Flow through a tube

The diameter of a tube decreases gradually from 6 cm at one side to 4 cm at the other side.
If water flows through the tube with a certain velocity, it turns out that the overpressure at
one side is 32 kPa and at the other side this is 24 kPa. What is the volume flow rate through
the tube?

exercise 6.7. The thickness of a water jet

A water jet that comes out of a tap becomes thinner downwards.
(a) Derive an equation that gives the diameter of the jet as a function of the distance, y, to
the tap. Assume that the water comes out of the tap with a velocity v0 and that the diameter
is D at that point.
(b) At which distance to the tap is the diameter halved if v0 = 1 m/s?
 21

exercise 6.8. A piping system

(a) The pressure in a pump with volume flow rate Q is increased with ∆P . Show that the
power that the pump delivers to the fluid is given by W = Q∆P . This equation can be used
for the rest of the exercise.
A pump that delivers 180 W of power to a fluid, is used to pump oil with a density ρ = 960
kg/m3 out of a large storage tank. The piping system that is used for this, is shown in the
figure. The pipe has a diameter of 7.5 cm. Losses due to friction in the piping and the bends
can be neglected. A manometer is included in the system to measure the pressure difference
P2 − P1 , as well as a venturi meter to measure the velocity. Both manometers are filled with
air, which has a density that can be neglected. The fluid level in the storage tank lies 75 cm
above the piping. The height difference between the two legs of the manometer is 55 cm and
the height difference between the points P1 and P2 is 18 cm.
(b) Calculate the pressure difference P2 − P1 from the height difference in the manometer.
Which of those two pressure is the largest?
(c) Calculate the volume flow rate Q and the velocity in the pipe, using the previous answer
and the power of the pump.
(d) Calculate P1 and P2 if given that the pressure outside of the tank is equal to 1 atmosphere.
(e) The constriction in the venturi meter has a diameter of 5 cm, while the U-tube has a height
of 1.5 m. Is it possible to measure the volume flow rate with this venturi meter. If the answer
is no, think of a way to make use of this venturi meter.

air ∆h

55cm
75cm p2
oil 18cm

p1 pump
22 CHAPTER 6. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN INTEGRAL FORM
Chapter 7

Shear stress in a laminar flow

exercise 7.1. Viscous forces acting on a fluid in a channel

Water flows through a channel (the space between two parallel, flat plates) with a height 2H.
One of these plates is located at y = H, the other at y = −H. The dynamic viscosity of the
water is equal to 1 × 10−3 Pa·s. What is the viscous force (size and direction) acting on the
fluid by 1 m2 of one of the plates if
a) the flow is laminar and the velocity profile in the channel is given by vx = (1 − (y/H)2 )
and vz = 0?
b) the flow also has a cross component and the velocity profile is given by vx = (1 − (y/H)2 )
and vz = (1 − (y/H)2 )/5?
c) the flow is turbulent and the velocity profile in the channel is given by vx = (1 − |y|/H)1/7
and vz = 0?
In all three cases the velocity component perpendicular to the plates, vy = 0. The viscous
force on a surface A is given by:
ZZ
F= n · τ dA,
A

where n is the unit normal vector on the surface pointing away from the fluid and τ is the
viscous stress tensor (Eq. 7-15) of the book.

exercise 7.2. Incompressible fluid

Show that for an incompressible it holds that:
∂σxx ∂σyx ∂σzx ∂P
+ + = µ∆vx − .
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
exercise 7.3. Deformation of a fluid element
Sketch the deformation of a fluid element for the following cases:
a) ∂vx /∂y ≫ ∂vy /∂x;
b) ∂vx /∂y ≪ ∂vy /∂x;
c) ∂vx /∂y ≈ ∂vy /∂x.

exercise 7.4. Stress tensor on a fluid element

Given is a two-dimensional, incompressible flow with a velocity vx = vx (y). Sketch a three-
dimensional fluid element and give for every component of the stresstensor their size and
direction. Also, indicate on which surface it acts.

23
24 CHAPTER 7. SHEAR STRESS IN A LAMINAR FLOW

exercise 7.5. Change in length and volume

Show that for a relative change in length per unit of time for an one-dimensional flow vx =
vx (x) is given by ∂vx /∂x. Generalize this and give the relative change in volume per unit of
time for a three-dimensional flow.
Chapter 8

Laminar flow

exercise 8.1. Poiseuille flow in a round pipe

For Poiseuille flow in a round pipe the following relation between the pressure drop and the
average velocity holds:

dP 8µvavg 32µvavg
− = 2
=
dx R D2

where R is the radius, D the diameter of the pipe and vavg is the average velocity. Express this
relation in terms of the volume flow rate and the diameter of the pipe. With what percentage
does the volume flow rate changes if the pressure drop is constant while the diameter doubles?

exercise 8.2. A viscometer

A viscometer consists of two concentric cylinders with diameters of 10.2 and 10.6 cm. In
between these cylinders a liquid with an unknown viscosity flows over a height of 12 cm. The
outer cylinder is fixed, while a moment of force of 0.024 Nm causes the inner cylinder to
rotate with a constant speed of 62 revolutions per minute. What is the viscosity of the fluid?

exercise 8.3. The siphon

A hose that is filled with water, connects two barrels. With this hose, water is transported
from one barrel to the other (this is called a siphon). The fluid level of one barrel is 8.0 m
higher than that of the other one. The hose has a total length of 15.0 m and a diameter of 3
mm (viscosity of the water is η = 1.8 × 10−3 Pa·s and the density ρ = 1.0 × 103 kg/m3 ). The
barrels are round and identical. The diameter of these is 1.0 m and the depth of the water
is 0.3 m. Calculate how long it takes until the top barrel is empty. You can assume that the
difference of the water levels is constant and thus stays equal to 8.0 m. This question can be
solved from the amount of water present in the top barrel and the volume flow rate with which
this barrel is emptied. The volume flow rate through the hose can be found from a combination
of Bernoulli’s equation and the viscous pressure drop for flow in a pipe (Eq. (8-9) of the book).

25
26 CHAPTER 8. LAMINAR FLOW

03,m

8m

exercise 8.4. An infusion

To get a saline solution to flow from a bag through a hose to a needle that is stuck in a vein,
it needs to be hung up high. The needle has an inner diameter of 0.40 mm and a length of
2.0 cm. A volume flow rate of 3.0 cm3 blood per minute is required. The density of the fluid
is 1.2 × 103 kg/m3 and the viscosity is 6.15 × 10−3 Pa·s. The blood pressure in the vein is
2.00 × 103 Pa higher than the atmospheric pressure.
(a) What is the required height of the bag relative to the needle. Assume that the flow in the
needle is laminar and that the pressure losses in the hose are negligible. Also assume that
the vein is much wider than the needle, so that the velocity in both the vein and the bag are
negligible. Apply Bernoulli’s equation and the viscous pressure drop in the needle.
(b) What is the minimum required diameter of the hose to assure that the pressure loss in
the hose is less than 1% of the pressure loss of that of the needle. Assume that the length of
the hose is equal to the height that is determined in part (a).

exercise 8.5. Flow through a simple piping system

Flow is pumped through two round, parallel pipes. One of these pipes has a length of L1 = 10
m and an inner diameter of d1 = 0.02 m. The other one has a length of L2 = 30 m and an
inner diameter of d2 = 0.03 m. Assume that the flow in the pipes has a Poiseuille profile.
The volume flow rate that the pump delivers is Q = 8.0 m3 per hour. The viscosity of water
is µ = 1.8 × 10−3 Pa·s.
(a) Calculate the pressure drop ∆P over both the pipes (assuming that it is equal in both
the pipes). Calculate the volume flow rate Q1 through the thin pipe and Q2 for the thicker
pipe.
(b) Show that for a tube with Poiseuille flow, the maximum velocity is equal to two times the
average velocity: vmax = 2vgem . Use this to calculate the maximum velocity in the thin tube.
(c) Calculate the flow profile vz (r) inside the thin tube; r is the distance to the center of the
tube.
(d) By adjusting the length L2 , the volume flow rate changes through both the pipes and also
the pressure drop over the pump changes. Explain why this happens. Calculate how large L2
has to be in order to make sure that Q1 = Q2 .

exercise 8.6. A pipeline for transport of oil

4000 barrels of oil a day are transported through a pipeline of 40 km long. This results in a
pressure drop of 3.45 × 106 Pa over the pipe. What is the new capacity of the pipeline if a
parallel pipe is installed with the same dimensions for the last 18 km and the pressure drop
stays equal. Assume that the flow is laminar.
 27

exercise 8.7. Viscosity measurement

The figure below is used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. The system consists of a large
tank to which a long, thin outflow pipe is connected. The volume flow rate of the outflowing
fluid is measured. Oil with a constant density flows out of the viscometer with a volume flow
rate of 0.273 cm3 /s. The diameter of the tube is 0.18 cm. What is the kinematic viscosity of
the oil?
28 CHAPTER 8. LAMINAR FLOW
Chapter 9

Differential form of the equations

exercise 9.1. Determination of the pressure

Use the Navier-Stokes equation to determine the pressure as function of x and y for a station-
ary flow of a fluid with constant viscosity µ and density ρ for the following cases, in which
gravity can be neglected:
a) vx = y and vy = −x. Does this result depend on µ? Interpret the pressure that is found.
b) vx = x and vy = −y. Does this result depend on µ? Interpret the pressure that is found.
c) vx = y/(x2 + y 2 ) and vy = −x/(x2 + y 2 ). Use in this case computer algebra to calculate
the derivatives of this velocity field.
d) How does the result of (a) change if gravity is important and directed in the negative
y-direction?

exercise 9.2. Conservation of mass in polar coordinates

Derive the continuity equation in polar coordinates for a stationary, two-dimensional, incom-
pressible flow. Make use of a small fluid element in polar coordinates.

exercise 9.3. Material derivative

What is the physical meaning of the expression (v · ∇) that appears in the equations for
conservation of mass and momentum. Use exercise 3.1.

exercise 9.4. Material derivative in polar coordinates

Derive an expression for Dv/Dt in polar coordinates by taking the derivative of the velocity.
Use v = vr (r, ϑ, t)er + vϑ (r, ϑ, t)eϑ and keep in mind that unit vectors depend on the position.
Make use of exercise 1.1.

exercise 9.5. Big and small

If a flow has a low velocity and a high viscosity, the inertia terms in the Navier-Stokes equation
(Dv/Dt) can be neglected. For example, this happens in cases where there a problems
with lubrication. Can the viscosity terms be neglected for flows with low viscosity and high
velocities?

exercise 9.6. Continuity equation in polar coordinates

The continuity equation in polar coordinates is:

1 ∂ 1 ∂vϑ
(rvr ) + = 0.
r ∂r r ∂ϑ

29
30 CHAPTER 9. DIFFERENTIAL FORM OF THE EQUATIONS

Show that:
a) if vϑ = 0, then vr = F (ϑ)/r where F is an arbitrary function;
b) if vr = 0, then vϑ = f (r) where f is an arbitrary function.

exercise 9.7. Flow between two cylinders

We consider a stationary, laminar, incompressible flow between two cylinders with radii R1
and R2 with R2 > R1 . It may be assumed that the velocity is independent of the axial
coordinate z and the azimuthal coordinate ϑ and that vϑ = 0. The velocity at the walls of the
cylinder is equal to zero. Gravity can be disregarded. Use the Navier-Stokes and continuity
equations in cylindrical coordinates (Appendix B and E of the book).
a) Show that from the continuity equation it follows that vr = 0.
b) Use the Navier-Stokes equation in the axial direction (E-6) to determine vz .
c) Use the boundary conditions to determine the constants that were found at part (b). In
what way is this solution different from the one for Poiseuille flow in a cylinder?
d) Determine the relation between the pressure gradient and the volume flow rate. Use
computer algebra to compute the required integral.
Chapter 11

Dimension-analysis and similarity

exercise 11.1. A car

a) What is the value of the Reynolds number for a car with a length of 6 m and a velocity of
100 km/hour?
b) What is the value of the Reynolds number for the flow around an antenna of the same car
if the diameter of the antenna is 8 mm?

exercise 11.2. A Zeppelin

The resistance force of a Zeppelin is determined by using a scale model in a wind tunnel. The
real Zeppelin has a diameter of 5 m and a length of 60 m. The velocity of the Zeppelin is
10 m/s. The scale model is 10 times smaller. The temperature and the pressure in the wind
tunnel are equal to the real conditions. Since gravity is not important for this flow, the results
of the wind tunnel can be scaled to the real situation provided that the Reynolds number is
the same.
a) What has to be the velocity in the wind tunnel?
b) The pressure difference between two certain points is measured in the scale model. The
value of this is 17.8 kPa. What is the pressure difference in the real case?
c) The measured drag force is 1530 N. What is the drag force of the real Zeppelin?

exercise 11.3. A dam

A scale model of a dam is made in order to predict how much water flows through the drain.
The model is a factor 49 smaller than the real dam. In reality, there is a flow of 15,000 m3 /s
through the drain. In this case the Reynolds numbers in both the actual dam and the model
are so large, that the results are independent of the Reynolds number. However, for many
hydraulic applications, and also for this one, gravity is important and the model results can
be scaled to the real situation provided that the Froude number is the same.
a) What is the volume flow rate through the drain for the scale model?
b) A water velocity of 1.2 m/s is measured at a certain place in the scale model. What is the
velocity at the corresponding place in the real dam?

exercise 11.4. Natural convection

For cases that deal with natural convection, the temperature dependence of the density gives
rise to an important upward force. If a warm gas with temperature TH flows through a gas
with temperature TL and the density is only dependent on the temperature, the Navier-Stokes

31
32 CHAPTER 11. DIMENSION-ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY

equation can be written as:

 
Dv TH
ρ = −∇P + µ∇2 v + ρg −1 .
Dt TL

Show that the ratio between the gravity and the inertia forces is given by
 
Lg TH
−1 ,
V02 TL

if L and V0 are the reference length and velocity.

exercise 11.5. A car

A 1/8 scale model of a car is tested in a wind tunnel that is under high pressure. The real car
drives with a velocity of 80 km/hour in air under atmospheric conditions with a temperature
of 25 o C. Which pressure does the air in the wind tunnel needs in order to get the same Mach
and Reynolds number. The speeds of sound in air is equal to 345 m/s at a temperature of 25
o C, independent of the pressure.

exercise 11.6. A submarine

A 25% scale model of a submarine has a maximum velocity of 16 m/s. It is tested in a wind
tunnel with a pressure of 6 bar. The test is meant to determine the drag force of a real
submarine. The model has a length of 3 m. What is the required velocity of the air to test
the model and what is the ratio between the measured force on the model and the force on
the real submarine?

exercise 11.7. An apartment building

A 1/20 scale model is used in a wind tunnel in order to determine the drag force on an
apartment building. In the wind tunnel, a force of 200 N is measured for a velocity of 20
m/s. What is the drag force on the real apartment building if the velocity of the wind is
equal to 40 m/s and the temperature is the same? In this case it is not possible to have the
same Reynolds number in the model as in reality. However, in both situations the Reynolds
number is so large, that in good approximation the non-dimensional drag force is independent
of the Reynolds number.
Chapter 12

Viscous flows

exercise 12.1. Critical Reynolds number

At which velocity does a flow through a pipe with a diameter of 38 mm become turbulent
a) if the flowing medium is air at a temperature of 20o C?
b) if the flowing medium is water at a temperature of 20o C?

exercise 12.2. Entrance length

What is the entrance length for a flow of water (20o C) through a long pipe with an inner
diameter of 23 mm and a velocity of 0.1 m/s
a) if the flow is laminar?
b) if the flow is turbulent?

exercise 12.3. A golf ball

Explain why a golf ball can be hit further away than a smooth ball with the same mass and
diameter.

exercise 12.4. Flow around a ball

The critical Reynolds number for flow around a ball has a value of about 200,000. What is
the velocity above which the flow of air around a ball with a diameter of 42 mm becomes
turbulent?

exercise 12.5. The integral momentum equation

During the lecture the integral momentum equation by Von Kármán has been derived in case
there is no pressure gradient. The derivation is based on a combination of the integral forms
of conservation of mass and momentum. To this end a control volume is chosen which has as
left boundary x = X, where the plate begins, as right boundary an arbitrary line at position
x, the lower boundary is the plate and the upper boundary a streamline which crosses the
line x = X exactly at the edge of the boundary layer in y = δ(X). This streamline starts in
(x, y) = (0, h), where an expression for h can be found from the integral form of conservation
of mass. the integral momentum equation follows then from the integral form of conservation
of momentum.
In this exercise we apply the same method to find the extension of the integral momentum
equation for the case where air flows over a surface of water that starts at x = 0. Due to the
evaporation of water, water vapor enters the control volume through the boundary y = 0 of

33
34 CHAPTER 12. VISCOUS FLOWS

the control volume. We assume that the horizontal air velocity over the surface still equals
zero, but due to the evaporation the vertical air velocity equals vy0 (x) 6= 0. Consider again
only the case that the pressure gradient, dP/dx, equals zero and extend the derivation of the
integral momentum equation as sketched above to this case.

exercise 12.6. Pressure gradient unequal to zero

Determine a velocity profile of the form vx = v∞ (c0 +c1 y +c2 y 2 +c3 y 3 ) if the pressure gradient
is unequal to zero.

exercise 12.7. Turbulent boundary layer

At what distance from the beginning of the plate does the transition to turbulence take place
if the velocity of the air is 30 m/s?

exercise 12.8. A car

A car has a friction coefficient of 0.26 and a surface of 2.33 m. What is the required power
to compensate for the air resistance if the velocity of the car equals 30 m/s? How does this
change if the wind velocity is 6 m/s for both tailwind and headwind?

exercise 12.9. An approximate solution for flow on a flat plate

Compare the velocity profile (12.39) with the Blasius solution.

exercise 12.10. Another approximate solution for flow on a flat plate

The integral momentum equation can be used to calculate the growth of the boundary layer
thickness if the velocity profile, vx (y) is known at one x-position. This will be demonstrated
in this exercise. We consider the flow in a boundary layer over a flat plate in which there is
no pressure gradient. In that case the integral momentum equation of Von Kármán can be
written as:
τ0 d 2
= (v θ),
ρ dx ∞

where τ0 is the wall shear stress, θ the momentum thickness and v∞ the fluid velocity upstream
of the plate.
As velocity profile we take vx (y) = v∞ sin(αy) if 0 ≤ y ≤ π/(2α) and vx = v∞ if
y > π/(2α). First make a plot of this velocity profile in the usual way, with the velocity
at the horizontal axis and the wall-normal coordinate (y) at the vertical axis. It can be seen
that the velocity is equal to v∞ if y ≥ π/(2α). Therefore, the boundary layer thickness equals
δ(x) = π/(2α(x)).
a) In order to be able to apply the integral momentum equation, we need to calculate τ0 en
θ. But first calculate the displacement thickness, δ∗ (x), from its definition and the velocity
profile.
b) Calculate the momentum thickness, θ(x), from its definition and the velocity profile.
c) Calculate the shear stress on the wall, µ0 , from its definition and the velocity profile.
d) Use the results of parts (b) and (c) in the integral momentum equation to derive a differ-
ential equation for α(x). Solve this equation to determine α(x) and from this the boundary
layer thickness δ(x). Use as boundary condition δ(0) = 0. Show that the solution for δ(x)
is close to the boundary layer thickness in the Blasius solution for laminar flow over a float
plate.
 35

exercise 12.11. Flow of water on a flat plate

Water flows with a velocity of 0.1 m/s over a flat plate with length 1.5 m. The kinematic
viscosity equals ν = 1 × 10−6 m2 /s and the density equals ρ = 1000 kg/m3 .
a) Calculate the Reynolds number as function of x, where x is the distance to the beginning
of the plate.
b) What is the value of the wall shear stress as function of x?
c) What is the boundary layer thickness as function of x?
d) At what distance from the beginning of the plate would the flow become turbulent if the
plate is sufficiently long?
36 CHAPTER 12. VISCOUS FLOWS
Answers

1.1 d)
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇= er + eϑ + ez
∂r r ∂ϑ ∂z
1.2 a) ∇P = −aex , b) ∇T = −80/R2 (xex + yey ) = −80r/R2 er , c) ∇ψ = A sin ϑ(1 +
a2 /r 2 )er + A cos ϑ(1 − a2 /r 2 )eϑ
1.3 α + β = 0
1.4 α − β = 0
1.5 vx = x and vy = −y
1.6 0 and 0
1.7 ∇T = −80/R2 (xex + yey ) = −80r/R2 er
1.8 1/2
1.9 49vmax /60
1.10 a) 16 1 4 1 4 1
3 π; b) 0; c) 0; d) 2 πa ; e) 2 πa ; f) 6 π; g) πa
2

1.11 a) 2; b)-f) 0
1.12 All are equal to zero; the first five only have a z-component, part (f) is a three-dimensional
vector equal to zero.
3.1 a) Circle shaped movement that damps out in the course of time, b) −αv, c) [−1, 1]t exp(−αt)
en [−1, 1](1 − αt) exp(−αt), d) [αy exp(−αt) − x exp(−2αt), −αx exp(−αt) − y exp(−2αt)]
3.2 a) v(x(t), t) = sin(at + t), b) and c) (a + 1) cos(at + t)
3.3 a) cos ϑ(1−R2 /r 2 )er −sin ϑ(1+R2 /r 2 )eϑ , c) (1+(y 2 −x2 )R2 /(x2 +y 2 )2 )ex −2xyR2 /(x2 +
y 2 )2 ey , d)ex
3.4 b) 0
3.5 c) (−x0 cos(t) + y0 sin(t))ex + (−x0 sin(t) − y0 cos(t))ey
3.6 a) xex +yey ; b) xex +yey ; c) xex +yey ; d) 2x(x2 +y 2 )ex +2y(x2 +y 2 )ey ; e) − exp(−t)ex −
exp(−t)ey ; f) xex + yey + 4zez
3.7 a) −2(xvx + yvy ) exp(−(x2 + y 2 )); b) 0
4.1 a) 7.85 × 10−5 m3 /s, b) 25 m/s
4.2 2.31 m/s
4.3 Increases with 0.0145 m3 /s
4.4 1.77 m/s, resp. 7.07 m/s
4.5 Through the thick pipe: 1.88 m3 /s and 1.66 m/s and through the thin pipe: 0.118 m3 /s
and 0.416 m/s
4.6 1.71 m/s
4.7 vw = ρ2 v2 /(ρ2 − ρ1 )
4.8 Left: −6ρv0 d, right: 3ρv0 d, below and above each 32 ρv0 d, everything per meter in the
third direction.

37
38 CHAPTER 12. VISCOUS FLOWS

4.9 5.15 m/s

5.1 a) 12 πv0 ρR2 , b) 13 πv02 ρR2 , c) (P1 − P2 )πR2 , d) Equal to the pressure force and opposite,
so against the direction of the flow.
5.2 a) 7.95 N, b) 10.6 N, c) 7.56 N and 10.2 N
5.3 a) 77.9 m/s, b) 9.89 N pointed from left to right.
5.4 ρv 2 h sin α
5.6 Fx = 11.393 kN, Fz = 504.4 N
5.7 ρv02 d
6.1 57.2 kW
6.2 a) 1.42 m3 /s, b) 346 W
6.3 0.428
qm q
2gh 2 H[1−(d/D)4 ]
6.4 a) [1−(d/D) 4 ] , b) 2(D/d) 2g
6.5 0.0793 m3 /s
6.6 5.6 × 10−3 m3 /s
6.7 a)
1/4
v02

D(y) = D .
v02 + 2gy
b) 77 cm
6.8 b) 3.48 kPa, p2 > p1 , c) Q = 0.0348 m3 /s, v = 0.0348/A = 7.87 m/s, d) p1 = 78.6 kPa,
p2 = 82.1 kPa, e) No, a manometer liquid with a density close to that of oil has to be chosen.
7.1 a) −2µ/H, opposite to the direction of the velocity, b) The x-component is −2µ/H the
z-component is −0.4µ/H, the size is 2.04µ/H, c) infinity; That means that the velocity profile
can not be valid close to the walls.
7.3

(c)

7.4
7.5 The change in volume per unit of time equals div v
8.1 With a factor of 16.
8.2 7.4 × 10−2 Pa·s
8.3 40882 s
8.4 a) 1 m, b) 3.36 mm
8.5 a) ∆p = 3790 Pa; Q1 = 2.96 m3 /hour; Q2 = 5.04 m3 /hour, b) 5.26 m/s, c) v(r) =
 39

(5.2 − 5.2 × 104 r 2 ) m/s, d) 50.6 m,

8.6 5161 barrel per day
8.7 1.06 × 10−5 m2 /s
9.1 a) 21 ρ(x2 + y 2 ); no, b) − 12 ρ(x2 + y 2 ); no, c) − 12 ρ x2 +y
1
2 ; no
9.2
1 ∂ 1 ∂vϑ ∂vz
(rvr ) + + =0
r ∂r r ∂ϑ ∂z
9.7 c)
ln(r/R1 )
vz = α(r 2 − R12 ) − α(R22 − R12 )
ln(R2 /R1 )
1
with α = 4µ dP/dz d)

1 πα −2R12 R22 + R14 ln(R2 /R1 ) + R14 − R24 ln(R2 /R1 ) + R24


Q=
2 ln(R2 /R1 )
with α as in part c)
11.1 a) 11.1 × 106 , b) 14.800
11.2 100 m/s, b) 178 Pa, c) 1530 N
11.3 a) 0.89 m3 /s, b) 8.4 m/s
11.5 0.808 MPa
11.6 160 m/s; 0.045
11.7 320 kN
12.1 a) 0.91 m/s, b) 0.06 m/s
12.2 a) 3.17 m, b) 37 cm
12.4 71.7 m/s
12.5
τ0 dv∞ d 2
+ v∞ vy0 = v∞ δ∗ + (v θ)
ρ dx dx ∞
In case dP/dx = 0 the first term on the right-hand side equals zero and v∞ in the second
term is constant:
τ0 2 dθ
+ v∞ vy0 = v∞
ρ dx
12.6
3 y 1  y 3 δ2 dv∞
  
y  y 2  y 3
vx = v∞ − + −2 +
2δ 2 δ 4ν dx δ δ δ
40 CHAPTER 12. VISCOUS FLOWS

12.7 0.1 m
12.8 9.8 kW without wind, 17.0 kW with headwind and 5.0 kW with tailwind.
−1/2
12.10 a) δ∗ = (π/2 − 1)/α, b) θ = (1 − π/4)/α, c) τ0 = µαv∞ , d) δ/x = 4.8 Rex .
12.11 a) Rex = 105 x, b) 0.0105x−1/2 kg/m·s2 , c) 0.0158x1/2 m, d) After about 2 m.