1) Explain various parameters considered in selecting a fuse.

"A fuse is essentially a metal wire or strip that heats up and melts when too much current flows
through it, thereby opening the circuit and interrupting the current flow."
In order to select the right fuse for a given system, it is imperative that the various fuse parameters are
thoroughly understood. Hence, this guide will first define each contributing factor and then explain
how it is used by engineers and circuit designers to choose the best device for circuit protection.

The factors to be considered when selecting a fuse are as follows:

1. Current Rating
2. Breaking Capacity
3. Ambient Temperature
4. Fuse Types and Time-current Characteristics
5. Nominal Melting 𝐈𝟐t Rating
6. Maximum Fault Current
7. Voltage Rating
1. Current Rating
The current rating specifies the nominal amperage value of the fuse, given by the manufacturer as the
level of current that the fuse can carry under normal working condition.
A fuse, which is designed according to an IEC standard, can continuously operate at 100% of rated
current of the fuse. Fuses are temperature-sensitive devices and the projected life of a fuse can be
shortened drastically when loaded to 100% of its nominal value.
In order to prolong the life of the fuse, the circuit designer should ensure that the load on the fuse does
not exceed the nominal rating listed by the manufacturer. So a fuse with a current rating of 10A would
not be recommended for operation at more than 7.5A in a 25°C ambient temperature.
2. Breaking Capacity
Also known as interrupting rating or short circuit rating, the breaking capacity is the maximum
current which the fuse can safely break or interrupt at rated voltage.
When selecting a fuse, one should verify that the breaking capacity of the fuse is sufficient for circuit
operation. The interrupting rating must be equal to or greater than the short-circuit current.
When a fault or short circuit condition arises, the instantaneous current passing through the fuse can
be several times greater than its current rating. If this current is beyond the level that the fuse can bear,
the device may explode or rupture, causing additional damage. Hence, for safe operation, it is
imperative that the fuse selected is able to withstand the largest short-circuit current possible and can
clear the circuit safely.
It is usually recommended that a fuse with high breaking capacity is to be used in circuits with
inductive loads, and a fuse with low breaking capacity is used for circuits with resistive or capacitive
loads.
3. Ambient Temperature
The ambient temperature is a measure of the temperature of the air immediately surrounding the fuse.
Since the fuse is enclosed in a panel mounted fuse-holder, or placed near other heat dissipating
components, like resistors, the ambient temperature is usually much higher than the surrounding room
temperature.

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The current carrying capacity of a fuse varies as the ambient temperature changes. Operating the fuse
at high ambient temperatures can potentially shorten its life. On the other hand, lower ambient
temperatures can lead to longer fuse life.
The fuse also becomes hotter as the operating current becomes equal to or greater than the breaking
capacity. Experiments have shown that a fuse will continue to work indefinitely, as long as the load
does not exceed 75% of the nominal current rating.
4. Fuse Types and Time-current Characteristics
Fuses can be of different types based on the speed at which they can blow. It is helpful to define fuses
using time-current curves, since fuses with the same current rating can be represented by considerably
different time-current curves.
Fast-acting fuses will melt rapidly and sever the connection immediately when subjected to high
current levels. This characteristic becomes important in applications where speed is critical, such as in
variable speed drives. Fast-acting fuses are used for distribution feeders and branch circuits.

Time-delay fuses employ a time-delay mechanism and are designed to tolerate the start-up overload
pulses which are normal in some applications. These pulses produce thermal cycling which can lead
to premature aging of fuses. An example of this is a capacitor that draws a large amount of current
when initially charged. The time lag prevents the fuse from needlessly blowing during a temporary
current overload or surge. Time-delay fuses are most useful in the startup of high-powered motors.
The delay which they provide can help to prevent nuisance tripping.
Time-delay fuses employ a time-delay mechanism and are designed to tolerate the start-up overload
pulses which are normal in some applications. These pulses produce thermal cycling which can lead
to

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premature aging of fuses. An example of this is a capacitor that draws a large amount of current when
initially charged. The time lag prevents the fuse from needlessly blowing during a temporary current
overload or surge. Time-delay fuses are most useful in the startup of high-powered motors. The delay
which they provide can help to prevent nuisance tripping.
Knowing which fuse to use depends on the requirements of the control circuitry. Typically, time-delay
fuses are used for inductive and capacitive loads, while fast-acting fuses are selected for resistive
loads.

5. Nominal Melting 𝐈𝟐t Rating

The fuse's nominal melting 𝐈𝟐t rating must also meet the start-up pulse requirements. Nominal melting
𝐈𝟐t is a measure of the energy required to melt the fusing element and is expressed as "Ampere Squared
Seconds" (A2Sec). There two parts to a fuse's "reaction time".
The time it takes for the fuse element to melt (also known as the melting time, Tm).
The time it takes for the electrical arc to settle (also known as the arcing time, Ta).
The total time it takes to open the fault is known as the total clearing time.
Tc = Tm + Ta

The circuit designer should select a fuse whose 𝐈𝟐t rating is greater than the energy of the inrush
current pulse. This ensures that the fuse will not cause a nuisance opening during transient conditions.
In order to achieve reliable system operation, it is a good design practice to select a fuse such that the
energy of the current pulse is not more than 20% of the nominal melting 𝐈𝟐t rating of the fuse.

Every fuse has a different fusing element, which means that the 𝐈𝟐t value is unique for each type of
fuse. It is a constant value for each element material and is also independent of temperature and
voltage. Hence, the nominal melting 𝐈𝟐t rating is an important parameter to consider when selecting a
fuse and is necessary to be determined.

6. Maximum Fault Current

The Interrupting Rating of a fuse must meet or exceed the Maximum Fault Current of the circuit.
7. Voltage Rating
A fuse can safely interrupt its rated short circuit current as long as the voltage is less than or equal to its
rated voltage.
Conclusion
In short, the following factors should be considered when selecting a fuse for a given system:
1. Normal operating current
2. Operating Voltage
3. Ambient Temperature
4. Inrush Currents
5. Maximum Fault Current
6. Length of time in which the fuse must open
7. Maximum allowable 𝐈𝟐t

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2) Selection of MCB for various applications.
MCB or miniature circuit breaker is an electromechanical device that protects an electric circuit. It
prevents damage to an electrical circuit as a result of excess current.
MCBs are protective devices that break the circuit in case of overload or short circuits.
MCB works based on either the bi-metallic strip or by a magnetic trip coil. Both methods work by
deflecting the latch attached to stop the flow of current. While the bimetallic piece gets heated, the
magnetic coil uses the magnetic flux and deflects the latch to open the circuit.
Selection of MCB
We should analyse the kind that would best suit your household device. Before choosing the type of
MCB, it is essential to find out a few technical details. First, check what voltage and frequency with
which the device functions, like if it is AC or DC. Next, note the starting current load and trip
characteristics. Additionally, see if there are any extra features like a manual or automatic reset and
safety approvals. Sometimes, the operating conditions, like the temperature, corrosion, and radiation,
may contribute to choosing the correct MCB. Although the current rating is the primary deciding
factor, it is better to analyse other factors before investing in the MCB as it plays an important role in
preventing electrical hazards at your place.
Various Applications of MCB
MCB performs many functions such as local control switches, isolating switches against faults, and
overload protection devices for installations or specific types of equipment or appliances.
MCB is vital for the efficient functioning and maintaining the safety of the electric machines. Thus, it
finds use in most electrical appliances, be it for domestic usage or industrial purposes. The multitude
of electric connections at home like lights, heater, and fans require MCB to check and protect them.
Ideally, types of MCB are an excellent solution for homes, buildings, and commercial areas with less
equipment. The effective installation of MCBs can ensure the safety and protection of all the electrical
systems across households and industries.
Here are examples of MCB uses:
Home Electrical Panels
MCBs protect homes from overload. Due to their capacity to handle large amounts of electricity, they
are much more reliable and safer than a fuse. One of its advantages is that it ensures equal distribution
of electrical energy across all the devices. There will be lesser instances of power fluctuations inside
the house.

Heaters
MCBs are a dependable safety solution if you have installed heaters in your home or office. With a
successful installation of an MCB, you can avoid heaters from developing high voltage fluctuations as
it draws a large amount of power from the main supply.

Lights
Every household has an extensive lighting system. MCBs can play a significant role in the effective
distribution of electricity across all the lighting systems of the house. For instance, the operation of
fluorescent lamps requires large amounts of electricity as compared to light bulbs. Here is where
MCBs come to the rescue. Additionally, MCBs help in maintaining the quality and safety of light
bulbs.

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Industrial Applications
MCBs can provide an impressible safety mechanism in small-scale as well as large-scale industries.
Ideally, most of the machinery in industries requires up to 30 kA of power supply. In such a case,
there is a need to switch to MCBs from old fuses. In commercial establishments, types of MCB play a
key role in maintaining the efficiency of the applications and installations by optimizing its energy
flow. They find use in hotels, supermarkets, and bakeries.

3) Maintenance schedule of ACB

Air Circuit Breakers (ACBs) are used as circuit protection for a wide range of low voltage (up to
600V AC) applications, typically generators, MCCB distribution boards, UPS, small power stations,
etc with sizes ranging from 400A to 6300A or larger. Protection is provided in either 3 or 4 pole
configurations. Additional protective devices can be fitted such as undervoltage releases and shunt
trip coils together with auxiliary contacts for remote signalling.

ACBs are the cause of almost 20% of power distribution system failures, mainly due to lack of
maintenance, dust, hardened grease, corrosion and/or frozen parts that prevent the proper operation of
the trip linkage. It wasn’t long ago that ageing electrical equipment was replaced but in today’s
business environment, maintenance is the preferred choice to ensure reliable operation and extend the
life expectancy. As with all electro-mechanical devices, major electrical equipment manufacturers
recommend maintenance of air circuit breakers to ensure proper operation and to maintain equipment
warranties. With regular service air circuit breakers can remain in service almost indefinitely as long
as spare parts are readily available.
In time users will tend to add or remove electrical load from some devices. If this change is
permanent, the electrical trip characteristics should be reset using a “current injection” tester and the
whole device recalibrated. Service intervals depend on the age of the device, load operational
environment, number of emergency operations, etc. Power Management normally recommend
maintenance is carried out every two or three years, but an annual service may be needed if the unit is
old has had a large number

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of emergency operations or is installed in environments with dusty or humid atmospheres. Calibration
and certification should be incorporated into regular inspections and testing in accordance with the
latest regulations.
Onsite Maintenance
Onsite generator maintenance or repair may include the use of new parts to return an ACB to full
working order. This normally involves:

 Visual inspection for any broken parts and replace as needed. Clean and lubricate all
mechanical linkages.
 Inspect all breakers, remove all covers and arc extinguishing shields, inspect for damage,
wear and deterioration, clean and lubricate as required. Check, clean and dress (if required)
the main contacts, clean all covers and arc shields.
 Check security of all control wiring and associated fitted components, prove mechanical
operations and reinstate covers and arc extinguishing shields.
 Carry out insulation test, phase to phase and phase to earth.
 Prove mechanical and electrical operation of the breaker by racking breaker to test position
and carrying out injection test on electronic trip devices to prove operating characteristics
against set points.
 Rack breaker to connect position and return breaker to service condition.

Once maintenance has been completed, an Inspection and Test Certificate would be issued as
completion and acceptance of work carried out.

Comparing Benefits

The most obvious benefits of regular servicing is the significant savings that can be made over buying
new equipment and not just physical equipment but the time and labour involved in specification,
procurement, installation, testing and commissioning. Regular servicing can mean reduced downtime
and improve equipment reliability because damaged or worn components are usually identified before
they cause premature failure. Cable and copper busbar installation, the conversion of ACBs from
fixed to withdrawable pattern and the rebuilding and refurbishment of switchboards all enable
engineers to modernise existing equipment at a fraction of the cost of procuring and fitting of new
devices. Electrical equipment manufacturers normally offer only new equipment to a customer
seeking to upgrade an electrical system. However, before buying any new switchgear, consider the
service options and your company may just save a lot of money and downtime.

4) Explain specifications of Earth Leakage Relay.

An undetected fault current may lead to cables overheating, which could start a fire. If high fault
currents are involved, hazardous voltages may also appear on earthed equipment, putting lives at risk.
That’s why a special protection device is needed to disconnect the energy and the load. The earth
leakage relay (Earth fault relay) is used for these purposes. Let me give you more details including its
full definition and operating principle.

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The earth leakage relay is an electronic device that detects earth failures. The relay uses a toroid to
measure the earth leakage current.
A definite time operating characteristic of the earth leakage relay is provided with adjustable trip
sensitivity and time delay. When a fault occurs, the relay’s trip function is activated. Thus, switching
the trip contacts connected in the control circuit.
The earth leakage relay needs a toroidal transformer to detect the leakage current. The toroidal
transformer is designed around a high-quality magnetic core that detects fault currents, even in very
low values. The different diameters are used to adapt to a wide range of wire sections and leakage
currents.
The core balance transformer allows the direct measure of residual currents (earth leakage current).
The presence of a homopolar component is significant to an earth default. This component is
measured via a toroidal transformer placed around the 3 phases + neutral or phase + neutral or on the
connexion to the earth.
The vector sum of these currents is null when there is no fault. This balance is broken when an earth
leakage current exists. At this time, the vector sum of currents is no longer null and the toroid
measures this difference.All phases should pass through the inner part of the toroid, even the neutral if
the same is distributed. The earthing wire shouldn’t pass through the toroid.

The choice of a toroidal transformer depends on the conductor or on the bar to be used. It is suggested
to use the open versions in case of revamping or upgrading an existing installation.

Working Principle
it is possible to measure the leakage current to the earth. This relay works in conjunction with a
separate external toroid. The active conductors that pass through the toroid create a magnetic field
proportional to the current flow.

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Under normal conditions and in the absence of leakage current, the vector sum of the current is zero.
Any fault condition causes an unbalance in the vector sum proportional to the value of the leakage
current. The value of the fault current is constantly detected by the toroid. When the residual current
relay receives a signal from the toroid, it switches its output contacts. Then the shunt-trip opens the
circuit breaker.

Summary:

 A residual current causes an unbalance detected by the toroid.

 The earth leakage relay receives the signal from the toroid and switches its output contacts.
 The shunt-trip relay of the circuit breaker opens the circuit breaker.

Earth Leakage Relay Importance

We need earth leakage relays because compact residual current devices are manufactured up to 125A
and their sensitivity is up to 1000mA.Earth leakage relays can be used in circuits carrying higher
currents. We can measure the leakage of a 400A…6300A busbar with an earth leakage relay and
toroid but we cannot measure it with a compact residual current device.

5) Explain concept of Voltage Restrained Overcurrent

Relay. Voltage restrained Over Current relays:
The overcurrent relay is nothing but a relay operates when the current reaches the pickup value. The
overcurrent relay is used to protect the alternator or generator against overloading and which trip the
circuit breaker. Another important criteria in overcurrent element is protection against short circuit.
The short circuit creates heavy fault current through the winding for few milliseconds. At that same
time, the voltage starts reducing gradually as the current increases., but in this, condition the over
current element cannot sense the fault current. In order to protect the generator winding the voltage
restrained over current relays are implemented. The relay sense the generator current and voltage.
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Simple understanding (Voltage restrained Over Current relays):
Consider the generator running at 11kV and 1440 Amps…at the same time due to short circuit the
current goes 2000 Amps and the voltage gradually decreasing from 11kV and for the fraction of time
it stands at 8kV the current is 1500 Amps, at this condition the under voltage (the time setting is high
for UV function) and overload protection will not trip the power system. So that, to protect the power
system, this relay is employed.

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voltage restrained over current relay concept
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Normally the voltage reference for under voltage function and current reference for overcurrent
function will be given to the relay. The overcurrent setting is set at a value less than the rated current
of the generator. For the relay to operate, both the under voltage and the overcurrent need to occur at
the same time. This can occur only at the instant of a short circuit.

Ref: ABB
Relay ANSI Code: 51VR
Used as: Backup Protection
Tripping equipment: 86M mater trip, 51V flagged, Under voltage operation, Generator Breaker
trips (51)
KeyPoints:
Voltage restrained overcurrent protection provides improved sensitivity of overcurrent relaying by
making the set overcurrent operating value proportional to the applied input voltage.
6) Solve any problem on finding fault current in a power system.
A synchronous generator and a synchronous motor each rated 20MVA, 12.66KV having 15%
reactance are connected through transformers and a line as shown in fig. the transformers are rated
20MVA,12.66/66KV and 66/12.66KV with leakage reactance of 10% each. The line has a reactance
of 8% on base of 20MVA, 66 KV. The motor is drawing 10MW at 0.8 leading power factors and a
terminal voltage 11KV when symmetrical three phase fault occurs at the motors terminals. Determine
the generator and motor currents. Also determine the fault current.

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10
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7) Explain features of Numerical Differential Protection Relay.

Differential Protective Relay is a protective relay that functions on a percentage or phase angle or
other quantitative difference of two currents.

Differential relaying provides selectivity by providing a zone of protection with a circuit of

interconnected CT’s. CT’s having the same ratio are installed in all the connections to the component
(Example Transformer) to be protected and the secondary of the CT’s are connected in parallel to the
relay. As long as the current flow through the protected component is unchanged in magnitude and
phase, the relay does not pick up. Such a condition would occur for a short-circuit fault outside the
zone of relay protection. Should a fault occur inside the zone of relay protection (that is between the
CT’s), the differential relay would receive current in the operating coil.

The example differential protection relay shown in the below figure is a transformer differential relay.
The following protection functions are used in this relay.

Differential Relay Protection Functions:

Protection Functions used in this relay are

1. 87 Differential Protection
87 BD
87 HS
2. 50G Ground Fault Protection
Sensitive Earth Fault protection is provided by using NCT
3. 64H Restricted Earth Fault
4. 74Trip circuit Supervision
With 2 Binary inputs/With 1 Binary input
5. Inrush Detector
81 HBL

In the following figure the relay is configured and LEDs are assigned as follows.

Differential Relay

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LED Configuration:

1. Differential Pickup
Relay is Senses the differential current and Picks up
2. Differential Trip
This indicates Differential trip occurs due to any In-zone fault.
3. SEF Pickup
When any earth fault occurs in the out-zone Sensitive Earth Fault element picks up.
4. SEF trip
This indicates SEF tripping occurred due to any earth fault in the out- zone.
5. REF Pickup
When any fault occurs in the restricted zone REF element picks up.
6. REF Trip
This indicates REF tripping occurred due to any fault in the restricted zone.
7. Trip Circuit Unhealthy
This indicates problem in the trip circuit.

Explanation of Differential Protection:

Differential Protection comprises both biased differential and high-set differential functions. Before
going through bias differential settings, below settings are needed to specify when there are no
interposing CTs used in the circuit.

1. ICT Multiplier needs to specify.

2. ICT Vectors needs to specify.

1. Internal Current Multiplier: Line CTs are used to measure fundamental frequency currents. These
line currents need to vector corrected before applying to the differential elements. The multiplier is
used to correct any CT ratio mismatch so that ideally nominal current is applied to the biased
differential algorithm.

2. Internal Interposing Current Vectors: CT Vector setting applies the correct vector compensation
to the current applied to the differential algorithm. Means the phase change introduced due to
transformer connections is nullified using this setting.

Bias Differential Protection:

 Reasons for Bias Differential Protection

 Effect of Tap Changer
 Effect of Inrush Magnetizing Current
 Requirement of 2nd Harmonic restrain.
87 Bias Differential Settings: Magnitude restraint bias is used to ensure the relay is stable when the
transformer is carrying load current and during the passage of through (out of zone) fault current.
87BD Initial Setting: This is the minimum level of differential current at which the relay will
operate. This setting is used at low levels of load to prevent operation of differential relay due to
OLTC tap positions.
Typically, this setting is chosen to match the on load tap-change range. For example, if the tap change
range is +10% to –20%, a setting of 0.3*nominal current is selected.

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 87-BD Characteristic

87BD 1st Bias Slope Setting:

With increasing load the differential current required for operation should increase to ensure stability.
In case of through fault or increased loads, the unbalance currents due to OLTC tap position, relay
tolerance and CT measurement errors also increase. To prevent operation of the relay due to these
unbalance currents the bias setting need to increase. This setting is expressed in the slope form. The
bias slope expresses the current to operate the relay relative to the biasing (restraint) current.
The Bias slope setting chosen must be greater than the maximum unbalance, it is selected to ensure
stability when through fault or heavy load current flows in the transformer and the tap changer is in its
extreme position.
87BD 1st Bias Slope Limit Setting: This setting is primarily needed to prevent operation of relay in
case of through fault results saturation of CTs causes a transient differential current to be detected by
the relay. The bias slope limit is chosen to ensure the biased differential function is stable for high
through fault currents coincident with CT saturation.
87BD 2nd Bias Slope Setting:87BD 2nd Bias Slope Type is either Line or Curve.
These settings are chosen to ensure the biased differential function is stable for further high through
fault currents coincident with CT saturation.
87BD Inrush Action: Harmonic bias is used to prevent relay operation during magnetizing inrush
current into one winding when the transformer is first energized. The magnetizing Inrush detector
operates when the second harmonic current exceeds a set percentage of the fundamental current.
87BD Overfluxing Action: This setting can be used to prevent operation of the 87BD elements in the
presence of allowable over-fluxing conditions. Overfluxing function works by detecting the
5th harmonic content.
Differential Protection Relay-Highset (87HS) Settings: The 87HS element is generally applied as an
unrestrained differential element to provide fast tripping for heavy internal faults.

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 87-HS Characteristic
Restricted Earth Fault Protection:
REF is more sensitive than overall biased differential protection (87BD) to earth faults it can protect
against faults for a greater portion of the transformer windings or where the impedance in the earth
fault path is relatively high.
For a solidly earthed star winding, the REF function is roughly twice as sensitive in detecting a
winding earth fault, than biased differential protection.
Sensitive Earth Fault Protection:
Unlike REF protection SEF acts for out zone faults.

Need of SEF:
If the earth is dry it is difficult to make an effective short circuit to earth. The resulting earth fault
current limited to very low levels. So in this case SEF protection is needed.
As the input impedance of the energizing circuit of the earth fault relay is extremely low it can be
used with CBCT core balance current transformer or Zero sequence CT (Neutral CT) to detect
sensitive earth faults.
8) List features of Digital Distance Relay.

The distance protection relay is non-switched incorporating all the additional functions for protection
of overhead lines and cables at all voltage levels from 5 to 765 kV. All methods of neutral point
connection (resonant earthing, isolated, solid or low-resistance earthing) are reliably dealt with. The
unit can issue single or three-pole TRIP commands as well as CLOSE commands. Consequently both

15
single-pole, three-pole and multiple auto-reclosure is possible. Teleprotection functions as well as
earth- fault protection and sensitive earth-fault detection are included.

Protection functions

 Distance protection (ANSI 21, 21N)

 Directional earth-fault protection for high-resistance faults (ANSI 50N, 51N, 67N)
 Directional earth-fault protection for high-resistance faults
 Backup overcurrent protection (ANSI 50, 50N, 51, 51N, 67)
 Overvoltage protection, under voltage protection (ANSI 59, 27)
 Auto-recIosure (ANSI 79)
 Breaker failure protection (ANSI 50BF)
 Thermal overload protection (ANSI 49)
 Power swing detection (ANSI 68, 68T)
The following pickup methods can be employed alternatively:
 Overcurrent pickup I>>
 Voltage-dependent overcurrent pickup V/I
 Voltage-dependent and phase angledependent overcurrent pickup V/I/φ
 Impedance pickup Z<
 Five independent distance zones and one separate overreach zone are available. The
integrated fault locator calculates the fault impedance and the distance-to-fault. The results
are displayed in ohms, kilometres (miles) and in percent of the line length. Parallel line
compensation and load current compensation for high-resistance faults is also available.
 Large, easyto-read backlit display is provided. The serial RS232 PC interface accessible from
the front of the unit permits quick access to all parameters and fault event data. The use of the
optional DIGSI 4 operating program is particularly advantageous during commissioning.
Specifications
 Rated voltage: 100 V
 Rated frequency: 50/60 Hz
 Rated current: 1 A
 Auxiliary voltage: 24 VDC
9) Testing and maintenance of LV Circuit Breaker
Testing of LV Circuit Breaker
LOW VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER TEST DATA SHEET
A Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Data Sheet should be filled out on every rebuilt circuit breaker. Test
Data Sheets need to be completely filled out, and in particular circuit breaker name plate data, job
number, curve specs, test results, date and technician name. If a technician has a question on
the Low Voltage Circuit Data Sheet or question on how to perform a test then he should consult
his/her supervisor.
MEGGER INSULATION TESTING
Megger Insulation Test – This test is required on all Low Voltage Circuit Breakers. This test is
designed to insure that the breaker has adequate insulation. Test results can vary depending on
weather conditions, but in most cases a test result of 100 mega ohms or higher is satisfactory for a
rebuilt 480V circuit breaker. Test should be conducted from each phase to phase, phase to ground, and
line to load. These test results should be recorded on the Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Data Sheet and
attached to the job sheet.

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CONTACT RESISTANCE TEST
Contact Resistance Test (Ductor Test) – This test is required on all low voltage circuit breakers and
designed to insure that the circuit breaker has solid and equal contact surfaces on each phase.
Compare resistance to adjacent poles and similar breakers. Investigate any deviations of more than
twenty percent (20%).
ELECTRICALLY OPERATED BREAKERS
Electrically operated circuit breakers should be tested by means of applying voltage at the secondary
disconnects and charging the circuit breaker charging motor (if stored energy mechanism), closing the
circuit breaker from the secondary disconnects, and tripping the circuit breaker from the secondary
disconnects. Verify operation of the Y relay. Also test any auxiliary contact circuits, under voltage
devices, and bell alarms from the secondary disconnects. Test the blown fuse device on fused
breakers.
Maintenance of LV Circuit Breaker
A good organized maintenance program can minimize accidents, reduce unplanned shutdowns and
lengthen the mean time between failures of electrical equipment.
Benefits of good electrical equipment maintenance can be reduced cost of process shutdown (caused
by circuit breaker failure), reduced cost of repairs, reduced downtime of equipment, improved safety
of personnel and property.
Frequency of Maintenance
Low-voltage circuit breakers operating at 600 volts alternating current and below should be inspected
and maintained very 1 to 3 years, depending on their service and operating conditions.
Conditions that make frequency maintenance and inspection necessary are:
 High humidity and high ambient temperature.
 Dusty or dirty atmosphere.
 Corrosive atmosphere.
 Frequent switching operations.
 Frequent fault operations.
 Older equipment.
A breaker should be inspected and maintained if necessary whenever it has interrupted current at or
near its rated capacity.
Maintenance Procedures
Manufacturer’s instructions for each circuit breaker should be carefully read and followed. The
following are general procedures that should be followed in the maintenance of low-voltage air circuit
breakers:
1. An initial check of the breaker should be made in the TEST position prior to withdrawing it
from to enclosure.
2. Insulating parts, including bushings, should be wiped clean of dust and smoke.
3. The alignment and condition of the movable and stationary contacts should be checked and
adjusted according to the manufacturer’s instruction book.
4. Check arc chutes and replaces any damaged parts.
5. Inspect breaker operating mechanism for loose hardware and missing or broken cotter pins,
etc. Examine cam, latch, and roller surfaces for damage or wear.

17
 6. Clean and re-lubricate operating mechanism with a light machine oil (SAE-20 or 30) for pins
and bearings and with a nonhardening grease for the wearing surfaces of cams, rollers, etc.
7. Set breaker operating mechanism adjustments as described in the manufacturer’s instruction
book. If these adjustments cannot be made within the specified tolerances, it may indicate
excessive wear and the need for a complete overhaul.
8. Replace contacts if badly worn or burned and check control device for freedom of operation.
9. Inspect wiring connections for tightness.
10. Check after servicing circuit breaker to verify the contacts move to the fully opened and fully
closed positions, that there is an absence of friction or binding, and that electrical operation is
functional.
Much of the essence of effective electrical equipment preventive maintenance can be sumarrized
by four rules:
 Keep it DRY
 Keep it CLEAN
 Keep it COOL
 Keep it TIGHT
10) Briefly describe control panel with a suitable example.
In its simplest terms, an electrical control panel is a combination of electrical devices which use
electrical power to control the various mechanical functions of industrial equipment or machinery. An
electrical control panel includes two main categories: panel structure and electrical components.
PANEL STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICAL CONTROL PANELS
The structure of an electrical control panel is a combination of an enclosure and a back panel, similar
to a breaker box in a home or office.
Enclosures
The enclosure is a metal box which varies in size and is typically made of aluminium or stainless
steel. The number of doors (usually one or two) needed on the enclosure determines its size in most
industrial applications. The enclosure will come with a UL safety rating (508A is typical) an IP
rating, and/or a NEMA classification. These listings help users determine properties such as:
 Indoor/outdoor use
 Waterproof/water resistance
 Dust/solid contaminants proofing
 Hazardous conditions rating
 Explosion-proof rating
These various classifications should be printed on a metal plate and attached to the enclosure for easy
identification and reference.
Back Panels
A back panel is a metal sheet mounted inside the enclosure that provides structural support for DIN
rail mounting and wiring ducts. DIN metal rails feature standardized dimensions and provide a
mounting structure for electrical devices. Wiring ducts provide for the routing and organization of
wires while also assisting in the control of electrical noise between devices inside the box.
ELECTRICAL CONTROL PANEL ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

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Eight types of electrical components exist within an electrical panel enclosure which define and
organize the several different functions carried out by the panel. These components include:
 Main circuit breaker. This is like the disconnect of the main electrical panel leading into a
home or office. Main circuit breakers handle between 120V–480V in most industrial
applications.
 Surge arresters. This component prevents lightning strikes or utility power surges from
damaging the electrical components inside the panel due to overvoltage.
 Transformers. Depending on the incoming voltage, transformers may reduce voltage to
120V for various components or step down voltage to 24V in instances where incoming
power is 120V.
 Terminal blocks. These blocks help to organize and distribute the array of wires coming
from various sources to different electrical devices.
 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). This is essentially a CPU contained inside the
control panel. This unit is the brains of the control panel, providing monitoring and control of
the various mechanical processes. In will include various inputs and outputs to and from
mechanized functions of the production equipment.
 Relays and contactors. These on/off switches control mechanized functions based on
commands from the PLC. Smaller relays control functions like lights and fans. Larger relays,
called contacts, control more advanced functions like motors.
 Network switches. The communication hub of the control panel, network switches facilitate
communication between the PLC and the various network compatible devices on the
production line.
 Human Machine Interface (HMI). These components allow an operator to monitor or
control certain functions of the machinery. Common HMIs include video monitors, joysticks,
buttons, switches, and keyboards.
ELECTRICAL CONTROL PANEL MAINTENANCE
Maintenance is another key consideration for electrical control panels. Facilitating maintenance is a
critical element in custom electrical control panel design. Maintenance elements should include:
 Clearly labelled components, wiring, and terminals
 Capability to monitor the status of the various electrical connections
 Control of particulates and dust within the enclosure
 Pest control measures
11) Case study on “Medium Voltage(MV) Switchgear”.
Case Study – 1

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Occurrence: A feeder breaker was taken out for performing condition monitoring tests. The wires for
timing test was connected to the breaker arms and the breaker was racked in the ‘test’ position for
performing the operations. The breaker flashed over while inserting in ‘test’ position.
Observations and analysis: The breaker had to be pushed in the ‘test’ position in order to connect
the auxiliary contacts for enabling close / open operations. The breaker over-traveled due to the
failure of the mechanical interlock and the metallic clamp of the test equipment connected to the
breaker came into arcing distance of the live bus bar causing the flashover.
Corrective & Preventive action taken: Plug-in connections are specified instead of sliding finger
contacts for auxiliary connections. The circuit breaker is tested in ‘Isolated’ position. An extension
lead enables extension the auxiliary contacts and racking in the breaker is avoided.
Case Study – 2

Occurrence: MV Breaker failed during fault clearance causing extensive damage to doors and
windows of the switchgear room.
Observations & Analysis: The pressure wave caused due to the arc produced during the breaker failure
could find no way to escape causing damage to door and windows.
Corrective & Preventive action taken: Outlets for the pressure wave in the form of hinged louvers
have been installed at various locations in the switchgear room. These louvers remain closed normally
and do not allow the outside dust to enter the room. In case a pressure wave is caused due to electrical
arc, the pressure is released through these louvers, thus preventing damage to the switchgear room and
also injury to the operating personnel present in the room.
12) Study of latest technologies in electrical switchgear and protection.
Switchgear is one of the most important and critical components in an electrical system. It includes all
the devices that ensure power system protection and regulate power supply. Switchgear de-energises
equipment and clears faults in the system, thereby, ensuring reliable power supply. Electrical
switchgear is necessary at every switching point in the electrical power system. Besides the power
system, switchgear is also used in the commercial, residential and industrial sectors.
Smart Grid Operation
In smart grid operation, automated switchgear operation is preferred over conventional operation. In
conventional substations, all signals, controls and interlocks are hardwired and records are manually
maintained in a logbook. Therefore, a lot of work and efforts is required to draw comparisons for
analysis and trouble shooting. An automated substation, wherein all operations are automated, is more
efficient and requires less manpower. It also promotes energy efficiency and ensures better utilisation
of assets thereby, smartly handled the uninterrupted power flow through smart grid.

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Technology Development
Owing to an increasing focus on conserving right of way and ensuring uninterrupted power supply,
power utilities are focusing on substation and switchgear technologies that require less space and have
a reduced outage. Historically, air-insulated switchgear has been the most commonly used switchgear
in India due to the low price. However, gas-insulated switchgear, which use sulphur hexafluoride
(SF6) gas as the insulating medium, are picking up pace and gaining popularity, is the emerging as the
preferred technology in India, especially, in the transmission segment. Its compact and encapsulated
structure makes it ideal for areas with space constraints. This kind of switchgear is also suitable for
use in locations with severe weather conditions (high temperature and high altitudes) and in industrial
environments. GIS substations require approximately 35 per cent less space than AIS substations and
have lower maintenance and outage costs. Although the initial cost of GIS substations is about 50 per
cent higher than that of their AIS counterparts, the overall capital costs are comparable.
Switchgear Digitalisation
Over the past few years, several technological solutions have emerged that have contributed
significantly to enhancing the operational efficiency of utilities and to scaling down costs, making
projects more viable. Digital switchgear and substations are one such solution which offers a range of
benefits to utilities. To begin with, they are equipped with advanced software solutions that protect
systems from potential cyber threats, thereby, strengthening system security. Further, all the
auxiliaries of the digital switchgear are automated, enabling faster implementation of future
technological solutions. Moreover, since utilities can track real-time data from substations and
remotely control specific functions of the switchgear, it provides operational and financial benefits.
Real time monitoring of data also reduces outage time and increase reliability of the system.
Way Forward
The substation and switchgear industry is set to grow rapidly in the coming years. So far growth in the
switchgear industry has been driven by a strong demand for low voltage and medium voltage
switchgear from distribution and sub transmission networks. However, in the last year, the growth in
demand for high voltage switchgear was greater than that for low voltage and medium voltage
switchgear. In the coming year too, the demand for high voltage and ultra high voltage switchgear is
expected to drive the growth of the switchgear industry.
Conclusion
With the pace of government initiatives for development of smart grid, there is need to develop
different kinds of switchgear suitable for smart grid operation and that is more compact, reliable,
environment friendly and requires minimum installation and commissioning time. Moreover, as the
pace of renewable energy integration increases, utilities would be required to increase the deployment
of intelligent switchgear or to undertake modifications to transform the existing switchgear modules
into smart switchgear.
13) Explain any one type of transformer protection scheme.
Transformer protection means protecting the transformer from internal as well as external faults. The
protection scheme must automatically isolate it in case of faults within stipulated time. Since small
distribution transformer is connected to the supply system through series fuse wire instead of breaker,
no automatic protection scheme is required. Thus all the protection discussed in this post is applicable
for power transformer unless explicitly specified.

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Transformer Protection Scheme
There is mainly two transformer protection: physical protection and electrical protection.
The protection elements which sense the physical parameters viz. oil temperature, winding
temperature, oil pressure etc. are categorized under physical protection. These protection elements
operate if the value of any of the physical parameter exceeds the set value. For example, if oil
temperature exceeds 80 degree celcius, OTI annunciates and if it exceeds 85 degree celcius, OTI
actuates to isolate the transformer by opening its HV and LV breaker.
Various types of transformer protection relays under this category are listed below:
 Buchholz Relay
 Oil Temperature Indicator (OTI)
 Winding Temperature Indicator (WTI)
 Pressure Relief Device (PRD)
 Oil Surge Relay (OSR)
Electrical transformer protection element senses any abnormal condition in the transformer by sensing
the electrical parameters like voltage, current or combination of voltage & current. These protections
are provided to protect transformer winding or core from electrical faults. For this purpose different
types of transformer protection relays are used which work on different principle.
There are basically two types of electrical transformer protection: Primary Protection and Back-up
Protection. Primary protection includes:
 Differential Protection
 Overflux Protection
Back-up protection comprises of following protection:
 Directional Over-current Protection
 Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Protection
In addition to the above physical and electrical transformer protection, High Velocity Fire Water
Spray System (HVWS) is also implemented to protect transformer from fire. In fact without having
HVWS system, the competent authority i.e. Central Electricity Authority (CEA) for India, is not
going to give approval for transformer charging.
In case of fire, HVWS system actuates to spray water on the transformer and sends tripping command
to HV and LV breaker to isolate it. You might surprise that how water spray will extinguish the fire in
transformer as it contains oils. Actually, water spray makes a curtain of water vapor around the
transformer and hence blocks the supply of oxygen. Thus due to lack of oxygen, the fire gets
extinguished.

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