Module No.

13
Physics 322

Course Description

This course is a second course in Physics which focused on selected topics such as electricity, magnetism
and modern physics.

This course deals with the studies of the basic principles of electricity and magnetism courses often
entitled Physics 322. The course is designed to cover introductory electricity and magnetism (charge, current,
potential, fields, AC and DC circuits, Maxwell’s equations, and electromagnetic waves) at a level appropriate for
future scientist and engineers. The course includes a laboratory component and it emphasizes problem solving
techniques.

Total Learning Time: ____________________

Prerequisites: Physics 311

Overview

Magnets are common to everyone.  They stick to our refrigerator, are used to give high resolution images
in medicine (MRI) and are an essential ingredient of light.  Magnets can be made and can be found in their natural
form.  Natural magnets are from the stone magnetite (loadstone) and were first discovered in the region known as
Magnesia (in Greece) nearly 2000 years ago. No matter what type of magnet you have, they all have the property
of magnetism.

 Magnetism is a force of attraction or repulsion due to an arrangement of electrons.

 All magnets have magnetic poles

The forces that moving charges exert on one another are different
from those the same charges exert when at rest. For instance, if we place a
current-carrying wire parallel to another current-carrying wire, with the
currents in the same direction, we find that the wires attract each other. If
the currents are opposite direction, the wires repel each other.

Learning Outcomes

1. identified types of magnets

2. described the differences between permanent magnets and temporary magnets
3. discussed the properties of the magnets and how the earth functions as a magnet

Indicated Learning Content

1. Properties of Magnets 3. Electromagnets 6. Theories on Magnetism

2. Classification of 4. Types of Magnetism
Magnets 5. Earth as a Magnet

Discussion

 Properties of Magnets
 The properties of naturally occurring magnets (magnetites) have been known
for over 2000 years. Several studies on magnetism was made but the first
thorough investigation was done by William Gilbert I 1600.
Experimental results led to the discovery of many properties of natural and
artificial magnets.

 The following are its properties:

1. Magnets usually have two poles. The end of the magnet which points north when the magnet is free
to turn on a vertical axis is the north - seeking pole, simply the N pole. The opposite end which points
south is the south – seeking pole or the S pole. Magnets come in many shapes and sizes but each has
at least two poles. If you cut a magnet into pieces, every piece will still have at least two poles.
2. Like magnetic poles repel and unlike poles attract. Charles Augustin de Coulomb was the first
recognized scientist to study it quantitatively. The Coulomb’s Law of Magnetism states that: the force
of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the strength of the
poles and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
3. A piece of magnetite when made to hang and swing freely, would aligned itself with the magnetic
field of the earth following a north-south direction. This led sailors and other travellers to use this
natural magnet as a lodestone (leading stone), the first magnetic compass. Today, a compass has a
small, suspended needle – shaped magnet. The north – seeking pole of the compass needle points
towards the geographic north pole of the earth.
4. Permanent magnets are magnets made from alloys of cobalt and nickel. These magnets retain their
magnetism for a long time.
5. Other metals like iron can be magnetized by induction. For example, when a piece of iron nail touches
a permanent magnet. It remains in this condition for as long as it is within the magnetic field. The nail
is a temporary magnet and its magnetism is described as induced magnetism.

 Classification of Magnets

Magnets maybe natural or artificial. Natural magnets are found in nature and are lodestones or magnetite.
Man uses a magnetic substance to make artificial magnets. A magnetic substance is one that is attracted
by a magnet and can therefore be magnetized. Examples of magnetic materials are iron, steel and cobalt.
Nonmagnetic materials that are not attracted by magnets and cannot be made into magnets, Examples
are wood, paper and glass.

A piece of iron or magnetic material may be magnetized by

1. stroking it with a permanent magnet
2. electric current
3. induction from the Earth’s magnetism

Artificial magnets may be temporary or permanent. Retentivity is the ability of a magnetic material to
retain its magnetism after it has been magnetized. Steel has a high retentivity and is used to make
permanent magnet. Temporary magnets are normally made of pure iron.
The three most common shapes of artificial magnets are bar, horseshoe and ring. The bar magnet is
usually used in school to study magnetic properties; the ring magnet in computer memory cores and
speakers; and the horseshoe magnet in electronic and electrical equipment.
There are typically four categories of permanent magnets: neodymium iron boron (NdFeB), samarium
cobalt (SmCo), alnico, and ceramic or ferrite magnets.

 Electromagnets
A helical coil like a solenoid using a wooden or glass core, or some other non - magnetic substance for a
core, will attract ferromagnetic materials like an ordinary magnet when an electric current is made to pass
 through it. If soft iron were used as a core, the electromagnet produced is very strong due to its high
permeability.
Joseph henry made the first useful electromagnet.

The strength of an electromagnet can be increased by:

1. increasing the current in the coil
2. increasing the number of loops in the coil
3. putting an iron core

Uses of electromagnet:
 Motors and generators.  Relays.  Loudspeakers
and headphones.
 Transformers.  Electric bells and buzzers.
 Actuators such as valves.
 Pickups.

 Magnetic recording and data storage equipment: tape recorders, VCRs, hard disks.

 Types of Magnetism

There are several types of magnetism but the most common are:
1. Ferromagnetism – occurs when the magnetic moments in a magnetic material line up spontaneously at a
temperature below the so-called Curie temperature, to produce net magnetization. In a ferromagnet, magnetic
moments of equal magnitude arrange themselves in parallel to each other.
- Ferromagnetic materials they are strongly attracted by magnet. All electrons are spinning in the same
direction. They include iron, nickel, cobalt, and steel. They make strong permanent magnets.
- The temperature at which a magnetic material losses its magnetism is called Curie temperature. For iron,
the Curie temperature is 7700.
a. In a ferrimagnet, on the other hand, the moments are unequal in magnitude and order in an antiparallel
arrangement.
b. antiferromagnetism – a phenomenon that occurs when the moments are equal in magnitude and ordering
occurs at a temperature called the Neel temperature in an antiparallel array to give no net magnetization.

2. Paramagnetism - is a weak form of magnetism observed in substances which display a positive response to an
applied magnetic field. This response is described by its magnetic susceptibility per unit volume, which is a
dimensionless quantity defined by the ratio of the magnetic moment to the magnetic field intensity. For example,
in atoms and molecules with an odd number of electrons, since here the net magnetic moment cannot be zero.
- Paramagnetic materials include transition metals, palladium, platinum and the actinide elements. Majority of the
electrons spin in the same direction but not all and are weakly attracted to magnets. When cooled, they become
more magnetic.

3. Diamagnetism - is associated with materials that have a negative magnetic susceptibility. It occurs in

nonmagnetic substances like graphite, copper, silver and gold, and in the superconducting state of certain
elemental and compound metals. The negative magnetic susceptibility in these materials is the result of a current
induced in the electron orbits of the atoms by the applied magnetic field. The electron current then induces a
magnetic moment of opposite sign to that of the applied field.
- a weak response to a magnetic field. Diamagnetic materials are repelled by the magnetic field. Metals like
bismuth, copper, gold, silver, and lead, non - metals like water and organic compounds are also diamagnetic.  
- it is independent of temperature. In fact all substances have an inherent diamagnetism.

 Earth as a Magnet

In 1600, William Gilbert conducted experiments and concluded that a compass needle aligns itself consistently in
the NS – direction because the earth itself is a huge magnet. Earth’s rotation produces moving charged particles
within it, which in turns produces magnetic field. Earth’s magnetism is otherwise known as geomagnetism.
Distinction has been made between the geographic pole and the magnetic pole of the earth. Earth’s north
geographic pole is that point where Earth’s axis of rotation crosses the surface in the Northern Hemisphere. The
North magnetic pole is the point where the Earth’s magnetic pole crosses the surface of the Northern Hemisphere.
Remember that the North geographic pole and the North magnetic pole earth are not identical spots. The angle
between this two poles is called the angle of magnetic declination.

A compass needle that is free to rotate about a horizontal axis will not rest in a
horizontal position but will dip down at some angle with the horizontal. The angle
that Earth’s filed makes with the horizontal at the point is called the angle of dip.

Earth’s magnetic pole is constantly changing. The North magnetic pole is currently
located in Northern Canada about 1600 km from the North geographic pole. The
south magnetic pole of the earth is in the continent in Antarctica about 2600 km
from the South geographic pole. Note that the compass needle points at the
magnetic poles and not at the geographic poles.

Magnetic pole, region at each end of a magnet where the external magnetic field is strongest. A bar magnet
suspended in Earth’s magnetic field orients itself in a north–south direction. The north-seeking pole of such a
magnet, or any similar pole, is called a north magnetic pole. The south-seeking pole, or any pole similar to it, is
called a south magnetic pole. Unlike poles of different magnets attract each other; like poles repel each other.

In 1269, Pierre de Maricourt discovered that a magnet has two poles. The poles of a magnet are usually its
two ends: the North – seeking pole and the South – seeking pole. These two poles always come in pairs. There can
be no isolated N pole or S pole.
In 13th century, Peter Peregrinus of France discovered that magnetism appears to be concentrated at the
poles.

 Theories on Magnetism

Wilhelm Weber theorized that each atom of a piece of magnetic materials in a magnet itself. These atoms
arranged themselves into groups called magnetic domains. The magnetic properties of a material depend on how
the domains are arranged. When all the domains lined up, the material is said to be magnetized.

A more modern theory of magnetism considers moving and spinning electrons as sources of magnetism. It was
shown by Hans Christian Oersted that a moving charge produces a magnetic field. Since electron is a charged
particle, then moving an electron generates a magnetic field. Therefore, electron is the smallest known magnet. If
an atom has equal number of electrons spinning in opposite directions, then the magnetic fields produced by
electrons cancel each other. The atom is said to be unmagnetized. However, if there are more electrons spinning
in one direction than the other direction, then the atom is magnetized.

Magnetic lines of induction or magnetic lines of force or flux lines (Formula, Unit….)
Iron fillings align themselves along imaginary lines. These imaginary lines are called magnetic lines of induction or
magnetic lines of force or flux lines. Lines of induction are not equally distributed within the field. More lines of
induction are found at the poles that at the points farthest away.

The number of lines passing through a perpendicular unit area is called magnetic flux (ɸ). The greater the flux per
perpendicular unit area, the stronger the magnetic field. For example, in a bar magnet, the magnetic field is
strongest at the poles.

Around a magnet the strength and direction of the magnetic field vary. At any point around a magnet the field has
the magnitude or strength which depends on the magnetic flux per unit area (ɸ / A). Hence, magnetic field is a
vector quantity.

B=ɸ/A
The unit of flux is weber and that of the field is tesla.
1 Tesla = 1 weber/m2 = 1 Wb/m2
= 104 G

Magnetic Field and Magnetic Force on a Current – Carrying Wire and on a Moving Charge

Magnetic field (B) is defined in terms of the force it exerts on a moving charge.
The unit of magnetic field is newton/ampere-meter (N/ A.m) which is also equal to tesla T.
A force of 1 N will be exerted on a charge of 1 C when it is moving at 1 m/s perpendicular to a magnetic field
magnitude is 1T. Another unit used for B is gauss which is 1 gauss = 10 -4 T.

Note: The evening lights aurora borealis (northern lights) and the aurora australis (southern lights) that we see in
the North and South magnetic poles result from the interaction of approaching charged particles with the earth’s
magnetic field.

Magnets are of different types. The most common one is the bar magnet. On the other a solenoid is a coil of wire
in the form of a helix. If the turns are close together and the solenoid is long relative to its diameter, then the
magnetic field inside it is uniform and parallel to its axis except near the ends.
The magnetic field of a bar magnet is identical with that of a solenoid.

Recall that electric field is also defined in terms of the force F in the
field exerts on a stationary positive charge q located there. The
symbol of magnetic field is B. Because magnetic forces act only on
moving charges, B is defined in terms of the magnetic force F exerted
on a positive force moving charge is proportional to two factors. One
is the product qv and the other is direction.

A current carrying wire exerts a force on a magnet like a compass

(shown by Oersted). The force F is proportional to the length L of the
wire, current I in the wire, magnetic field B and the Ɵ between the
current and the magnetic field. This can be written in equation as F = I L
B sin Ɵ.

Maximum value of since function is 1. If the current is perpendicular to the magnetic field, Ɵ = 90 0 and sin 900 = 1.
The force must be a maximum. If the current is parallel to the field, Ɵ = 0 and sine 0 = 0. The force is also zero.
 A charge q moving with velocity v in a magnetic field also experiences a force F. suppose a charge covers a
distance L in time t, recall that I = q/t. Replacing L by vt and I by q/t in the equation F = I L B sin Ɵ, the force on a
moving charge is given by
F = q v B sin Ɵ

The angle between v and B determines the path of the charged particle. If the
angle is 900, the force is maximum and a particle moves in a circle. If the angle is 0
or 1800, the particle experience no force and moves in a straight line. If the angle
is not 0, 900 or 1800, the particle move in a helical path.
A simple way of determining the direction of the magnetic field around a straight
conductor is known as the first right hand rule. It states that:
“ if a conductor is grasped in the right hand with the thumb pointed in the
direction of conventional (positive) current, the fingers will curl around a
conductor in the direction of the magnetic field”
First Right Hand Rule

The magnetic force exerted on a currying – wire and on a moving charge is perpendicular to the plane defined by L
(or I) and B and v and B. The second right hand rule gives the direction of these forces. It states that:
“The magnetic force is always perpendicular to the direction of the current I and the magnetic field B”.
The forefinger points to the direction of the magnetic field, while the thumb points to the direction of the force on
the wire.

Left Hand Rule

Second Right Hand Rule

Laboratory Activities

1. Magnetic field mapping

-See attached sheet-

Exercise/Drill

Direction: Encircle the correct answer.

1. What creates the protective magnetic field around the Earth?
a. The movement of the ocean c. The Moon
b. The Earth's core d. Photons from the Sun
2. What does the Earth's magnetic field protect us from?
a. The Moon crashing into the Earth
b. Solar winds and radiation from the Sun
c. The atmosphere from escaping into space
d. Meteorites
3. True or False: Compasses point north because the Earth is basically a giant magnet.
a. TRUE b. FALSE
4. Powerful magnets can be created by wrapping a wire around iron and running _____ through the wire.
a. Heat b. Water c. Cold d. Electricity
5. In magnetic materials, all the electrons are spinning in ______ .
 a. Opposite directions c. Random directions
b. The same direction d. All direction

Evaluation

Direction: Encircle the letter of the best answer.

1. A magnetic field is generated by
 magnets  a moving charge
 electric current in a  all of the above
conductor
2. Which is true about magnetic field lines?
 They radiate away from a moving charge..
 They emerge from the south pole of a magnet and end up at the north pole.
 They are closer to each other near the poles of a magnet.
 They point in the same direction as the magnetic force.
3. Current flows downward through a vertical wire. How will the compass needle placed at point P
behave?
 b. c. d.

4. A region in magnet where magnetic field is aligned.

 repel b. compass c. domain d. bar magnet
5. The suns magnetic field can be seen
 sun strip b. sun field c. magnetic ray d. sunspot
6. A generator with the most electricity should include what?
 many coil loops small in diameter
 a magnet fast moving through a coil
 wire coil
 metal coil
7. the creation of an electrical current by a changing magnetic field is know as
 electromagnet current  magnetic electricity
 electromagnetic induction  electrical induction
8. The north pole of a magnet, if suspended by a string would be attracted to
 geographic south  magnetic south
 magnetic north  geographic north
9. Like poles of a magnet do what?
 attract b. repel c. remains the same d..no reaction
10. the region which magnetic forces act is called
 magnet b. magnetic field c. induction d. force
11. A device that changes mechanical energy to electrical energy
 Generator b. Motor c. Engine d. battery
12. In a magnetized substance the ______ point in the same direction
 poles  magnetic domains
 magnetic fields  electric fields
13. the magnetic field is the strongest _____ a current-carrying coil wire
 inside b. outside c. center d. side
14. Where does a compass needle points to
 Earth's geographic pole  Earth’s west side
 Earth’s magnetic pole
 Earth’s east side
 15. the relationship between electricity and magnetism is called
 motor c. magnetic electricity
 electric d. electromagnetism

Name:______________________ Yr. & Group:_________ Date:_________ Rating:___

Magnetic Field Mapping

I. Objectives:

1. Define
a. magnet
b. magnetic field
2. Describe the direction of magnetic field around a magnet
3. Explain the properties of magnets
4. Develop awareness on the importance of magnets in our lives
II. Materials:
Iron filings, bar magnet, glue, white cardboard, glass plate or thick plastic, books
or milk box, white paper
III. Procedure:
1. Place a bar magnet on white paper. Position a book as thick as the magnet on
its sides. Then put a transparent plastic or glass plate over the magnet.
2. Sprinkle iron filings over a plastic or glass plate. Tap the plate gently until the
fillings form a pattern.
3. Place a small compass at different positions around the magnet. Take note of
the direction of the north – pole of the compass needle.
4. Observe where the iron filings are concentrated.
5. Place glue on a small cardboard and spread it evenly. Gently put the
cardboard on the pattern formed in the glass plate. Leave it for a few minutes
to dry. Now you have just mapped the magnetic field.
IV. Data and Observation:
Guide Questions:
1. Describe what you have observed in this activity.

2. At which part of the magnet the iron filings are concentrated?

3. What is a magnet?

4. Define magnetic field

5. Describe the properties of magnets

V. Conclusion

VI. Enrichment

1. Are magnets important? Cite the uses of magnets.